THE

CYCLOPAEDIA;

on,

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

>titntf0, anb i^itcrature,

BY

ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S.Amer.Soc.

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF

EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN.

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS,

SY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS.

IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES.
VOL. XXXV.

LONDON:
Printed for LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, Paternoster-Row,

F.C. AND J. RIVINGTON, A. STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J. CUTHELL,
CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAYOR AND JONES, J. AND A. ARCH,
CADELL AND DAVIES, S. BAGSTER, J. MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY
PARBURY AND ALLEN, R. SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J. BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN
CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, R. SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND CO.,
J. DICKINSON, J. PATERSON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING.

1819.

v'K .r:m

CVCLO P MDIA:

v.or-

OR, A NEW

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS and SCIENCES.

TA confonant, and the nineteenth letter in the alpha-
> bet ; the found of which is formed by a ftrong
■expulfion of the breath through the mouth, upon a fudden
drawing back of the tongue from the fore part of the palate,
with the lips at the fame time open.

The T, at the beginning and end of words, has always
the fame found, nearly refembling that of D, for which
reafon they are often put for each other ; and QuinAilian
even rallies thofe who made any fcruple of writing the one
.indifferently for the other : as at for ad. Jet iot fid, haul for
haud, &c.

The cuftomary found of T is that which occurs in the
words take, temptation ; but before an ;', when followed by a
vowel, it has the found of an obfcure s, as nation, falvation,
except when s precedes /, as Chriflian ; and in derivatives
from y, as mighty, migiitit>:

The T is one of the five confonants which the abbot de
Dangeau calls palatal : thefe five are D, T, G, K, and A'^;
the four firft of which have the fame relation to each other,
as the labials B-P and F-F have ; D, for inftance, having
the fame relation to T, that B has to P, and V to F.

The T, the fame author obferves, is a letter of a ftrong
found ; fo that a feeble one cannot be heard before it.
Hence, to form the fupine of rego, the T of turn changes
the g, and ftrengthens it to the found of a c, fo that we fay
reBum ; as in the preterperfeft tenfe rext, which we pro-
nounce reckfi.

Th has two founds : the one foft, as thus ; the other hard,
as thing. The found is foft in thefe words, then, thence,
there, with their derivatives and compounds, that, thefi, &c. ;
and in all words between two vowels, za fiithtr ; and be-
tween r and a vowel, as burthen. In other words it is hard,
as thich, thunder. Where it is foftened at the end of a word,
an e filent muft be added, as breath, breathe. Johnfcn.
Vol. XXXV.

T is ufed as an abbreviature on ancient monuments, &c.
for Titus, Titius, and Tullius.

T, among the Ancients, was ufed as a numeral letter, fig-
nifying i6o, according to the verfe,

" T quoque centenos & fexaginta tenebit."

When a dafh was at the top, thus, T, it fignified 1 6©
thoufand.

T', with a kind of acute accent over it, denoted among
the Greeks 300 ; and if the accent was below it, thus Tj,
it denoted 300,000. The Q of the Hebrews fignified 9 ;

and with two points fixed horizontally over it, thus, ^, it
fignified 9000.

Sometimes an acute accent over this, or any one of the
firft nine letters, multiplies its value by a thoufand.

We fhall here obferve, that the number 15 (hould be
reprefented by p', i. e. 10 and 5 ; but, becaufe thefe
letters conftitute part of the word nin'i Jehovah, the
letters IJ^, i.e. 9 and 6, reprefent 15, to prevent, as the
Jews allege, the profanation of the peculiar name of God.
For the fame reafon, 1£3, i.e. 9 and 7, are ufed inftead of
y, i.e. 10 and 6, to exprefs 16.

T, on the French coins, denotes thofe that were llruck
at Nantes.

When the Roman tribunes approved of the decrees of the
fenate, they teftified their confent by fubfcribing a T.

T, in Mufic, is the initial of tenor, vocal and inftru-
mental ; of tacet, for filence : as adagio tacet, when a per-
former is to reft during the whole movement. In concertos
and fymphonies, t is the initial of tutti, the whole band, after
a folo part. It alfo frequently ftands for trillo, or ft., a
(hake.

T is alfo a mark or brand, with which by ftat. 4 Hen. VII.

every perfon convifted of felony, fave murder, and admitted

B to

444076

T A

to the benefit of the clergy, (hall be marked on the brawn
of the left thumb.

T, or Tau, in Heraldry, is a kind of crofs-potent, or
truncated ; found in all the armories of the commanders of
the order of St. Anthony.

The azure T, or Tau, is feen in arms above 400 years
old. Its origin, according to fome autliors, is taken from
the Apocalypfe ; where the fame is a mark that the angel
impreties on the foreheads of the eleA : others take it to re-
prefent a crutch, a fymbol proper enough for this order,
which was fworn to hofpitality. But the trutli, F. Menef-
trier obfervcs, is, that it is the top of a Greek crofier.

The bifhops and abbots of the Greek church wear it ftill ;
and if it be found on the habit of St. Anthony, it is only to
Ihew that he was an abbot.

T Bandage, in Surgery, is fo called from its refembling
that letter in fhape. It confifts of two bands of linen, of
greater or lefler breadth, according to circumftances. The
tranfverfe piece of the bandage ferves to go round the body
above the hips. The perpendicular portion is fewed at one
of its ends to the middle and back point of the band, which
furrounds the pelvis ; and its other or anterior extremity is
generally flit into two portions, or tails, about fix or eight
inches in length. The perpendicular piece of the T bandage
applies itfelt between the glutasi mufcles and to the peri-
neum ; while the two tails, which we have juft now de-
fcribed, are carried between the thighs and the pudenda to
the right and left, and are laftly faftened to the tranfverfe
piece, which furrounds the body. The T bandage is chiefly
employed for keeping on the dreflings, after the operation
for the fiftula in ano, in difeafes of the perinaeum, and in
thofe of the anus, groins, &c.

Befides the common T bandage, furgeons make ufe of
another, which they call double, and which is furniflied
with two perpendicular pieces, fewed to the tranfverfe one,
about four inches apart. The double T bandage is repre-
fented to be particularly calculated for cafes of lithotomy,
and for difeafes in the perinjeum ; becaufe the two perpendi-
cular bands may be made to crofs each other on the part
affefted, and leave -the anus uncovered ; an advantage which
the fingle T bandage certainly has not.

The T bandage admits of application alfo in other modes.
When the crofs band is broad, it may be applied round the
cheft, while the perpendicular portion, being flit into two,
may be made to pafs over the flioulders, fo as to keep the
bandage from flipping downward. There is no kind of
bandage whicli can be more conveniently applied to the
cheft, than that which has juft now been defcribcd. See
Bandage.

TA, in Geography, a fortified city of China, of the fe-
cond rank, in the province of Se-tchuen ; 650 miles S.W.

of Pekin. N. lat. 31° 18'. E. long. 107° ij' Alfo, a

river of China, w"hicn runs into the Eaft fea, N. lat. 36° 55'
E. long. 121° 34'.

Ta, Lough, a lake of the county of Wexford, Ireland,
not far from Carnfore Point. It receives two or three fmart
rivulets, and having no outlet, the waters accumulate, and
gradually overflow the adjacent grounds ; till the peafantry,
once in three or four years, let them off, by making a cut
through the high fand-bank that parts the lake from the fea ;
which cut very foon fills up again.

Ta, a name given in China to their pagodas. Thefe are
moft numerous in hilly parts of the country, upon the fum-
mits of which they are frequently erefted. They are gene-
rally from { 20 to 1 60 feet high, which height is equal to
four or five of their diameters at the bafe ; and they confift
moftly of an unequal number, five, feven, or nine giUleries

TAB

or ilories, diminifliing as they rife, with as many projefting
roofs.

Ta, Ta, one of the four fyllables ufed by the ancient
Greeks in folmifation, or the firft leflbns in finging.

TAAIF, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Hedsjas, fituated upon a lofty mountain, in a country
fo agreeable, that the Arabs compare its environs to thofe
of Damafcus and Sana. This city fupplies Jidda and Mecca
witli excellent fruits, particularly raifins ; and carries on a
confidcrable trade in almonds, which abound in its territories.
Near Taaif is the lofty mountain of Gazvan, which, accord-
ing to Arabian authors, is covered with froft and fnow in
tlie midft of fummer.

TAAMBOOTERA, a large town of the Birman
empire, on the Irawaddy.

TAAPAN, a town on the eaft coaft of Mindanao. N.
lat. 7° 38'. E. long. 124^5'.

TAAS, or Ta«s, a city of Arabia, in the province of
Yemen, fituated at the foot of the fertile hill of Sabber, and
encompafled with a wall, between 16 and 30 feet thick, and
flanked with feveral towers. Within the circuit of the wall
ilands the fortrefs of Kahhre. The city has only two gates,
each fortified vi^Ji three towers ; affording a very infufticient
defence againft any alTault but that of Arabs, unfldlled in
the ufe of artillery. The faint who is the patron of Tases is
the famous Ifmael Mulk, reported by tradition to have been
once king of this country. His remains are interred in a
mofque bearing his name. Near this mofque is a garden,
which was poflefled by Ifcliia, his fon. The city has feveral
other deferted and ruinous mofques. The laft lords of Taaes
have chofen to diftinguifli themfelves, not by mofques, but by
noble palaces, and have contented themfelves with a fmall
kubbet for their oratory and burial-place. Thefe palaces
are now the ornaments of the city. Near the city are the
ruins of two ancient cities : one called Thobad, fituated
near mount Sabber ; and the other Oddena, upon the fum-
mit of mount Sabber, over-againft Kahhre. This was for-
merly the refidence of the kings of the country. Its only
remains are the ruins of fome mofques. Taass has under-
gone feveral revolutions ; but after various events, which we
cannot recite, the Imam fent a Dola to this city, and it is
now under the fame government as the other cities in his
dominions; 48 miles E.N.E. of Mocha. N. lat. 13° 33'.
E. long. 44° 10'.

TAASINGE, an ifland of Denmark, about 16 miles in
circumference, fituated between Funen and Langeland, with
a town upon it of the fame name. N. lat. 55". E. long.
10" 37'.

TAAUT, TuoYT, or That, in Ancient Mythology, the
name of a deity among the Phoenicians, and probably the
fame with the Egyptian Thoyt, That, or Hermes, the
Theutate or Teutat of the Greeks, and the Mercury of the
Latins. His cofmogony has been tranfmitted to us by the
Phoenician writer Sanchoniathon, whofe account is preferved
by Eufebius, De Prsep. Ev. lib. i. cap. 10. To him the
Phoenicians afcribe the firft invention of letters. See Mer-
cury.

TAAWIRRY, in Geography, an ifland in the South
Pacific ocean. There are two fituated within the reef of
the ifland of Otaheite, and on the eaft fide of the main ifland.
Within thefe iflands there is anchorage within the- reef
that furrounds them. The French veffels under ttie com-
mand of M. Bougainville lay here. The name of the other
ifland is Boourou.

TAB, the ancient Arofn, a river of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Fars or Farfiftan, formed by the junftion of two
ftreams, "within a few miles of the town of Zeitoon, Both

thefe

TAB

* -"fe ftreams take their rife in tlie recefles of the mountains
v>f Fars ; the firfl at the foot of the high hill of Kamarah,
and the other near that of Ardicoone, 12 finfungs (tlie
furfung being- eftimated at three Englifh miles and three
qum-ters) N.W. of Shirauz. This branch of the river is
meationed by Arrian in the march of Alexander. It divides
Fars from Chufiftan, and pafTes through the centre of the
town of Eiidian, being navigable for boats of 20 tons burthen.
Nine miles above the town is a ford ; and 1 6 miles below it,
the Tab falls into the fea. When the river paffcs Zeitoon,
the waters are perfeftly fweet ; but in its courfe over the
hills, towards Endian, they become corrupted, and at that
place are fo brackifh as to be hardly fit for ufe.

TABA, a town of Africa, on the Grain Coaft.

Taba IJlatuls, four fmall iflands in the Eaft Indian fea,
lying north-weft and fouth-eail near the caft coaft of Borneo.
N. lat. 2° 6'. E. long. 1 18° 12'.

Taba, or Tabo-feil, in Modern Hijlory, a name by which
the Negroes, who inhabit the Gold Coaft in Africa, de-
fcribe their king, whofe power is very arbitrary, infomuch
that they regard him as a being fuperior in nature to them-
felves.

TABAB MANAM, in Geography, a town of Abyf-
fmia ; 100 miles S.S.E. of Gondar.

TABACUM, in Botany, whence comes its common
Englifh name Tabacco, or, at prefent, Tobacco. (See
Nicotiana.) Bauhin fays, after Monardez, that this ap-
pellation is derived from an ifland fo called ; but it ftiould
feem to originate from the Indian name of the plant, Tubac,
or Tubacka.

TABiE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Ci-
licia. — Alfo, a town of Afia, on the confines of Pifidia, on
the coaft of the fea of Pamphylia. — Alfo, the name of three
towns in Afia Minor ; one in Caria, another in Perjca, and
a third in Lydia.

TABAFRA, in Geography, a town of Africa, on the
Ivory Coaft ; 15 miles E. of Druin.

TABAGO, an ifland in the Pacific ocean, near the coaft
of Mexico ; about three miles long, and two broad. It is
mountainous, and on the north fide the high land declines
with a gentle defccnt to the fea. Near the ftrand the foil is
a black mould, and deep, but towards the top of the moun-
tain ttrong and dry. The north fide of the ifland makes a
very pleaiant appearance', and feems to be a garden of fruit-
trees, inclofed with others of the foreft-kind. The prin-
cipal produ£ls are plantains and bananas, which grow very
well from the foot to the middle of the mountain ; but thofe
near the top are fmall, as wanting moiilure. There was
formerly a fmall town near the fea, on the north fide of the
ifland ; but it was ruined by the privateers that then fre-
quented thofe feas. Before it is a good road, about a mile
from the fliore, where fliips may ride very fafely in 16 or
18 fathom water ; 18 miles S. of Panama. N. lat. 8° 40'.
W. long. 80° 9'.

TABAGUILLA, or LittleTabago, a fmall ifland in the
Pacific ocean, near Tabago.

TABAJANA, a town of Africa, in the country of
Woolly ; 1 2 miles W.S.W. of Medina.

TABALLAR Point, a cape on the eaft coaft of the
ifland of Borneo. N. lat. 2° 12'. E. long. 11 7° 4'.

TABALTHA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa,
en the route from Tuburbum to Tacapse, between Cella;
Picentinae and Septimunicia. Anton. Itin.

TABALUM, a town of Afia Minor, in the vicinity of
Ionia. Herodotus.

TABANA, Mankoup, a town in the interior of the
Tauric Cherfonefus. Ptol.

T A B

TABANIE', in Geography, a town of Egj-pt, on the
caft branch of the Nile ; 6 miles S.W. of Manfora.

TAB ANUS, the 0.-c^ji,in£n/omo/o^j',agenusof theDip-
tera order of infetls ; the generic c-harafters of which are,
that the mouth has a flefliy probofcis, terminated by two
hps, and that the roftrum is. furniftied with two awl-fliaped
palpi, placed on each fide of, and parallel to, the probofcis.
Gmelin, in his edition of the Linna;an fyllem, enumerates
38 fpecies.

The infefts of this genus very much refcmble thofe of
the Mufca; which fee.

Species.

RosTRATUS. With brownifti eyes, and fucker of the
length of the body.

Baubatus. With black eyes, and fucker half the length
of the body. Both thefe fpecies are found at the Cape of
Good Hope.

Mauritanus. With blackifli eyes, a black fpot on the
fecond fegment of the abdomen, and fucker equal to the
body. Found in Barbitfy and Spain.

BoviNUS. Greenifli eyes ; mark''d down the back by a
feries of large, whitilh, triangular fpots, and on each fide
Is a fimilar appearance, but lefs diilinft than that of the
dorfal row. This is the largeft of the Britifli fpecies, and,
like others of its fpecies, is feen generally in the hottcft part
of the day, during the middle and the decline of fummer. It
is very troublefome to cattle. Its larva is large and dufl<y
yellovvifli, like that of a tipula, marked by tranfverfe
blackifli ftreaks or rings ; refiding under ground in moift
meadows, &c. ; and changing into a cyhndric brownilh
chryfalis, with a roundifh or flightly pointed extremity,
from which within a month proceeds the perfeft infeft.

Autumnalis. With glafly wings, and brown abdomen,
and a whitifli three-fold fpot. Found in Europe.

Calans. With green eyes, a white line on the back,
and red antennx. Found in South America.

Tarandinus. With green eyes and feet, and the feg-
ments of the abdomen yellowiflt at the margin. Found in
the north of Europe.

ExjESTuans. With green eyes, the fegments of the
abdomen white at the niargin, and whitifh legs. Found in
Surinam.

Fervens. With green eyes, yellow abdomen and an-
tennae, and brown head and thorax. Found in South
America.

Mexicanus. With a livid body, green .antennae, and
greenifh wings. Found in Surinam.

RusTicus. Cinereous, with grey eyes, and two black
points in the front. An European infed.

Bromius. With a purple fafcia about the eyes, and
cinereous body. Found in Germany, and the northern part
of Europe.

OcciPENTALls. With eyes having double brown fafciae,
a brown body, and the abdomen marked with three yellow
lines. Found in Surinam.

Tuoncus. With eyes having triple purplilh fafciae, and
the fides of the abdomen ferruginous. An European infc(El
of a brown colour, fmaller than T. bovinus, and lefs com-
mon, troublefome to cattle, and efpecially to liorfes.

Antarcticus. With eyes like the former, black ab-
domen, and fegments with whitifh margins. Found rarely
in Norway.

Pu'VIALI.s. With eyes waved with four-fold fafciae, and

brown-fpeckled wings. This is an European fpecies, very

uoublefome with us in the latter part of fummer, faftenii\g

B 2 «n

TAB

on t!ic legs, Hindi, &c., and peculiarly tcafing an the ap-
proach of rain.

C.-ECUTiE-ss. With e^'cs that arc ot a very lucid green,
marbled with black fpots and ilreaks, and wings marked
by large black bands or patches. This is an European in-
feft, not uncommon with us in autumn.

Li;gubris. With black eyes and body, brown wings,
and white fpots. Found in Europe.

MoRlo. With eyes and body wholly black, and glally
wings. An inhabitant of Barbary.

LiNEATUS. With grecnifh eyes, hneated thorax, ob-
fcurely bluciih abdomen, and red antcnnx. Found w
America.

Fasciatus. With green eyes, brown body, and wings
having a brown fafcia. Found in Sierra Leone.

Atratus. With bkieifli abdomen, and black wings.
An American infcft.

Peli-Ucens. Black, with fafciatcd eves ; the firft fcg-
ment of the abdomen blut>i(h, and whitifli legs. A German
fpecies.

RUFICORNIS. With fafciated eyes, white wings, brown
fide, and red antenns. Found in America.

Paganus. With green eyes, three yellow fafciae, and
both fides of the abdomen ferruginoufly fpotted. Found
in England.

IxALicus. Cinereous, with brown eyes ; obfcure abdo-
men, with the bafe palely pellucid. Found in Italy.

Cayennensis. With eyes brown before, and behind
green ; black abdomen ; the fecond and_third fegments yellow,
the reft white at the margin. This and the next are found
in Cayenne.

Pl'n'c TA rus. Cinereous, with teftaceous eyes, and white
wings fpecklcd with black.

Inanis. Cinereous, like the former, with brown eyes,
and pellucid abdomen, having a brown apex.

BoREALls. With eyes having three purphfh fafciae, black
abdomen, and the margins of the fegments whitifh. Found
rarely in Norway.

LoSGlcoRNis. With fpotted eyes, wings half brown,
a white fpot, and longer antennje.. Found in Brafil.

Striatub. Cinereous, with brown abdomen, and three
abbreviated white lines. A Chinefe fpecies.

Bidentatus. Ferruginous ; the abdomen having on
each fide two yellow fpots, and the fcutellum bidentated.
Found in Auftria.

Bisi'iNOSus. Brown, ferruginous, abdomen black at the
bafe, and fcutellum bifpinofe. Found in Gottingen.

M«REK.s. Varied with whitifh and black ; black eyes ;
white wings ; fide and fafcia black. Found in Cayenne.

Griseus. Black, with greyifli thorax ; the fecond feg-
ment of the abdomen having on the hind part a cinereous
fafcia, fhe fourth, fifth, and fixth being on both fides cine-
reous, and the wings ferruginous.

Albipes. With eyes having four fafcis ; the abdomen
with a black ring, and the legs white. Found in Bulgaria.
M/^RITIMUS. Cinereous, with glafiy wings ; margin
and broad fafcia black. Found in Carniola, Auftria, and
France.

TABARA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the pro-
-yince of Leon; 14 miles N.W. of Zaniora.

TABARABA, a river of Mexico, in the proviuce of
Veragua, whicii runs into the Pacific occin, N. lat. 8° 40'.
W. long. 82^ 48'.

TABARCA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Tunis, fituated on the north coall, at the mouth of the
Zaine, of which Uttlc but ruins are exiiUng, and a fmall
garrifon ; 60 miles N.W, of Tunis.

TAB

TaBARCA, or Tabagurr, an idand in the Mediterra-
nean, near the coaft of Africa, at the mouth of the river
Zaine, which feparates Algiers from Tunis. The Lomel-
lines, a noble Genoefe family, have been in poffeffion of
the little ifland that lies before Tabarca, at the mouth of
the Zaine, ever fince the time of the famous Andrea Doria,
to whom the Tunifeans gave it, with the folemn confent of
the grand feignior, in ranfom for one of their princes,
whom Andrea had taken captive. This place is defended
by a fmall caftle, well armed, and in good order, and pro-
teifted the coral fifliery which was carried on in thefe feas.
But, in the year 1740, that monfterof princes, Aly Balhaw,
the reigning king of Tunis, took it by treachery from the
Genoefe ; and, contrary to all juftice and the right of nations,
put fome of them to the fword ; and the reft, in num-
ber 300 or 400, he carried into captivity. N. lat. 36" 55'.
E. long. 9° 8'.

Tabarca. See Plana.

TABARD, or Taberd, derived from the low I^atin,
tabarda, denotes a flaort jacket or coat, open on both fides,
with a fquare collar and hanging fleeves. From the wear-
ing of this garment, fome of thofe on the foundation of
Queen's college, Oxford, are called Taberdarii.

From an inn in Southwark, whofe fign was the Tabard,
afterwards changed to the Talbot, Chaucer and his compa-
nions fet out on a pilgrimage to the fhrine of Becket at Can-
terbury ; on which was founded his Canterbury Tales.

TAB A RE K, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak;
8 miles S.E. of Caft)in. '

TABARIA, or Taberayan, or Tabar'teh, anciently
Tiberias, a. town of Paleftine, fituated on the weft bank of
a lake, called in the fcriptures the " Lake of Gennefareth,"
and the " Sea of Tiberias," and at the foot of a high and
(harp mountain ; furrounded with walls, except towards the
water. This town was built by Herod Antipas, to the
honour of Tiberius, and was long the capital of Galilee,
and after the deftruAion of Jerufalem, for fome time the re-
fidence of the high prieft. This city Herod was obliged
to people moftly w ith Galileans and ftrangers, becaufe it be-
ing built on a ground which was full of fepulchres, the
going over which pollutes the Jews feven whole days,
he could fcarcely get any of that nation to fettle there,
though he endowed it with confiderable privileges, and gave
its inhabitants the greateft encouragement, viz. lands to
fome, houfes to others, to take off their qualms of con-
fcience about treading on dead bodies. At the deftruftion
of Jerufalem the town fubmitted to Vefpafian, and received
the Jews which efcaped. In the year iioo, it was taken
by the Chriftians under Godfrey; but in 11 16, it was re-
taken by the Saracens, through the treachery of Ray-
mond III. count of Thouloufe. During the time of Chrif-
tianity it was the fee of a bilhop, fuffragan of Nazareth.
Near it are fome warm baths. The Chriftians have a church
here, and the Jews a feminary. In i 759, it fiiffered much
by an earthquake; 16 miles S. of Safad.

TABAS, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ; 34
miles S. of Dignizlu.

Tabas, the ancient Tabienne, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Chorafan, fituated in a range of hills, 337 miles
from Herat and 1 50 from Yezd. It contains a population
of about 20,000 perfons, and carries on a trifling trade with
Herat and Yezd.

TABASCO, a province of Mexico, bounded on the
north by the gulf of Mexico, on the eaft by Yucatan, on
the fouth by Chiapa, and on the weft by Guaxaca, about
100 miles in length, but narrow. The climate is not rec-
koned healthy, nor is the foil remarkable for its fertilitv.

The

TAB

The inhabitants, however, have good farms wcll-ftockL-d
with cattle, which fell to good advantage. Tiiey liave alfu
great plenty of Indian corn and cocoa-nuts, wliich they
fend to Vera Cruz. Moll: of the country is flat and molll,
has many marlhes and lakes well-llocked with fifli. It niins
nine months out of the twelve, fo that the air is exceffively
damp ; and in February, March, and April, remarkably
hot, when infinite fwarms of gnats and other infefts are pro-
duced. The coaft, from the beginning of September to
the end of March, is fubjeft to tempeftuous northerly winds,
which render failing dangerous during that feafon. The
Spaniards brought hither vines, lemon, orange, and fig
trees, which ail thrive here very well. Here are large
tiiickets of mangroves and bamboos, and woods of cedar,
Brafil wood, &c. frequented by lions, tigers, wild bears,
and deer. They have a great number of rabbits, apes, and
fquirrels, with the common fruits of America ; and three
or four hai-vefts of maize in a year ; befides rice, barley,
and all forts of garden-herbs, different fpccies of European
fowls, and others to us unknown. This province was ac-
cuftomed to pay its tribute to the ancient kings of Mexico
in chocolate.

Tabasco, a river of North America, which runs into
the bay of Campeachy, N. lat. i8° 15'. W. long. 93° 40'.
On the banks of this river are fome of the largelt cabbage
and cotton trees fuppofed in the world.

Tabasco, a town of Mexico, and capital of a province,
to which it gives name, called alfo by the Spaniards " Nuef-
tra Sennora de la Vittoria," from a great viftory obtained
here by Cortez, on his firft arrival. It ftands on an ifland,
at the mouth of the river Grijalva, which divides itfelf near
the fea into tw© branches, of which the weftern falls into
the river Tabafco, which rifes in the mountains of Chiapa ;
and the other continues its courfe till within four leagues of
the fea, where it fubdivides, and feparates the ifland above
mentioned from the continent. Near it are plains, which
abound with cattle and other animals, particularly the
mountain-cow, fo called from its refembling that creature,
and feeding on a fort of mofs found on the trees near great
rivers. The ifland of Tabafco, on which the town of that
name is built, is about I2 leagues long and 25 broad. The
town is not very large, but well-built, and confiderably en-
riched by a conftant refort of merchants and tradefmen at
Chriftmas. N. lat. 18° 20'. W. long. 93° 46'.

TABASHEER, in Mcdiane, a drug of high repute in
many parts of the Eaft, the knowledge of which has been
communicated to the weftern world by the works of the
Indian phyficians, by all of whom it is mentioned as an
important article in the Materia Medica ; and it is ftill con-
fidered to be adminiflered under this and other names in
Turkey and in various parts of India. The Arabian medical
writers generally agree, that the Tabafheer is a produftion
of the Indian reed. The genuine Tabafheer, according to
Dr. Patrick RufTell (Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxx. p. 275.) is
undoubtedly a produftion of the Arundo Bambos of Lin-
nsEUS ; and the bamboo in which it is found, is vulgarly
called the female bamboo, and diflinguifhed by the large-
nefs of its cavity from the male, employed for fpears and
lances. The bamboo, however, yields this drug only in a
fmall quantity, varying according to the foil or fituation in
which the bamboo grows. For a farther account of it, we
refer to the Phil. Tranf. ubi fupra. See Arundo.

TABASO, in jincient Geography, a town of India, on

this fide of the Ganges, between Bynda and Pfeudofiomus.

Ptol.

V . TABASSERAN, in Geography, a diftrift of the trad of

land fituated along the Cafpian fea, between the rivers Terek

TAB

and Kur, and one of the divifions of the province of Daghcf--
tan, dependent on Perfia. It lies between the Durbach and
Rubas, towards their fources ; extending about fix German
miles inland from .ibove the territory of Derhent as far as the
higheft ridge of the I>efgian mountains, which is here very
rocky and woody. Rcineggs calculates the ftrength of the
different tribes inhabiting TabafTeran, who, befides the Tar-
tarian, fpeak another language peculiar to thcmfelves, at
about 10,000 families : and, according to him, the reigning
family have held the fovereignty over the country for more
than 600 years. See Reineggs' General Hiftorico-topogra-
phical Defcription of Caucafus, &c. The town of Tabaf-
feran is the refidence of a prince, and the centre of the
trade carried on between Perfia and Dagheflan.

TABAXIR, in Botany, pronounced Tahajheer, appears
to be a Perfian name, appropriated to the Bamboo, Arundo
Bambos of Linnaeus, or rather originally to an internal fccre-
tion of the ftem of that plant. This is at firfl of a milky
afpeft, but fubfcquently concretes into a folid form, and very
hard fubflance, compared to fugar, but more like fand or
pebbles, being indeed a real filiceous earth. The difcovcry
of its true nature was made by Mr. Maeie, now Smilhfon,
and pubhfhed in the PhilofophicaFTranfaftions for 1 791,
vol. viii. p. 368. See Arundo, and Taba.siif.er.

TABAZET, a word ufed by fome writers to exprefs
highly-refined fugar.

TABBAJEE, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Neola.
S.lat. 13° 32'. W.long. 11° 8'.

TABBAY, one of the Weftern iflands of Scotland,
near the eaft coaft of Skye. N. lat. 57° 16'. W. long.

TABBY, a mixture of ftone and mortar, which becomes
as hard as a rock, ufed in Morocco. The walls of the city
are formed of this fubftance.

Tabby, in Co

u

a kind of thick filk, ufually wa-

tered. It ,is manufaftured like the common taffety, ex-
cepting that it is ftronger and thicker both in the woof
and warp.

The watering is given it by means of a calender, the rolls
of which are of iron, copper, or wood, which, bearing un-
equally on the ftuff, render the furface of it unequal, fo as
to refleft the rays of light differently.

TABBYING, or Watering, the palling afhiff under a
calender, to make the reprefentation of waves on it as on
a tabby. It is ufual to tabby mohairs, ribbands, &c. Tab-
bying is performed without the addition of any water, or
dye ; and furnifhes the modern philofophers with a ftrong
proof that colours are only appearances.

TABE, in Geography, a river of PrufTia, proceeding from
the Niemen, and running into the Curifch-Haff.

TABEA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor,
in the Greater Phrygia. Strabo.

TABEIPILLY, in Geography, a town of Hindooflan,
in Myfore ; 25 miles W.N. W. of Bangalore.

TABELLA, or Tablet, Tabularium, in Pharmacy, a
folid kind of eledluary, or confeftion, made of di-y ingre-
dients, ufually with fugar, and formed into httle flat mor-
fules, or fquares, more ufually called lozenges, and fomctimes
morfelli, troches, &c.

Powders, fruits, falts, &c. are diflblved with fugar, and
made into taiuU, as thofe of the juice of liquorice for colds,
&c.

We have cordial, Jlnmachic, aperitive, and hepatic tablets.
Jellies and broths are fometimes reduced into a f)rt of
tablets, to be carried in the pocket, and called packet-
f'lup. TabelU manus Chrijli are made of fugar of mfes pearled,
TabelU magnanimitatis are a fort taken by feeble old men,
I wlien

T A IJ

when matched with young wives, to aflift them in the affair
of concration.

Tabeli-.i-; Votlvs, in yinliquity, a name given to certain
tablets, which were hung up in tlie temples : for, according
to an ancient curtoni, which prevailed all over Greece, fuch
as recovered from any dillcmper uied to write in a tablet the
nature and fymptoms of their refpetlive maladies, and the
remedies which had been n.oll iuccefsful. Tl'^fc tablets
Hippocrates is faid to have copied and followed when he
firit began to pniftife ; and, if we believe Plli.y (lib. vii.
C. 37.), he learned from thcfe the firft rudiments of phyfic.

A tablet of this nature was difcovercd at Rome, not
many years ago, among the ruins of the ancient temple of
^fculapius, with tliis infcription in Greek. .lUlianus being
afflified with vomiting of blood, and abandoned by men, tiie
pods hallened to i\is relief, and having nourifhcd him for the
fpace of three days with honey, reftored him to his health :
for which favour lie came to return them thanks in the pre-
fence of the people. Tables of a fimilar kind, under the
fame denomination, were hung up in the temples by thofc
who had efcaped (hipwreck, &c.

TABELLIO, Tabl'laril.v, in the Rom.an law, ?ifcn-
•eener ; a kind of officer often confoimded with the notary,
notiirius : yet the two differed in this ; that the notaries only
drew up and kept the minutes of atts and inftruments on
paper, and in notes, or (hort-hand ; whereas the tabclliones
delivered them engroflTed fair, on parchment, in the full
executory form. The fame alfo put the feals to contrafts,
and rendered them authentic.

The domeflic clerks of thcfe tabelliones, who at firft
wrote under them, in procefs of time came to be called
nolariei.

Pafquier obferves, that the tabelliones at Rome were
public flaves, appointed for the keeping of contradts made
between private pcrfons. According to Loyfeau, a con-
traft WTitten by a notary was not perfeft, or obligatory,
till the tabellio had written it fair : after which, the parties
fubfcribed it, /. e. they wrote at bottom, that they ap-
proved the contents ; for fignatures were not then in ufe.
See Signature.

" Quoniam tabellionum ufus in regno Anglise non habetur,
propter quod magis ad figilla authentica credi eft necelTe,
ut eorum copia facihus habeatur, ftatuimus, ut figillum ha-
beant non folum archiepifcopi, et epifcopi, fed eorum ofB-
ciales."

TABENNE, in Geography, an ifland in the river Nile,
between Dendera and the ruins of the ancient Thebes ;
famous on account of the retreat of the monk Pacomius and
feveral hundred of his brethren.

TABENUS Campus, in Ancient Geography, a country
of Afia Minor, on the confines of Phrygia and Myfia.
Strabo.

TABERG, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vmce of Smaland, fitr.ated on a mountain of the fame name,
which abounds in iron-ore ; 8 miles S. of Jonkioping.

TABERISTAN. See Mazanderan.

TABERN, in Rural Economy, a term fometimes apphed
to a cellar, or other fimilar excavation, for the containing of
liquor of the domeftic kind.

TABERNA Meritoria, among the Romans, Mars'
hofpital, or a place where difabled foldiers were maintained
at the charge of the government.

TABERNACLE, Tabernaculum, g. d. a tent; among
the Jews, was a kind of moveable chapel, fo contrived as to
be taken to pieces, and .put together at pleafure, for the
convenience of carrying it from place to place, during the
BiigratJOD of the Ifraelites ia the wildemefs for forty years.

TAB

It wa« crcfted by Mofes, in confequence of the expreftf
command of God, partly to be a palace of his prefencc aa
the king of Ifrael, and partly to be the medium of the moll
folemn public worlhip, which the people were to pay to
him. It was crcfted on the firll day of the firil month of
the fecond year after the Ifraehtes' exodus from Egypt.
Exod. xl. 2. 17. 26. 29. 34, 35.

The tabernacle was of a reftangular figure, thirty cubits
long, ten broad, and ten high ; or, according to Dr. Cum-
berland's reduftion to Englifli meafure, fifty-five feet long,
eighteen broad, and eighteen high. The two fides and one
end were compofed of broad boards, ftanding upright ; each
board being about two feet nine inches broad, faftened at
the bottom by two tenons in each board, fitted into two
mortifes on the foundation ; at the top by links or hafps,
and on the fides by five wooden bars, which run through
rings or Ilaples in each of the boards. Each fide confifted
of twenty of thefe boards, and the end of eight. Both the
boards and bars were overlaid with gold ; and the rings and
hafps were of the fame metal. The foundation, on which
they ftood, confifted of folid blocks of filver, two under each
board ; each of which was about fixteen inches long, and
weigliing a talent, or about an hundred weight. The num-
ber of thefe blocks was about an hundred ; ninety-fix of
which were laid under the forty-eight boards, and the other
four were the bales of the columns that fupported the veil
or curtain, which divided the infide of the tabernacle into
two rooms. Hence fome have derived the ancient falhioii
of fetting porphyry columns on bafes of white marble.

The tabernacle had four different coverings, or carpets,
thrown over one another. The firft and loweft was made of
fine linen, richly embroidered with figures of cherubims, in
ftiades of blue, purple, and fcarlet : and confifted of ten
breadths, which were joined together with blue loops and
clafps of gold. The next over this was made of a fort of
mohair, the breadths of which were joined with clafps of
brafs. The third carpet was made of ram's (l<in dyed red ;
and the uppermoft of all was made of tacha/Ii, i. e. as has
been generally fuppofed, badger's (kins.

The eaft end of the tabernacle had no boards, but was
flieltered with a fine embroidered curtain, hung upon five
pillars of Shittim wood, overlaid with gold, and fuppofed
by Philo to touch the ground.

The infide of the tabernacle was divided into two rooms,
by means of a veil or curtain, hung upon four pillars ; the
veil was curioufly manufafturcd of the richeft ftuff, and
adorned with cherubims and other ornaments, embroidered
upon it. By tliis veil the tabernacle was divided, and learned
writers have reafonably conjeftured, in the fame proportion
with the temple, afterwards built according to its model :
that is, two-thirds of the whole length were allotted to the
firft room, and one-third to the fecond ; fo that the room
beyond the veil, which was called the holy of holies, was ex-
actly fquare, being ten cubits each way : and the firft room,
called ihe fanfiuary, was twice as long as broad.

Round the tabernacle there was a fpacious court, one
hundred cubits long, and fifty broad, furrounded with pillar?
fet in bafes of brafs, and filleted with filver, at the diftance
of five cubits from one another. The chief things in this
court were the altar of burnt-offering, and the brazen laver.
See Exod. ch. xxviii. and ch. xxx.

In the fanftuary, or firft room of the tabernacle, were the
altar of incenfe (Exod. xxx. i — 10.), the golden candle-
ftick (Exod. XXV. 31, &c.) valued by Cumberland at up-
wards of five thoufand and feventy-fix pounds fterling, and
the table of fhew-bread, defcribed Exod. xxv. 23 — 30.
Within the fecond veil, in the holy of holies, was the ark of
8 teftimcny,

TAB

TAB

tcftimony, and its lid or cover, called the mercy-feat, de-
icribed Exod. xxv. lo — 21. See Ark of the Covenant.

The learned Spencer (De Leg. Hebr. dilT. i.) fuggctls,
that Mofes projetled the tabernacle, with its furniture and
appurtenances, after the fafhion of a fimilar ftrufture, which
he had obferved in Egypt, and which was in ufe among
other nations ; or, at leaft, that God directed it to be made
with a view of indulging the Ifrachtes in a compliance with
their cuftoms and modes of worlhip, fo far as there was
nothing in them really finful : and he alleges evidence of
fuch portable temples among the heathens, in which they
depofited themoft valuable facred or religious utenfils. But
it has been replied to this conjefture, that it is not probable.
But, on the other hand, it (hould feem more likely, that the
heathens took thefe things from the Jews, who derived the
whole of their religion from God, than that the Jews, or rather
that God (hould take them from the heathens : and, befides,
the Jewifh tabernacle was ordered to be direttly the reverfe of
the heathen tabernacles, both in its form, which was capable
of being taken to pieces, whereas theirs was carried about
entire ; and in its fituation, which was accommodated to
the people's worlhipping towards the Weft ; whereas it was
the general praftice of the heathens to worfhip with their
faces towards the Eall. (See Ezek. viii. 16. and Virgil
^neid. xii. 1. 172 — 174.) The value of the gold and filver
only, ufed for the work of the tabernacle ( Exod. xxxviii.
34, 25.), amounted, according to bifliop Cumberland's re-
duftion of Jewifh talents and (hekels to Englifh coin, to up-
wards of one hundred and eighty-two thoufand five hundred
and fsxty-eight pounds. Jennings's Jewifh Ant. vol. ii. b. 2.
C. I. Anc. Univ. Hift. vol. i. partii. p. 651, &c. folio.

We have alfo an account of two other tabernacles before
the building of Solomon's temple, befides that above de-
fcribed. One of thefe was erefted by Mofes for himfelf ;
in which he gave audienee, heard caufes, and inquired of
God ; and, perhaps, alfo the public offices of religious wor-
fhip were performed in it for fome time ; whence it was
called the tabernacle of the congregation (Exod. xxxiii. 7.)
The other was that which David erefted in his own city,
for the reception of the ark, when he received it from the
houfe of Obededom. 2 Sam. vi. 17. i Chron. xvi. i.

Tabernacles, Feafl of. See Scenopegia.

Tabernacle is alfo ufed, of late, for a place of religious
worftiip, appropriated to the ufe of thofe that are called
Methodifts.

Tabernacle, in /IrchiteSure, an ornamented cheft, gene-
rally made of precious wood, metal, or marble, and placed
upon Roman Catholic altars, as a receptacle for the cibo-
rium and pyxis.

Tabernacle, in Pointed Archtfe^ure, a niche furmounted
by a canopy of tracery work.

TABERNiEMONTANA, in Botany, was fo called by
Plumier, in memory of one of the fathers of modern botany,
.Tames Theodore, furnamcd Tabernaeraontanus, that being
the latinized appellation of Berg Zabern, a town in the
diftriA of Deux-Ponts, where he was born. He died at
Heidelberg in 1590, having publifhed a ponderous and
learned German Kreuterbuch, or Herbal, the wooden figures
of which were fubfequently printed by themfelves, under the
title o{ Taberncsmontani Eicones, in long quarto. — Linn. Gen.
118. Schreb. 165. WiUd. Sp. PI. v. i. 1244. Mart.
Mill. Did. V. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 71. Swartz Ind.
Occ. 535. Brown Prodr. Nov. HoU. v. i. 467. Plum.
Gen. 18. t. 30. JuiT. 14J. Lamarck Di£l. v. 7. 527.
Jlluftr, t. 170. — Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia.
Nat, Ord. CtMorte, l,inn, Afocince, Jufl". Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, fniall, m
five acute converging fegments, permanent. Cor. of one
petal, falver-lhaped ; tube cylindrical, many times longer
than the calyx, tumid at the bafe ; limb horizontal, in iivc
deep, oblong, obtufe, obhquely twifted fegments, fcarcely
fo long as the tube. Ncftary of five cloven glands, fur-
rounding the germen. Stain. Filaments five, fmall, inlerted
into the middle of the tube ; anthers creft, aTow-ihaped,
converging, generally cnclofed in the tube. Pifl. Germciu
two, fimple ; llyle folitary, central, thread-lhaped ; lligma
oblong, capitate, cloven, dilated at the bafe. Peric. t'ol-
hcles two, horizontally fpreading, tumid, pointed, each of
one cell and one valve. Seeds numerous, ovate-oblong, ob-
tufe, rugged, imbricated, imbedded in pulp.

EIT. Ch. Corolla falver-fhaped ; its limb obhquely twifted,
in five deep fegments. Anthers arrow-(haped, within the
tube. Follicles two, tumid, divaricated. Seeds imbedded
in pulp.

" A genus of ftirubs, with oppofite fimple leaves. SlipuUu
between the footftalks, connedted below, loofe above.
Cymes fomewhat forked. Calyx permanent." — Brov/n, by
whofe remarks we have profited in fome of the abore
charaAers. The fpecies are all of tropical origin, and con-
tain more or lefs of an acrid milky juice. The Jlo'wers are
white or yellow, moftly fragrant and ornamental. Two
North American herbaceous fpecies, with alternate leavest
and blueifti flowers, one of them, 7". Amfonia of Linnxus,
having a funnel-fhaped corolla, and no pulp in thc/rarf, are
well (eparated by Walter, Michaux, and other late writers,
under the generic name of Amfonia.

1. T. citrifolia. Citron-leaved Tabernaemontana. Linn.
Sp. PI. 308. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Jacq. Amer. 38.
t. 175. f. 13. (T. laftefcens, citri foliis undulatis ; Plum.
Ic. 246. t. 248. f. 2. T. n. I ; Browne Jam. 182.)—
Leaves elliptical, pointed. Panicles axillary, ftalked, cy-

mofe, of few flowers Native of the Weft Indies. Jacquin

obferved it in Martinico ; Browne in Jamaica. The French
in the former ifland call it Bois laiteux, from the milky juice
with which every part abounds. Theflem is (hrubby, ere<ft,
branched, from five to eight feet high, fmooth hke every other
part. Leaves oppofite, ftalked, from four to fix inches
long, and from two to three and a half broad, of a fine
fhining pellucid green ; paler beneath ; wavy at the edges ;
furniflied with a central rib, and many ftrong, curved, nearly
oppofite, tranfverfe ones. Floiuers white, with a light agree-
able fcent, in oppofite, axillary, fomewhat umbellate, ftalked
panicles, about twice or thrice the length of the foolfialis.
Jacquin defcribcs the follicles as always green, acute, filled
with foft orange pulp, enveloping the brown rugged feeds.

2. T. laurifoUa. Laurel-leaved Tabernxmontaiia. Linn.
Sp. PI. 308. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Jacq. Amer. 39.
(Nerium arboreum, folio latiore obtufo, flore lutco minore ;
Sloane Jam. v. 2. 62. t. 186. f. 2.)— Leaves elliptical,
bluntifti. Panicles axillary, nearly feffile, cymofe, fmooth,
Ihorter than the footftalks.— Native of banks of rivers in
Ja:naica. We have feen no fpecimen. Sloane defcribes
this as 3. tree, whofe trunk is as thick as one's leg, fifteen feet
high, with long crooked branches, leafy at the end. The
leaves appear to be rather lefs pointed than in the former,
and of a darker green. Floiuers yellow, very fweet-fcented ;
the tube of their corolla half an inch only in length ; in the
firft fpecies it meafures full an inch. The fower-ftalks are
fmooth, not fcaly. Linnxus erroneoufly refers Browne's
plant to this fpecies, on the authority of Solandcr, who
marked the original fpecimen 2". laurifoUa.

■\. T.fquamofa- Scaly-ftalkedTabcrujcmontana. — Leaves

ovate,

TABERN^MONTANA.

ovate, bluntiih. Panicles from the forks of the branches, dcnfe, each of about forty d>rty-white or reddifh fcentlefi
cvmofc. with fcaly flower-dalks.— Gathered by Commerfon, Jiaiucrs, the h/.e of the fuil or fecond fpccies. Folhch,
.n the illand of Mauritius. The branches are round, forked, large, very blunt, red, fpotted «ath bro«rn ; one of thera

generally abortive.

8. T. obtufa. Blunt-leaved Tabernasmontana. — Leaves
obovate, obtufe. Panicles terminal, aggregate, forked, level-
topped, many-flowered. — Gathered by Commeifon, in the ifle
of Bourbon. The haves are three or four inches long, flat,
fniooth and fliining, with fine clofe tranfverfe veins ; very
obtufe, and often emarginate at the extremity ; tapering at
the bale into a fooljlalk about an inch in length. Panicles
three, in our fpecimen, at the end of the branch, on ftalks,
nearly equal to the adjoining leaves, repeatedly forked, con-
fiding of numerous yeWow Jlowers, fmaller than in moil ot
the foregoing. We know nothing of the fruit.

9. T. amygdaUfclia. Almond-leaved Tabernsemontana.
Jacq. Amer. 39. t. 181. f. 15. — Leaves oval-lanceolate,
acute, fmooth and {hining. Anthers projecting out of the
tube. — Frequent in woods and thickets at Carthagena. A
branching milky Jhrub, fix feet high. Leaves flat, highly
pohfhed. Flowers but few on a ftalk, white, powerfully
fcented. Filaments in the upper part of the tube, fo that
their anthers project above the orifice, in the form of a
pointed cone. FoUicLs pointed, green and fhining, refem-
bhng thofe of T. citrifolia, but fcarcely half, or one-third,
fo large ; their pulp orange. When this fhrub begins to
flower, it is moftly without leaves. Jacquin.

10. ^.dif color. Two-coloured Tabernsemontana. Swartz
Ind. Occ. 535. Willd. n. 7. Poiret in Lamarck
n. 3. — Leaves elliptic -lanceolate, fmooth, tapering at each
end. Stalks two-flowered, terminal, thread-fhaped Na-
tive of bufliy place's in Jamaica. Sivartz. The Jlem is fix
feet high, with fmooth, oppofite branches, quadrangular
when young, leafy at the ends. Leaves two or three
inches long, ftalked ; dark green above ; pale beneath.

rough «-ith minute white tubercles. Leaves three or four
inches long, and two or three broad, very fmooth, opaque,
(lightly wavy, with one rib, and many tranfverfe veins, on
{mooth foolJlaHs three quarters of an inch in length. Pani-
tles in pairs from the forks of tlie branches, each cloven and
fomewhat fubdivided, divaricated, of about ten apparently
white or yellowifh /?owfrj ; their partial ftalks clothed with
numerous, roundi/h, imbricated brafleas, gradually larger
upward, which we have not feen in any other fpecies. Tube
of the corolla above an inch long ; limb fomewhat fliorter,
rough with glandular hairs, on the upper fide, about the
centre. We cannot refer this to any defcribed fpecies, even
in Lamarck.

4. T. odorala. Fragrant Tabernimontana. " Vahl
Eclog. Amer. fafc. 2. 22." Poiret in Lamarck Dift.
n. 17. ( Cameraria Tamaquarina ; Aubl. Guian. 260. t. 102.
C. lutca; Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 1244.)— Leaves elliptic-
lanceolate, pointed, fmooth and (hining, on (hort ftalks.
Umbels from the forks of the branches, of about four flowers.
Corolla nightly downy externally. — Found by Aublet, on
the banks of rivers in Guiana, flowering in May. Vahl was
induced by the remarks of Von Rohr to remove this plant
hither. (See Cameraria, n. 3.) The /<'ai.« in Aublet's
fpecimen are highly polifhed, about four inches long, and
above one wide. Partial flower-jlalhs above an inch long,
fmooth, naked, fimple. Flowers yellow, with a fweet
pleafant fmell ; their Umb longer than the tube, which
meafures about three quarters of an inch.

5. T. echinata. Prickly-fruited Tabernaemontana. Aubl.

Guian. 263. t. 103. Willd. n. 3 Leaves on (hort ftalks,

elliptic-lanceolate, pointed ; fomewhat downy beneath. Um-
bels denfe, many-flowered, from the forks of the branches. „, , p . . ■ •■
Follicles muricated. — Native of Guiana, flovi-ering in Au- FootJlaHs bordered, about half an inch in length. Flower-

ft. The jlems are numerous, knotty, four or five feet Jlalks very flender, fmooth, one and a half or two inches

long, divided rather below the middle, and bearing two
whiti(h or yellowi(h Jloivers, with one or two ftraggling
bractcas. Tube of the corolla half an inch long ; limb
fhorter. The injlorejcence is terminal in Dr. Swartz's own
fpecimen, as he defcribes it ; and yet it is called axillary in
the fpecific charafter ; perhaps becaufe it is, as in other
fpecies, clofely attended by leaves.

II. T. multijlora. Many -flowered Tabernaemontana

Leaves ellliptic-lanceolate, fmooth, pointed. Stalks lateral
and terminal, many-flowered, thread-lhaped, corymbofe. —
Gathered by the late Mr. ChriftopLer Smith, in the ifle of
Banda. This much refembles the laft in general habit,
though the leaves are fomewhat larger, with an oblong ob-
tufe point, and more reticulated beneath. 'Yh.e Jlotuers too
are rather larger, and differ elTentially in compofing ample,
repeatedly fubdivided, corymbofe panicles, about the ends

hie

Sigh. Leaves five or fix inches long, and two broad, fmooth
and green above ; clothed with a flight whitifh down beneath.
Flowers fmall, yellowi(h ; their tube dotted with red. The
foUiclei are ovate, deflexed, an inch long, covered with crowded
foft tubercles, ylublet. We have feen no fpecimen. The
author mentions no pulp in the feed-veffels.

6. T. grandiflora. Large-flowered Tabernaemontana.
Linn. Mant. 53. Willd. n. 4. Jacq. Amer. 40. t. 31.

Lamarck f. 2 Leaves ovato-lanceolate, acute. Stem

forked. Segments of the calyx unequal, very lax. — Found
by Jacquin in woods at Carthagena, but rarely, flowering from
July to September. A Jhruh eight feet high, with iforked
divaricated, leafy branches. Leaves three or four inches
long, tapering at each end, fmooth and (hining, on (hort
ftalks. Flowers large, inodorous, two or three together on
a ftalk, at the fide of each uppermoft fork of the branches.

Calyx divided into five whitilh, flat, ovate fegments, very of the branches, accompanied here and there by very mi

unequal in length, and loofely fpreading, ill agreeing with ^ > z- ■ i. . - rr,.

the ufual charafter of the genus ; but the fruit, which is in

this cafe much more important, is that of a Tabernemotitana.

Its furface is fmooth and green. Jacquin.

7- T. cymofa. Cymole Tabernaemontana. Linn. Mant.

53. Willd. n. 5. Jacq. Amer. 39. t. 181. f. 14 Leaves

ovato-lanceolate, acute. Cymes axillary, many-flowered.

Stamens in the bafe of the tube. Follicles coloured, re-

nute, fcattered, fcale-like braHeas. The corolla feems fle{h-
coloured in the dried fpecimen, with long (lender fegments ;
its tube an inch long.

12. T. undulata. Wave-leaved Tabernaemontana.
" Vahl Eclog. Amer. fafc. s. 20." Poiret in Lamarck
n. 5. — Leaves lanceolate-eUiptical, pointed, undulated,
fmooth, nearly felTile. Branches forked. Flowers fome-
what cymofe. Follicles fmooth. — Native of South Ame-

curved, very obtufe — -Frequent in woods and bufliy places rica, and the ifland of Trinidad. The haves are five or fix

at Carthagena, flowering in July and Auguft — An elegant inches in length, tipped with a long point ; contrafted at

Jhrub, from fix to fifteen feet in height. Leaves flightly the bafe ; bright green above ; pale and yellowifti beneath.

wary, half a foot long. Cymes large and handfome, convex, Flo-u/erf three or four together, in fmall, lohtary, axillary

TABERN^MONTANA.

or terminal, cymofe clujlers. Tube an inch long. Follicles
an inch and a half in length, refiexed, even, rather pointed.
We have no knowledge of this fpccies, or of the two fol-
lowing, but from the autliors quoted.

13. T. heterophylla. Various-leaved Tabemxmontana.
" Vahl Eclog. Amer. fafc. 2. 22." Poiret in Lam. n. 7.
— " Leaves elliptic-lanceolate ; partly fomcwhat heart-
fhaped, pointed, rather \va\-y, fmooth. Branches forked.
Flowers racemofe." — Native of Cayenne. The haves im-
mediately under the forks of the branches are lanceolate,
tliree or four inches long, and moderately (talked : the reft
are feffile, much (horter, and almoft heart-fhaped. The

Jloiver-Jlalhs are folitary, in the forks as well as at the fum-
mits of ' the branches, fmooth and flender, each bearing
from five to {evenjlowers, whofe corolla is half an inch long,
with fome filky hairs about the mouth. l''abl.

14. T. Pandacaqui. Pandacaqui Tabernasmontana.
Poiret in Lam. n. 8. (Pandacaqui; Sonnerat Nouv.
Guin. 49. t. 19.) — Leaves elliptic -lanceolate, fmooth, with
a blunt point. Panicles axillary, corymbofe, many-flowered,

half as long as the leaves Native of the Philippine iflands,

where it was found by Sonnerat. He fays the natives of
the ifle of Lugon apply the milk of this (hrub to their
wounds. The Jlem is four or five feet high. Leaves two
or three inches long, fmooth, even, and quite entire, on
(hort ftalks. Flotuers white ; their tube an inch long ; limb
fcarcely half that length. He did not fee tlie fruit. The
younger Linnaeus moft unaccountably referred this plant, in
the Supplement, to Chiococca racemofa, with which it accords
as little as can well be. It is now, on JulTieu's authority,
removed to the prefent genus ; and as he fpeaks decifively on
the fubjeft. Gen. PI. 145, we prefume he was acquainted
with xhe follicles.

15. T. perjicaridfolia. Knot-grafs-leaved Tabernsmon-
tana. Jacq. Coll. v. 4. 139. Ic. Rar. t. 320. Willd. n. 8.

Poiret in Lam. n. 9 Leaves lanceolate, fmooth, tapering at

each end. Corymbs from the forks of the branches, in
pairs, divided. — Native of the ifland of Mauritius. The

jlem is fhrubby, ereft, flender, repeatedly branched. Leaves
four or five inches long, more or lefs tapering at the end,
dark green, Ihining, with a white rib and veins ; their mar-
gin (lightly undulated. Footjlalks hardly an inch in leng:th.
Flowers yellowifh-white ; their tube and limb each meafuring
nearly an inch. We have from Commerfon a fpecimen col-
lefted in the ifland above-mentioned, which anfwers to Jac-
quin's defcription and figure, except the leaves being lefs
elongated ; but it can fcarcely be more than a variety.
Another from the ifle of Bourbon would appear to be the
fame plant, but its injlorejcence is lateral, from the bofoms
of the leaves, not from the forks of the branches. Still we
dare not defcribe this as a feparate fpecies.

16. T. neriifolia. Oleander-leaved Tabernaemontana.
" Vahl Eclog. Amer. fafc. 2. 21." Poiret in Lam. n. 10.
— Leaves lanceolate, fmooth, veinlefs, acute at each end.
Clutters axillary, folitary, of few flowers. Limb of the
corolla downy about the mouth. Stamens prominent. —
Native of Porto-Rico. Allied to the laft. Leaves two or
diree inches long, fcarcely wavy at the margin ; paler be-
neath ; marked with a few fine lateral diftant ribs. Foot-
jlalks half an inch long. Clujlers twice the length of the
ibotftalks, each of three or ioxvcjloivers, with a fmall, linear,
(deciduous braUea to each of their (hort partial ilalks. Co-
rolla about half an inch long, with wedge-lhaped fegments,
a little downy on their inner fide towards the bafe. The

Jlamens, (we prefume the anthers only,) projeft out of the
tube. Fahl. The fpecific charader given by this author
Vol. XXXV.

being quite infufRcient, we have ventured to enlarge it from
his defcription, without feeing the plant.

17. T . mauritiana. Brittle TabernsEmontana. Poiret in
Lam. n. 1 1. — Leaves ovate, obtufc, membranous ; fcarcely
downy beneath. Cluflers axillary, of few flowers. Branches

with brittle joints Gathered by Commerfon in the ifland

of Mauritius, and by Sonnerat in the Eaft Indies. We
find no fpecimen in our colletlion anfwerable to Poiret's de-
fcription. He fays the plant is remarkable for its woody,
cylindrical, llriated, fmooth branches being jointed at the in-
fertion of the leaves, and very brittle at thofe joints ; bear-
ing very fmall, oval, whitifh tubercles. Leaves thin, mem-
branous, oval, obtufe, rounded at each end, entire, a httle
wav-y at the edges, tlu-ee or four inches long, and two and
a half wide ; green and rather (hining above ; paler beneath,
and very foft to the touch, but hardly pubcfcent ; ha\'ing
one (tout yellowifh mid-rib, with fine parallel tranfverle
veins. /'oo//?a//.f thick, from fix to eight hnes in length. Cluf-
ters fliort and nearly fimple, towards the ends of the
branches, a little drooping. Corolla yellovsifli -white ; it*
tube three or four lines long ; limb ftiort and obtufe. Fruit
not examined. Poiret.

18. T. Sananho. Sananho Tabernasmontana. " Ruiz
and Pavon. Fl. Peruv. v. 2. 22. t. 144." Poiret in Lam.

n. 12 Leaves oblong, pointed, fmootli, foraewhat wavy.

Cor)-mbs with four or five branches. Brafteas inverfely
heart -Ihaped. Follicles roundifli-obovate, pointed. — Native
of the extenfive forefts of Peru, flowering in Auguft and
September. A Jhrub twelve or fifteen feet high, or more,
with fmooth cylindrical branches. Leaves fix or eight
inches long, llalked, fliining, fomewhat veiny. Flowers
yellowifli-white, lateral and terminal, from fifteen to twenty
in each corymb. Corolla large, with a very long angular
tube. Follicles the fize of an apricot, of a dirty white,
containing many brown ftriated feeds lodged in pulp.
Poiret,

19. T. arcuata. Curve-fruited Tabernaemontana. "Ruiz
and Pavon Fl. Peruv. v. 2. 22. t. 143." Poiret in Lam.
n. 15. — Leaves obovate-oblong, pointed, entire, on (hort
flialks. Corymbs axillary, ternate, many-flowered. Fol-
licles recurved Common in the great forefts of Peru,

about Pozuzo, flowering in November and December. A
tree, thirty or forty feet high, difcharging, when wounded,
a very copious milky juice, which hardens in the air into a
gum-refin of a brown hue. The branches form an ample
leafy head, and are forked, pale, flightly compreffed.
Leaves eight or nine inches long, on Ihort, ratlier twifted,
ftalks. Flowers yellowifli -white, with fmall, oval, pointed
braaeas. Follicles oblong, thick, three inches in length,
reddifli, full of red wrinkled Tt-t-A, in a crimfon pulp.

20. T. fafciculata. Clufter-flowcr^d Taberniemontana.
Poiret in "Lam. n. 14. — Leaves oval-lanceolate, pointed,
fmooth, ribbed. Clufters axillary, fomcwhat umbellate,
many-flowered. Segments of the corolla linear. Branches
jointed.— Native of Cayenne. Seen by Poiret in Lamarck's
herbarium. He defcnbes the branches as very brittle at the
infertion of the leaves, whicli are ftalkcd, two or three
inches long, .in inch or more in width, rather obtufe, though
pointed; ftiining above, reddilh beneath. Flowers plenti-
ful about the ends of the branches, in fliort, tufted, m-
chned corymbs, whofe ramifications are fomewhat forked
and jointed, with httle fliort deciduous braaeas. Tube of
the corolla but two or three lines long ; limb in five narrow,
line.-u-, obtufe fegments. Fruit unknown. If it fliould
prove muricated, Poiret thinks this fpecies m.-iy not diffei
much from T, echinala of Aublet. See fpecies 5.

C 21 T.

TABEIIN.EMONTANA.

21. T. corottaria. Garland Tabernimontana. Ait.
ti. 3. Roxburgh MSS. (Nerium coronarium ; Willd.
Sp. PI. V. 1. 1236. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 52. N. divarica-
tum ; Linn. Sp. PI. 306. Willd. ibid. Jafminiim zeylani-
cum, folio oblongo, flore albo pleno odoratiffimo ; Burm.
Zeyl. 129.1.59. Nandi-ervatam ; Rhcede Hort. Malab.
V. 2. 105. 107. t. 54, 55.) — Leaves elliptical, pointed,
fmooth. Stalks forked, corj-mbofe, from the forks of the
branches, as long as the leaves. — Native of the Eaft Indies,
in a fandy foil, flowering two or three times in a year. It is
faid to have been introduced into the Englifh ftoves by the
late Mr. Gordon, in 1770. This plant blooms at various
feafons, and is ornainental as well as fragrant, though in-
ferior in both refpedls to the Gardenia Jlorida, with which
fome of its fynonyms have been confounded. Its genus is
now more correftly determined in the fecond edition of
Hort. Kew. than in the firft ; but a faulty fpecific charac-
ter flill remains, taken (as it feems) from Jacquin's plate,
which exhibits a weak imperfefl fpecimen. The Jlem is
fhrubby, budiy, fmooth, three or four feet high, with
copious forked fpreading branches. Leaves two or two
and a half inches long, paler beneath, on channelled /oo/^fl//fj
half an inch in length. The corymbs, in various wUd or cul-
tivated, fingle or double-flowered, fpecimens before us, con-
fift of from three to fix cream-coloured _/?owfrj-, and are
elevated on a ftalk, an inch and a half long, always fohtary,
from the forks of the branches. The fingle corolla has a
rather flender tube, an inch long, with broad fegments to
the limb, about the fame length ; but in a double ftate both
parts are much enfarged and thickened.

Mr. Brown has determined the Nirium divar'tcatiim of
Linnseus, erroneoufly marked as biennial, to be the fame
plant with the above. We fliall now proceed to enumerate
three new fpecies from his Prodromiis.

22. T. orientalis. Smooth Indian Taberna:montana.
Brown n. I. — " Leaves lanceolate-oblong, pointed, very
fmooth, as well as the branches. Cymes repeatedly compound,
fmooth. Brafteas awl-fliaped, not foon deciduous." — Ga-
thered in the tropical part of New Holland, by Mr. Brown,
who fufpefts the Curutu-Pala, Hort. Malab. 83. t. 46,
cited by Linnxus for his T. altertiifolia, fee our 25th fpecies,
may belong to the prefent plant, the haves being erroneoufly
reprefented as alternate.

23. T. pubefcens. Downy New Holland Tabemsemon-
tana. Br. n. 2. — " Leaves elhptic-oblong, fomewhat
pointed, downy beneath like the young branches. Branches
of the cymes ereft, hairy as well as the calyx. Brafteas
very minute, deciduous." — Native of the tropical part of
New Holland. M^. R. Brown.

24. T. ebraSeata. Naked-flowered Tabernjemontana.
Br. n. 3. — " Leaves fomewhat elliptical, downy as well as
the cymes. Branches and flower-ftalks fpreading. Brac-
teas none." — Found by Mr. Brown in the fame country as
the two lail. We have feen no fpecimens of any of thefe
three fpecies.

25. T. alternifolia. Alternate-leaved Tabernsemontana.
Linn. Sp. PI. 308. Willd. n. 10. Poiret in Lam. n. 20.
(Curutu-Pala } Rheede Hort. Malab. v. i. 83. t. 46.) —

Leaves fcattered, ovato-lanceolate Native of fandy ground

on the coafl of Malabar, flowering all the year, but efpe-
cially in the rainy feafon. A fmall tree, from fix to twelve
feet high, a foot in diameter. The leaves are three or four
inches long, pointed, on fliort thick footjlalks, more or lefs
alternate, or difperfed, according to the figure, which is
our only authority for that charafter. Panicles lateral or
terminal, corymbofe, drooping, of about nine white fra-

grant Jlotxiers, whofe tube is near two inches long, the limb
dilated and notched, very much twifted. Follicles tawny,
ovate, an inch long, with a recurved point. LinnEus de-
pended folely on the Hortus Malabaricus for this fpecies, ef
which he had no fpecimen. The circumftance of the alter-
nate leaves, unexampled in any known Taberntmontana,
has excited a reafonable fufpicion of error. See our 2 2d
fpecies.

26. T. bufalina. Buffalo-horned Tabernaemontana.
Loureir. Cochinch. 117. (Capficum fylveftre ; Rumph.
Amboin. v. 4. 133. t. 67.) — Leaves lanceolate, fmooth.
Stalks lateral, in pairs, fingle-flowered, pendulous — Na-
tive of moid (hady vaUies in Amboina, and of bufliy places
in Cochinchina, where it is called Cay Jung tldu. A Jhrub
five feet high, branched, nearly ereft. Leaves oppofite,
from five to eight inches in length, ovato-lanceolate, fliining,
entire. Flotuers white, on long fimple ftalks. Tube long
and flender, inflated at the bafe. FollicL-s rather long,
pointed, fwelling, fmooth, with an unequal furface. Seeds
oblong, angular, imbedded in red pulp. The fruit in
Rumphius's plate is more Hke the following. Lourelro.

27. T. bovina. Bull-horned TabernxmontaJia. Loureir.
Cochinch. llB. (Cay fun ^ bo of the Cochinchinefe.) —
Leaves lanceolate, fmooth. Stalks axillary, foUtary, nearly
ereft, about five-flowered Native of the plains of Cochin-
china. A Jhrub four feet high, with drooping branches.
Leaves oppofite, entire. Flowers white. Follicles fhort,
recurved, tumid, pointed, even in the furface. Seeds
roundifh, angiJar, lodged in red piJp.

Loureiro, from whofe work and that of Rumphius all
our knowledge of the two laft fpecies is derived, attributes
to them an emolhent and relaxing quality. Their vifcid
milky juice is faid gently to draw out thorns from the
flefli.

The herbaceous plants, fuppofed by Linnaeus to belong-
to this genus, conftitute, as we have already faid, and as
Linnaeus himfelf originally thought, a very diftinft one, of
which we fliall now treat by the name of Amfonia. We can
give no poCtive accoimt of the meaning or origin of thLs
name, except that its author, according to Miller, was
Clayton. Linnasus, in his own copy of Gronovius's Flora
Virginica, cd. I. p. 26, has vmtten Amfonia, as a generic
name, to what Clayton took for a fpecies of Nerium, and
has fubjoined alfo in manufcript the charafters of the fol-
licles and feeds. This plant, in the fecond edition of Sp. PI.
is the Tabernimontana Amfonia ; and fo it remained, till Mr.
Walter reftored it to rank as a genus ; but without throwing
any hght upon the name. A fimilar obfcurity envelopes the
nearly fimilar nameof Amasonia, (fee that article, ) which is
reported in the vSupplementum of Linnxus to be dedicated
to the honour of Amafon, a traveller in America, whom
M. De Theis has baptized Thomas. But we have never
been able to learn any tidings of fuch a perfon. Whether
Amfonia, being an error in orthography for Anfonia, may
have been defigned to commemorate the great lord Anfon,
who brought home a new efculent pea, and deferved bota-
nical commemoration as much as any other eminent naviga-
tor not a profefled botanift ; and whether Amafonia be a (till
further corruption of the fame name, we muft leave in doubt.
We have only to obferve, that if both thefe naiues (honld
prove to have the fame origin, or be thought, as they cer-
tainly are, too nearly alike, the former, Amfonia, ought to
be retained in preference to the latter, which is of much
later date.

Amsonia. Walter Carolin. 98. Michairx Boreal-
Amer. v. i. 121. Purfh 184. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 72.

— Clafs

TABERNiEMONTANA.

— -Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Con-
t*rte, Linn. Apoc'mett, Juff. Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, fmall, in
five deep, acute, triangular, fpreading fegments, perma-
nent. Cor. of one petal, funnel-(haped ; tube many times
longer than the calyx, gradually fwelling upwards, hairy in
the throat ; limb about as long as the tlibe, in five deep,
lanceolate, varioufly fpreading, oblique fegments. Neftary
of five minute glands, furrounding the germen. Stam. Fi-
laments five, fmall, infcrtcd into the upper part of the
tube ; anthers ereA, arrow-fhaped, converging, within the
tube. P'ljl. Germens two, fimple, ovate ; ftyle fohtary,
central, thread-fhaped, about as long as the tube ; (ligma
oblong, obtufe. Peric. Follicles two, ereft, long, cylindri-
cal, pointed, dcftitute of internal pulp. Seeds numerous,
pointed, rough, naked, abrupt and oblique at the point.

Eff. Ch. Corolla funnel-fhaped ; its limb in five deep
oblique fegments. Anthers arrow-(haped, within the tube.
Follicles two, cylindrical, ereft. Seeds cylindrical, naked.

1. A. lat'tfolia. Broad4eaved Amfonia. Michaux n. i.
Purlh n. I. Ait. n. i. (Tabernjemontana Amfonia;
Linn. Sp. PI. 308. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 1246. Apocy-
num virginiaiium ereftum, alternis afclepiadis foliis, floribus
pallida cseruleis, radice crada ; Pluk. Almag. 35. Phyt.
t. 115. f. 3.) — Stem fmooth. Leaves ovato-lanceolate ;
(lightly hairy beneath. Panicle taller than the lateral
branches. Limb of the corolla afcending. — Native of (hady
wet woods in Carohna, flowering in May. PurJIj. Culti-
vated by Miller in 1759, and hardy in our chmate. The
root is flefhy, perennial. Stem herbaceous, eretft, a foot
high, round, leafy, nearly or quite fmooth, terminated by
a compound fmooth panicle of greyifh-blue fccntlefs^oiyfrj-,
and bearing two or three alternate leafy branches, which do
not rife above the panicle till the flowers are pall. Corolla
very hairy about the mouth ; its tube pale, nearly half an
inch long. The leaves are all alternate, on fliort footftalks,
entire, pointed, two or three inches in length, and one in
breadth ; paler beneath, and minutely hairy about the edges
and veins.

2. K.trijlis. Brownifh-flowered Amfonia — Stem fmooth;
its branches overtopping the panicle. Leaves ovate ; flightly
hairy beneath. Limb of the corolla reflexed. — Brought
from North America, by Mr. Lyon. We received a fpeci-
men in flower, in June 1808, from Mr. Vere's garden, at
Knightfbridge. This is rather taller than the foregoing, and
diftinguiftied by its leafy lateral branches rifing high above
the panicle. The Jionuers are fmaller, of a dingy brown
hue ; the fegments of their limb ftrongly reflexed, at leafl;
in fading. Follicles fmooth, cylindrical. Perhaps Mr. Wal-
ter might have this fpecies in view when he attributes tawny
flowers {J.ores fulvi) to his j1. cilicUa, our 4th fpecies.

3. A. faiuifolia. Willow-leaved Amfonia. Pur(h n. 2.
— " Stem fmooth. Leaves linear -lanceolate, acute at each
end, very fmooth." — Gathered by Mr. Lyon in Carohna
and Georgia, flowering in May. Flowers the fame as the
firft fpecies, more abundant. Purjh.

4. A. angujlifolia. Narrow-leaved Amfonia. Michaux
n. 2. Purfh n. 3. Ait. n. 2. Venten. Choix. t. 29.
(A. ciliata; Walter n. 2. Tabernicmontana anguftifolia ;
Willd. Sp. PI. V. I. 1247.) — Stem downy. Leaves linear,

ereft, fringed In fandy barren ground of Carohna and

Georgia, flowering in May and June. Floiuers of the fame
difpofition and colour as in A. latifotia dinAfalicifolia. PurJIi.
This fpecies is faid to have been introduced into the Englifh
gardens, in 1774, by the late Mr. James Gordon. Its
copious narrow leaves are glaucous beneath, and fmooth,
except at the edges, where they are fringed with long foft

liairs, fach as clotiie iiirjlem. Ventenat fays the upper ones
are quite fmoclh, but this is not the cafe in our fpecimen.
The teeth of the calyx .ire fomctimcs tipped with a tuft of
hairs. Walter fays the flowers are tawny ; others dcfcribc
them, as we find tliem, like ihofe of y/. lalifolia, blue, with
a pale, or fomewhat tawny, tube. The follicles of all the
fpecies, as far as we have feen, are flender, cyhndrical, and
fmooth, about two inches long.

Tabernj.montana, in Gardening, contains plants of
the woody, exotic, and hardy perennial kinds, among which
the fpecies chiefly cultivated for garden purpofes are, the
citron-leaved tabernacmontana (T. citrifolia) ; the laurel-
leaved taberna:montana (T. laurifoUa) ; the Virginian tabcr-
nxmontana (T. amfonia) ; and the narrow-leaved taberna:-
montana (T. anguilifolia).

Thefe are all plants of the more tender and delicate kind,
but more efpecially the two firft forts, which require the
conftant aid of artificial heat in this chmate.

Method of Culture. — All ihefc plants may be increafid by
feeds, which muft be procured from the countries where the
plants grow naturally, and be fown early in the fpring on a
hot-bed ; and when the plants are come up, and fit to re-
move, be carefully planted out into fmall pots filled with
hght rich earth, and then plunged into a hot -bed of tanners'
bark, being careful to fliade them in the heat of the day,
until they have taken new root ; after which they fliould
have free air admitted to them every day when the weather is
warm ; but on cold nights have the glafles of the hot -bed
covered with mats every evening, foon after the fun goes off
from the bed : they muft. be often refreflied with water, but
not in large quantities, efpecially while they are young, as
they are full of a milky juice, and are fubjeft to rot with
much moifture : they may remain during the fummer feafon
in the hot-bed, by fl;irring up the tan to renew xhe heat when
it wants it, and a little new tan being added ; but when the
nights begin to be cold, the plants ftiould be removed, and
plunged into the bark-bed in the ftove, where, during the
winter feafon, they mufl be kept in a moderate degree of
warmth, and in cold weather have but little water given
them : they fliould conftantly remain in the ftove, where,
in warm weather, they may have free air admitted to
them by opening the glaffes, but in cold weather be
kept in a warm ftate. With this management they
thrive and produce flowers ; and, as their leaves are always
green, make a pleafant diverfity among other tender exotic
plants : they may be increafed likewife by cuttings in the
fummer feafon, which fliould be cut off' from the old plants,
and laid to dry in the ftove five or fix days before they are
planted, that the wounded parts may heal over : thefe fliould
then be planted in pots filled with frefli hght earth, and be
plunged into the hot-bed of tanners' bark, and clofely co-
vered with a hand-glafs, fliading them from the fun in the
middle of the day in hot weather, rcfrefliing them now and
then with a little water : when they have taken root, they
may be pknted out into feparate pots, and be treated in the
fame manner as thofe railed from feeds are recommended
to be.

It may be noticed, that the third and fourth forts are ca-
pable of living in the open air here, provided they arc planted
in a warm fituatloo : they love a light foil, rather moift than
otherwife ; of courfe, when planted in dry ground, they
fliould be frequently watered in dry weather. They arc
beft increafed by off"bets from the roots, which fliould be
planted out in the autumnal fcafoiv

Among thefe, the two firft forts afi"ord variety in the ftove,
and the latter forts in this as well as the borders in mild

climates. „„„

C 2 TABER-

TAB

TABERNiEMONTANUS, James TnEODORE,in£io-
graphy, a phyGcian and botanift, was born at Berg-Zabcrn,
in Alface, and having praftifed as an apothecary, and ac-
quired fomc knowledge of botany, went to France, where he
took the degree of M.D. Advancing in his profeffion, he
became- firft phyfician to the Eleaor-Palatine, the bifhop of
Spire, and other perfons of rank. He died at Heidelberg,
whither he had removed from Worms, in the year 1 590.
Apprehending that Providence had furnifhed every country
with remedies fuitable to its difeafes, he coniided much in
the efficacy of herbs ; and particularly in the powder of
mugwort. His German Herbal confifts of three volumes,
publiflicd fcparately in the years 1558, 1590, and 1592, and
containing figures, copied either by himfelf or others from
nature. This work was well received, and has been often
reprinted. He alfo publiftied in German a treatife on baths
and mineral waters. Haller. Eloy. Gen. Biog.

TABERNAS, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
province of Grenada ; 15 miles N.N.E. of Almeria.

TABERNE, a town of Curdiflan ; 50 miles E.S.E.
of Kerkuk.

TABES, in Ancient Geogynphy, a town of Afia, in the
mountains of Paretacene, upon the frontiers of Perfia and
Babylonia. Strabo and Quintus Curtius.

Tabes, in Medicine, a wafting or confumption of the
body, accompanied with heftic fever. The diftinftion which
nofologifts have made between tabes and atrophia, is founded
on the prefence of heftic fever in the former, and its abfence
in the latter form of difeafc. Such a definition of tabes,
however, would comprehend phtliifis, a term which is ge-
nerally reftrifted to that fpecies of confumption which has
its origin in difeafes of the lungs. (See Consumption.)
The ground of the diftinftion between tabes and atrophy, has
already been fully difculTed under the head of Atrophy :
and the train of fymptoms conftituting the fever that accom-
panies tabes, is fufficiently detailed under the article Hedic
Fever. Dr. CuIIen has enumerated three fpecies of tabes ;
the firft, which he calls the purulent, arifing from fuppura-
tion, either of an internal or external part, and the feat of
which may be various, according to the organ originally dif-
eafed ; the fecond, the fcrofulous, being the confcquence of
fcrofula affefting different parts, but more efpecially the
mefenteric glands ; and the third, the venenata, proceeding
from the operation of a poifonous fubftance received into
the body. The other affeftions which had been claffed by
Sauvages under tabes, fuch as the tabes dorfalis, nutricum,
fudatoria, a fanguifluxu, fyphilitica, and a hydrope, are re-
ferred by Dr. CuUen to the genus Atrophy ; which fee.

Tabes Dorfalis, a fpecies of confumption arillng from the
excelTive evacuation of femen : its fymptoms and treatment
are detailed under Atrophy.

Tabes Mefenlcrlca, or mefenteric confumption, is a dif-
eafe that more paiticularly affefts children, and arifes from
obftruclion and enlargement of the mefenteric glands.
Children are liable to its attacks from the age of three or
four years, and become lefs fo when they have attained that
of eight or ten, unlefs they are of fcrofulous habits, in which
cafe the difeafe may fupervene at a much later period. Its
relation to fcrofula is clearly marked, from its more frequent
occurrence in families where this difeaie is hereditary : but
it may, at the fame time, arife independently of that affec-
tion, from a great variety of caufes. It may be induced by
any protrafted difeafe of infancy producing much conftitu-
tional difturbance, and more efpecially by fuch as are at-
tended with diforder of the funftions of the alimentary canal.
It may often be traced to improper treatment, or unwhole-
fome food ; to long-continued irritation from teething ; to

TAB

the fupprefTion of eruptions, or the incautious ftopping of
diarrhoea ; and fometimes appears to be the confequence of
exanthcmatous fevers, as the meafles, fmall-pox, or fcarlatina.
The prefence of worms in the inteftines, has very frequently
been accufed of laying the foundation of this difeafe : but it
may be queftioned, whether tliey are not more generally the
confequence than the caufe of derangement in the primae
via; attendant on this diforder.

The fymptoms which attend the early ftages of this affec-
tion, and before the enlargement of the glands has become fen-
iible,are fimilar to thofe which accompany many of thedifeafes
of the alimentary canal, more efpecially thofe produced by
worms, and can hardly be diftinguifhed from them. Indi-
geftion occurs in various degrees, denoted by the ufual
figns, fuch as acid eruftations, fetid breath, great in-egu-
larity in the adfion of the bowels, and in the appearance of
the llools ; occafional fever, occurring, however, lefs in regu-
lar paroxyfms tlian happens in the remitting fever of infants,
but giving a heft ic flulh to the cheeks, which, when the fever
has iubfided, are of a pallid hue. The appetite is extremely-
irregular ; fometimes it is nearly gone, at other times it is
voracious, and attended with a fenfe of craving, unlefs fpee-
dily fatisfied. The fymptom which particularly charafter-
ifes this difeafe, when occurring in conjunftion with thofe
above ftated, is fhooting pains in the abdomen, varying con-
fiderably, both in their feat and their intenfity-, at different
times. Thefe pains, though felt more or lefs every day,
occur only at intervals, and frequently, after a longer inter-
mifTion than ufual, they return with more feverity thaa
before.

The belly now begins to fwell and to grow hard, while,
at the fame time, the limbs and countenance are emaciated :
the ftrength and fpirits decline ; the heftic fever is more
and more diftinftly marked, and exerts its ufual undermining
influence on the conftitution. Cough frequently attends
this complaint in its latter ilages, and the fyniptoms become
blended with thofe of true pulmonary confumption. The
difeafe of the mefenteric glands is often, indeed, found, on dif-
feftion, to have extended to other vifcera, and more efpecially
to the lungs : and tubercles, and even purulent matter, are not
unfrequently found in them, although the fymptoms during
life did not particularly indicate any affeftion of thefe organs.
The mefenteric glands themfelves exhibit different appear-
ances, according to the progrefs which the difeafe has made :
in the early ftages they are enlarged in their fize, and are
fomewhat fofter to the touch than in a natural ftate : but
upon being cut into, do not exhibit any fenfible deviation
from their natural ftrufture. If the patient, however, has
not already funk from the exhauftion of the conftitutional
affeftion, the difeafe proceeds to fuppuration, the pus being
intermixed with the white, foft, and curdy matter which is
fo peculiar to fcrofula.

Mefenteric confumption is a difeafe of frequent occur-
rence, and when it has proceeded a certain length, is almofl
invariably fatal. Yet we find, in fome rare inftances, that the
powers of the conftitution are fometimes called forth in an
extraordinary manner under the moft unpromifing circum-
flances, and the difeafe recovered from. In the early periods
of life, indeed, we fee nature abounding in rcfources, which a
more mature age cannot fupply : and there is, to ufe the
language of the late Dr. Gregory, " a greater luxuriancy
of life and health in infancy than at any other period. In-
fants, it is acknowledged, are more dehcately fenfible to
injury than thofe advanced in life ; but to compenfate this,
their fibres and veffels are more capable of diftention, their
whole fyftem is more flexible, their flvuds are lefs acrid, and-
lefs difpofed to putrefcence ; they bear all evacuations more

eafily,

T A B

cafily, except that of blood ; and, which is an important
circumftanee in their favour, they never fuffer from tiic
terrors of a diftratled imagination. Their fpirits are hvely
and equal ; they quickly forget their palt fuffcrings, and
never anticipate the future. In confequencc of thefe ad-
vantages, children recover from difcafes, under fuch unfa-
vourable circuni fiances as are never furvived by adults. If
they vvafle more quickly under ficknefs, their recovery from
it is quick in proportion, and generally more complete than
in older people ; as difcafes feldom leave thofe baneful efteds
on their conilitutions fo frequent in adults. In Ihort, a phy-
fician ought fcarce ever to defpair of a child's life, while
it continues to breathe."

The plan of treatment to be purfued in this difeafe, mud
be founded very much on the fame principles as that of
fcrofula in general, modified, however, in fome degree, by
its peculiar feat, and by the funftions of the parts affefted.
It is chiefly in the earlier ilages that we can expetl much
efficacy from an alterative courfe of remedies in the re-
moval of the glandular obftruftions. As there is often much
ambiguity between the fymptoms of this difeafe and thofe
occafioned by the prefence of tiie round worm in the intef-
tines, we fhould firft fatisfy ourfelves that this is not the fole
caufe of the diforder. In both difeafes there is a tumid
belly, and emaciated extremities : fo that the chief ground
of dillinftion is derived from the effeft of ftrong purgatives,
which bring away worms in the one cafe, and none in the
other. It is obferved by Dr. Baillie, that ilartings and
grinding of the teeth during fleep, occur very commonly
in worms, but are rarely obferved as fymptoms of fcrofulous
enlargement of the mefenteric glands. Some difcrimination,
likewife, between the two difeales, may fometimes be derived
from examining ftritlly into the nature of the conftitution.
If decided marks of fcrofula fliew themfelves in an external
part of the body, they will lead a praftitioner more fatisfac-
torily to the opinion, that the mefenteric glands are alfo
affeiied with the fame difeafe.

The principal alterative remedy on which any dependence
can be placed is mercury, particularly in '^'le form of calo-
mel ; half a grain, or a grain of which, may be given two or
three times a week, in conjunftion with, or fucceeded by,
fome mild purgative. On the intermediate days, fmall dofes
of alkalies, with rhubarb, may be exhibited. Great atten-
tion (hould, at all times, be paid to the (late of the bowels,
which fhould be kept freely open : while the acrimony of
their contents fhould be counterafted by abforbents, fuch as
magnefia, when there is no diarrhoea, or by prepared chalk,
or gentle aftringents, in fmall dofes, when this latter Ifate
prevails. For the removal of fever, the fame means are to
be employed as have already been pointed out when treat-
ing of the infantile remitting fever, under the head of Dif-
eafes of Infants. The calomel, combined with purgatives,
may be continued, for feveral weeks, till a favourable change
has been efFefted in the fize and hardnefs of the belly. The
milder vegetable tonics, fuch as chamomile, or cafcarilla,
may then be tried, and according as the conftitution will
bear them, preparations of iron fhould be given, in order to
flrengthen the digeftive organs, and the fyftem in general.
Together with thefe means, every circumilance which can
contribute to general health fhould be attended to. Pure air,
regular exercife, gentle friftions of the body and limbs, an
eafy drefs, frequent wafhing of the whole body with foap
and warm water in young children, or the cold bath in older
children, and efpecially a light and nutritious diet, with fuch
mild aromatics as may affift digeftion, are fome of the prin-
cipal and moil effeftual means of fecuring the ground that
has been gained, and of preventing a retiurn, as well as

6

TAB

guarding againft an attack, of the difeafe. For greater de-
tails on thefe points, fee Difeafes of Infants, and Scro-
fula.

TABEYRO, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Ga-
hcia ; 5 miles S.E. of St. Jago.

TAI5IANA, m /Indent Geography, an ifland of the Per-
fian gulf, near and well of the ifle of Sophthc, and over-
againil the promontory of Taoee.

Tabiana, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Parma ;
1 3 miles W. of Parina.

TABIDIUM, in ylnciait Geography, a town in the in.
terior of Africa, towards the fource of the river Bagrada.

TABILLOLA, in Geography, a town on the foutli
coafl of the ifland of Machian. N. lat. 0° 13'. E. long.
127° 21'.

TABINSK, a town of RufTia, in tiie government of
Upha, on the Bielaia ; 40 miles S. of Uphj. N. lat. 54".
E. long. 56" 14'.

TABLADA, a town of South America, in the pro-
vince of Carthagena ; 80 miles S. of Mompox.

TABLANATZ, a town of lilria ; 24 miles N.E. of
Pedena.

TABLAS, one of the Philippine iflands, about 25 miles
long from north to fouth, but narrow and interfered by a
deep bay on the eaft and well coails. N. lat. 12° 30'. E.
long. 121° 40'.

TABLATURE, in Anatomy, a divifion or parting of
the fl<ull into two tables.

Tablature, Tablalura, in Mufic, in general, is when
to exprefs the founds or notes of a compofition, wc ufe let-
ters of the alphabet, or cyphers, or any other charafters not
ufed in the modern mufic.

Tablature, in its llridler fenfe, is the manner of writing
a piece for the lute, theorbo, guitarre, bafs viol, or the
like ; which is done by writing on feveral parallel lines (each
of which reprefents a llring of the inllrument) certain letters
of the alphabet, referring to the frets on the neck of the in-
ftrument : of which A marks, that the ftring is to be ftruck
open, ;'. e. without putting the finger of the left hand on the
head ; B fhews, that one of the fingers is to be put on the
firfl Hop ; C, on the fecond ; D, on the third, &c.

The time of the notes is fignified by marks over the letters
of a hooked form, that anfwer to the minim, crotchet,
quaver, &c. in the French tablature ; but the Italians and
Spaniards, till of late yeai's, made ufe of figures inllead of
letters.

The tablature of the lute is ufually \vritten in letters of
the alphabet, and that of the harpfichord in the common
notes.

TABLE, Tabula, a moveable, ufually made of wood,
or ftone iupported on pillars, or the like; for the com-
modious reception of tilings placed upon it.

Mofes made a table, in the tabernacle, for laying the
fhew-bread upon, defcribed by Pliilo Juda:us as two cubits
long, one broad, and one and a half high.

Among Ciu-iftians, the table, or Lord's table, fignifies the
facrament of the Lord's fupper. See Communion.

Table, Round, Knights of the Round Table, a military
order fuppofed to have been inilituted by Artliur, the firlt
king of the Britons, in the year 516.

They are faid to have been twenty-four in number ; all
feledled from among the braveft of the nation.

The round table, which gave them their title, was aji
invention of that prince, to avoid difputes about tiic upper
and lower end, and to take away all emulation as to places.

Lefley allures us, he faw the table at Wincheller ; .it
leaft, he fays, if he might believe the keepers of it, who itul

ihew

TAB

(hew it widi great folemnity. He adds, that the names of
a great number of kniglits, written around it, feemed to
contii;m the truth of the tradition.

Larrey alfo, and feveral other authors, make no fcruple
to relate this fable of knighthood as matter of hiftory : but
that it is a fable, is certain ; F. Papebroch having (hewn,
that there was no liuch thing as an order of knights before
the fixth century.

Camden alfo obferves, that tiie table at Winchefter is of a
■ ftrufture much more modem than the fixth century. It is
to be added, that Arthur himfelf is elleemed by many no
more than a fabulous prince.

An excellent hiftorian obferves, that Arthur was un-
doubtedty a great general, though his adions have given oc-
cafion to innumerable fables ; and though the inflitution of
the " Knights of the Round Table" has ferved as a found-
ation for many fabulous relations, it is not to be deemed al-
together chimerical. For where is tlie improbability that
Arthur fhould inftitute an order of knighthood in Britain,
when we learn from the letters of CalTiodorus, that Theo-
doric, king of the Oftrogoths, inftituted one in Italy in the
fame century. Rapin's Hift. of Eng. vol. i. p. 39. fol.

However, others have fuppofed that the round table was
not any military order, but rather a kind of juft, or military
exercil^, between two perfons armed with lances. Several
authors fay that Arthur, duke of Bretagne, renewed it.
See Matthew Paris, the abbot Juftiniani, and F. Helyot.

Paulus Jovius fays, it was under the empire of Frederic
BarbarofTa that the knights of the Round Table (trft began
to be talked of ; others attribute their origin to the faftions
of the Guelphs and Gibellins. King Edward I. built a
houfe called the Round Table, the court of which was two
hundred feet in diameter. Du-Cange GlofF. Tabula.

Table, in Arch'iteaure, a fmooth, fimple member, or or-
nament, of various forms, but moft ufually in that of a long
fquare. See Platb.\nd.

Table, PrqjeSing, is fuch 3 one as (lands out from the
naked of the wall, pedeftal, or other matter which it adorns.
T,\BLE, Raked. See Raking-To^/c.
Table, Razed, an embofTment in a frontifpiece, for the
putting an infcription, or other ornament, in fculpture.
This is what M. Perrault underftands by abacus in Vi-
truvius.

Table, Crowned, that covered with a corniche, and in
which is cut a bafTo-relievo, or a piece of black marble in-
cruftated, for an infcription.

Table, Rujl'tcated, that which is picked, and whofe fur-
face feems rough, as in grottos, &c. See Rustics.
Table, Water. See WAXER-TaWf.
Table, Plain, a furveying inftrument. See Plain
Table.

Table, in PerfpeB'ive, denotes a plain furface, fuppofed
to be tranfparent, and perpendicular to the horizon.

It is always imagined to be placed at a certain diflance
between the eye and objefts, for the objefts to be repre-
fented thereon by means of vifual rays palling from every
point thereof, through the table to the eye.

Whence it is alfo called per/peaive plane. See Per-
spective.

Table, in Anatomy. The cranium is faid to be com-
pofed of two tables, or laminae ; l. e. it is double, as if it
confifted of two bones laid one over another. See Skull.

Table of Pythagoras, called alfo multiplication-table, is a
fquare formed of an hundred or more lefTer fquares, or cells,
containing the produfts of the feveral digits, or fimple num-
bers, multiphed by each other. See this table under Mul-
tiplication. 4

TAB

Tajles, Laws of the Twelve, were tbe firft fet of laws
of the Romans ; tnus called, either becaufe the Romans
then wrote with a ftyle on thin wooden tables, covered with
wax ; or, rather, becaufe they were engraved on tables, or
plates of copper, to be expofed in the moft noted part of the
public forum. Wood, brafs, or ivory, might be fuccef-
fively employed.

After the expulfion of the kings, as the Romans were
then without any fixed or certain fyftem of law ; at leaft,
had none ample enough to take iu the various cafes that
might fall between particular perfons ; it was refolved to
adopt the beft and wifeft laws of the Greeks.

One Hermodorus, to whom a ftatue was erefted in the
forum, was firft appointed to tranflate them ; and the de-
cemviri afterwards compiled and reduced them into ten
tables. After immenfe care and apphcation, they were, at
length, enafted and confirmed by the fenate, and an affembly
of the people, in the year of Rome 303.

The following year they found fome things wanting
therein, which they fupplied from the laws of the former
kings of Rome, and from certain cuftoms, which long ufe
had authorized : all thefe, being engraven on two other
tables, made the law of the twelve tables, fo famous in the
Roman jurifprudence ; the fource and foundation of civil or
Roman law. See ClV'lL Law.

The laws of the twelve tables were alfo called decemviral
laws, from the officers entrufted with the compofmg thecn.
See Decemviri.

Thefe laws of the decemviri were diftated by the rigid
and jealous fpirit of an ariftocracy, which had yielded with
reluftance to the juft demands of the people. But the fub-
ftance of the twelve tables was adapted to the ftate of the
city ; and the Romans muft have emerged from barbarifm,
fince they were capable of ftudying and embracing the infti-
tutions of their more enlightened neighbours. Mr. Gibbon
fuggefts, that a motive of national pride induced Livy and
Dionyfius to believe, that deputies from Rome vifited
Athens uoder the mfe and fplendid adminiftration of Pe-
ricles, and that the laws of Solon were transfufed into the
twelve tables. If fuch an embafTy, fays the hiftorian of the
Roman empire, had indeed been received from the bar-
barians of Hefperia, the Roman name would have been
familiar to the Greeks before the reign of Alexander, and
the fainteft evidence would have been explored and cele-
brated by the curiofity of fucceeding times. But the
Athenian monuments are filent ; nor will it feem credible
that the patricians fhould undertake a long and perilous navi-
gation, to copy the pureft model of a democracy. In the
comparifon of the tables of Solon with thofe of the decem-
virs, fome copied refemblance may be found ; fome rules
which nature and reafon have revealed to every fociety ; fome
proofs of a common defcent from Egypt or Phoenicia.
But in all the great lines of pubhc and private jurifprudence,
the legiflators of Rome and Athens appear to be ftrangers
or adverfe to each other.

Whatever, as the fame hiftorian proceeds, might be the
origin or the merit of the twelve tables, they obtained
among the Romans that bhnd and partial reverence which
the lawyers of every country dehght to beftow on their
municipal inftitutions. The ftudy is recommended by Cicero
as equaDy pleafant and inftrucSive. " How admirable,"
fays the Roman orator, with honeft or alFefted prejudice,
" is the wifdom of our anceftors ! We alone are the matters
of civil prudence ; and our fuperiority is the more confpi-
cuous, if we deign to caft our eyes on the rude and al-
moft ridiculous jurifprudence of Dracon, of Solon, and of
Lycurgus."

The

TAB

The twelve tables were committed to the memory of tlie
yoiHig, and the meditation of the old ; they were tranfcribcd
and illuilrated with learned diligence ; they had efcaped the
flames of the Gauls, they fubfiiled in the age of .luilinian,
and their fubfcqueut lofs has been imperfeftly rellored by
the labours of modern critics.

It is a great pity this fyftem of law (hould have perilhed
through the injuries of time : we have now nothing of it,
but a few fragments difperfed in divers authors. J. Go-
throfed has coUeded them together, and we liave them in
Rofinus> and fome other authors. The Latin is very old
and baibarous, and remarkably obfcure. See Civil Law.

Although thefe venerable monuments of antiquity were
confidercd as the rule of right and the founiain of juftice,
tJiey were overwhelmed by the weight and variety of new
laws, which, at the end of five centuries, became a grievance
more intolerable than tlie vices of the city.

The laws of the twelve tables have been juftly charged
with inexcufable feverity. They are written, fays Mr.
Gibbon, like the ftatutes of Draco, in charafters of blood.
They approve the inhuman and unequal principle of retalia-
tion ; and tlie forfeit of an eye for an eye, a tooth for a
tooth, a limb for a limb, is rigoroufly exaftcd, imlcfs the
offender can redeem his freedom by a fine of 300 lbs. of
copper. Befides the flighter chaftifements of flageHation
and fervitude very liberally diftributed by the decemvirs,
nine crimes of a very different complexion are adjudged
worthy of death: vl%. i. Any aft of treafon againft the
ilate, or of correfpondence with the public enemy ; 2. Noc-
turnal meetings in the city, under any pretence of pleafure,
or religion, or the pubhc good ; 3. The murder of a citizen ;
4. The malice of an incendiary ; 5. Judicial perjury ; 6. The
corruption of a judge, who accepted bribes to pronounce an
iniquitous fentence ; 7. Libels or fatires ; 8. The nofturnal
mifchief of damaging or deftroying a neighbour's corn ;
9. Magical incantations. The cruelty of the twelve tables
againft infolvent debtors merits pecuhar notice. After the
judicial proof or confeflion of the debt, 30 days of grace
were allowed before a Roman was delivered into tlie power
of his fellow-citizen. In this private prifon, 1 2 ounces of
rice were his daily food : he might be bound with a chain
of 15 pounds' weight ; and his mifery was thrice expofed in
the market-place, to folicit the compaffion of his friends and
countrymen. At the expiration of 60 days, the debt was
difcharged by the lofs of liberty or hfe : the infolvent debtor
was either put to death, or fold in foreign flavery beyond
the Tyber ; but if feveral creditors were alike obftinate and
unrelenting, tliey might legally difmember his body, amd
fatiate their revenge by this horrid partition.

When the manners of Rome were infenfibly poli(hed, the
criminal code of the decemvirs was aboliflied by the hu-
manity of accufers, witneffes, and judges ; and impunity
became the confequence of immoderate rigour. The Por-
cian and Valerian laws prohibited the magiftrates from in-
llifting on a free citizen any capital, or even corporal
punifhment ; and the obfolete ftatutes of blood were artfuUy,
and perhaps truly, afcribed to the fpirit, not of patrician,
' but of civil, tyranny. Gibbon's Decl. and Fall, &c.
vol. viii.

Tables of the Law, in Scripture Hifiory. See Deca-
logue.

Tables, New, Tabulit Novd, an edift occafionally pub-
lifhed in the Roman commonwealth, for the abolifhing all
kinds of debts, and annulling all obligations.

It was thus called, in regard that all anteotdent afts
being deftroyed, there were nothing but new ones to take
place.

TAB

Table, among Jewellers. A table diamond, or other pre-
cious ftone, is that whofe upper furface is quite flat, and
only the fides cut in angles : in which fenfe, a diamond cut
table-wife, is ufed in oppofition to a rofe-diamond. See
Diamond.

Table, in the Glafi-Manufaflure, denotes a circular fhcet
of finilhed window-glafs. 1 hefe tables are generally four
feet in diameter, and each of them weighs 10, 10^, or i i
pounds. Twelve of thefe is called zfide or a crate of glafs.
Some tables of glafs have been four, and even five feet in
diameter. Such have been made by MelTrs. Attwood and
Smith, formerly Hammond and Smith, of Gatefhead, in
tlie county of Durham ; and thefe tables are the more valua-
ble, as they yield larger fquares than ever were made, except
in plate-glafs, and die quality alfo is of the bcft kind. The
centre of the table of glafs, where the punting iron was at-
tached, is of coiu-fe fomewhat tiiicker, and is denominated
by the workmen " bull's eye :" nevcrthelefs, the reft of the
plate is of an uniform tliicknefs.

Table is alfo ufed for an index, or repertory, put at the
beginning or end of a book, to direft the reader to any paf-
fage he may have occafion for.

Thus we may fay, table of matters ; table of authors quoted;
table of chapters. Sec. Tables, of themfelves, fometimes
make large volumes, as that of Dravitz on the civil and
canon laws.

Tables of the Bible, are called Concordances. See Cox-

CORDANCE.

TA^LE-Rents:. See Bord-lands.

Tables of ffoufes, among /tflrologers, are certain tables,
readily drawn up, for tlie afliftanec of praftitioncrs in that
art, for tlie erefting or drawing of figures or fchemes. Ste
House.

Tables, in Mathematics, are fyftem« of numbers, calcu-
lated to be ready at hand for expediting aftronomical, geome-
trical, and other operations. See Canon.

Tables, Aflronomical, are computations of the motions,
places, and other phenomena of the planets, both primary
and fecondary. See each planet.

The oldeft aftronomical tables are the Ptolemaic, found in
Ptolemy's Almageft ; but thefe now no longer agree with
the heavens.

In 1252, Alphonfo XI. king of Caftile, undertook the
correftion of them, chiefly by the afliftance of Ifaac Ha-
zen, a Jew ; and fpent four hundred thoufand crowns there-
in. Thus arofe the Alphonfme tables, to which that prince
himfelf prefixed a preface. But the deficiency of thefe,
alfo, was foon perceived by Purbachius and Regiomon-
tanus ; upon which Regiomontanus, and after him Walthe-
rus and Warnenis, applied themfelves to celeftial obferva-
tions, for the farther amending of them ; but death pre-
vented any progrefs therein.

Copernicus, in his books of the celeftial revolutions, in-
ftead of the Alphonfine tables, gives others of his own cal-
culation, from the latter, and partly from his own ob-
fervations.

From Copernicus's obfervations and llieories, Eraf. Rein-
holdus afterwards compiled the Pruttnu tables, whicli liave
been printed feveral times, and in feveral places.

Tycho de Brahc, even in his youth, became fenfible of
the deficiency of the Prutenic tables ; which was what deter-
mined him to apply himfelf, with fo much vigour, to celef-
tial obfervations : yet all he did, by tliem, was to adJTift the
motions of the fun and moon ; though Longomontanus,
from the fame, to tlie theories of the feveral planets pub-
lifhed in his " Aftronomia Danica," added tables of their
motions, now called the Dani/h tables ; and Kepler likewife,

from

T A B

from the Tame, in 1627, publilhed the Rudolphlne xMes,
which are much i-ilvcmcd.

Tliefc wt-ro afterwards, amio 1650, turned into another
form, by Maria Cunitia, whofe allroiiomical tables, com-
prehending the effeA of Kepler's phyfical hypothefis, are
cxcotdinjrlv eafy, and fatisfy all the phenomena, without
any trouble of calculation, or any mention of logarithms ;
fo that tlie Rudolpiune calculus is here greatly improved.

Mcrcator made a like attempt in iiis Aftronomical Inllitu-
tion, pubhihed in 1676, and the hke did J. Bap. Morini,
whofe abridgement of the Rvidolpiiine tables was prefixed
to a Latin verfion of Street's " Ailronomia Carohna," pub-
lifhed in 1705.

Lanfbergius, indeed, endeavoured to difcredit the Ru-
dolphine tables, and framed Pirpttual tables, as he calls
them, of the heavenly motions ; but liis attempt was never
much regarded by the aftronomers ; and our countryman
Horrox warmly attacked him, in his defence of the Kep-
lerian ailronomy.

Since the Rudolphine tables, many others have been
publithed ; as the Philolak tables of Bullialdus ; the Brl-
lannk tables of Vincent Wing, calculated on BuUialdus's
hypothefis ; the Britannic tables of Newton ; the French
ones of the count de Pagan ; the Caroline tables of Street,
all calculated on Dr. Ward's hypothefis, and the Novalma-
jejiic tables of Ricciolus. Among thefe, however, the
Philolaic and Caroline tables are efteemed the beft ; info-
much that Mr. Whiilon, by the advice of Mr. Flamfteed
(a perfon of undoubted authority in fuch cafes) thought fit
to fubjoin the Caroline tables to his aftronomical leftures.

The Ludovician tables, publiihed in 1702, by M. de la
Hire, are conftrufted wholly from his own obfervations, and
\vithout the alTiftance of any hypothefis ; which, before the
invention of the micrometer, telefcope, and the pendulum
clock, was held impoffible.

Another fet of tables, Dr. Halley, the aftronomer royal,
long laboured to perfeft.

M. le Monnier, in 1746, pubhdied in his " Inftitutions
Aftronomiques" tables of the motions of the fun, moon, and
fatellites, of refraftions, and of the places of the fixed ftars.
M. de la Hire has alfo publiihed tables of the planets, and
M. de la Caille tables of the fun. Mayer conftrufted tables
of the moon ; and we have many aftronomical tables of va-
rious kinds, and computed with different views, in our mo-
dern books of aftronomy, navigation, &c. For an account
of feveral, and efpecially of thofe pubhfhed annually under
the direftlon of the commifGoners of longitude, fee Alma-
nac, Ephemerides, and Longitude.

For Tables relating to annuities, &c. fee Annuities,
Expectation of Life, 'L,its.-/innuities, Mortality, and
Survivorship.

Tables, Sexagenary. See Sexagenary.

For Tables of the Stars, fee Catalogue and Star.

Tables of Sines, Tangents, and Secants, of every degree
and minute of a quadrant, ufed in trigonometrical opera-
tions, are ufually called Canons ; which fee. See alfo
Sine.

Tables of Logarithms, Rhumbs, ufed in geometry, navi-
gation, &c. See Logarithm and Rhumb.

Tables, Loxodromic, are tables in which the difference of
longitude, and quantity of the way in any rhumb, are exhi-
bited to every ten minutes of every degree of the quadrant
▼ariation of the latitude. See Rhumb.

Table of Heights, in Enghfh feet, from the level of the fea.
The Cafpian fea, lower by - - - - 306
The Thames at Hampton, Roy ... 144

The Tiber at Rome ..... j 5

TAB

The Seine at Paris, mean heiglit - - - 36;

The Thames, at Buckingham-ftairs, 15V feet below!
the pavement in the left-hand arcade - - y ^^

By barometrical comparifon with the Seine and the
Mediterranean ; but this height is probably too great.
Roy fuppofes the low water of the fpring tides at
Ifleworth to be only one foot above the mean furface of
the ocean. He allows feven feet for the difference of
the low water at the Nore and at Ifleworth, and taking
1 8 feet for the height of tlie fpring tide, adds one-third
of this for tlie mean height of the fea. At Hampton,
the Thames is 13!,, feet above low water-mark at Ifle-
worth.

The pagoda in Kew gardens, from the ground i l6i

The well end of the Tarpeian rock - - 151

The Palatine hill 166

The Claudian aqueduft, bottom of the canal - 208
The Janiculum ...... 293

The crofs at St. Paul's, from the ground - . 340
St. Peter's, fummit of the crofs - - - 535

From the ground 47 1

Arthur's feat, from Leith pier-head - - 803

Lake of Geneva ..-..- 1230

Its greateil depth 393
Mount Vefuvius, bale of the cone ... 202 1
Skiddaw ....... 3270

Chamouny, ground floor of the inn ... 3367
Mount Vefuvius, mouth of the crater . - 3938

For the heights of other mountains, &c. ; fee Moun-
tain.

It may be obferved, with refpeft to general Roy's calcu-
lation of the mean height of the fea, that it does not appear
that in rivers, or even in narrow feas, we ought to add one-
third of the height of the tides only to that of low water,
in order to find the level ; for it is probable that even the
original tides may often refemble thofe of lakes, wliere,
for want of breadths, the effefts of a fpheroidical tide cannot
take place, and the elevation and depreflion are very nearly-
equal.

Table, in Heraldry. Coats, or efcutcheons, containing
nothing but the mere colour of the field, and not charged
with any bearing, figure, or moveable, are called tablet
d^attente, tables of expeifalion, or tabula raftt.

Table Bay, in Geography, a bay fituated on the well
coaft of the fouthern extremity of Africa, near which are
the fort and town of the Cape of Good Hope. This bay
is formed by three lofty mountains. Cape Town, the capi-
tal of the colony, lies on the S.E. angle of the bay. The
primary objeft to which Table bay is fubfervient, is the con-
venience of a plentiful ftream of pure limpid water, rufh.
ing out of the mountain, and this circumftance determined
the firft fettlers in their choice of the fcite for the town. If
this had not been the cafe, the firft fettlers would unquef-
tionably have given the preference to Saldanlia bay, the
only defeft of which is the want of frefh water near it ;
whereas Table bay is faulty in every point that conftitutes
a proper place for the refort of fhipping, and fo boifterous
for four months in the year, as totally to exclude all (hips
from entering into it. The anchoring ground in tliis bay is
tolerably good ; but the fiiifting of the fand leaves bare
fometimes whole ridges of the fame kind of hard blue fchif.
tus that appears every vvhere on the weft (hore of the bay.
Thefe ridges are fo (harp, that a cable that comes acrofs
them will be cut in pieces. Hence it has happened, that
the bay is fiJl of anchors, which have never been fifhed up,
and thefe contribute, as well as the rocks, to cut and chafe

the

TAB

the cables of (hips. If fome pains be not taken to remove
the anchors, the number of which is annually incrcafing,
a clear anchorage for a fingle large fhip will not be found.
It has been propofed to fuik mooring-chains for large fliips,
inftead of their lying at anchor. During the S.E. winds,
which blow from September to the end of April, and
which is the feafon when all fhips bound for the Cape re-
fort to Table bay, the only danger is that of their being
driven out to fea from the wear and tear of the cables.
However, as the fea is not high, it is hardly pofTible for a
fhip to go on (hore, unlcfs it be on the S. point of Robben
ifland, which being diftant feven or eight miles, may be
always avoided. Within this ifland and the continent
there is excellent anchorage, where fhips fo driven out
ufually bring up. Here alfo fhips intending to come into
Table bay generally wait the abatement of a S.E. wind, if
it fhall happen to blow too llrong for their working up
againft it. This ifland is too fmall and too far to afford the
leail fhelter to Table bay from the N. W. winds that blow in
the winter months. Naval officers feem to be divided in
opinion as to the preference of Table bay or Simon's bay,
(fee Simon'j Bay,) which lies on the eaftern fide of the
peninfula, in the great bay of Falfe, and which is the ufual
refort of (hipping for five months in the year. Both are
defeftive, but the latter appears to be more fecure, from
the circumftance of few, if any, fhips having been ever
known to drive on (hore from their anchors, whilft fcarcely
a feafon palfes without the lofs of fome in Table bay. In
the winter months, when the wind blows from N. to N.W.,
40 or 50 (hips may lie at anchor perfeftly fecure in Simon's
bay, and eight or ten may be fufficiently (hcltered in the
Ifrongeft fouth-eaftern. From a furvey of the Great Falfe
bay in 1797, the exaft fituation was afcertained of a very
dangerous rock, placed direftly in the paffage of (hips into
Simon's bay. The months in which (hips ufually refort
to this bay, are from May to September inclufive. The dif-
tance from Cape Town, being 24 miles, and the badnefs
of the road, moftly deep fand and fplafhes of water, render
the communication at all times difficult, but more efpecially
in winter ; and few fupplies are to be had at Simon's town,
a name given to a coUeftion of about a dozen houfes. We
have a chart of this bay in the fecond volume of Barrow's

Africa. S. lat. 53° 50'. E. long. 18° 15' Alfo, a bay

on the E. coaft of Labrador. N. lat. 53° 44'. W. long.
20° 57'.

Table IJland, a fmall ifland near the coaft of Spitz-
bergen. N. lat. 80° 57'. E. long. 20° 30'. — Alfo, one
of the New Hebrides, in the South Pacific ocean. S. lat.

15=38'. E. long. 167° 7' Alfo, a fmall ifland in the

Eaft Indian fea, near the ifland of Paraguay. N. lat.

9° 15'. E. long. 118° 2' Alfo, a fmall ifland in the

Eaft Indian fea. N. lat. 14° 8'. E. long. 93° 32'.

Table Mountain, a mountain of Ireland, in the county
of Wicklow ; 15 miles W. of Wicklow. — Alfo, a moun-
tain of Africa, near the Cape of Good Hope, fo called
from its flat fummit. In fine weather this mountain is vifible
at fea at the diftance of 28 or 30 miles. Table mountain
fnpplies Table bay and Hout bay with ftreams of water.

Table Mountains, mountains of North Carolina. N.
lat. 36°. W. long. 81° 40'.

Table Point, a cape on the S. coaft of the ifland of
Bali. S. lat. 8° 45'. E. long. 1 15° 1 1'.

Table River, a river of Louifiana, which runs into the
MifTifippi, N. lat. 37° 12'. W. long. 90° 11'.

Table-ZF/jic/, in Rope-Making. To lay ropes, &c. from
a fix-thread line to a two-inch and half rope, a table-wheel is
fixed in the wheel-houfe, at the upper end of the rope-walk.

Vol. XXXV.

TAB

in a frame fixed in the ground, with two Aiding checks. The
-bands which work the whirls, go feparatcly over each whirl,
and ro\nid the turning-wheel. Some have fix fets of whirls
of dilferent fizcs, with iron fpindles, and nibbed or fore-
lock hooks at the outer end. A tackle-board, twelve inches
broad, and three inclies thick, wit!, fix holes for the hooks
to go through, is fixed above the cheeks upon cleats.

TABLEAU, Fr. This word is ufed frequently in
mudc, fays Roufllau, to cxprei's the whole defign of a
compofition in tlie fcore : as " this fcore is quite a pidure ;"
" this opera is full of admirable paintings and imitations of
nature."

TABLET, in Pharmacy. Sec Tabella.
lABLIER, Le, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Vendee ; 6 miles S.S.E. of La
Roche fur Yon.

TABLING of Fines, is the making a table for every
county, where his majefty's writs run ; containing the con-
tents of every fine pa(fed each term.

It is to be done by the chirographer of fines of the com-
mon pleas ; who, every day of the next term, after engroff-
ing any fuch fine, fixes one of the faid tables in fome open
place of the faid court, during its litting ; and likcwife de-
hvers to the flieriff of each comity a content of the faid
tables made for that refpeftivc county, the term before the
aflizes, to be affixed in fome place in the open court, while
the juftices lit.

Tabling, in Ship-BuiUing, letting one piece of timber
into another by alternate fcores or projeftions from the
middle, fo that it cannot be drawn afunder either lengthwife
or fidewife ; fuch are beams, &c.

Tabling, in Sail-Making, a broad hem made on the
(liirts of fails, by turning the edge of the canvas over and
fewing it down. It is to ftrengthen the fail for fewing on
the bolt-rope.

TABO Dagrou, or Little Dieppe, in Geography, a town
of Africa, on the Grain Coaft.

Tabo Dune, a fea-port of Africa, on the Ivory Coaft ]
90 miles from Cape Palmas.

TABOA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira,
on the Mondego ; 9 miles S. of Vifeu.

TABOCANA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Quoja. N. lat. 5° 55'.

TABOCURU, a river of Brafil, which runs into the
Atlantic, near the ifland of Maranhao. S. lat. 2° 40'. W.
long. 45° 30'.

TABOGA. SeeTABAGO.

TABOLATO, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Cuhacan ; 30 miles W. of Culiacan.

TABON, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by the
people of the Philippine iTlands to a bird called in other
places daie, and remarkable for the largenefs of its eggs ;
though fome accounts of thefe are certainly fabulous.

TABONES, in Geography, one of the fmall Philippine
iflands, near Mafljate. N. lat. 12° 12'. E. long. 123° 5'.

TABOO, a town of Africa, and capital of a countr)-,
fituated to the E. of Sahara. N. lat. 24°. E. long. 12° lo'.
Taboo, a term ufed in the Sandwich iflands to denote a
kind of religious intcrdiftion, of very powerful and extenfive
operation. With places and perfons that were tabooed, all
intercourfe was prohibited. The word was alfo ufed to ex.
prefs any thing facred, or eminent, or devoted. Cook'*
Third Voyage, vol. iii. p. 164.

TABOR, or Hradijlie Hory Tabor, i. e. the camp of

Mount Tabor, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the

circle of Bechin, founded by the Huflites, fituated on a

mountain, near the river Luznice, is naturally ftrong, and

D it

TAB

it is fortilied in the ancient manner, with a ditch, walls, and
bulwarks. It had been the camp of John Zilka in tlie year
1420, and was raifed to a royal borough by the emperor
Sigifmund. It was taken by llratajrem by Rodolph II. in
l6i?, ajid alfo in 1621, 1648, and 1744; 10 miles N.E.
of Bechin. N. lat. 49° 27'. E. long. 14° 28'.

Tabok, Mnunl, a mountain of Palelliue, frequently m'-n-
tioned in the Old Teftamcnt. (See Jofh. xiv. 22. Judg.
iv. 6. 12. Pf. Ixxxix. 12. Jer. xlvi. 18. Hof. v. i.)
It ftands about the middle of Lower Galilee, between
Nazareth and the co\mtry of Gennefareth. According to
Jofephus, it is 30 furlongs in height, and 26 in compafs.
It is an infulatcd mountain, fituated on a plain (that of Ef-
draelon), and having a level area at the fummit, very fer-
tile and pleafaiit. According to Maundrell, this area is
of an oval figure, extending in breadth about a furlong, and
two furlongs in length, .lofcphus fays, that he caufcd it
to be furrounded by walls, within the fpace of 40 days,
that he might thus, without doubt, render it more inaccef-
fible to the Romans.

An ancient tradition informs us, that Jcfus was tranf-
figured upon mount Tabor (fee Matt. xvii. 2. Mark, ix. 2.
Luke, ix. 28.), and that this is the place which is called
by St. Peter the " holy mount." (2 Pet. i. 18.) Some
learned authors, however, are of opinion, that the tranf-
figuration happened upon a mountain near Ctefarea Philippi,
i ,'. upon mount Paiiium, which is very high, according to
Jofephus. We find the city called Tabor, mentioned
I Chron. vi. 77 ; but it is not well known, how it was fituated
with relation to the mount.

Tabor, Tabour, Tabret, or Tabour'm, a fmall drum;
(which fee.) It is an accompaniment to a fmall pipe or
fife ; inftniments very animating in a country dance.

TABO RITES, or Thaborites, in Ecclejiajlkal H'lf-
tory, a branch or feft of the ancient Huffites.

The Huflltes, towards the beginning of the 15th cen-
tury, dividing into feveral parties, and about the year 1420,
into two great faftions ; one of them retired to a httle
mountain or rock, fituate in Bohemia, 15 leagues from
Prague, and there put themfelves under the conduft of
Ziflta ; building themfelves a fort or caftle, and a regular
city, which they called Tabor or Thabor, either from the
general word thabor, which in the Sclavonic language figni-
fies cajlk ; or from the mountain Tabor, mentioned in Scrip-
ture ; and hence they became denominated Thaborites.
Thofe of the other party were denominated Cnlixt'ins.

The Taborites not only infifted upon reducing the reh-
gion of Jefus to its primitive firaphcity, but required alfo
that the fyftem of ecclefialHcal government fliould be re-
formed in the fame manner, the authority of the pope de-
ftroyed, and the form of divine worfhip changed : they
demanded the ereftion of a new church and hierarchy, in
which Chrift alone (hould reign, and all things fhould be
carried on by a divine dircftion and impulfe. In maintain-
ing thefe demajids, fome of their leaders went fo far as to
flatter themfelves with the chimerical notion, that Chrift
woidd defcend in perfon upon earth, armed with fire and
fword, to extirpate herefy, and purify the church from its
numerous corruptions. This enthufialtic elafs of Huffites
alone, Mofheim fays, we are to look upon as accountable
for all thofe afts of violence, which are too indiicriminately
laid to the charge of tlie Huffites in general, and to their
two leaders, Zifka and Procopius, in particular. After the
time of the council of Bafil, in 1433, which endeavoured,
though without fuccefs, to reconcile the Taborites with
the Roman pontiff, they began to review their religious
tenets, and their ecclefiaftical difcipline, with a defign to

9

TAB

render them more perfeiS. This review, conduced with
great prudence and impartiality, gave a rational afpeft to
the religion of this feft, who withdrew themfelves from the
war with Sigifmund, in which they were engaged, abandoned
the doArincs, which, upon ferious examination, they foimd
to be inconfiftent with the genius and fpirit of the Gofpel,
and banifhed from their communion all thofe whofe dif-
ordered brains or licentious manners might expofe them to
reproach. The Taborites, thus new-modelled, were the
fame with thofe Bohemian brethren (or Picards, /. e. Beg-
hards, as their adverfaries called them) who joined Luther
and his fucceffors at the Reformation, and of whom there
are at this day many of the defcendants and followers in
Poland and other countries. Mofh. Eccl. Hift. vol. iii.

TABORNOST, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
country of Darah ; 120 miles S.E. of Morocco.

TABORO, a mountain of Naples, in Principato Citra,
on the confines of Lavora.

TABOROWKA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
of Kiev ; 1 6 miles W.N. W. of Bialacerkiev.

TABOTUVO, a town of Africa, oa the Ivory Coaft ;
45 miles S.W. of Druin.

TABOU, a town of Africa, on the Ivory Coall ; 36
miles S.W. of Druin.

TABOURET, Privilege of the, in France, is a privilege
fome great ladies enjoy, to lit, or have a ftool, in the queen's
prefence.

TABRE, in Geography, a town of Hindoollan, in the
Carnatic ; 15 miles E. of Volconda.

TABREEZ, or Tauris, a city of Perfia, the capital of
the province of Adirbeitzan, or Azerbijan. Sir William
Jones, and other learned perfons, are of opinion, that this
city was the ancient Ecbatana. M. D'Anville, adjudging
that honour to Hamadan, conceives Tauris to be Gaza, or
Gunzaca, where Cyrus depofited the treafures of Croefus,
and which was afterwards taken by Heraclius. According
to the Perfians, Zobcida, the celebrated wife of Haroun-ul-
Rafhid, was its founder ; but on their authority we can place
little reliance. It is certain, however, that Tauris was a
favourite refidence of Haroun-ul-Rafhid ; and though he had
not the honour of founding this city, it is probable that he
improved and cmbeUiftied it in a confiderable degree. In
the days of Chardin, it was one of the largeft and moll
populous cities in the Eaft, and, according to that traveller,
contained half a milHon of inhabitants. But no town has
fuffercd more from the ravages of W'ar. Situated towards
the frontiers of contending empires, it has alternately been oc-
cupied by Turks, Tartars, and Perfians, and has been cap-
tured and facked eight different times ; but its ruin has been
chiefly owing to the number of earthquakes which have, at
different times, levelled its proudell edifices with the duft.

Tabreez does not now contain more than 30,000 inha-
bitants, and is one of the moil wretched cities in Perfia. It
is feated on an immenfe plain at the foot of a mountain, on
the banks of a fmall river, the waters of which are confumed
in the cultivation. This river, called Agi, proceeds from
the mountains at Buftum, and enters the plain of Tabreez
three miles N. of that city. This city is furrounded with
a decayed wall, and the only decent houfe in the place is a
new barrack, erefted by the prince for the accommodation
of his troops. The ruins of the ancient city are very ex-
tenfivc and very mean, being nothing but a confufed mafs of
old mud walls. Tabreez is fituated in N. lat. 38"^ 10'. E.
long. 46° 37'. Kinneir's Mem. of the Perfian Empire.

TABUDA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Belgic
Gaul, in the country of the Morini, near Gefforiacum
Navale. Ptol.

TABUE',

TAG

TABUE', in Geography, a town of Egypt, on the NUe ;
9 miles S.W. of Menuf.

TABUIL, a town of South America, in the province
of Tucuman ; 20 miles E. of St. Fernando.

TABULAR Spar, in Mineralogy, Spathon tables, Haiiy ;
a fpecies of lime-ilone, generally of a greyifh-white colour,
but fometimes inclining to greenifh-yellow or reddifh-white.
It occurs maflive and cryftallized in reftangnlar four-fided
tables. The luftre of the principal frafture is (hining and
pearly ; the ftrufture is imperfectly lamellar. Tabular fpar
occurs in large diftinft prifmatic concretions, which are
promifcuoufly aggregated : it is tranflucent, and phofpho-
refces when fcratched with a knife : its fpecific gravity is
2.86. It is fometimes friable. When put into nitrous acid
it effervefces, and then falls into grains. It is infufible by
the blowpipe. The analyfis, as given by Klaproth, is

Silex
Lime
Water

50

45

S

This mineral is of rare occurrence ; its locality, as given
by Stiitz, is at Dognafl<a, in the bannat of Temefvar, in
Hungary, where it occurs in blue-coloured primitive lime-
ftone, with garnets, aftinolite, tremoUte, and variegated
copper. It is faid by Eftner to occur at Ozavitza. In
the new fyftem of mineralogy propofed by Berzelius, this
mineral is denominated a blfilk'iate of lime ; the oxygen con-
tained by the different conflituent parts being in the propor-
tion of 6.3 and I ; the filex containing twice the oxygen
of the lime, and tiie water the fixth part.

TABULA RIUM, among the Romans, the name of
that part of the treafury where the Elephantine books were
kept.

TABULARIUS. See Tabellio.

TABULARUM Apertura. See Apertura.

TABULATUM. See Tabella.

TABUM, a word ufed by medical writers, to exprefs a
thin, fanious, and putrid humour, flowing from old ulcers,
or from mortified parts, in cafes where the vital powers are
not fufficient for the generation of a perfeft or concoAed
matter.

TABY, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Goth-
land ; 14 miles S.E. of Nordkioping.

TACA, a town of .Tapan, in the illand of Xicoco ; 20
miles S.W. of Tofa.

TACALALPO, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Tabafco ; 23 miles S.W. of Tabafco.

TACALAYO, a town of South America, in the pro-
vince of Chaco ; 35 miles N. of St. Salvador de Jugui.

TACALEA, a town of South America, in the province
of Carthagena, at the conflux of the Cauca and Madalena ;
85 miles S.E. of Carthagena.

TACAMAHACA, in Gardening, a tree of the orna-
mental and fweet-fmelling kind, which is often planted out
in flirubberies, borders, and other parts of pleafure-grounds
with much propriety and advantage in its appearance, and
the gratefid odour which it diff^ufes all around it. See

POPULUS.

Tacamahaca, or Tacamacha, a kind of refinous gum,
diftilling from the trunk of a very large tree, a fpecies of
poplar, growing in New Spain, Canada, and other parts of
America ; but in the greateft abundance, as it is faid, in
the ifland of Madagafcar.

The tree is not unlike our poplar-tree, only bigger and
taUer ; its leaves long and green, its fruit red, of the fize of
our walnuts, exceedingly refinous, and containing a (lone
like our peaches. See Populus Balfamifera.

TAG

The wood of the tree makes good timber for fhips, and
the gum it yields ferves there for their caulking, tliougli its
chief life with us is in medicine.

Two forts of this refin are fometimes to be met with.
The beft, called tacamahaca in (hells, from its being col-
leftcd in a kind of gourd fliells, is fomewiiat undluous and
foft, of a pale yellowifli or greenifli colour, a bitterifh aro-
matic tafte, and a fragrant delightful fniell, approaching to
tiiat of lavender and ambergris. This fort is very rare.
That commonly found in the fliops is in tranfparent grains
or globes, of a whitilh, yellowilh, brownilh, or greenifh
colour, and of a lefs grateful fmcU than the foregoing.

The firll is faid to exude from the fruit of the tree ; the
other from incifions made in the trunk. The tree, as raifed
among us, affords in its young buds, or the rudiments of the
leaves, a refinous juice of the lame kind of fragrance.

Tacamahaca is chiefly ufed as an ingredient in warm
nervine plafters ; though the fragrance and tafte of the finer
fort indicate its being applicable to other purpofes, as an
internal balfamic corroborant. Both kinds dirfolve in rec-
tified fpirit into a gold-coloured liquor, with a fmall quan-
tity of remaining impurity ; they alfo impregnate water
confiderably with their fmell and tafte, but give out very
little of their fubftance to this menftruum. Lewis. The
Indians are faid to ufe it for all kinds of pains. Schroder
affirms, that he has feen intolerable pains in the leg removed
by it.

TACAMES, or Atacames, in Geography, a government
of South America, in the province of Quito, fituated W. of
the weftern Cordilleras of the Andes, bordering northward on
the department of Barbacoas, in the government of Popayan,
weftward on the South fea, and fouthward on the territory
of Guayaquil, and reaching along the coaft from the ifland
of Tumaco and the houfe of Hufmal, which he in N. lat.
1° 30', to the bay of Caracas, and the mountains of Balfamo,
in S. lat. 0° 34'. This jurifdiftion was long negleAed after
the conquefl: of it by Sebaftian de Belalcazar, the introduc-
tion of the Chriftian religion, and its homage to the king of
Spain. At length, however, it was difcovered that by
making fettlements here, the intercourfe and commerce be-
tweeen Quito and Terra Firma would be facilitated ; and
with this view, Paul Durango Delgadillo was, in the year
1621, appointed governor of Atacames and Rio de las
Efmaraldas. He was fucceeded by Francifco Perez Me-
nacho in 1626, and other governors, who failed in the ac-
complifliment of the objeft for which they were appointed :
at length Don Pedro Vicente Maldonado, in 1 74 1, laid
open a direft communication betwixt Quito and the Rio de
las Efmaraldas, and in recompence of his fuccefs he was
confirmed as governor in 1746, and in the following year
the country was formally conltituted a government. This
government contains twenty towns, which are but fmall and
poor, five of them fituated on the fea-coaft, and the others
being inland places. The inhabitants of the five to\vns are
Spaniards, Mcflizos, Negroes, and Cafts, which fprung from
thefe three claffes. Thole of the other fifteen are in general
Indians, among whom are few Spaniards, Mulattos, or
Negroes. The fpiritual concerns of the diftrift are entrufted
to eleven priefts, who refide in the great towns, and occa-
fionally viiit the others, in which are chapels of eafc.

The temperature of Atacames is like that of Guayaquil,
and accordingly it produces the fame kinds of vegetables,
grains, and fruits ; lome of them to greater perfeftion, on
account of its more elevated fituation. It likewife pro-
duces in great abundance vanillas, achote, farfaparilla, and
indigo. Confiderable quantities of wax are made here, and
the forefl:s of the country afford a great variety of trees of
D 2 large

T A C

hrgf fire and lofty height, fit for domeftic and naval pur-
polVs. (Juan and Ulloa's Voyago, vol. i. ) M. d'Anville,
in his map of Quito, has marked the fuppofed loft mnic of
Emeralds, about 20 miles to the fonth of the town of Taca-
mcs, which is lituatcd in a bay of the Pacific ocean, to
which it (jives name; no miles N.W. of Quito. N. lat.
o" 52'. W. long. 62*.

TACAPHORIS, in Jnaent Geography, a town of
Africa, in the interior of Marmarica. Ptol.

TACARIGUA, Bay or Lake, in Geography, is fituated
in the government of Caraccas, in America, about one and a
half league from the mouth of the river Tuy. Its form is
eircular, and its meafure is about feven leagues from the fea,
on the N.E. to its deepeft recefs on the S.E. It abounds
in all kinds of fca-fi(h, and is remarkable for the groat
number of alHgators which are feen in it.

TACASARTA, in Ancient Geography,:^ town of Egypt,
upon the route from Memphis to Pelufium. Anton. Itin.

TACASUKI, in Geography, a town of .Japan, in the
ifland of Niplion ; 12 miles N.W. of Meaco.

TACATO, a town of .Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ;
48 miles S.S.W. of .Jedo.

TACATUA, Tackus, in /Indent Geography, a town
fituated on the coaft of Africa, between Ruficades and
Hippone ; E. of the promontory of Tapfos, and W. of that
of Hippi.

TACAU, in Geography, VLlown of .Japan, in the ifland of
Niphon ; 90 miles N.W. of Jedo.

TAG AX I, a fmall ifland of Japan, on the S. coaft of the
ifland of Ximo, at the entrance into the gulf of Ximabara.

TACAZZE', a river of Africa, next to the Nile the
largeft in Upper Abyftinia. Its principal branch rifes in
Angot, in a plain champaign country, about 200 miles S.E.
of Gondar, near a fpot called Souami Midre. It has three
fpring-heads, or fources, like the Nile : near it is the fmall
village Gourri, fignifying cold. The other branch of the
Tacazze rifes in the frontiers of Begemder, near Dabuco,
whence, running between Gouliou, Lafta, and Beleflcn, it
joins vnth the Angot branch, and becomes the boundary
between Tigre and Amhara. This river was called the
Siris, or the river of the dog-ftar, whilft the unciviUzed peo-
ple, the Cuftiites of the ifland of Meroe, refided upon its
banks. It was then called the Tannufli Abay, or the lefler
of two rivers that fwelled with tlie tropical rains, which was
the name given to it by the peafants from a comparifon of it
with the Nile. It was the Taca'zzc in Derkin, or the dwell-
ing of the Taka, before it joined the Nile in Baja, and it
was the Aftaboras of thofe of the ancients that took the Nile
for the Siris. It is now the Atbara, giving its name to that
peninfula, which it inclofes on the E. as the Nile does on
the W. and which was formerly the ifland of Meroe.
Tacazz6 is a pleafant river, fliaded with fine lofty trees, and
having its banks covered with tamariflfs and bufties fingu-
larly fragrant. Its ftream is very limpid, its water excel-
lent, and it abounds with a great variety of fifli : its coverts
are alfo full of all forts of game. During the inundation, it
carries in its bed nearly one-third of all the water that falls
in Abyffinia, rifing to about three fathoms, tearing up rocks
and large trees in its courfe, and forcing down their broken
fragments fcattered in its ftream, with a noife like thunder
echoed from a hundred hills. This river, though in many re-
fpefts beautiful, has its difadvantagcs. From the falling of the
firft rains in March till November, it is death to fleep in the
country adjoining to it, both within and without its banks.
The inhabitants retire and live in villages on the top of the
neighbouring mountains ; and thefe are all robbers and
aflallins, who defcend from their habitations in the heights to

T A C

lie in wait for, and plunder the travellers who pafs that way.
Its abundance of fifh draws together a number of croco-
diles : in its adjacent thickets arc vaft multitudes of hons and
hyxnas. The ford of this river is fituated in N. lat. 13"
42' 45". Bruce's Travels, vol. iii.

TACC A, in Botany, a Malay name, ufed by Rumphius,
and adopted by the claflical Forfter, as well as by the
younger Linna;us. The word being, though barbarous and
unmeaning, cafy of pronunciation, we are induced to ac-
quiefce in thefe authorities, and to retain it, along with
yfueuba. Pant/anus, and a few other names fo circumftanced.
Sir Jofeph Banks and Dr. Solander had called the fame
genus, very elegantly and j\idicioufly; Chaitaa, from x"-''!'''*
ajlowtng mane, or head of i.nr, m aUufion to the fpreading
tuft of long capillary filameiils, apparently a fort of bra<5leas,
or abortive ftalks, accompanying tlie flowers. — Forft. Gen.
t. 35. Linn. Suppl. 37. Schreb. 229. Wiild. Sp. PI. v. 2.
200. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl,
V. 1.340. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 306. Jufl". 56. Lamarck
Illuftr. t. 232. Gxrtn. t. 14. — Clafs and order, Hexan-
tlria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Narciffi, Jufl". Akin to Aroidee
and Anjlolochitt, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, in fix very
deep, elliptic-oblong, equal, converging, permanent fcg-
ments. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments fix, oppofite to the
fegments of the calyx, into wliofe bafe they are inferted, and
half as long, equal, dilated, flat, oblong, incurved and
vaulted at the fummit ; anthers feflile in the hollow of each
filament, of two diilinft lobes. P'tjl. Germen inferior,
roundifli ; ftyle ftiort, cylindrical, with three furrows ; ftig-
mas three, fpreading, dilated, cloven. Peric. Berry ovate,
angular, of one cell. Seeds numerous, ovate, ftriated, " in-
ferted into three receptacles annexed to the coat of the
berry." Brown.

Efl". Ch. Calyx in fix deep equal fegments. Petals
none. Filaments vaulted. Stigmas ftellated. Berry infe-
rior, angular, with many feeds.

I. T. plnnat'ifida. Pinnatifid Tacca, or Otaheite Salep.
Linn. Suppl. 251. Forft. Prodr. 36. PI. Efcul. 59,
Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Loureir. Cochinch. 300. (Tacca;
Rumph. Amboin. v. 5. 324 — 328. t. 112 — 114. Chaitsea
Tacca ; Banks Ic. Ined. apud Bibl. Linn. Leontice
Leontopetaloides ; Linn. Sp. PL 448. " Leontopetaloides ;
Amman, in Comm. Petrop. v. 8. 211. t. 13.") — Leaves
pinnatifid. — Native of the Eaft Indies, Cochinchina, the
tropical part of New Holland, and the Society Iflands ;
brought to England by Capt. Bligh, in 1793, but has not
yet flowered. Alton. The root is tuberous and perennial.
Leaves one or two, radical, on long ftalks, ereft, deeply
three-cleft, with deeply and varioufly pinnatifid, acute,
entire lobes, a foot long, fmooth, reticulated with veins.
Footjlalh hollow, fmooth. Flower-jlalk radical, about a
yard high, hollow, ereft, unbranched, terminating in a fimple
umbel of feveral drooping, green, fomewhat glaucous,
Jloivers, accompanied by an invo/ucrum of about as many
upright, partly pinnatifid, green leaves, near two inches
long ; with a greater number of much longer thread-ftiaped
bodies, fufpefted by Mr. Brown to be abortive flower-ftalks.
The terries are black, larger than a goofeberry, but little
juicy when ripe.

Forfter fays the frefli root is intenfely bitter and acrid,
though fomewhat milder when cultivated. By being
grated, and repeatedly waflied in frefti water, it yields a
very white mild powder, like ftarch, which is dried in the
fun, and then ferves for food, either in the manner of Salep,
or baked in the form of cakes, which are even better tlian
thofe made of Sago. The former mode of ufing this powder

TAG

is cuftomary in the South-fea, the latter in the Molucca,
iflands. This root is alfo apphed as a phiRer, we prefume
frefh, for deep wounds made with darts or other weapons.
It is well known that a fimilar powder, or mild wholefome
flour, is obtained, by wafliing, from the roots of Jatropha
Manihot, and various fpecies of Arum, even our common
Arum maculatum, as well as from raw potatoes.

2. T. inUgr'ifoUa. Entire -leaved Tacca. Gawler in
Curt. Mag. t. 1488. Ait. Epit. 37^ Leaves ovate, undi-
vided.— Native of the Eaft Indies, from whence it was font
by Dr. Roxburgh to lir Abraliazn Hume, and flowered in
the ftove at Wormleybury, in June 181 2. The leaves are
four or five Inches long, probably often more, fmootli, quite
fimple and entire, with one rib and many oblique veins ;
each on a ftout, channelled, brown footJlalL Flowers um-
bellate, ere£t or decumbent, of a dingy green, with purple
italics. Leaves of the i/iiwlucrum large, ovate, pale green
with many purple ribs, and accompanied by a few white
thread-fhaped ftalks, refembling the former. We have feen
no fpecimen in flower.

TACE, Ital., in M,;/;c, be filent.

TACET, Lat., is ufed when a vocal or inftrumental
part is to be filent during a whole movement : as in a mafs,
Chri/le facet ; in a concerto or fonata. Largo tacet. Sec.

Tacet, Joseph, in Biography, an eminent performer and
mafter on the German flute, born, we believe, in France ; but
who came to England fo early, and continued here fo long,
that by forgetting his own language, he fpoke Engliih like a
native of the ifland. He was the firft to adopt the addi-
tional keys of Quantz to the German flute, in order to corredl
the bad notes, and increafed their number from three to five ;
though, we believe, he feldom ufed them all.

TAC-FREE, in Old Charters, an exemption from pay-
ments.

TACHAN, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Chinefe
fea, .Jiear the coaft of Cochinchina. N. lat. 12° 35'.
E. long. 109° 14'.

TACHAR, atown of Thibet ; 23 miles S. of Tourfan.

TACHARD, Guy, in Biography, a French Jefuit, who,
after accompanying chevalier de Caumont, and the abbe de
Choiii, on an embafTy to Siam, returned to Europe in 1688,
and having made another voyage to the Indies, died at
Bengal about 1694. His " Two Voyages to Siam," in
2 vols- Paris, 1686 and 1689, re -printed at Amfterdam in
1700, well received at the time of their publication, have
funk in reputation on account of the credulity and exag-
geration of the author, of which fatisfaftory evidence has
been given by chevalier de Forbin, in his Memoirs. Nouv.
Dia. Hiftor.

TACHAR-SEGHIN, in Geography, atown of Thibet;
50 miles S. of Tourfan.

TACHAS, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome authors
to the manati, or fea-cow.

TACHASARA, in Ancient Geography, ?i town of Afia,
in the interior of Media, between Zalaca and Pharambara.
Ptol.

TACHAU, or Taciiow, in Geography, a town of Bohe-
mia, in the circle of Pilfen, taken by Zilka by aflault, and
facked in the year 1427 ; 34 miles W. of Pilfen. N. lat.
49° 47'. E. long. 1 2° 40'.

TACHBACH, a town of Germany, in the county of
Henneberg ; 8 miles E.S.E. of Meinungen.

TACHEMAL-ONDOUC, a town of Chinefe Tai--
tary. N. lat. 45^ 59'. E. long. 122° 31'.

TACHEMPSO, orTACHOMlPSO, in Ancient Geography,
an ifland of Ethiopia, in the vicinity of Libya, partly oc-
cupied by the Egyptians, and partly by the Ethiopians.

TAG

TACHENS, in Geography, a lake of the archbiniopric
of .Sal/.burg, five miles long, and about one wide: ijmilet
N.W. of Sal/burg.

TACIIIA, in Botany, called Tachi by the Galibis in
Guiana, becaufe the hollow fl;em and brandies of tliia flirub
ferve as a retreat for ants, the above word fignifying, in the
language of thofe people, an ant's ncfl. Aublet Guian-
75. t. 29. See MvuMiaiA.

TACHIBOTA. See Saf.masia.

TACHIGALIA, Tachigali of the Gahbis in Guiana.
See Cum^A.

TA-CHOUI-CAO-HOTUN, in Geography, a town of
Corea ; 425 miles E. of Peking. N. lat. 40'' 11'. E.
long. 124° 53'.

TACHYGRAPHY, called alfo BuAciiyGRAPiiY,
formed from rccxtj;, fivift, and yfy-Ofr, writing ; the art of
quick or fliort writing.

There have been various kinds of tachygrapliy invented :
among the Romans, there were certain notes ufed, each
of which fignified a word.

The rabbins have a kind of tachygrapliy formed by ab-
breviations, which made a kind of technical words ; where-
in each confonant (lands for a whole word : as D3,"N~1,
'jy~l, rafchi ; which ftands ior rabbi Schelomoh Jarri. See
NoTARiroN.

In France, &c. the only tachygrapliy ufed is, the re-
trenching of letters, or even whole fyllables of words, as in
film for fecundum, aut for autem, d ior fed, 0 for non, parti-
cipaon ior participation, &c.

The firfl; printers imitated thefe abbreviations ; but at
prefent they are almoft^ laid afide, except among fcriveners,
&c.

In England we have great variety of metliods of tachy-
graphy, or fliort-hand ; more by far, and thofe much bet-
ter, eafier, fpeedier, and more commodious, than what are
known in any other part of the world : wltnefs Shclton's,
Waflis's, Rich's, Mafon's, Webiler's, Wefton's, Macaulay's,
Annet's, Gurney's, Lyle's, Byrom's, Rees's, and feveral
other fliort-hands. See Stenoc;raphy.

TACISSO, Jeung, in Geography. See Tassasldox.

TACIT Acceptance. See Acceptance.

Tacit Community. See Community.

Tacit Decree, in Roman Antiquity, fecret deliberations,
to which none but old fenators were fummoned.

J. Capitolinus mentions a decree of this fecret kind,
which he calls S. C. taciturn, and fays, that the ufe of them
among the ancients was derived from the necefllties of the
public, when upon fome imminent danger from enemies, the
fenate was either driven to fome low and mean expedients,
or to fuch meafures as were proper to be executed before
they were publiflied, or fuch as they had a mind to keep fe-
cret even from friends ; on which occafions they commonly
recurred to a tacit decree, from which they excluded their
clerks and fervants. performing that part themfelves, left
any thing fliould get abroad. Capitol, de Gordian. c. 1 2.

In the early times of the republic, tliere are feveral in-
fl;ances mentioned by hiftorians of fuch private meetings of
the fenate, fummoned by the confuls to their own houfes ;
to which none but the old or proper fenators were admitted,
and of which the tribunes ufually complained. \'ide Dion.
Halic. 1. X. 40. 1. xi. 55. 57. Middlet. of Rom. Sen.
p. 90.

TACITUS, Caius Counelius, in Biography, a well-
known hiilorian, was born about the year of the Ciiriftian
era 57, at Interamna, or the modern Terni. His fatiier
was a Roman knight, and procurator of Belgic Gaul.
Devoted from his youth to the cultivation of literature and

rhetoric.

TAG

rhetoric, his reputation at maturity was fo well etlabliflied,
that he was permitted by Julius A^rricola, at the expiration
of his confuhte, which occurred ui the year 77, to form
a matrimonial conneAion with his daughter. Thus intro-
ducfd into public life, he was honoured by the patronage of
Vcfpafian, Titus, and Domitian. Having diicharged the
office of pnetor, ho withdrew from the capital for four
years ; and on his return he found the latter emperor exer-
cifing a tyranny which he bitterly lamented. His profpeAs,
however, were brightened by the acceflion of Nerva to the
confullhip, in the year 97 ; and as his aflbciate Verginius
Rufus died before the termination of his office, Tacitus was
appointed to be his fucceffor, and commenced his literary ca-
reer, if the " Dialogue concerning Orators" be not his com-
pofition, with an eloquent oration at the funeral of Verginius,
of whom Pliny fays that he " crowned the felicity of his life
by polTeffing the moft eloquent of eulogifts at his death."
In the early part of Trajan's reign, he concurred with his friend
Pliny the Younger, in the accufation of Marcus Prifcus for
the crimes with which he was chargeable during his procon-
fulate of Africa. The condud of Tacitus and Pliny on this
occafion was honoured by the encomium of the fenate in
their fentence and condemnation of the culprit. The future
circumftances of his Ufe, and the precife time of his death,
are unknown ; but as he makes no allulion to the reign of
Adrian, it is moft probable that he did not furrive that of
Trajan.

The principal works of Tacitus were his " Annals," and
his " Hiftory." The former compreliended the Roman
affairs from the death of Auguihis to that of Nero ; but it
has been tranfmitted to us in a very mutilated ftate. The
latter comprifed the period from the end of Nero to the
death of Domirian ; and now exifts in an imperfeft ftate, as
the narrative does not extend far beyond the acceflion of Vef-
pafian. His other works are, a " Life of Agricola," and a
treatife " On the Manners of the Germans." The ftyle of
his writings is fingularly concife, abrupt, and elliptical, fo
that the reader is often at a lofs to comprehend his meaning.
His aim feems to have been to comprize much in a fmall
compafs, and he has thus furnifhed a great variety of politi-
cal m-dxims, which, by the brevity with which they are ex-
prelTed, are peculiarly adapted to imprefs the memory. It
is obferved, however, by one of his biographers, that he
occafionally difcovers " an affeftation of converting com-
mon remarks into aphorifms, and of philofophizing when
he was only required to narrate." Neverthe!-fs, as the fame
author remarks, " no profc writer in any language furpafles or
perhaps equals him in force of defcription, and the choice
of circumftances by which he dramatizes a fcene, and brings
it before the eyes of his reader ; and Jio want of perfpicuity
appears in his ftyle when employed in the relation of ftriking
events." The writer whom we are now citing extols the
moral merits of Tacitus as an hiftorian, and gives him his
full fhare of praife for inculcating the nobleft principles of
aftion, both public and private, and difplaying the evils
arifing from uncontrolled power, united, as it generally
muft be, with vice and tyranny. " He was guarded," fays
the biographer, " by philofophy againft credulity, and by
the love of truth againft calumny." He adds, " upon the
whole, whatever defeAs may be juftly imputed to him, his
works can never fail to keep a d'ttingui(hed place among the
moft valuable treafures which antiquity has bequeathed to
us." The following editions of the works of Tacitus are
thofe which are held in the higheft eftimation : viz. Ryckii,
Lugd. Bat. 1687, 2 vols. i2mo.; Gronovii, Traj. 1721,
2 vols. 4to. ; Ernefti, Lipf. 1752 and 1772, 2 vols. 8vo.;
Brotier, Paris, 1771, 4 vols. 4to, and 1776, 7 vols. i2rao.

TAG

Many tranflations in different languages are extant. Bro-
tier Praf. Gen. Biog.

Tacitus, M. Claudius, an emperor of Rome, who
was advanced to thin eminence from the rank of fenator, to
which he belonged at the time of Aurelian's death, A.D.
275. He was then about 75 years of age, having been
conful twice, bearing the charaAer of diftingui{hed wifdom
and moderation, and enjopng a patrimony valued at between
two and three millions fterling. An interregnum took place
in confeq'u'nce of the refufal of the army and fenate to nomi-
nate an emperor, and had lafted nearly eight months. Tacitus
wifhed to refer the choice to the army ; but finding that he
was the perfon to whom the attention of the public was di-
reAed, he withdrew to his country feat in Campania, and
ctjntinued there two months. At length, the conful con-
voked the fenate, and Tacitus appeared in the aftembly.
Being aflced his opinion on the fubjeA that had occafioned
delay, he arofe to reply ; but he was immediately faluted,
amid general acclamations, with the titles of Auguftus and
emperor. The plea of his age and infirmities was of no
avail ; conftrained to accept the high honour on Sept. 25,
A.D. 275, he entered on his office ; the Roman people and
the praetorian guards approving and confirming his eleAion.
His firft objeA was to reftore to the fenate rights and privi-
leges, which ferved to render the conftitution a limited mo-
narchy. After thus gratifying the fenators, he proceeded to
regulate and reform the public morals ; exhibiting in his
own conduA an example of fimpUcity and frugality, whilft
he was unufually munificent in his attention to public objeAs.
To hterature he was a diftinguiflied patron ; and he paid
particular refpeA to his anceftor, the hiftorian Tacitus, di-
reAing ten copies of his works to be annually depofited in
the public libraries. In order to fecure the attachment of
the army, he vifited the camp at Thrace at the commence-
ment of the yeai- 276, promifed the ufual donative, and in-
fliAed punidiment on the principal perfons who had been
concerned in the murder of Aurehan. In procefs of time,
diflentions broke out amongft the troops, and the malcon-
tents being joined by the murderers of Aurelian, who had
made their efcape, either by direA violence, or by the vexa-
tion which they occafioned to the aged emperor, terminated
his life at Tyana, in Cappadocia, after a reign of 200 days^
Crevier. Gibbon.

TACK, in Sail-Mahing, the foremoft lower comer of all
fore and aft fails.

Tack, a rope ufed to confine the clues of the main and
fore courfes forward occafionally in a fixed pofition, and
alfo to confine the tacks of ftay-fails, boom-fails, and fore-
fails of floops ; and the outer lower corners of ftudding-
fails. The tacks of the main and fore courfes are ropes
cable-laid, and made tapering, having a large wall-knot at
one end, which prevents its drawing through the clue of the
fail.

Tack is alfo applied by analogy to that part of any fail
to which the tack is ufually faftened. A fhip is faid to be on
the ftarboard or larboard tack when (he is clofe -hauled, with
the wind upon the ftarboard and larboard fide : and in this
fenfe, the diftance which ftie fails in that pofition is confidered
as the length of the tack ; although this is more frequently
called a board. Falconer.

Tack, To, in Sea Language, is to change the courfe from
one board to another, or to turn about the (hip from the
ftarboard to the larboard tack, in a contrary wind.

Tacking is alfo ufed, in a more enlarged fenfe, to fignify
that manoeuvre in navigation, by which a fhip makes an
oblique progreffion to the windward, in a zigzag direAion.
Tliis, however, is more ufually called beating, or turning to

windward.

T A C

wmdwaid. In order to explain the theory of tacking
a (hip, recourfe muft be had to the two firft laws of
motion, recited under Lcuis of Nature : according to
which, it is • eafy to conceive how a (hip is compelled
to turn into any direftion, by the force of the wind ailing
upon her fails in horizontal hnes. For the fails may be
fo arranged as to receive the current of air, eitht- r direftly,
or more or lefs obliquely : hence the motion communicated to
the fails muft neceffarily confpire with that of the wind upon
their furfaces. To make the (liip tack, or turn round with
her head to the windward, it is therefore neceflary, after (he
has received the iirft impreffion from the helm, that the head-
fails fliould be fo difpofed as to diminiih the effort of the
wind, in the firfl inilant of her motion, and that the whole
force of the wind fhould be exerted on the afti^r-fails, which
operating on the (hip's Hern, carries it rou\id like a weather-
cock. But iince the aftion of the after-fails to turn the
(hip will unavoidably ceafe, when her head points to the
windward, it then becomes neceffary to ufe the head-fails to
prevent her from falling off, and returning to her former
lituation. Thefe are, accordingly, laid aback on the lee-
fide, to pu(h the veffel's fore-part towards the oppofite fide,
till fhe has fallen into the line of her courfe thereon, and
fixed her fails to conform with that fituation.

The firfl effort to turn the (flip in tacking, communicated
by the helm, which is then put to the lee -fide, being an-
nounced by the pilot, or commanding officer, who then
calls out. Helm's a-lee ! the head-fails are immediately made
to (hiver in the wind, by cafting loofe their (heets or bow-
lines. The pilot then calls. Up tiuks and flj.eti! which is
executed by loofening all the ropes which confine the cor-
ners of the lower fails, in order that they may be more
readily fhiftcd to the other fide. . When the (hip has turned
her head direftly to windward, the pilot gives the order to
turn about the fails on the main and mizen-mafls, by the
exclamation. Haul main-fail, haul! the bowlines and traces
are then inflantly caft off on one iide, and as expeditioufly
drawn in on the other fide, fo as to wheel the yards about
their mafts : the lower corner of the main-fail is, by means
of its tack, pulled down to its flation at the chefs-tree ; and
all the after-fails are, at the fame time, adjufted to ftand
upon the other board. Finally, when the fhip has fallen off
five or fix points, the pilot cries. Haul off all! or, let go,
and haul! the fails on the fore-maft are wheeled about by
their braces ; and as the fhip has then a tendency to fall off,
fhe is checked by the effort of the helm, which for that
purpofe is put hard-a-lee. The fore -tack, or the lower
corner of the fore-fail, being fixed in its place, the bow-
lines are hauled ; and the other fails, which have been ne-
glefted in the hurry of tacking, are properly arranged to
the wind ; which exercife is called trhnm'ing the JalU. Fal-
coner.

Tack of a Flag, a line fpliced into the eye at the bottom
of the tabling, for fecuring the flag to the haliards.

T ACK.-Stopptr. See Stopper.

Tack, in Rural Economy, a term provincially made ufe
of in fome diftritts, as Glouccfterfiiire, to fignify a fort of
fhelf, within the dairy, for laying cheefe upon while they
are drying, and afterwards.

Tack, or Tack of Land, in Agriculture, is a vrord ufed
in fome pai-ts of the nation, as thofe of the north, for the
term of a leafe. It, in fhort, denotes the means by which
land is holden by the farmer, from the proprietor or real
owner, in the intention of cultivation and improvement, for
the advantages of the produce. It was in its origin a fort
©f feudal or mihtary tenure of land : accordingly it is found,
the writer of the correfted Agricultural Report of the

TAG

County of Peebles fays, that, as military tenants, at firft,
became tenants for life, from being tenants at will ; fo the
firfl notion of giving the fecnrity of independence to the cul-
tivator of the foil, in Scotland, as elfewhcre, was to give
him fecnrity of poffefTion for life. The life-rent tack feems,
it is faid, the firfl adopted fpecies or kind of tack-holding,
rendering the poffeffor independent, his fituation refpeftablc,
and his rights and interefls regarded. Superior privileges
were accordingly bellowed upon the life-rent tack ; the pro-
perty in this tack was, and is, confidered to be fo complete,
as to imply the full power of its alienation, in defiance of the
proprietor's fuppofed effential and inherent rigiit of the
deledus perfonie ; and, when granted to a woman, was not
confidered as forfeited upon her marriage, as implying af-
fignmcnt contrary to the proprietor's right of delcdus, in
confequence of its falling under the hnfliand's jux marili ;
although fuch, it is faid, is the abfurd contlruttion of Scots
law, in regard to the effeft of a woman's marriage, upon a.
tack for definite time, to which flir fhould fall heir by in-
heritance, or even, perhaps, acquire by perfonal contrail.
The period of nineteen years feems, it is faid, in Scotland,
to have been confidered as equivalent to the life of a perfon
of age to enter upon a life -rent tack ; and that, from this
analogy, various privileges, originally communicated to the
life-rent, would feem to have been extended to this fpecies
or kind of tack. As nineteen years may, however, be con-
fidered as a favourable exchange for a life-rent, this is, it is
thought, probably the reafon why the Scots tenant feems to
have generally preferred this fecnrity ; infomuch that the
mention of a tack, without fpecification of the term, in
common habit fuggefled the idea of a nineteen years' leafe.
The privileges granted to cultivators, by legiflating pro-
prietors, feem, it is faid, to have been granted fiowly, with
reluftance, and to no greater extent than what indifpenfable
utility obvioufiy and abfolutely required. A fliort-fighted
avarice, it is obferved, vvifhed to grafp at the fruits of the
cultivation effefted by the tenant's (lock, as fpeedily as pof-
fible ; even fo prematurely, as to allow no fufficient fecnrity
of time for their being efte£led at all : and the genius of
law feems, it is thought, to have been univerfally inimical,
both in modern and in ancient nations, to the long duration
of leafes, which feemed to keep back the proprietor from
reaping the benefit of the increafed value of iiis property.
And that, when fubfequent views of utility fuggcfted the
propriety of tacks of flill longer duration, they were ven-
tured upon with timidity, as an extenfion of a fpecies of
tenure, to which the genius of law was unfriendly ; which,
as yet, fhe had not recognized to that extent, and vvliich
fhe might be fcrupulous in fanftioning. Such tacks, there-
fore, it is faid, fought fhelter under the form of the privileged
tack of nineteen yeai^s, which had acquired an analogical lia-
bility, and whofe talifmanic influence was thought able to pro-
teft them : the whole term meant durll not, it is faid, be
.avowedly expreffed ; but the tack was granted for two nine-
teens, or three ninetcens of yeai-s, until the number of years
propofed fhould be completed in nincteens.

The tack, though ftill fomewhat loaded and encumbered
by a remnant of the (hackles and tyranny of the feudal flate,
fo as to confiderably obftrudt and impede the credit and
enterprise of agricultural purfuits, yet probably, in confe-
quence of the different enailments and decifions fince made,
empower the holders by it, in the above part of tlie king-
dom, perhaps to enjoy more fecurity, it is liiought, tiian
what was ever bellowed upon the atlual cultivators of the
foil or land, either in ancient or in modern limes. See
Tenant and Tenure.

TACKLE, in a Ship, a machine formed by the com-
munication

T A C

municatipn of a rope with an alTemblage of blocks, and
known in meclianics by the name of pulUy.

Tackles arc ufed in a rtiip to raife, remove, or fecure
weighty bodies, to fupport the malls, or to extend the fails
and rigging. ' They are either moveable, as communicating
with a runner ; or fixed, as being hooked in an immoveable
fituation ; and they are more or lei's complicated, with blocks
and Iheaves, in proportion to the efforts which they are in-
tended to produce. That part of the tackle which is fixed
to one of the blocks, &c. is called the Jland'mg part ; all
the rell are called running parts ; and that on which the men
pull, when employing the tackle, is called the fall. The
application of the tackle to mechanical purpofes is termed
hotJUng or boivfmg. Falconer.

The power of a tackle will be, the friftion not confidered,
as the number of parts of the fall that are applied to fuftain
the weight. If a tackle confiils of a double and a Tingle
block, and the weight to be hoifted is hung to the double
block, there will be four parts of the fall ; and the weight
refting upon four ropes, equally llretched, each muft bear
the fame part of the weight. Thus, fuppofe the weight
hung to the double block be four hundred, then one hun-
dred applied to the fall or hauling part will fufpend it ;
and if as much more power be applied as will overcome the
fridion, it will purchafe the weight : but had the weight
been hooked to the fingle block, it would have relied on
three ropes only, each of which would bear a third part of
the weight ; therefore, a third part of the weight being ap-
plied to the hoifting part of the fall, would fufpend the
weight, when hooked to the fingle block ; as much more
being applied as will overcome the friction, would purchafe
the weight.

The blocks that are fixed are only for the convenience of
turning the direftion of the fall ; they add nothing to the
power of the purchafe, but, on the contrary, deilroy fo
much as is neceflary to overcome their friftion, and are,
therefore, to be avoided as much as poffible.

Ropes, if tight laid, will not eafily bend round fmall
fheaves, but will take up a confiderable part of the power to
force them into their proper direftion : hence it follows, that
blocks with fmall pins, large (heaves, and flack-laid ropes,
are the beft materials to obviate friftion, and make tackles
with more eafe.

The anchor-Jlock tackle is compofed of a double block and
a fingle block, llrapped, with a hook and thimble. Boom
tackles are compofed of double and fingle blocks, llrapped,
with tails, and are ufed in getting the iludding-fail-booms
in or out. Bowline tackle is compofed of a long tackle,
and a fingle block, llrapped, with a hook and thimble : it
is ufed to bowfe up the main-bowline, when the fhip is
upon a wind. Burton tackles are compofed of double and
fingle blocks, and are ufed with pendants, to fet up the
ftirowds, fupport the topfail-yards, &c. (See Burton.)
A Jijh tackle is compofed of a long tackle, and a fingle
block, llrapped, with eyes, and is ufed with a pendant, to
fi(h the anchor, and get it into its place. Garnet tackle is
compofed of a double block and a fingle block, llrapped,
with a hook and thimble : it is hooked to the fciatic-ftay
in merchant-fiiips, and is ufed to hoift goods, &c. in or out.
(See Garnet.) Jigger tackles are compofed of double
and fingle blocks, llrapped, wnth tails, and are ufed for
topping the main and fore -yards by the lifts, &c. (See
Jigger.) Z-i/^ tackles are compofed of double and fingle
blocks, llrapped, with a hook and thimble, and are uled
occafionally at any part of the fhip. Outhauhr tackle is
compofed of two fingle blocks, llrapped, with tails, and is
ufed to bowfe out the jib-boom. Port tackles are com-

T A C

pofed of a fingle block, attached to a fpan made faft to the
outfide of the port-lid, and a runner with two fingle blocks,
all of which are made fall to the fide of the beam neareft
the port, and are ufed to hoifl and lower the port-hds.
Quarter tackles are compofed of double and fingle blocks,
llrapped, with eyes, and lafhed to the outer quarter of the
yai'd and the lower block, with a hook and thimble ; they
are ufed to hoifl up water and provifions. Reef tackles are
compofed of two double or two fingle blocks : one block is
fpliced into a pendant, and the other is ftrapped, with an
eye ; they are ufed to draw the extremities of the reefs clofe
up to tlie yard-arms for reefing the fail. (See Reef.)
Relieving tackles are luff tackles, ufed at the fore end of
the tillar, when the tillar -ropes are damaged. (See Re-
lieving Tackle.) Ridge tackle is compofed of a double
block, and a fingle block, llrapped, with an eye, and is
ufed to fufpend the awning in the middle. Rolling tackles
are luff tackles, ufed to the topfail-yards, to fupport them
under a prefs of fail, and preferve the parrals. Rudder
tackles are compofed of a long tackle block and a fmgle
block, llrapped, with hooks and thimbles : they are ufed
to fave the rudder, if unfhipped by accident, or to fleer by,
if the tillar is broken. Runner tackles are compofed of
double and fingle blocks, and a pendant ; the lower block
is llrapped, with a hook and thimble : they are ufed to fet
up the fhrouds, ard to get the mafl-heads forward, for
flaying the mafls. Stay tackles, main and fore, are com-
pofed of double and fingle blocks, flrapped, with hooks and
thimbles, except the block fpliced into the pendant : they
are ufed for getting the provifions, &c. out of the fore and
main hold, and for getting the boats in or out. The pen-
dant formerly travelled on the Hay, by iron thimbles ; but
this has been difcontinued in the navy, as they much injured
the flay by the friftion. Stayfailflay tackles are compofed
of double and fingle blocks ; the lower blocks are flrapped,
with a hook and thimble : they are ufed to fet up the jib,
and other flayfail-ftays. Shifting back-Jlay tackles are com-
pofed of double and fingle blocks, flrapped, with a hook
and thimble, and are ufed to fet up the fiiifting back-flays,
where wanted. Topmajl-flay and preventer-flay tackles are
compofed of long tackle blocks and fingle blocks ; the
lower blocks are llrapped, with a hook and thimble : they
are ufed to fet the topmall and preventer flays. Fore-top-
gallant-flay tackle is compofed of a double and fingle block,
and is ufed to fet up the fore-topgallant-ftay. Tack tackle
is compofed of a double and fingle block, flrapped, with
hooks and tltimbles, and is ufed for bowfing down the tack
of fore and aft main-fails. The top tackle is compofed of
double or treble blocks : it is attached to the top-rope-
pendant, and is ufed to ereft the topmafls, at the heads of
the lower mafls. Trufs tackles are compofed of two double
blocks, flrapped, with hooks and thimbles, and are ufed to
fecure the lower yai-ds to their mafls, being hooked to the
trufs-pendant. Winding tackle is compofed of a fourfold
and a treble block, or a treble and a double block, flrapped,
with eyes : it is attached to the winding-tackle-pendant, and
is chiefly ufed to get in and out the guns. (See Plate II.
R'SS'"S-> fs- '7') Tard tackles are compofed of double
and fingle blocks ; the double blocks are fpHced into the
lower ends of the pendants /, and the fingle blocks are
flrapped, with hooks and thimbles : they are ufed to hoifl
the boats in or out.

Tackle-Fa//, that end of the rope of a tackle which is
bowfed on, or the rope which compofes the tackle.

Tackle, Gunner's, that which ferves to hale the ordnance
in or out.

Tackle Pendants. See Pendant.

Tackle,

TAG

Tackle, Taek, is a fmall tackle ufed occafionally to pull
down the tack of the principal fails of a fhip to their refpcc-
tive ftations. There is alfo a tackle of this kind conftantly
fixed to the tacks of the main-fail in brigs, floops, and
fchooners, for the fame purpofe. Falconer.

TACKRAMAH, in Geography, a town of Africa, on
the Gold Coaft. N. lat. 4° 52'. W. long. 3° lo'.

TACKSMAN, in Agriculture, the tenant or perfon who
holds or takes a tack of land of another. In fubfetting, the
original perfon of this kind is, it is faid, by the writer of the
Peebles Correfted Agricultural Report, confidered as
bound to the proprietor, as well as the fub-tenant ; whilft,
in alTignment, the original tenant is free, fubftituting the
other in his place. In conformity to the analogy of the
feudal law, tlierefore, it is faid, as well as to tlie greater
fecurity of the proprietor, the Scottifh law is confidered
as more favourable to fubfet, than to afTignatiou ; becaufc,
jn fubfet, the firft tenant does not relinquifli his pofition
as a qujji valTal, and the purpofes of the metaphorical dc-
liBus may be, thus, confidered as metaphorically, or ana-
logically fulfilled by thj^fia'w juris, or quaft: moreover, too,
the fecurity of the proprietor, fo far from being weakened,
is greatly ftrengthened, in having his right of hypothec un-
impaired, and the fecurity of two inftead of one. Upon this
principle, it was confidered, it is faid, by the Scottifli law
oracle, Erfkine, that a power of fubfet was implied, in all
cafes where the contrary was not direftly cxprefled ; until
the decifion, in 1791, came to reftify the mifconceptions of
the people, when it was decided, that, in a tack of nineteen
years, it was implied, in law conftruftion, without any formal
ilipulation in the leafe to that efFeft, that the power of de-
leSus was retained ; and that the tack was neither aflignable
nor fubfetable.

But even Erflcine allows, it is faid, that, upon legal prin-
■ciples, an exprefs Ilipulation in the tack againft. afliguees,
both legal and voluntary, would prevent the tack from being
cvifted by the tenant's creditors : otherwife a tack, unaf-
fignable by the tenant's voluntary deed, would, according to
iim, be eviftable by adjudication, at the iiiftance of the
tenant's creditors ; but even in that cafe, the creditors would
Tse guilty of lefe-majejle towards the facred riglit of the de-
hflus, were they to bring the reverfion of the leafe to a fair
fale to the bell bidder : they are debarred, therefore, it is
laid, from fuch unhallowed and irreverend meafures ; they
can only enter upon adminiftration, as refponfible faftors
of the tenant's concerns.

TACKUMBREET, in Geography, a town of Africa,
■or, as it may be rather denominated, the ruins of an ancient
town called " Siga," or " Sigeum," once the metropolis of
Mauritania, fituated on the coaft of the Mediterranean, at
the mouth of the river Tafna ; 44 miles S.W. of Oran.
N. lat. 35° 30'. W. long. 0° 55'.

TACKYSERAI, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 35
sniles W. of Lucknow.

TACLAOUR, a town of Thibet. N. lat. 38° 5'. E.
long. 80° 51'.

TACOLA Imperium, in yJndent Geography, a port on
the weftern coaft of India, on this fide of the Ganges : and
now Junhjeylon.

TACOMA, in Geography, a town of Mexico ; 16 miles
N. of Mexico.

TACOMA R-Tree, a name by which fome authors call
the fugar-cane.

TACON Mountain, in Geography, a mouHt;iin of Ame-
rica, in Maflachufetts, S. of Great Barringlon.

TA-CONG-TO-CHE, a town of the illgnd of For-
mofa. N. lat. 22° zz'. E. long. 120° 4'.

Vot, XXXV,

T A C

TA-COO, a town of China, in the province of Pe-tche-li,
within the mouth of the Pei-ho, or White river, and the fiHl
place of any note in the N.E. frontier of the country. The
grand cmbalTy to China arrived at this town in Auguft 1795,
and found here a confiderable number of yachts, or large
covered bai-ges and boats of burden, fit for paffing over the
fliallows of the Pci-ho, (wliicli fee,) and dcUined to convey
the whole of the cmbafty as far as the river led towards the
capital of the empire. Many of thcfe veflcls were eighty
feet long, and very capacious ; and yet they were fo con-
ftrufted of light wood, as not to fink more than eighteen
inches into the water, though they were lofty above it. The
cabins were high and airy above : there were births for tlic
crew, and beneath the floors were lockers for fccuring the
neccffaries. The yacht appropriated to the ambaflador had an
apartment, confifting of an anti-chamber, a faloon, a bed-
chamber and a clofet ; and its windows were adorned with
a great number of glafs-pancs ; whereas the frames of the
windows of the other yachts were generally filled with a kind
of paper, manufaftured chiefly in Corea, having in its com-
pofition an unftuous fubftance, which rendered the paper
more durable when expofed to the weather, as it was much
lefs affefted by the rain or any kind of moifture, than that
which is made in Europe. During the ambaffador's ftay
before Ta-coo, he was vifited by the viceroy of the province,
•who, by order of the emperor, came from Pao-ting-foo, his
ufual place of refidence, at the diftance of a hundred miles ;
and who took up iiis abode at the principal temple of Ta-
coo, confccrated to the god of the fea, to whom invocations
were frequently addreflijd under the appellation of " Toong-
hai-vaung," or king of the Eaftern fea. Of this idol there
were feveral figures in different brilliant edifices of porcelain,
within one inclofure. Sir George Staunton, in his account
of this embaffy, has given an engraved reprefentation of tliis
Chincfe Neptune, bearing in one hand a magnet, whilft he
is fitting on the waves, with firmnefs, eafe, and dignity, and
thus confcious of his own fecurity ; and in tlie other, a dol-
phin, denoting his power over the inhabitants of the ocean.
His beard flowed in all direftions, and his agitated lock*
feemed to be intended for a perfonification of the troubled
clement. At a fmall diftance from the " Hai-chin-miao,"
or temple of the fea-god, is the hall of audience of Ta-coo,
fituated in the midft of a fpacious court.

TACOTALPA, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guaxaca, on the river Alvarado ; 6 miles S.E. qf Alvarado.
— Alfo, a town of Mexico, in the province of Tabafco ;
30 miles S.W. of Villa Hermofa.

TA-COU, a river of Cliina, whicli runs into the fea,
7 miles E.N.E. of Kiao.

TACOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 10 mile«
S. of Bangalore.

TAC-POU-CHAI, a town of Thibet ; 250 mile*,
S.E, of Lan"a.

TAC-POU-NAI, a town of Thibet ; 240 miles S.E.
of Lafla.

TAC-POUY CouRou^vAMKiN, a town of Thibet ; 145
miles S.E. of Laifa.

Tac-polv Lafoi, a town of Thibet ; 120 miles S. S.E-
of Lafl^a.

TACPOY, a town of Thibet, and capital of a diflj-icl ;
126 miles S.E. of Laflii. N. lat. 27^ 53'. E. long.

TACQUET, Andrew, in Biography, a mathematician,
was born at Antwerp in 161 1, and having entered into llie
order of Jefuits in 1629, was a teacher of the languages and
mathematics for feveral years. He died in 1660. 1 acquct
was the author of feveral mathematical works, among

E wliiofi

T A C

which we may enumerate the following : viz. " Cylindri-
corum ct Annularium, Libri V. Elemcnta brevi hiftonca
Nairatione dc Ortu ct ProffrcfTu Mathcfeos," &c. printed at
Venice in 1737, with Whillon's additions; " Arithmetics:
Thcoria et Praxis ;" " Thcorcmata fclcfta ex Arehimede."
After his death, fevernl of liis treatifes were publilhed under
the title of " Andrex Tacqucti Antvcrpienfis Opera Mathe-
matica," containing" Aftronomix Lib. VIII.," " Gcome-
trix PradicK, Lib. III.," " Architeaurx Mllitaris,
Lib. I. :" diftinguifhed by their perfpicuity. Montucla.
Gen. Biog.

TACSAI Raki, in Gw^rfl/>/jiy, a lake of Thibet, about
36 miles in circumference. N. lat. 32°. E. long. 88° 34'.

TACSANLU, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ;
23 miles N.N.W. of Kiutajah.

TACSONIA, in Botany, JulT. 398, a name of Peruvian
origin, given by that author to fuch fpecies of Paffion-
flower, as have a tubular elongation of the bafe of their
calyx. See Passiflora.

TACTICS, TKXTiK«, formed from rafu-, order ; the art
of difpofing forces in form of battle, and of performing the
military or naval motions and evolutions. The fcience of
taftics is either niUitary or naval.

Tactics, Military, comprehcml great or general taiElics,
lagrande tadique of the French writers, which includes every
thing that relates to the order, difpofition, and formation of
armies, their encampment, and every other circumftance per-
taining to ftores, baggage, &c. ; and alfo particulai- or
fubordinate taftics, more immediately comprifing their
movements and evolutions. With the former every general
officer ought to be thorouglily acquainted ; whilft the latter
<hould be well underftood by inferior officers and foldiers,
and cannot be totally difregarded by thofe of the former
defcription.

The Greeks were very fldlfiil in this part of the military
art ; having public profefTors of it, called tadici, who taught
and inllrufted their youth therein. We have an account of
the progrefs of this art among them in Thucydides, Xeno-
phon, and Polybius. jElian alfo hath a particular book on
this fubject ; and there is a great deal of it in Arrian, in his
Hiftor)- of Alex. M. and in Mauritius, and Leo Imperator.
From the Greeks this art was tranfmitted to the Romans,
among whom it arrived at its highefl perfeftion. Vegetius
has given us a compilation and abridgment of authors who
have written on this fubjeft ; and his work contributed in a
confiderable degree to the eftablifhment of military difcipline
in Europe ; for which we are greatly indebted to Maurice,
prince of Orange, Alexander Farnefe, duke of Parma, Co-
iigny, Henry IV. Guftavus Adolphus, &c.

Voffius, De Scient. Mathemat. mentions twenty-four an-
cient authors on the fubjeft of taftics.

It does not appear what was the field-exercife of the in-
fantry in our ancient armies. After the Revolution, our fyf-
tem of difcipline was chiefly taken from the Dutch, who,
under prince Maurice, were the befl regulated troops in
Europe. Previoufly to this, the Spaniards were reckoned
to have the beft difciplined infantry. The exercife was, at
the commencement of the laft century, and for many years
afterwards, encumbered with a number of ufelefs motions.
The manner in which the foldiers were armed, with their
heavy mufkets, bandoliers, &c. obliged them to make wide
motions, and to draw up with very extended ranks and files.
For an account of the exercife and evolutions of the in-
fantry and cavalry at tliis period, we refer to Grofe's
Military Antiquities, vol. i. Of late, great alterations
have taken place in the field-exercife and manoeu\Tes both
of the cavalry and the infantry. Moft of the dragoon regi-

T A C

ments have been made light ; and a new fword^exercife has
been adopted for the cavalry. The whole fyftem of the army
has been rendered uniform, by regulations ifTued from th«
adjutant-general's office. Within the laft 60 or 70 years,
the Britiln infantry has been gradually falling into the Pruf-
fian fyftem ; and the new regulations are almoft wholly
founded on the Pruffian inftitution. For the particulars,
the reader is referred to the " Rules and Regulations for
the Formation, Field-exercife, and Movements of his
Majefty's Forces," and the articles Manual Exercife and
Battalion.

The fubjcft of this article has been already difcuffed
under the following heads ; -viz. Army, Battalion,
Battle, Order of Battle, Camp, Campaign, Cas-
trametation. Column, Engagement, Evolution,
Exercise, Line, Phalanx, in which order the Gauls
and other nations fought in the time of the Romans, and
which order ftill prevails, under fome difadvantages, through-
out Europe ; War, &c. &c. ; fo that we have here little
to add.

We (hall here obferve, that the principal obje£l of the
Pruffian taftics under Frederick the Great was that of con-
centrating forces, and attacking the chief points of the
enemy, not at one time, but one after another ; whereas the
taftics which have been uniformly purfued by the French,
fince the commencement of their revolution, have been
founded on the principle of attacking all points with
divided forces at the fame time ; thus extending their force,
whilft that of the Pruffian was compreffed.

Tactics, Naval or Maritime, comprehend the orders
and fignals which are direfted to be obferved by fleets pre-
paring for aftion or aftually engaged, together with the
manoeuvres and modes of attack that are then to be prac-
tifed, and alfo a knowledge of the rates of fhips, their vari-
ous appendages, and the mode of conftrufting them. Of
this branch of taftics, a copious account wiU be found under
feveral articles, particularly Battle, Engagement, Ex-
ercise, and Line of Battle, under which laft article we
have referred to Clerk's (not Clarke's) Efl'ay on Naval
Taftics, of which a fecond edition was publiflied in 1804,
which thofe who are defirous of information on the various
modes of attack to windward and leeward, and by cutting
the line, will confult ; but which does not admit of abridg-
ment within the limits that we are under the neceffity of
prefcribing to ourfelves.

Tactics is alfo ufed for the art of inventing and making
■machines for throwing of darts, arrows, ftones, fire-balls,
&c. by means of flings, bows, and counterpoifes. Vege-
tius, Hiero, &c. have written on thefe machines ; and we
have them defcribed and figured by Lipfius.

TACTILE, or Tangible, in the Schools, fomething
that may fall under the fenfe of feeling.

Though atoms be corporeal, yet are they not either tac-
tile or vifible, by reafon of their fmallnefs.

The principal tangible qualities are, heat, cold, drynefs,
hardnefs, and humidity. See Heat, &c.
TACTION. See Feeling.
Taction, in Geometry. See Tangent.
TACTUS, the Touch, in jllid-unfery, is the exploration
of the ftate of the vagina and uterus, and of the lituation
of the foetus, and whatever elfe is contained in it. Hippo-
crates, in his Treatife on the Difeafes of Women, has been
very full and exaft in his direftions upon this fubjeft.

Tactus, Tacl, in Mujic, before the ufe of bars, implied
nearly the fame thing as a bar : that ia, the time when the
hand or foot is beaten down in marking the meafure. Tato,
Ital., the fame.

TACUA,

TAD

TACUA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Italy, in
Liguria, E. of Rutuba.

Tacua, in Geography, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of
Arequipa ; 20 miles E. of Arica.

TACUBA, a town of Mexico, N.W. of the city of
Mexico.

TACUMADARS, or Tigumedes, a town of Africa,
in the country of Darah, the original country of the reign-
ing (herifs of Morocco.

TACZLI, a river of European Turkey, which runs
into the Danube, near Kilia, in Beffarabia.

TADAPOOLY, a town of Hindooftau, in Myfore ;
^ miles S.E. of Sattimungulum.

TADC ASTER, a market-town in the Weft Riding of
the county of York, England, is nine miles S.W. from the
city of York, and 190 miles N. of London. In the year
181 1, it contained 382 lioufes, and 1483 inhabitants. The
name of this place implies a Roman ftation, and accordingly
we find, that the Calcaria of Antoninus was iituated on the
courfe of a Roman road, between Eboracum or York, and
Mancunium or Manchcfter, at nine miles diltance from the
former ; and this agrees with the fcite of the prefcnt
town. Dodfworth and fome other antiquaries, however,
place the Calcaria at Newton-Kyme, about a mile and a
half W. of Tadcafter. Hordey in " Britannia Romana,"
and Drake in " Eboracum," are decifive in fixing the Ro-
man ftation at Tadcafter. It appears that many Roman
coins have been found here : fome banks and ditches fur-
round the town, and on the fouth fide of the river are re-
mains of intrenchments, called the Cattle. A confiderable
quantity of ftone was taken from this fortrefs to build a
bridge over the river Wharf at the beginning of the i8th
century. This bridge is generally defcribed as a very fine
ftrufture ; and its centre marks the union of the Weft
Riding of the county, with the Ainfty of York and liberty
of St. Peter. Tadcafter has a weekly market on Wednef-
days, and four annual fairs.

Tadcafter and its vicinity have been twice diftinguiftied
and annoyed by the deftruftive efFefts of civil warfare : firft
in the conflifls between the houfes of York and Lancafter :
and fecondly, between the royalifts and the republicans, about
the middle of the 17th century. On the former occafion,
it is related, that between 30,000 and 40,000 Enghfhmen
" fell in deciding the queftion, whether a tyrant or an ideot
fhould be their matter." After Edward IV. had been pro-
claimed in London, Margaret of Anjou, wife of Henry VI.,
raifed an army, in the north, of about 60,000 men, all at-
tached to the Lancafterian interefts. Thefe were aflembled at
York. When Edward with his army arrived at Pontefraft,
feveral fkirmifhes foon took place on the banks of the Aire,
and on Palm-Sunday, 29th March, 1461, the memorable
and fatal battle of Towton enfued. On this day it is faid,
that Henry's army confifted of 60,000 men, and Edward's
of about 48,600. Thefe commenced an engagement early
in the morning, and fought with great fury during the
whole day, with various degrees of fuccefs. At length,
however, Henry's foldiers fell back, whilft Edward im-
pelled his forAvard with increafed impetuofity. Many of the
former were drowned, and feveral noblemen were llain, whilft.
Henry and Margaret fled into Scotland. Edward and his
foldiers retired to York, and afterwards went to London,
where the new monarch was crowned. In the year 1642
another battle occurred at or near Tadcafter, Sir Thomas
Fairfax, with about 700 men, occupied this town in behalf
of the Parliament, and were attacked by the royal army
under the earl of Newcaftle. After fighting a whole day.

T A D

the former retreated during the night, and left the royalifts
in polTefiion of the place.

About five miles S.E. of Tadcafter is Scartliingwell-
Hall, the feat of lord Hawke, who has paid particular at-
tention to agricultural improvements ; and has fitted up a
farm with every convenient and ufeful accommodation.
(See Agricultural Survey of the Weft Riding of the County
of York.) Three miles fouth of the town is Haflewood-
Hall, the feat of the Vavafours, diftinguiflied for the finc-
nefs of its fcenery, and the variety and beauty of the pro-
fpeds from its grounds. Bramham Park, the feat of James
Lane Fox, efq., is about four miles S.W. from Tadcafter.
— Drake's Eboracum, fol. 1736. B-auties of England,
Yorkfliire, by J. Bigland, 8vo., 18 15. Hargrove's Hif-
tory, &c. of Knareftjorough, 6th edit. 1809.

TADCUL, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 6 milei
S.E. of Caveripatam.

TADEMERI, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore;
100 miles N.E. of Chittledroog, N. lat. 14° 3 c' E
long. 78°.

TADEN, a town of the duchy of Holftcin ; 14 mile»
E. of Meldorp.

TADEPATRY, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Cuddapa ; 24 miles N. of Gandicotta.

TADIPOODY, a town of Hindooftan, in Golcondaj
20 miles S.E. of Combamet.

TADIVAN, or Taduan, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Farfiftan, fituated on a pleafant plain, in the
midft of ftreams, which defcend from the neighbouring
mountains, and planted with a variety of excelknt fruit*
trees ; 60 miles S. of Schiras.

TADMOR. See Palmyra.

TADORNA, the Anas tadorna of Linnaeus, in Orni'
thology, a name given by many authors to a fpecies of duck,
called by others I'ulpanfer, and in Englifh the Jhiel-Jraie,
or borough-duck ; and by fome the bergander. See DuCK.

It is of a middle fize between the duck and goofe ; its
beak is broad, ihort, and red ; and at the origin of the
upper chop there is a large red tubercle of flefti ; the head
and upper part of the neck are of a fine blackifh-green,
the lower part of the neck white ; the breaft and upper
part of the back furrounded with a broad band of bright
orange-bay ; the coverts of the wings and middle of the
back are white ; the neareft fcapulars black, the others
white ; the greateft quill-feathers black ; the exterior webs
of the next are of a iine green, and thofe of the three fuc-
ceeding orange ; the coverts of the tail white, and the tail
of the fame colour, except the two outmoft feathers, which
are tipt with black ; the belly white, divided lengthwayi
by a black Une ; the legs are of a pale flefti-colour.

They inhabit the fea-coafts, and build in deferted rabbit-
holes ; but their flelh is not well tafted.

When a perfon attempts to take their young, they divert
his attention by flying along the ground as if wounded, till
the brood are fecure, and then return and colleft them to-
gether. Turner, therefore, concludes, that this bird is
the chenalopex, or fox-goofc of the ancients ; and tile
natives of tlie Orkneys at this day call it the Jly-goofe.

Thefe birds lay 15 or 16 white roundifli eggs. In win-
ter they colleft in large flocks. Ray and Pennant.

TADOUN, or Tadivan, in Geography, a town of
Afiatic Turkey, in Armenia, fituated on the weft coaft of
the lake of Van, having a harbour for boats ; 1 20 miles
S.S.E. of Er/.erum.

TADOUSAC, a town of Lower Canada, at the mouth

of the Saguenay, on the left fide of the river St. Lawrence,

E 2 The

T JE N

The natiTe Indians rffort hithi-r to cxcliange furs for cloth,
and other European goods. It was firll fettled by the
French, taken by the Englilh in 1629, retaken by tlie
French in 163;?, and it was ceded with the roll of Canada ;
100 miles N.E. of Quebec. N. lat. 48° 5'. W. long.
69° 40*.

TADPOLE. The animal called by this name is no other
than the frog in its firll Rate from the fpawn ; and this crea-
ture furnidus the curious in microfcopic obfcrvations with a
beautiful view of the circulation of the blood, efpecially
when young.

The method of procuring them for this purpofe in the
greatefl perfcrtion, is this : let a fmall quantity of frog's
fpai\'n be kept for fome days in water, and from this will
be produced a vaft number of young tadpoles ; thefe, while
•»ery young, are perfeftly tranfparent, and when placed be-
fore the double microfcope, the heart may be eafily feen,
and its pulfation regularly obferved ; and the blood pro-
truded thence -may be beautifully feen circulating through
the whole body ; but particularly in the tail, where, though
fo very minute, more than fifty vefTels may be feen at one
view. The young brood grow more and more opaque every
hour, and in a day or two the circulation of the blood can
only be feen in their tail, or in the fins near the head. Baker's
Microfcope, p. 126.

TjEDA, in Pharmacy, a term ufed by fome authors to
exprcfs certain compofitions made up in form of troches.
Thefe are fomelimes meant as pefTaries to be introduced
into the vagina, and therefore made into this form ; fome-
limes they are compofitions of fragrant or other ingredients
for fumigations.

T,t;da, in Botany, a name given by fome authors to the
pinafter, or common wild pine, or mountain-pine,

TAEL. See Tale.

T^NARIA, Taivafiy, in /Intiquhy, a feftival in honour
of Neptune, furnamed TitnariuSjhomTiennrus, a promontory
in Laconia, where he had a temple.

TjENARIA, or Tenarium, now Cape Malapan, in Ancient
Geography, a promontory of the Peloponnefus, S. of La-
conia, between the gulf of Meflenia and that of Laconia.
Here wre formerly a grotto, and a temple of Neptune, which
rendered the place very famous, fo that it was reckoned to be
one of tlie mouths of hell, through which Hercules and
Pfyche defcended thither. The temple was accounted an
inviolable afylum. On this promontory there were alfo a
ftatue of Arion, fcatcd on a dolphin, and playing on the
lyre, and a fountain of wonderful efficacy.

TjENARIUM, a town of the Peloponnefus, upon the
promontory above defcribed.

T.ENAniUM Marmor, the name of a marble ufed by the
ancient architects and ftatuaries. There were two kinds of
it, very different in colour, but perfedlly agreeing in hard-
nefs, and in the high polifh they are capable of. The firft,
or moft frequent kind, was black, and was dug from the
promontory called Ttenarus, in the Lacedccmonian ftate ;
the other, which was more fcarce, and much more beautiful,
was of a green colour, with a caft of yellow ; this was dug in
the Tagetan quarries, and was called by fome marmor l^er-
tofum, and xanthon.

TiENIA, or Tenta, in /jrchtteaure, a member of the
Doric architrave, refembling a fquare fillet, or reglet ; and
ferving in lieu of a cymatium.

The word is Greek, t'^..^, which literally denotes a
fiuatJyt, bandage, fillet, or the like. Barbo renders it by I'lpl,
but Palladio ufes the old name tuma.

Leon Baptifta Albcrti calls the tinia, reguh, and Jaf-

T ^ N

c'loU; and Daviler, landeletles. Philander fays, there
are two kinds, ■u/'s. that above-mentioned, which he calls
the /owfr; and an upper, which ferves for a capital to the
triglyphs.

T^NIA, in Ichthyology, the name of a fifli of the anguil-
liform, or eel-fliaped kind, common in the Mediterranean
fea, and brought to market in Italy and elfewhere. This
is a fpecies of cepola in the Linnxan fyllem. See Cefola.

T-iENiA Ccrnula, the horned Itma, a name given by many
authors to the fpecies of cobivifl, named by Artedi, the
cobitis with a forked prickle placed under each eye. This
fi(h is the cob'ilh t<rnia of Linna;us. See CoBiTls.

T.HNIA, in Zoology, a genus of the Inteftina order of
worms ; the charafters of whicli are, that the body is flat
and articulated, and that the head is furniflied with four
fuckin"- bladders. Gnielin, in his edition of the Linnsan
fyftem, enumerates eighty-fix fpecies, befides feveral varieties.
Their habitations ai-e the vifcera of men and of different
animals. Our limits will not allow us to fpecify and de-
fcribe them. For an accouat of the tsnia inteftinorum of the
human bodv, or lumbricus latus, we refer to TwErWorm.

TiENIOLONGA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Africa, in Mauritania Tingitana, upon the Iberian fea.
Ptol.

TiENITIS, in Botany, from tkihx, a ribband, or Jilki,

becaufe of the long narrow fhape of the frond Swartz

Fil. 24. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 5. 135 Clafs and order,

Cryp/ogam'ia Filircs. Nat. Ord. Fl/iccs.

EfT. Ch. Sorus linear, nearly uninterrupted, longitudinal,
between the rib and outer margin of the frond. Involucrum
none.

1. T. blechnoides. Pinnate Tape-fern. Swartz Fil. 220.
Willd. n. I. ("T. pteroides; Schkuhr Crypt. 21. t. 6."
Sprengel Crypt. 411. t. 10. f. 106. Pteris blechnoides;
Willd. Phytogr. 13. t. 9. f. 2.) — Frond pinnate; leaflets
linear-lanceolate, tapering at each end, entire, fmooth. — .
Native of the Eafl Indies. The whole_//-<;?!i/i5 from eighteen
to twenty-four inches, or more 'n height, fmooth, with a
fmooth, furrowed, bluntly angular_/?a/i. Leaflets oppofite,
the lower ones occafionally alternate, five or fix pair, equal,
about five inches long, and half an inch wide in the middle.
Line oi fruBiflcalion on each fide of the mid-rib, about half
way between it and the margin. We muft rely on the
authors cited as to the abfence of an Involucrum. See

SORUS.

2. T.furcata. Forked Tape-fern. Willd. n. 2. (Pteris
furcata ; Linn. vSp. PL 1 53 1. Swartz Fil. 95. Lingua
cervina furcata ; Plum. Fil. J22. t. 141. Phyllitis afpera,
furcis lineatis ; Petiv. Fil. n. 1 25. t. 6. f. 6.) — Frond fimple,
repeatedly forked, linear-lanceol.itc, acute, wavv ; fcaly be-
neath Gathered by Plumier in the woods of Hifpaniola.

No other botanift appears to have even feen a fpecimen. The
root is tufted, fcaly, bearing feveral fronds about a foot
high, leafy to the very bafe, once or Xxnce forked, and
rather fpreading, of a very thin membranous texture ; of a
fine green, and very fmooth, in front ; paler at the back,
clothed with reddifh pointed fcales, and furnifhed with
a black fhining rib. The fruH'if cation is ftationed in
z fonts, or line, two or three inches long, on each fide of
the rib, but nearer the margin, in the upper part of each
very acute lobe of the frond, the margin in that part being
even, not wavy. The want of an involucrum is only pre-
fumed from Plumier's figure, nor do we efteem the generic
charafter, of this fpecies at leaft, to be very certain.

Dr. Swartz hints at another poffible fpecies, the Blechnum
feminudum, Willd. Phytogr. 13. t. 8. f. 2. But if it be fo,

the

T A F

T A V

itlic genus can have little pretenfions to be cftecmcd natural ;
and as Willdenow himfelf has not fubfequently followed this
hint, we prefume he thought it unauthorized by his own
fpecimen, which has the afpeft of a confluent Gnumiiilis.

TAENSAPAVA, ip Geography, a river of Weil Florida,
which runs into the Ibbcrville, N. lat. 30° 19'. W. long.

1D° 12'.

TAFAI^E, a river of Africa, which runs into the fca,
between the rivers Senegal and Nunc/..

TAFALISGA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Jaaga, at the union of the Falema with the Senegal. N. lat.
14° 42'. W. long. 10" 12'.

TAFALLA, a town of Spain, in Navarre, honoured
with the name of city by Philip IV. It has an univerfity ;
15 miles S. of Pamplona. N. lat. 42° 35'. W. long.

TAFARA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Bam-
barra, on the Niger ; 115 miles S.W. of Scgo.

TAFEELALAT, a town of Africa, in Sahara ; 200
miles N. of Tombuftoo. N. lat. 19° 40'. E. long. 2^ 15'.

TAFELBERG, a town on the E. coaft of the iiland of
Ceram. S. lat. 3 20'. E. long. 131° 10'.

TAFEEICHTE, a mountain on the borders of Lufatia,
3540 feet above the level of the fea.

TAFFAREL, or Taff-rail, in Ship-BuUJmg, the
upper part of a fhip's ftern, ufually ornamented with carved
work, or mouldings, the ends of which unite with the
quarter-pieces.

TAFFAROWY, in Geography, a mountain of Algiers ;
13 miles S.E. of Oram.

TAFFETY, or Taffaty, in Commerce, a kind of line,

fmooth, filken ftuft ; having, ufually, a remarkable luflre, or

glofs.

yllamoile, 7 .1 , /r^ • r t

T n ■ > tlie talTeias nous ot L,yons.
JLivJiring, J ■'^ -

Taffetas noir lujlre of the French, is our alamode.

Non lujlre is our lujlrhig.

There are tafFeties of all colours ; fome plain, others
ftriped with gold, filver, filk, &c. others checquered, others
flowered, others in the Chlnefe point, others the Hungarian ;
with various others to which the mode, or the caprice of the
workmen, gives fuch whimfical names, that it would be as
difficult, as it is ufelefs, to rehearfe them : befides, that they
fcldom hold beyond the year in which they firft rofe. The
old names of tafFeties, and which ftill fubfifl, are, tafFeties of
Lyons, of Spain, of England, of Florence, of Avignon, &c.

The chief confumption of tafFeties is in the fummer-
dreffes for women, in gowns, linings, window-curtains, &c.

There are three things which contribute chiefly to the
perfeftion of tafFeties, t/'z. the filk, the water, and the fire.
Thefilkis not only to be of the finefl kind, but it mufl be work-
ed a long time, and very much before it be ufed : the watering
is only to be given very lightly, and feems only intended to
give that fine luflre, by a peculiar property not found in all
water : laftly, the fire, which is paflTcd under it to dry the
water, has its particular manner of application, on which the
perfeftion of the fluff depends very much.

Oftavio May, of Lyons, is held the firil founder of the
manufadlure of glofTy taflcties ; and tradition tells us the
occafion of it. Oftavio, it feems, going backwards in the
world, and not able to retrieve himfelf by the manufacture
of tafFeties, fuch as were then made, was one day mufing on
his misfortunes, and, in mufing, chanced to chew a few
hairs of filk which he had in his mouth : his reverie being
over, the filk he fpit out feemed to fhine, and, on that ac-
count, engaged his attention. He was foon led to refleft on
the reafon ; and, after a good deal of thought, concluded.

that the hiflrc of that filk mufl come, i. From his having
prcflcd it between his teeth. 2. From his having wetted it
with his faliva, which had fomething glutinous in it. And,
3. From its having been heated by the natural warmth of
his mouth. All this he executed upon the next taftcties he
made, and immediately acquired in.mcnfe ritlns to himfelf,
and to the city of Lyons the reputation it ftill maintains, of
giving the glofs to tafFeties better than any other city in the
world.

It will not, we conceive, be lefs ufeful than curious, to
infert here the defcription of the engine contrived by Oc-
tavio to give the glofs to taft'ety ; and to add the manner of
applying it, and the compofitioii of the water ufed in it.

The machine is much like a filk-loom, except that, in-
ftcad of iron points, here is ufed a kind of^ crooked needles,
to prevent the taflety from flipping : at the two extremities
are two beams, on one of which is rolled the tafFety to take
the glofs ; and on the other, the fame taft'ety, as faft as it
has received it. The firft beam is kept firm by a weight of
about two hundred pounds, and the other turned by means
of a little lever pafFmg through mortifcs at each end. The
more the tafFety is ftretched, the greater luflre it takes :
care, however, is to be ufed that it be not weakened by
over-ftretching.

Befides this inftrument for keeping the ftuff ftretched,
there is another to give it the fire : this is a kind of carriage,
in form of a long fquare, and of the breadth of the tafFeties :
it moves on trundles, and carries a charcoal fire under the
tafFety, at the dillance of about half a foot.

Thefe two machines prepared, and the tafFety mounted,
the luflre is given it by rubbing it gently with a ball, or a
handful of lifts of fine cloth, as it rolls from one beam to
the other ; the fire, at the fame time, being carried under-
neath it to dry it. As foon as the piece has its luftre, it is
put on new beams to be ftretched a day or two ; and the
oftener this laft prep.vation is repeated, the more it increafes
the glofs.

For black taffeties, the glofs is given with double beer
and orange or lemon-juice ; liut this laft is the leaft proper,
as being apt to whiten them. The proportion of the two
liquors is, a gallon of orange -juice to a pint of beer, to be
boiled together to the confiftence of a rich broth. For
coloured taffeties, they ufe gourd-water diftilled in an
alembic.

There are alfo feveral different forts of tafFeties manufac-
tured in China ; as corded tafFeties, which wear well ; and
alfo fome with flowers, and others beautifully ftriped ; and
a particular taflety, of which they make drawers, and other
kinds of wearing apparel. This laft is thick, and yet fo
pliant, that it may be folded and prefled with the har.d, with-
out leaving any mark in it. They alfo wafh it, like other
ftufFs, without its lofing much of its luftre. The Chinefe
workmen give the luflre to this taftety with the fat of the
river-porpoife, which they purify by waflu'ng and boiling ;
and then with a fine brufli, they give the taft'ety two beds in
the fimie direction, on the fide which they intend to render
gloft'y.

TAFFI, Andkea, in Biography, was one of thofe early
matters to whom the revival of the arts in Italy is attributed.
His fhare lay in the praftice of mofaic painting, which he
learned of a Greek monk, named Apollonius, who had been
called to 'Venice to work in the great church of St. Marco ;
and who afterwards accompanied Taffi to Florence. Andrea
was born at Florence in the year 1213, and died there at the
age of 8 1 .

TAFILET, or Tafilelt, in Geography, a diftrift, for-
merly a kingdom of Africa, in the empire of Morocco, and

country

T A F

cauiitry of Bilcdulgerid, cxtonding along the caft fide of
mount Alias ; the habitations of which arc about 1500 fcat-
tcred houfes, and of thefe fcvoral are defended by a tower,
and each of them (lands amidll an inclofure of gardens, cul-
tivated grounds, and plantations of palm-trees, forming a
variegated and pleafant country, interfered by many rivers
and nvulcts, defcending from the call of mount Atlas, and
ferving to water their lands. Tafilelt, as well as Draha,
produces a fupcrior breed of goats, and a great abundance
of dates, which are fmall, but good, conftituting the
wealth of the country, and fupplying food for the people,
and even for the cattle. Although the Koran prohibits the
life of fpirituous liquors, yet by ancient cuftom, brandy is
made at Tafilelt of dates, which is very llrong, and drank
fo immoderately by the (herifs, that wine produces no effeft
npon them. Moil of thefe flicrifs are poor, and employ
themfelves in their grounds and gardens, and very frequently
pillage one another. The countries fituated near the banks
of the rivers of Draha and Tafilelt have feveral plantations
of Indian corn, rice, and indigo. Tlie town of Tafilelt,
after which the kingdom was named under the (herifs of the
reigning houfe, is not an ancient city. It derives its name
from the word" Fileli," which denominates the inhabitants
of the countr)-, and alfo the fluffs and carpets which are
here manufaftured. The foil of the extenfive plain on which
it is fituated is a whitifh clay, which when moiilened refem-
bles foap ; and though it pafTes a river that rifes in the At-
las, and purfues a courfe from tlie S.W. to tlie N.E., being
at Tafilelt about as wide as the Thames at Putney, its
water, traverfing the faline plains, is brackilh : after a courfe
of about 4J0 miles, it is abforbed m the defert of Angad.
It has feveral caftles of tarrace on its banks, inhabited by
the fherifs or princes of the reigning family of Morocco.
Wheat and barley have been lately cultivated near the river
and the caftles. Another river of inferior note rifes in the
plains N. of Tafilelt, and flowing in a foutherly direftion,
is abforbed in the Great Defert or Sahara. The water of
this nver is alfo brackiih, and unfit for culinary purpofes.
The inhabitants of this country, it is faid, poffefs fuch a
fenfe of honour, that a robbery is fcarcely known among
them, though they ufe no locks. Commercial tranfaftions
are carried on amongft them by barter or exchange, fo that
they have little fpecie ; but in aU tranfaftions of magnitude,
gold-dufl is the circulating medium. They live in the fimple
patriarchal manner of the Arabs, differing from them only
in having walled habitations, which are invariably near the
river. The climate during a great part of the year is in-
tenfely hot, and the fhume, or hot wind from Sahara, blow-
ing tempefluoufly in July, Augufl, and September, and
carrying with it particles of earth and fand, is very perni-
cious to the eyes of the inhabitants. A confiderable trade
is carried on from Tafilelt to Tombuftoo, HoufTa, and
Jinnic, S. of Sahara, and alfo to Morocco, Fez, Sufe, Al-
giers, Tunis, and Tripoli. Indigo abounds, but by reafon
of the indolence of the cultivators, it is of inferior quality.
Here are alfo mines of antimony and lead-ore. The common
drefs confifts of a loofe (hirt of blue cotton, with a Ihawl or
belt round the waift. A caravan paffes annually from hence
to Tombudloo. Woollen haiks, of a curious texture,
being light and fine, are manufaftured here. The Tafilelt
goats are very prolific, and afford a rich milk in great
abundance : and therefore they conflitute an article of confi-
derable export. The Tafilelt leather is very foft and fine,
and much fuperior to that of Morocco : it is as foft and pliable
as filk, and impervious to water. The tanners uie the leaves
of a (hrub called t^zra, which grows in the Atlas moun-
tains, to which forae have afcribed the peculiar quality of

TAG

the leather ; though others afcribe it to fome quality in the air
and water. The population of the dillricl of Tafilelt is
dated by Mr. Jackfon at 650,000. The town is 140 miles
E.S.E. of Morocco. N. lat. 31° 20'. W. long. 6".

TAFNA, a river of Algiers, which runs into the Me-
diterranean, near Tackumbreet.

TAFO, or Tafa, a town of Africa, on the Gold
Coaft.

TAG, or Tagge, in Rural Economy, See Teg.

Tag, or Tag-Sore, a difeafe in fheep, which confifts, as
ftated in a paper in the third volume of the " Tranfaftions
of the Highland Society of Scotland," of fcabs and fores
fituated on the under fide of the tail ; arifing, in warm wea-
ther, from its being fouled with purging and other dif-
charges. The matter hardens there, irritates the tender
vefTels, and produces fores, which, if not attended to, run
into mortification, and prove fatal, as in the legs. See
Swelling or L,eg-E-vil.

It is (hewn by the (heep turning frequently round to bite
the tail.

As this complaint arifes principally from purging, and the
naflinefs caufed by it, &c. the firfl thing to be done is the
reilraining and ciu^e of this evacuation : after which the tail
of the animal is to be chpped, and the fore part laid bare,
wafhed carefully with milk and water, blood-warm, and
then with lime-water. The fheep is then to be turned out
into a dry pafture, and looked at again in two or three days,
and if not then well, the wafliing mufl be repeated, and the
parts anointed with greafe and tar mixed together in equal
proportions.

TAGABONA, in Geography, a river of Weft Florida,
which runs into the St. Mark, N. lat. 30° 22'. W. long.

84° 34'-

TAGADEMPT, Tagadeont, or Tigedent, a town of

Algiers, anciently called I^aga ; 60 miles E.S.E. of Oran.

TAGiE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Par-
thia, near the river Oxus, and on the confines of Hyr-
cania.

TAGAI, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, in the go-
vernment of Simbirflc ; 48 miles W. of Simbirfk. N.
lat. 54° 20'. E. long. 47°.

TAGAL, a town of the ifland of Java, on the N. coaft,
the refidence of a Dutch agent for the purchafe of rice ;
35 miles E. of Cheribon.

TAGALA, Ta-Gala, or Gala language, is among th#
PhiUppines what the Malayu is in the Malay iflands, or the
Hindoftani in Hindooftan Proper. It poffefTes the com-
bined advantages of the four principal languages in the
world : it is myfterious as the Hebrew ; it has articles for
nouns, both appellative and proper, like the Greek ; it is
elegant and copious as the Latin ; and equal to the Italian,
as the language of compliment or bufinefs. This language
has been cultivated only by the Spanifh miffionaries. The
Tagala grammar of Fra. Gafpar de San Auguflin, was
printed in 1 703, and again in 1787. The alphabet confifts
of feventeeu letters, three of which are vowels, and four-
teen confonants. The Tagala charafters are faid to have
been derived from the Malays, and they are read with as
much difficulty as the eafe w-ith which they are written. This
Tagala is written with an iron ftyle on bamboos and palm-
leaves, and the Spanifh miffionaries affert, that the ancient
mode of writing was from top to bottom, like the Chinefe.
This language, with a confiderable number of peculiar vo-
cables, and great fingularity of idiom, is ueverthelefs to be
confidered as a cognate language with Malayu, Bujis, and
Javanefe. Few languages, on a curfory examination, pre-
fent a greater appearance of originality than the Tagala.

For

TAG

For a farther account of it, we refer to Dr. Leyden's EfTay
on the " Languages and Literature of the Indo-Chinefe
Nations," in the Afiatic Refearches, vol. x.

TAGALAZ, in Geography, one of the Fox iflands, in
the North Facitic ocean. N. lat. 53° 30'. E. long.
185° 26'.

TAGAMA, in /Iticknt Geography, a town of Africa,
in the interior of Libya, upon the bank of the Niger.
Ptol.

Tagama, in Geography, a country of Africa, in Nigri-
tia. W. of Caftina.

TAGANROG, a fort of Ruffia, on the f^-a of Azoph,
firil built by Peter the Great in 1696; 32 miles W.N.W.
of Azof.

Taganrog is fituated upon the cliff of a very lofty pro-
montory, commanding an extenfive profpe£l of the fea
of Azof, and the whole European coaft to the mouths
of the Don. The number of inhabitants does not at pre-
fent exceed 5000. The mole in the haven is fo (hallow, that
fhips performing quarantine lie off at the diflance of 10
miles, and all vefFels drawing from 9 to 10 feet of vi^ater
cannot approach nearer to the town tlian this diflance. This
town has funk into decay ; and all the beft houfes are in its
fuburbs. If it had water, its fituation is very favourable
for commerce ; but it can be carried on here only for three
months in the year. In the winter the fea is frozen. Here
are three fairs in the year. The iifh caught in great abund-
ance in the fea of Azof is dried and fent over all the fouth
of Ruffia. Fruit is brought from Turkey, fuch as figs,
raifins, and oranges ; Greek wine from the Archipelago,
with incenfe, coffee, filk, fliawls, tobacco, and precious
ftones. Copper of a very inferior quahty comes from Tre-
bifond, and is forwarded to Mofcow. Among the principal
exports are caviare, butter, leather, tallow, corn, fur, can-
vas, rigging, lines, wool, hemp, and iron. The greatefl
advantage this town enjoys is its being the depofitor^' of Si-
berian produftions. The Cahnucks form large fettlemcnts
in the vicinity of Taganrog. It is the refort of people
from a great variety of countries ; infomuch that the inha-
bitants of fifteen different countries have been obferved in
this place at the fame time.

TAGAPOLA, a fmall ifland among the Phihppines ;
25 miles W. of the ifland of Samar.

TAGARA, an ancient city of India, known to the
Greeks about 2050 years ago. Arrian, in his Periplus
Maris Erythraei, fays that it was a large city, and all kinds
of mercantile goods throughout the Deccan were brought
"hither, and hence convyed in carts to Baroach, or Bary-
gaza. Arrian alfo informs us that Tagara was fituated at
about 10 days' journey E. of another famous mart, called
Plithana, or Pluthana ; that Pluthana was 20 days' journey
S. of Baroach ; and that the road to it was through the
Bala-gaut mountains. Pluthana, now called Pultanah, is
fituated on the fouthern bank of the Godavery, about 217
Britifh miles to the fouthward of Baroach. If we divide
thefe 217 miles by 20, the number of days travellers fpent
in palling from between Pultanah and Baroach, according to
Arrian, we fnall have nearly 11 miles ^fr day, or y cofs,
xvhich is the ufual rate of travelling with heavy loaded carts.
Arrian informs us, that Tagara was about 10 days' journey
W. of Pultanah. Allowing thefe lodays to be equal to about
100 Britifh miles, Tagara, by its bearing and diflance from
Pultanah, falls at Deoghire, or Deogire (which fee), a
place of great antiquity, and famous through all India, on
account of the pagodas of Eloura. It is now called Dow-
latabad, and about four cofs N.W. of Aurungabad. It ap-
pears in Arrian's Periplus, that on the arrival of the Greeks

3

TAG

into the Dfccan, above 2000 years ago, Tagara was the
metropolis of a large dillrift called Ariaca, which ctimpre-
hended the great-fl part of fubah Aurungabad, and the
fouthern part of Concan. About the middle of the firft ccn-
tury, Tagara was no longer the capital of Ariaca, rajah
Salbahan having removed the feat of the empire to Pattan.
However, the rajahs, headed by Salbahan, having revolted,
they gave him battle, and he was flain. Tagara became
again the metropolis of Ariaca ; at leafl this was the cafe
towards the latter end of the eleventh century. When the
MulTulmans carried their arms into the Deccan, about the
year 1293, Tagara or Deoghir was flill the refidence of a
powerful rajah, and remained fo till the time of Shah-Jehan,
when the diftrift belonging to it became a fubah of the
Mogul empire. Thus Tagara was deferted, and Kerkhi,
four cofs S.E. of it, became the capital, now called Aurun-
gabad. Thus the ancient kingdom or rajahfhip of Tagara
was deftroyed, after it had exillcd, with little inten-uption,
above 2000 years. Afiatic Refearches, vol. i.

TAGASA, a town of Fez, fcated on a river about
three leagues from tlie Mediterranean ; 20 miles W. of
Melilla.

TAGASTA, in Ancteitt Geography, a town of Africa, in
Numidia, on the route from Hippone to Cjefarea. An-
ton. Itin.

TAG A VAST, in Geography. See Tagoast.

TAGAZEE, a town of Africa, on the road from
Mourzouk to Agades ; 260 miles S. of Mourzouk. N.
lat. 23° 32'. E. long. 12° 55'.

TAGAZOUTE, a town of Algiers ; 45 miles S.E. of
Oran.

TAGEBACHI, an ifland in the Red fea. N. lat.
25° 2'.

TAGETES, in Botany, a name which Fuchfius tells us
is appKed by Apuleius to the Tanfy, but which he himfelf
adopts for a plant, not very diffimilar in fohage, now vul-
garly called the French, or African, Marygold. He is
followed by Dillenius, Linnaeus, and every fubfequcnt
writer. De Theis derives the word from Tages, an Etruf-
can deity, grandion of Jupiter, and teacher of divination ;
and fuppofes the beauty of its flowers may have procured
the plant this mythological appellation. Of this intention
we can find no traces in the above writers. — Linn, Gen.
430. Schreb. 561. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 2126. Mart.
Mill. Dia. V. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. j. 88. Tourn.
t. 278. Juir. 182. Lainarck lUuilr. t. 684. Gsertn.

t. 172 Clafs and order, Syngenejia Polygam'ta-fuperJJua.

Nat. Ord. Compofittc oppojittfolite, Linn. Corymbifern:, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Common calyx perfeftly fimple, of one leaf,
tubular, oblong, with about five teeth, and as many longitu-
dinal angles. Cor. compound, radiant. Florets of the ele-
vated diflc numerous, all perfedl, tubular, longer than the
calyx, ereft, cut half way down into five hncar fegments,
villous at the infide : thofc of the radius five, ligulate, fe-
male, longer than thofe of the dilk, tlieir limb almofl as
broad as long, very obtufe, contratted and downy towards
the tube, permanent. Stam. in the perfeft florets. Filaments
five, capillary, veiy fhort ; ar.lhers united into a cylindrical
tube. P'ifl. in the perfeft florets, Gtrmen oblong ; flyle
thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens ; fligma divided,
flender, reflexed. Perk, none, the calyx remaining un-
changed. Seeds, to both kinds of florets, folilary, linear,
compreffed, rather fhorter than the calyx ; crowued with five,
more or lets, ereft, pointed, unequal fcales. Recept. naked,
fmall, flat.

Obf. In a cultivated (late, tlie two common garden fpe-
cies have ufually, from luxuriance, more fegments in the

calyx.

TAGETES.

csUt, and more florets in the radius, than is natvjral ; one of
thefc luxuriant flowers is what Girtner lias delineated.
Some more recently difcovered fpccios, on the other hand,
have naturally but three or four radiant florets.

EfT. Ch. Receptacle naked. Secd-tiown of feveral ercft
pointed fcales. Calyx fimple, of one leaf, tubular, with five
tecdi. Florets of the radius five, permanent.

1. T.patula. French Marj'gold. Linn. Sp. PI. 1249.
Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Loureir Cochinch. 504. Curt.
Mag. t. 1 50. ( Flos aphricanus minor, limplici flore ; Gcr.
Em. 750. Caryophyllus indicus minor ; Camer. Epit 407.)

I3. T. minor, flore fulvo maculato ; Dill. Elth. 373.
t. 270. — Stem fpreading. Leaves pinnate ; leaflets lanceo-
late, with hair-pointed ferraturcs. Stalks fingle-flowered,
fomewhat fweUing upwards. — Native of Mexico, from
whence it was brought to the gardens of Europe, about the
middle of the fixteenth century, and hence difperfed over
otiier countries, being now, according to Loureiro, com-
monly cultivated in Cochinchina, China, and various parts
of India. With us it is a tender annual, ralfedon a hot -bed
in fpring ; and being planted out after midfummer, decorates
almoft every garden throughout the autumn. Its appella-
tions of French Marygold, and African Flower, are alto-
gether founded in error. Thejlem is about a foot or 18
inches high, branched and widely fpreading. Leaves oppo-
fite, of five or fix pair of dark green ([lining leaflets, with an
odd one ; all gradually fmaller downwards. Floivers about
two inches in diameter, yellow, with broad lateral ftripes, or
fpots, to each radiant floret, of a peculiarly rich brown.
They vary in fize and tints, as well as fcent, and are gene-
rally more or lefs double. Theplant of Dillenius hardly de-
ferves to be marked as a variety. The herb when bruifed is
very fetid, acrid, and fuppofed to be poifonous, though too
naufeous to be very dangerous. Few flowers are more
linking in appearance.

2. T. ereha. African Marygold. Linn. Sp. PI. 1249.
Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 3. (Flos aphricanus major; Ger.
Em. 749. Carj-ophyllus major indicus ; Befl. Eyftet. aefl:.
ord.14. t.2. C. indicus ; Camer. Epit. 406. ) — Stem ereft.
Leaves pinnate ; leaflets lanceolate, with hair-pointed fer-
raturcs. Stalks fingle-flowered, fwelling upwards. — Native
of Mexico ; introduced into the gardens of Europe about
the fame time as the foregoing, nor is the epithet of African
mpre correftly apphed to one than to the other. The fame
mode of culture fuits both, and both are equally common.
This fpecies is much the talleft,and grows ered. The leaves
are rather paler. Floiuers twice as large, of a golden uni-
form yellow ; fometimes orange-coloured. Columna, in his
Ecphrafis, part 2. 47. t. 46, reprefents a quilled variety, as it
is termed, whofe radiaiit_^o/-f/j are funnel-lhaped, and another
vihok Jlorets arc all of that fort.

3. T. elongata. Long-ftalkcd American Marygold.

Willd. n. 4 Stem ereft, nearly fimple. Leaves pinnate ;

leaflets linear, ferrated at the end ; thofe of the lower leaves
wedge-fliaped. Stalks fingle-flowered, elongated, flightly
fwelling — Native of South America. Root annual. Stem
from three inches to a fpan high, either fimple, or furniflied
with a branch or two from the bottom. Leafets of the
Jower leaves obovato-lanceolate, ferrated at the extremity ;
thofe of the upper linear, with a few flightly hair-pointed
ferraturcs at the end. StalL folitary at the top of the ftem
or branch, and abnoll as long as the ftem itfelf. Flower
deep yelkiw, agreeing in form and ftrufture with T.
patula.

4. T. minuta. Small-flowered Chili Marygold. Linn.
Sp. PI. 1250. Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. 4. (T. multiflora,
plinuto flore albicante j DUl. Elth. 374. t. z8o.) Stem

6

ereA, denfely panicled. Lcitos pinnate ; leaflets lanceo-
late, ferrated. Stalks many-flowered, fcaly — Native of
Chili. Cultivated in Dr. Sherard's garden, before the year
1728. . A hardy annual, flowering in autumn, but feldom
preferved in collcdions. Thcjlem is ten or twelve feet liigh,
covered with leaves, which are fmaller than thofe of the firft
fpecies. The floujers are very fmall and pale, forming denfe,
compound, tufted, ereft panicles, at the ends of the branches ;
th'jnjlall-s clothed with briftly fcales. Cr.Iyx cylindrical.
Radius of two, three, or four varioufly lobed florets. This
is furely the Chili plant of which Feuillc (quoted by Dille-
nius) defcribestwo varieties, differing in the number of their
radiant fiorets ; and which he fays is extremely hot in qua-
lity. The Indians eat it to warm themfelves after their
return from fifliing.

5. T. caracafana. Long-ftalked South American Mary-
gold. Willd. n. 6. (T. peduncularis ; Cavan. Leccion

201. n. 494 ;

' Stem corymbofe, furrowed, ereft. Leave*
pinnate ; leaflets lanceolate, ferrated at the end. Stalks
elongated, fingle-flowered, ereft. Calyx cylindrical." —
Gathered by Baron Humboldt at the Caiaccas. — Root an-
nual. Stem corymbofe at the top. Leafets linear -lanceo-
late, ferrated at the end, not fringed. Flozi-ers like thofe of
the next fpecies, on long alternate ftalks. Leafets of the
uppermoft leaves entire. Willdcnoiu. Tlie plant of Cava-
nilles was raifed in the gai-den at Madrid, from feeds col-
lefted at Cumana by Bonpland, the companion of the cele-
brated Humboldt. Thejlem is defcribed a foot and a half
high, furrowed, much branched. Floiuer-Jlalhs fix inches long,
tumid near the calyx, leafy in their lower part. Corolla en-
tirely yellow, with fix or eight rays fliorter than in the fol-
lowing. We find nothing in his account which is not con.- •
formable to the plant before us, and fhould have been glad
if we could have adopted his greatly preferable fpecific
name.

6. T. tenuifolia. Fine-leaved Peruvian Marygold. Cavan.
Ic. v. 2. 54. t. 169. Willd. n. 7. Ait. n. 5 — Stem pani-
cled. Leaves pinnate ; leaflets linear, ferrated ; their lower
ferraturcs elongated. Stalks alternate, fingle-flowered. Ca-
lyx club-fliaped Native of Peru. Cavanilles. We have

fpecimens from Mutis. Mr. W. Malcolm is faid in Hort.
Kew. to have cultivated this fpecies in 1797, but being a
late-flowering annual, greatly inferior in fize and beauty to
the popular fpecies of the fame genus, it has probably not
been preferved. The appearance of the dried fpecimens is
like a ftar\ed 7". patula, with more numerous, much fmaller,

Jloiuers than ufual. The calyx abounds with oblong glan-
dular dots, of which traces are likewife found in that fpecies.
The corolla is defcribed of a full unfpotted yellow.

7. T. elliptica. Oval-leaved Peruvian Mar^'gold. — Stem
ere£l, branched. Leaves pinnate ; leaflets elliptical, with
fliallow ferratures. Stalks corymbofe, with lanceolate brac-
teas. — Native of Peru. We received a dried fpecimen from
the late abbe Cavanilles, in 1 804. The^^m has a flirubby
appearance, and is much branched, leafy and furrowed.
Leafets fcarcely vifibly ferrated, pointed, fmooth and even ;
the lower ones of each leaf gradually fmaDer, and moftly al-
ternate. Flowers rather numerous, not very much fmaller
than in T. patula when not luxuriant ; their partial ftalks
accompanied by alternate lanceolate braBeas. Calyx marked
with fcattered, apparently glandular, lines. This is cer-
tainly very diilindl from all the fpecies we can find de-
fcribed.

8. T. mtcrantha. Small-flowered Mexican Marygold.

Cavan. Ic. v. 4. 31. t. 352. Willd. n. 8 Stem much

branched, fpreading. Leaves pinnate ; leaflets linear-awl-
fhaped, entire. Stalks axillary, fingle-flowered. — ^Gathered by

Lovis

Tag

Louis Nee, near the town of Queretaro, in New Spain,
it flowered in the Madrid garden, in Oftober 1796. Root
annual. S(ems hardly a foot high, round, rather woody,
fmooth like every other part of the plant. The fiendernefs
of the leaves, and fmallnefs of the Jlonuers, give this fpecies
the appearance of a PECTisor Heteuospermum (fee thofe
articles) ; but the calyx is perfectly fimple, tubular, with
five furrows and five teeth. Florets of the radius two only,
whitifli and undivided : thofe of the difli generally five,
yellow, fcarcely more than four-cleft. Seeds long, coni-
prefled, each crowned with two briftles, and two intermediate,
notched, unequal fcales.

9. T. luc'ida. Sweet Chili Marygold. Cavan. Ic. v. 3.
3.3. t. 264. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Curt. Mag. t. 740.
Andr. Repof. t. 359. — Leaves fimple, finely ferrated.
Panicle corymbofe. — Native of New Spain. Its feeds were
brought to England in 1798, by the late marchionefs of
Bute, along witli many otiier novelties from the gardens of
Madrid. The root is perennial, and will endure our ordi-
nary winters, with a flight degree of protection. Stan ereft,
•about two feet high, round, ftriated, leafy, fmooth ; branched
in the upper part. Leaves one and a half or two inches long,
oppofite, on (hort, broad, comhhmd footjlalis, elliptic -oblong,
fmooth, veiny, full of pellucid dots ; their lower ferratures
tipped with briftly points, or hairs. Panicie level-topped,
many-flowered ; its ilalks angular, fmooth, with linear-lan-
ceolate braBeas. Calyx half an inch long, befprinklcd with
glandular dots. Flo-uers of a golden yellow, agreeably
fcented ; their radiant Jlorets generally three, very broad.
Seed crowned with from two to five linear-lanceolate unequal
fcales. The ferratures of the leaves are very incorreftly re-
prefented in Cavanilles's plate, where they are made to re-
lemble a fringe of fine hairs, which only belongs to the lower
ones, and is not expreffed in any of the figures hitherto pub-
iilhed.

Tagetes, in Gardening, furnifhes plants of the herbaceous
annual kind, among which the fpecies mofl;ly cultivated are,
the French marygold (T. patula), and the African mary-
gold (T. eretta).

The firil fort has feveral varieties, as the pale yellow-
flowered, deep yellow-flowered, golden yellow-flowered,
crimfon-coloured, velvety, variegated crimfon and yellow,
ilriped crimfon and yellow ; each of which has both fingle
and double flowers : and there are the large-flowered, fmall-
fiowered, fweet-fcented, and the dwarf French marygolds.

In the fecond fort, alfo, there are varieties ; as thofe with
pale yellow or brimftone -coloured flowers, with deep yellow
flowers, with orange -coloured flowers ; the fweet-fcented
:ind the dwarf, &c. ; each with fingle, double, and fiftulous
flowers ; the middling African, with orange-coloured flowers,
and tlie fweet-fcented African, and perhaps fome others.

Method of Ctdture All thefe plants are increafed by

feeds, which ihould be fown in the beginning of April upon
a hot -bed ; and when the plants appear, they (hoidd have
plenty of fre(h air, and, after they have attained fome
growth, be tranfplanted on to another hot-bed, which is
arched over by hoops, at the diftance of fix inches ; water-
ing and Ihading them well till frefli-rooted, being afterwards
gradually inured to the open air ; and about the beginning
of May they may be taken up with balls of earth about
their roots, and be planted in pots, to be fet out in the
courts, yards, &c. about the houfe, fliading them till frefh
rooted, and giving them water occafionally. But the firft
fort divides and fpreads out widely near the ground, in a
rambling manner, and requires to be trimmed up at bottom
10 a fins^L' fl:em, and its branches occafionally, to preferve
the head fomewhat xegular, and within due bounds.

Vol. XXXV.

TAG

In raifing them in the open ground, in cafe of the default
of hot -beds and other conveniencies, the feed flioiJd not be
fown before the beginning of April, when the plants are to
be covered and protefted in the nights, and in fcvcrc
weathtT ; and when otlierwife, not imtil the middle or latter
end of it, and tlK^n in a warm rich fituation, either in drilU
of half an inch in depth, or on the furface, and raked in
lightly. After the plants are a few inches high, they Ihould
be planted out cither finally into the borders and otiicr parts,
or, when too fmall, into nurfery-rows for a little time, and
then fet out where they are to remain.

Two or three plants may be placed nearly together, m
patches at five or ten feet diilance ; and when they (hew
their flowers, fo as to judge of their properties, the worft.
may be cleared away, and one only of the beft left to eacK
patcli, &c. The fame way may be had recourfe to in-
planting in pots, &c.

In the future culture of all thefe kinds of plants, occa-
fional waterings are neceilary, frequently the firil and fecond
weeks after planting out, but more feldom afterwards.
Thofe in pots (hould have it three times in the week con-
ftantly, and morning and night in very hot weather.

Stakes are requifite to the ilrong large-headed plants, one
to each. They fliould alfo be properly trimmed in their
fide-branches near the bottom, and the too great ramblers,
to produce regularity.

However, the fecond fpecies in particular, and the va-
rieties of it, as they always grow firmly creft, both in ftem
and branches, require but very httle trouble after their final
planting out : they afford ornament and variety, among
other plants, in the borders, clumps, and other parts of
pleafure-grounds, as well as in pots for particular place*
about the houfe, among other potted annual plants. The
feeds of each fpecies, and their varieties, fliould be annually
faved from the bell plants.

All the forts grow very well and freely in any common
garden foil, whicfi is in an open expofure, exhibiting a par-
ticularly confpicuous autumnal bloom, in long fucceflion ;
and when properly arranged, and difpofed in afiemblagc
with other forts of plants, afford a highly ornamental •Briety
and effeft, in the great diverfity of the various forms and
colourings of the flowers, in the different forts and varieties.

In faving the feed, it fliould be collefted only from the
fineft and fullcft double flowers, when perfedly ripe, keep-
ing that of the different varieties quite diftinft. The prime
large heads of feed of each fort, after being well dried, may
either have the feed beat nnd rubbed out, or kept in them,
putting the whole up into bags, boxes, or drawers, until
the period of putting them into the ground. Frefli feed
fliould conft;antly be faved every year, as that of more than
one year old will feldom grow well.

TAGGAH, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
country of Algiers ; 24 miles S.E. of Seteef.

TAGGIA, a town of the Ligurian republic; 4 miles
N.E. of St. Remo.

TAGGING. See She.ahing.

TAGHAYOOG Bay, in Geography, a bay on the weft
coaft of the ifland of Paraguay. N. lat. 25° 2'.

TAGHMON, a poll -town of the county of Wexford,
Ireland, on the road from New Rofs to Wexford, which
was a borough before the union, and fent two members to
the houfe of commons. It is 73 miles S, by W, from
Dubhn, and about 9 W. from Wexford.

TAGIA, a fmall ifland in the bay of Gunong-Tellu, 00
the eaft coaft of Celebes. S. lat. o^ 30'. E. long. 1 22* 6'.

TAGIABAD, a town of Perfia, in the province of
I„l.;.5-ae.E.ofNatens^ TAGIAH,

T A G

TAGI AH, a river of Algiers, wliich runs into the Medi-
terranean, 24 miles E. of Oran.

TAGIDOG, a river of North Wales, which runs into
the AUn, 4 miles N. of Wrexham.

TAGIL, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Tura,
48 miles W. of Turinflc.

TAGILSKOI, Verchn'ei, a town of Ruffia, in the
province of Ekaterinburg ; 52 miles N. of Ekaterinburg.

Tagilskoi, Niirui, a town of RufTia, in the province of
Ekaterinburg ; 60 miles N. of Ekaterinburg.

TAGIOURA, a town of Africa, in the country of
TripoH ; 10 miles E. of Tripoli.

TAGLARET, a town in the department of the Po ;
7 miles W. of Pinerolo.

TAGLIACOZZI, or Taliacotius, Gasparo, in
Biography, was born at Bologna in 1546, and praftifed with
celebrity as a phylician and iurgeon in his native city from
the year 1570 to 1599, where he died. The peculiar prac-
tice, implied in his name, was that of reftoring loft parts by
infition ; and this practice he derived from fome Neapolitan
and Sicilian furgeons. It was founded on the principle, that
two raw furfaces of living bodies or parts, attached to each
other in clofe contaft, will adhere and mutually tranfmit
circulating fluids. On this fubjeft he publifhed two trea-
tifes : -viz. " Epiilola ad Hieronymum Mercurialem de
Naribus, multo ante abfciffis, reficiendis," Francof. 1587;
and " De Curtorum Chirurgia per Infitionem, Lib. duo,
additis Cutis traducis, Inttrumentorum omnium, atque De-
ligationum, iconibus et tabulis," Venet. 1597, fol. A
fimilar practice has anciently prevailed in India, and is now
occafionally adopted after the common punifhment of am-
putating the nofe ; for reftoring which, a piece from the
(kin of the forehead is ingenioufly engrafted. Modern fiu--
geons have availed themfelves of the principle, by bringing
over flaps of the adjacent fl<in, in order to accelerate the
healing after amputation, and otlier operations. Haller.
Eloy. Gen. Biog.

TAGLIACOZZO, in Geography, a town of Naples,
in Abruzzo Ultra ; 18 miles S.W. of Aquila. N. lat. 42°
4'. &. long, ij'^ 19'.

TAGLIATO, Ital., in Mufic, is ufed for meafure,
which the French call barre ; that is, when the charafter for

common time is thus mar

ked, ^5, or £2'

with

per-

pendicular line drawn through the middle of the C ; it
implies quick time, in which the notes are played or fung
twice as rapidly as in the ufual common time ; a femibreve
being performed like a minim, a minim like a crotchet, a
crotchet like a quaver, &c. A breve, double the length of
a femibreve, uffd to fill a bar ; whence the terms alia breve.
This time is ftiU ufed in mufic a capella, and alia Palejlrina;
in which the notes being chiefly open, and in fugue, mufi-
cians ufually call a fugue confifting chiefly of femibreves
and minims a tuhlte fugue. The time, too, when a line is
drawn through the C, is called cut time.

TAGLIER, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the gulf of
Venice. N. lat. 44° 10'. E. long. 15° 17'.

TAGLIO, a river of the Ligurian republic, which runs
into the Mediterranean, 4 miles E. of St. Remo.

TAGLO Bay, a bay on the fouth coaft of the ifland of
Mindanao. N. lat. 6^ 8'. E. long. 125"^ 40'.

Taclo Point, a cape on the north-weft coaft of Min-
danao.

TAGNON, a town of France, in the department of the
Ardennes ; 8 miles S.W. of Rethel.

TAGOAST, T.^GAOST, or Tagavajl, a large town of

T A H

Africa, in the kingdom of Sus ; faid by fome to have been
the birth-place of St. Auguftine ; fituated in a fertile
country, and defended by a garrifon of 400 men ; 140 miles
S.W. of Morocco.

TAGODAST, a town of Morocco, near the foot of
mount Atlas ; 60 miles N.E. of Morocco.

TAGOLANDE, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea,
about 10 miles in circumference. N. lat. 2° i8'. E. long.
125° 6'.

TAGOMAGO, a fmall ifland in the Mediterranean,
near the eaft coaft of the ifland of Ivi^a.

TAGORA, in Annent Geography, a town of Africa, in
Numidia. Anton. Itin.

TAGOURIE, in Geography, a town of Chinefe Tar-
tary, in the province of Hanii ; 40 miles N.N.E. of Ha-
tamtam.

TAGOU-ZAINAH, the towns of Taggah and Zaina
in Algiers, being contiguous, and feparatcd only by a fmall
brook ; 50 miles S.W. of Confl;antina.

TAGTE-RUSTAN, a mountain of Perfia, very much
reforted to by the Geutoos ; 4 miles from Ifpahan.

TAGTESSA, a town of Morocco ; 120 miles W.N.W.
of Morocco.

TAGUA, a town and alfo diftrift of Africa ; 250 miles
N.E. of Bornou. N. lat. 19° 10'. E. long. 27" 20'.

TAGUAN, in Zoology. See Scilkus Petaurtjla.

TAGULMEMMET, in Geography, a town of Algiers ;
5 miles S.E. of Muftygannim.

TAGULO, a town on the fouth coaft of the ifland of
Mindanao. N. lat. 7° 30'. E. long. 124°.

TAGUMADERT, a town of Africa, in the country
of Darah ; 20 miles S. of Tattah.

TAGURIN, a town on the wefl; coaft of the ifland of
Lu^on. N. lat. 16° 20'. E. long. 120° 48'.

TAGUS, or Ta.io, a river, which rifing in the moun-
tains of Molina, that feparate the kingdom of Aragon from
Old Caftile, pafles by Aranjuez, Toledo, Talavera de la
Reyna, crolfes Caftile and Eftremadura, and enters Por-
tugal at Montalvao ; traverfing Eftremadura, it pafles by
Abrantes, Santarem, &c. and runs into the Atlantic about
10 miles below Lifl^on. Its current is broken by many
catarafts, fo that on this account, and alfo on account of its
rocks, it is not navigable far above Lifbon.

TAGYPEEL, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea,
near the N.E. coaft of Borneo. N. lat. (p 29'. E. long.

117° 54'-

TAGZA, a town of Algiers ; 12 miles S.S.E. of Con-
ftantina.

TAHA el Modain, a town of Egypt ; 5 miles S.W.
of Samalut.

TAHABUCKOO, a town of Thibet ; 5 miles N.W.
of Jhanfu-Jeung.

TAHAIS, a town of Sweden, in the province of Savo-
lax ; 50 miles N.N.W. of Nyflot.

TAHAL, a town of Spain, in the province of Grenada ;
8 miles N.N.E. of Purchena.

TAHATE, a town of Arabia, in Yemen ; 1 2 miles W.
of Zebid.

TA-HEAN, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
Yun-nan ; 11 30 miles S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 25° 52'.
E. long. 101° 50'.

TAHEJ, a town of Hindooftan, in Cutch ; 150 miles
W. of Amedabad. N. lat. 23° 16'. E. long. 69° 58'.

TA-HE-KAN, a fmall ifland near the coaft of China.
N. lat. 37° 57'. E. long. 120° 30'.

TAHGUM,- a town of Bengal; 14 miles W. of
Koonda.

TAHIAO,

T A I

TAHIAO, a town of Corea j 35 miles S.S.E. of Long
Kouang.

TAHIRAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak ;
45 iniles E.S.E. of Cafbin. N. lat. 35° 50'. E. long.
51°.

TAHNUM, a town of Gorkah ; 20 miles N.W. of
Gorkah.

TA-HOOROWA, one of the fmaller Sandwich idands,
fituated about nine miles Irom the S.W. part of Mowee ;
deilitute of wood, with a fandy, barren foil. N. lat. 21° 40'.
E. long. 199° 30'.

TAHOU, a town of Africa, on the Grain Coaft. N.
lat. 4° 50'. W. long. 6° 50'.

TAHRIE', a town of Perfia, in Farfiftan, on the coaft
of the Perfian gulf ; 12 miles E.S.E. of Konkum. N. lat.
27° 45'. E. long. 52° 20'.

TAHTA, a town of Egypt, on the Nile ; 32 miles S.
of Siut. N. lat. 26' 57'. E. long. 31° 22'.

TAHUK, or Tabuk, a town of Arabia, in the province
of Nedsjas ; 176 miles S.S.E. of Jerufakm.

TAI, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in Chan-fi ;
175 miles W.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 39° 6'. E. long.
112° 30'. — Alfo, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
Kiang-nan ; 22 miles E. of Yang-tcheou. N. lat. 32° 30'.
E. long. 119° 36'. — Alfo, a large lake. See Tai-hoo.

TAi-j^rais, an ancient and noble tribe, the mention of
which often occurs in the Roman hiftory. They ftill con-
tinue in pofleffion of the fame traft of country which they
had in the time of Juhan, viz. between Moful, Niiibin, and
the Khadour.

TAJACU, or the Sits tajacu of Linnxus, in Zoology, the
name of an animal common in fome parts of America, called by
many authors aper mofchiferus, or the mufli-boar. ( See Sus. )
It is of the (hape of our hog, but much fmaller, and has no
tail, and its head is broader, and the fnout much lefs pointed
than in our hog ; it has two tuflis in each jaw, thofe in the
upper jaw pointing down, and hardly apparent when the mouth
is (hut, the others hid ; the neck is (hort and thick, and the
whole body of a grifly colour, or mixture of black and grey ;
its body is covered with hairs, much thicker and ftronger
than our hog's-briftles, fomething hke the briftles of the
hedge-liog, and like them alfo variegated with circles of
black and white ; thefe are four or five inches long on the
back, and gradually diminifh to the fides ; on the middle of
its head, between the ears, it has a fort of creft, made up of
black briftles ; the belly almoft naked ; from the (lioulders
to the breaft is a band of white ; its ears are fmall and ereft,
and its eyes fmall ; its fnout, feet, and hoofs, are juft like
thofe of the European hog ; but the two pofttrior or ex-
terior hoofs are longer than in any other of the cloven-footed
beafts.

What is moft fingular, however, in this creature, is a
certain gland which he has upon the back, and which has
given occafion to fome to fay its navel was placed there.
This gland is fituated on the very ridge of the back near the
rump, and is fo clofely covered with long briftles, that till
they are removed by blowing, and keeping them back with
the hand, the gland is not to be feen : when thefe are re-
moved, there is feen a fpot almoft naked, in the middle of
which the top of the gland is feen ; the lips of this gland
ufually ftand a little way above the flefli, and its aperture
eafily admits a large ftylus ; and this gland, when lightly
preffed, fpews out a liquid fubftance of a brownilh-yellow
colour, and fcent fomething like that of muik or civet. The
gland itfelf is placed between the Ikin and flefti, and is not
wholly covered by its conftringing mufcle, but only fur.
rounded by it at its bottom.

T A 1

Tliis animal inhabits the hotteft parts of South America,
and fome of the Antilles ; lives iji forefts, on the mountains,
is ver)- fierce, and if wounded, will turn on the hunter. It
feeds on fruits and roots, toads and ferpents, which it Ikint
with great dexterity. It is reckoned very good food ; but
unlcfs the dorfal gland be cut out as foon as it is killed, tlie
fiefh will be infeAed by it. The Indians call this animal
pequaris, whence its WdSiK pecary. Ray and Pennant.

TAJAMENTO, or Tagliamknto, in Geography, a river
which rifes in Friuli, .ind runs into the gulf of Venice ; 10
miles S.S.E. of Concordia.

TAJANJE, a river of Brafil, which runs into the At-
lantic, S. lat. 27" 35'.

TAJARA, in 'ichthyology. See Raia.
TAIBEH, in Geography, a fortified town in the defcrt
of Syria, having near its gate a fountain of frelh water ; 85
miles E.S.E. of Aleppo. N. lat. 35° 10'. E. lonir.
38° 45'-

TAI-CHAN, a town of Corea ; 20 miles W. of Hai-

TAIDENT, a town of Africa, in Fezzan ; 130 miles
S.S.W. of Mourzouk.

TAJE-ELT, a town of Algiers ; 35 miles S.S.E. of
Bona.

TAIEZA, a town of Croatia ; 45 miles E. of Bihacs.
TAIGAREE. See Tf.gkrly.

TAI-HOO, or Tai, a beautiful lake of China, faid to
be near fifty leagues in circumference, dividing the provinces
of Kiang-nan and Tche-kiang, and furrounded by a chain of
pifturefque hills. It fupphcs Sou-choo-foo, at a fmall dif-
tance from it, with fifti, and ferves the inhabitants alfo as a
place of pubhc refort and recreation. Many of the pleafure-
boats on this lake are rowed by a fingle female ; and the
rowers are faid to follow more than one profefiion.

TAIIBI, in Zoology, the name of an American animal,
defcribed by Maicgrave and other authors, and fuppofed by
fome to be only the male of the opofTum. The Portugucle
in America call it the cachorro dc mato, and by the Dutch it
is called bofchratte. See DideH'HIS.

TAIJEOURA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Adel ; 15 miles N.W. of Zeilah.

TAIL, Cauda, that part of an animal which terminates
its body behind.

The tail is different, both in figure and ufe, in the various
fpecies. In land-animals it ferves to rid them of flics, and is
ufually covered with hair, and ftrengthened with bones : in
fifties it is cartilaginous, and ferves them as a helm to fteer
their courfe withal in fwimming.

In birds it is covered with feathers, and greatly aflifts in
all afcents and defcents in the air ; as alfo to render their
flight fteady, by keeping the body upright in that fubtile
and yielding medium, by its ready turning and anfwering to
every vacillation of the body.

Tail of Fijh. This part in the fifli-kind is the fubjeft of
very great diftinftions, among the charafters of the feveral
genera. It differs in the feveral kinds of fifti in a very obvi-
ous manner, in number, fituation, and figure. In regard to
the firft difference, the acus lumbr'iciform'u, and one of the
kinds of the ferpens marinus, have no tail at all ; in all otlier
fifti there is a tail, and it is never more than one on each
fift).

In regard to fituation, there is this great difference, that in
fome it is placed perpendicularly, in others horizontally. In
almoft all the known fifties it is placed perpendicularly, ex-
cept in the dolphin, the phocaena, the orca, the nianali, and
all the whale-kinds ; for in all thefe it is placed horizontally,
wlieij the body is laid in its natural pofture.

Fz In

T A K

. Koei-tcheou ; 967 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 27" 5'.

E. lonir- 10;' 14'. .

TAI-TONG, a city of China, of the hrft rank, in
Chan-fi. It is fituatod in a mountainous country, and is the
only place expolVd to the incuriions of the Tartars : it is
ver)- well fortified, according to the manner of the Chinefe,
and has a very ftrong garrifon ; its territory is furrounded
by the great wall, wliich has forts from place to place ; Us
jurifdiaTon is very large, and extended over four great cities
of the fccond order, and feven of the third : its mountains
abound with all kinds of fimple and medicinal herbs, which
the botaniils gather with great care. Lapis lazuli is in great
plenty here ; and there is a kind of jafper, which is tranf-
pan-nt, and as white as agate : porphyry, marble, and jaf-
per of all colours are very plentiful ; and here is alfo a great
trade for fi<ins ; 155 miles W. of Peking. N. lat. 40° 5'.
E. long. 112° 44'.

TAITOU SAHA, a fmaU ifland in tlie fea of Japan.
N. lat. 42^ 32'. E. long. 1 30° 42'.

TAI-TSANG, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
Kiang-nan ; 567 miles S.S.E. of Peking. N. lat. 31° 30'.
E. long. 120'^ 24'.

TAIVERAM, a town of Hindooftan, in the province
of Dindigul ; 8 miles N.W. of Outampaleam.

TA.IUNA, a river of Spain, which rifes in the north
part of New Cartile, and runs into the Xarama, a little be-
fore its union with the Tagus.
TAIWAN. Sec Formosa.

TAI-Y, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in Quang-
fi, on the fouth fide of the Pofoi ; 1125 miles S.S.W. of
Peking. N. lat. 23° 24'. E. long. 106° 18'.

TAI-YUEN, a city of China, of the firft rank, in
Chan-fi ; 230 miles W.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 37° 54'.
E. long. 1 11° 56'.

TAIZALUM, in ylncient Geography, a promontory of
the ifle of Albion, between the mouth of the Celnius and
that of the Diva. ( Ptol. ) This is fuppofed to be Kynaird-
Head, near Fraferburgh, in Buchan ; the Celnius being the
river Spay, in the (hire of Elgin, and the Diva the river
Dee at Aberdeen.

TAK, El, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro
vince of Segeftan ; 1 5 miles N. of Zareng.

TAK A, a town of Nubia, capital of a diftrift, called
Takaki, on the Belefe ; 50 miles S.E. of Ilak.

TAKAGUS, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ;
60 miles N.W. of Meaco.

TAKAIsLAKKAN, a fmall ifland in the Eaftern Indian
fea, near the eaft coaft of Borneo. N. lat. 3° 8'. E. long. 1 1 6^5 1 '„
TAKALUOTO, a fmall ifland on the E. fide of the
gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 61° 39'. E. long. 21° 10'.

TAK AMID JA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Ni-
phon ; 150 miles S.W. of Meaco.

TAKAUL, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania ;
40 miles N. of Cogni.

TAKE and Leave, in Sea Language. The failors fay, a
fliip can take and leave upon her when Jhe will ; when {he
fails fo well, that (he can come up with another, or outfail
her at pleafure.

Take, Thiflte. See Thistle.

Take-Z/i, To, in Ship-Building, is to come-up a fett and
make it fail again clofer to the plank, as it works nearer to
the timbers.

Take-Zh Sail, To, is to diminifh its furface by reefing,
&c. particularly when the wind increafes too much. See
Takixg-in.

TAKENO, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the
ifland of Ximo ; 40 miles E.S.E. of Ikva.

T A L

TAKERS— C<wr-7a(fc»-j. See CAHR-TAKEns,

TA-KIA-TCHE, in Geography, a town of China, on
the W. coaft of the ifland of Formofa. N. lat. 24° 22'.
E. long. 119°.

T A KING-IN, in Sea Language, denotes the aft of
brailing-up and furling the fails at fea, particularly when
the wind increafes. It is generally ufed in oppofition to
Jetting.

TA-KIRON-HOTUN, in Geography, a town of the
kingdom of Corea ; 425 miles E. of Peking.

TAKLACOT, a town of Thibet ; 60 miles N.E. of
Kerion.

TAKMITZSKAIA, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Tobolfli, on the Irtifch ; 36 miles S. of Tara.

TAKPO, a large province of Thibet, which is fub-
divided into feven takpos. On the N. it has the province
of U, on the S. Combo, on the E. Cobang, and on the
W. Tzhang.

TAKTANG, a river of Ruflia, which runs into the
Lis, N. lat. 62° 24'. E. long. 89'' 44'.

TAKY, a town of Bengal; 30 miles E. of Calcutta.

TAL, a name ufed by fome writers on the materia
medica to exprefs the dung of peacocks ; and by fome of
the chemical writers for any alkali fait.

TALA, in Botany, a name by which fome authors call
the plant, whofe feed is the fefamiun, or oily purging grain
of the fliops.

TALABON, in Geography, a town on the W. coaft of
the ifland of Gilolo. N. lat. 1° 40'. E. long. 127° 20'.

TALA BONG, in Ornithology, a name given by the in-
habitants of the Philippine iflands to a fpecies of heron,
common among them ; which is much fraaller than our
heron, and perfefUy white all over.

TALABRIGA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain,
in Lulitania, towards the fouth, upon the Vatna, not far
from the fea, S.W. of Langobriga.

TALABROCA, the name of one of the moft cele-
brated towns of Hyrcania. Strabo.

TALACACHA, in Geography, a town of South
America, in the province of Tucuman ; 15 miles S. of St.
Miguel de Tucuman.

TALACOUAN, a town of Lower Siam, on an ifland
in the Mecon ; 30 miles S. of Juthia.

TAL^DITES, TxXaioiTHf, in Antiquity, gymnical ex-
ercifes in lionour of Jupiter Ta^«lO;■.

TALAFA, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the South
Pacific ocean, among thofe called Hapaae, S.W. of Ho-
laiva.

TALAGIR, a fmall ifland among the Philippines; 25
miles W. of Samar.

TALAGOS, a town of Africa, in the country of
Sierra Leone. N. lat. 10° 20'. W. long. 13° 40'.

TALAGUADA, a town of South America, in the
province of Carthagena ; 10 miles N.N.W. of Mompox.

TALAHSECHTE, an Indian town of Eaft Florida,
on the river St. Juan, near the bay of Apalache, in the
gulf of Mexico ; 52 miles N. of St. Mark. This town
contains about 30 habitations, conftrucled of frame-work ;
and covered with the bark of the c)-prefs-tree. The in-
habitants form large handfome canoes of the trunks of
cyprefs-trees, capable of holding 20 or 30 warriors. In
thefe they defcend the river on trading or hunting expedi-
tions on the fea-coaft, iflands, and keys as far as the point
of Florida ; and fometimes they crofs the gulf and fail to
the Bahama iflands, and even to Cuba, returning with car-
goes of fpirituous liquors, coffee, fugar, and tobacco.

TALAI-

T A L

T A h

TALAI-HAI, a town of Chinefo Tartary. N. lat.
44" 17'. E. long. 120' 45'.

TALAI-HOTOC, a town of Thibet ; 105 miles S.W.
©f Haratoube.

TALALALUM, or Thalatatum, in Ancknt Geo-
graphy, a town of Africa Propria, on the route from Ta-
capas to the Greater Lcptis.

TALAMANCA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in
New Cailile ; 14 miles N.W. of Guadalaxara.

TALAMATA, a town of Hindoollan, in Coimbetore;
15 miles N. of Damicotta.

TALAN, a fmall illand in the fea of Ochotlk. N. lat.
59° 30'- E. long. 149° 14'.

TALANGBOANG, a town on the W. coail of Su-
matra. S. lat. 4° 21'. E. long. 105° 44'.

TALANT, a town of France, in the department of
the Cote d'Or ; 2 miles N.W. of Dijon.

TALANTA, a town of European Turkey, in the

ifland of Negroponte ; 34 miles N.W. of Negroponte

Alfo, a town of European Turkey, in Livadia ; 1 8 miles
N.E. of Livadia.

TALA-OSO, a town of Chinefe Tartary, in the
country of Hami ; 28 miles E.S.E. of Hatamtam.

TALAPOINS, a name given in Siam to thofe who de-
dicate themfelves to religion. See Siam.

TALAPOOSEE, in Geography, the great N.E. branch
©f the Alabama or Mobile river, in Florida. It rifes in the
high lands near the Cherokces, and runs througli the high
country of the Oakfufl<ec tribes, in a wcfterly direftion, being
full of rocks, falls, and fhoals, till it reaches the Tackabatches,
where it becomes deep and quiet ; from thence the courfe
is W. about 30 miles to Little TalafTee, where it is united
witb the Coofa or Coofa Hatcha. The lower part of this
river is, in moft maps, called Oakfufliee.

TALAPORUM, a town of Hindooftan, in Calicut;
20 miles N.N.W. of Tellicherry.

TALARHO-KARA-PALHASSUM, a town of
Chinefe Tartary, in the country of the Eluths ; 715 miles
N.W. of Peking. N. lat. 47° 34'. E. long. 102° 34'.

TALARIUS LuDUS, among the Romans, a game
fomewhat refembling our dice -playing, and performed with
a kind of gold or ivory dice, which they fhook as we do in
a box, before they threw them. There was this difference,
however, between their game and ours, that our dice have
fix fides, becaufe they are cubical ; but theirs had but four,
and were conically (haped. They made ufe of them for
divination, as well as playing ; and they concluded upon a
good or evil augury, according to what came up. As they
ufually threw four of them at a time, the beft chance was
when four different fides came up. The fides were called
by the name of fome animal, as the dog, vulture, bafilifl<,
&c. ; or of fome deity, as Venus, Hercules, &c. Some
authors have been of opinion, tliat they were marked with
the forms of animals, or images of gods, and not with
numbers or dots, as our dice are.

TALARN, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Cata-
lonia ; 22 miles N. of Balag'uer.

TALASSEE, or Tallassee, a county confifting of a
traft of land bounded by Eaft Florida on the S., N. by Ala-
tamaha river, E. by Glynn and Camden counties, and W.
by a line extending from the W. part of Ekanfanoka fwamp,
in a N.E. direftion till it ftrikes the Alatamaha river, at
the mouth of the Oakmulgee. — Alfo, a town of the Upper
Creeks, in the Miffifippi territory, on the S- fide of Tala-
poofee river ; called alio Big Talaflee.

TALASSIO, among the Romans, an acclamation ufed
at marriages.

TALATUM, in /Indent Geography, the name of a
temple of the fun, crefted in Laconia, on the fummit of
mount Taygetus.

TALAVAN, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Eftre-
madura ; 25 miles S. of Plafencia.

TALAVERA /,( Real, a town of Spain, in Eftrc-ma-
dura ; 13 miles S.E. of Badajos.

Tai.avera la Reyna, a town of Spain, in New Cailile,
on the Tagus, filuated in a valley, and fortified ; famous
for its earthen-ware ; 35 miles W. of Toledo.

Tai.aveua hi Vieja, a town of Spain, in New Caftilc ;
6 miles W.S.W. of Toledo.

TALAVERUELA, or Talavera de Badajos, a town
of Spain, in Ellremadura, on the Guadiana ; 9 miles E. of
Badajos.

TALAUMA, in Botany, a word probably of Soutli
American origin, applied in the herbarium of Surian, now
pofTefied by Jufiieu, to the plant on which Plumier origi-
nally founded his genus Magnolia. See under that article,
fp. 2, our rcafons for not receiving Talauma, for the prefent
at leaft, as a diftinft genus.

TALBERT's Island, in Geography, a fmall ifland in
the Atlantic, on the coaft of Georgia, the N. point of
which is in N. lat. about 30° 44', where St. Mary's river dif-
charges itfelf into the ocean, betv.-een this ifland and Amelia
ifland on the N. N. lat. 30° 36'. W. long. 81^ 42'.

TALBOT, an ifland on the coaft of Eaft Florida, eight

miles long and two wide Alfo, a county of Maryland, on

the E. coaft of Chefapeak bay, bounded E. by Choptank
river, which divides it from Carolina county, and S. by tlie
fame river, which feparates it from Dorchefter. The foil
of this county is rich and fertile; and it contains 14,230
inhabitants.

Talbot, in Zoology, a fort of dog, noted for its quick
fcent, finding out the tracks, lodgings, and forms of beafts,
and purfuing them with open mouth and continual cry, with
fuch eagernefs, that if not taken off by the huntfman,-he is
often fpoiled.

TALC, in Mineralogy, Idem, Hauy. Tlie name talc, in
the prefent fyftoniatic arrangcmmeut of Werner, is placed
both as the head of a genus and a family. Brongniart rc-
ftrifts the name to thofe minerals which poflcfs the follow-
ing charafters : they are foft and unftuous to the touch, and
leave upon the nail, or on the furface of cloth on whicii
they arc rubbed, a white mark, wlilch lias fometimes a nacry
luftre. The textin-e of talc is lamellar, or fibrous : the
laminae are flexible but not elaftic. Talc has always a fhin-
ing luftre, and is fometimes fplendent and nacry ; it is tranf-
lucent and often tranfparent ; it yields eafily to the nail.
The lamina of which it is compofcd, open a little by the
aftion of fire or of the blowpipe ; the fragment fwclls, and
the extremities of the lamina; arc w ith difficulty fufible into
a white enamel. Thefe chai'afters, which are eafily recog-
nifed, ferve to diftinguifti talc from chlorite and nacrite, which
are very fufible ; and from fteatite, ferpentine, or the unc-
tuous clays, which are compaft, iiave an earthy or fcaly
frafture, and but little unftuofity. Talc has another re-
markable property ; it acquires pofitive electricity when
rubbed with refin. Talc is fufceptible of cryftallization,
and forms hexagonal lamim. The primitive form of the
cryftal is a right rhomboidal prifm, in which tlie angles at
the bafe are 120° and 60°. Its fpecific gravity varies from
2.58 to 2.87. The prevailing colours are white, apple-
green, and yellow.

Tale

TALC.

"f ale i» divided by fome mineralogifts into three fub-
fpecics, -uiz. common talc, indurated talc, and columnar
talc.

Common laic; laic lamlnaire, Hauy. Its colours arc thole
before enumerated, but tiie green fometimes pafTes into
dark blue. The laminx are very tender and flexible, hut
not elaftic : by this they may be diftinguifhed from the
laminx of mica, which ponifs a confiderable degree of elaf-
licity. In France tliis talc is called craie de Briangon ; it is
found in confiderable mafles in rocks of ferpentine, accom-
panied with aftinolite, granular lime-ftone, and dolomite,
along with indurated talc. The conftiluent parts are as
follow :

Vsuquelin- Klaprotb.

Silcx .... 62 61.75

Magnefia - - - 27 30.J0

Alumine ... i.jo

Potafh .... 2.75

^ Oxyd of iron - - - 3.50 2.50

* Water .... d 2.25

It is found in Aberdeenfliire and BamfTlhiie, in Scotland,
and in various parts of the continent of Europe, where rocks
of ferpentine and porphyry occur. The talc which is
brought from the mountains of the Tyrol is called in com-
merce Venetian laic.

Talc enters largely into the corapofition of the cofmetic
named rouge. This fubftance is prepared by rubbing to.
gethcr in a wai-m mortar, generally of ierpentine, certain
proportions of carmine and finely powdered talc, with a
fmall portion of oil of benzoin. The Romans prepared a
beautiful blue or purple colour, by combining this fubftance
with the colouring fluid of the buccinum reticulatum and
buccinum lapillus, teftaceous animals abounding on the
coafts of the Mediterranean. The flefli-coloured polifh on
figures made of gypfum is given by rubbing them with talc.
The Perfians, according to Tavernier, whiten the walls of
their houfes by means of lime-water, and then powder them
with filver.coloured talc. Talc has fometimes been ufed
medicinally by the Chinefe and Europeans.

The chief ufe of the Ruffian is as a fcreen or cover for
paintings in miniature and crayons ; to- which purpofe thin
dices of it are ufed. The Venetian is fometimes alfo ufed
for a fucus ; in order to which, by reafon of the difficulty
of pulverizing it, &c. they content themfelves to rafp it
with the flcin of a fea-dog, and to pafs the rafpings through
a fieve.

Phny, in his Natural Hiftory, lib. xxxvi. c. 22. obferves,
that the Romans not only ufed the Ruffian fort for window-
lights, but they alfo paved the circus with a kind of it.
See Glass,

Indurated talc is lefs flexible and lefs tranflucent than the
preceding : it occurs in nialTes, and has fometimes a radiated
ftruclure ; its colours are various fliades of green and
greenirti-grey. It forms beds of confiderable fize in moun-
tains of gneifs, mica-flate, and ferpentine ; it approaches
nearly to pot-ftone, and even to fteatite, in many of its cha-
rafters. It occurs in Perthfliire and Bamff'ftiire, in Scotland,
and in France, Sweden, Saxony, Siberia, the Tyrol, and
Switzerland. It is employed for drawing lines by car-
penters, taylors, hat-makers, and glaziers. It is fometimes
made into culinary vefTels, like pot-fl:one, and is employed
in powder for removing ftains of greafe from filk.

Columnar talc occurs in thin columnar prifmatic concre-
tions, and it is opaque, The connedlion between talc,
iifteftus, pot-ftone, ferpentine, chlorite, and even mica, may

be traced by their apptfent graduation into each other, par-
ticularly in fome of the rock formations. See Asbestus,
Pot-stone, &c.

The mixture of talc with different kinds and quantities of
"■lafs may be fuccefsfuUy performed with a violent fire, but
not with a fmaller degree : thus three parts of talc, with one
part of cryftalline glafs, make only a fpongy and friable
mafs in a common fire ; but in a more violent one, they be-
come a firm and fohd mafs of a brOwn colour. Minium, or
glafs of lead, mixed in equal quantities with talc, and fet in
a violent fire, runs into a yellowifti glafs, refembling the
opaque pieces of amber ; and two parts of minium to one of
talc, produce a clear and tranfparent yellow glafs, which is
of a hardnefs capable of giving fire with fteel. The alkaline
earths, mixed with talc, produce a mafs fcarcely vitrifiable
by any fire : hence appears the reafon why copels made of
lime and talc are fo very hard to vitrify. Minium, added
to thefe mixtures, make them combine into a firm mafs, but
without perfeft fufion ; but borax added to them, melts
them readily into a truo glafs. The gypfeous earths mixed
with talc, will not unite into a mafs in any degree of fire ;
but if borax be added, the talc readily melts. Thus two
parts of talc, two parts of that fpar or gypfeous matter
called glacies Mariie, or the common plated fpar, with one
part of borax, run into a yellow mafs refembling a topaz.

The argillaceous earths do not vitrify with talc ; but th^y
run into a mafs of great hardnefs, which will give fire witis
fteel, and is very ferviceable to make crucibles of, thefs
veflfels not fuffering the glafs of lead to run through them..
Talc, joined with the vitrifiable ftones, fonns no remarkable
body, but the mafs remains friable ; but from thefe maffes,
by the addition of proper matter to render them fluid, great
variety of elegant compounds may be made. Thus if talc be
mixed in equal quantities with powder of flints, on adding
to the whole a fourth part of cryftal-glafs, the whole unites
into an opaque but fohd wliite mafs. Alkali-falt, added in
equal quantity to talc and flint, gives a tranfparent yellow
glafs ; and white fand, talc, and a fixed alkali, in equal
quantities, afford a green glafs ; with other mixtures of this
kind, in different quantities, the refemblances ef many
beautiful ftones are produced ; and what is very remarkable,
fome grains of metalline mattej' are often found on the fur»
face of the mafles.

Caefalpinus, Aldrovand, and fome others affirm, that talc
melted with copper, or added to copper, while in fufion,
gave it a white colour : tliis being taken for granted, authors'
have hence agreed that talc contains an arfenical earth. But
experiment (hews this to have been a fajfe afTertion, in regard
to talc ; and probably it only owes its origin to the cant lan-
guage of fome of the alchemifts, who have called the flowers
of zinc talc, though thefe alone muft render copper yellow,
not white. Antimony and talc, firft calcined with nitre,
run in a violent fire into a fort of flint, which will give fire ,
with fteel. With regulus of antimony and the black flux,
it runs into a black mafs ; and with bifmuth it calcines into
a grey powder. So little is there in the propofals of the
cnemifts for the metaUization of talc by antimony and bifi
muth. Mem. de I'Acad. de Berlin, Ann. 1746.

In what part of Mr. Boyle's works the learned author,
from whom the foregoing extraft was taken, has found that
talc may be reduced by common fire to a gypfum in an
hour, we know not ; but we find that Mr. Boyle fays, that
the calcination of talc is fo very difficult, that eminent che^
mifts have looked upon calxes of talc as counterfeits.
Works abr. vol. i. p. 160.

Mr. Boyle mentions the extraAing of gold from talc, as

^ hiring

T A L

!>aVing fometimes fucceeded. See Works abr. vol. i. p. i6o.
but vide fupra.

Talc, Phllofophlc, a name given by fome of the chemical
writers to the flowers of zinc.

This fubftance, difTolved in vinegar, affords what they
have in their unintelhgible language called oil of talc, and
extolled as a thing of vaft power in the fixing of mercury,
and many other imaginary operations ; and befides this, they
call it a fovereign remedy for all difeafes.

TALCAGUANO, or Talcagiana, in Geography, a
fea-port of Chili, nine miles within the point of the fame
name, and about fix from the town of Conception. This is
the principal port in the bay of Conception, and is much
the mod frequented, as fhips that anchor here have not only
better gi'ound than in any other part of the bay, but are in
fome meafure fheltered from the north winds. The town,
or village, as Peroufe calls it, has been built fince the city
of Conception was deftroyed by an earthquake in 1751 : it
ftands on the river Biobin, and is faid to contain 10,000 in-
habitants. Here are the epifcopal cathedral, the feat of the
bifiiop, and all the religious houfes. The government of
the adjacent diftrift has been wholly military and ecclefiaf-
tical. The country round it is very healthy and fertile.
Great numbers of cattle are annually killed for their hides
and tallow, which are fent to Lima. About 200,000 dol-
lars' worth of gold is annually coUefted from the fands in
the rivers of this bifhopric. The Indians of the country
have numerous herds of cattle, and plenty of horfes, and
live more like the Tartars of Afia than the favages of North
America. Ships are here fupplied with water, wood, and
other neceflaries. N. lat. 36° 42'. E. long. 73° 6'.

Talcaguano Point, a cape on the coaft of Chili, 1 1
leagues N.E. of the ifland of Santa Maria, and 2 N. of
Port St. Vincent.

TALCAN, a town of Afia, in Tokariftan, befieged by
Gengis Khan in the year 1221, and taken after a fiege of
feven months ; 100 miles S.E. of Termed. N. lat. 36° 45'.
E. long. 67^ 9'.

TALCKENSTEIN, a mountain of Silefia; 4 miles
NiN.E. of Loewenberg.

TALCONAH, a town of Bengal ; 30 miles E. of
Goragot.

TALCOT, a town of Hindooftan, in Concan ; 25 miles
N.E. of Goa.

TALCOTE, a town of the ifland of Ceylon ; 20 miles
W.S.W. of Candy.

TALCOUS Slate, in Geology, is confidered by fome
geologifts as a variety of clay-date, but it has a nearer re-
lemblance to mica-flate. The colour is generally a grcenifii-
grey, with a fhining luftre, like that of the finer kinds of
mica-fiate. It is fofter than mica-flate, but is frequently
divided into laminae by thin feams of quartz, and has a
twilled or contorted form. The flate on fome of the moun-
tains of the higher Alps, as defcribed by SaufiYire, feems
to be of an intermediate kind between mica-flate and talcous
flate. Talcous flate occurs on the weftern fide of the ifland
of Anglefea, and in many alpine diftrifts, forming beds in
clay-flate. See Slate.

TALDINGA, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 15
miles W. of BifTunpour.

TALE, in Lata, See Count aiid Declaration.

Tale, or Tael, in Commerce, a weight for gold and
filver in China, and certain parts of the Eafl Indies ; and
alfo a money of account. In China, each tale is 10 maces :=
100 candareens = 1000 cafh. A tale of fine filver fhould be
worth 1000 cafh, which cafh is compofed of fix parts of

Vol. XXXV.

T A L

eoppef, and four of lead, having a fquarc hole in the middle,
fo that they may be ftrung on a firing or wire ; but on ac-
count of their convenience for common ufc, their price is
fometimes fo much raifed, that only 750 cafh are given for
the tale.

Gold is not confidered as money, but as merchandize ; and
it is fold in ingots of a determinate weight, called by the
Englifh " fhoes" of gold ; the largeft of which weighs 10
tales, and the gold is reckoned 94 touch (/. e. 94 parts fine
in 100), though it is only 92 or 93. Of late, from 100 to
1 10 tales of filver of 94 touch, have been given for 10 talci
of gold of 92 or 93 touch ; and fometimes from 1 10 to i 20
tales, or even more, of Spanifh dollars, reckoned at 92
touch, have been paid for 10 tales of gold. When gold it
exchanged for filver, its price is always valued by the ten.
tale weight, and it is fold either above or below touch, at
follows : -viz. if the gold be 96 touch, and fold at 5 under
touch, fubtraft 5 from 96, and 91 remains: then 91 talcs
of filver are paid for 10 of gold : if gold be fold at 10 above
touch, the finenefs being flill 96, add 10 to 96, and 106
tales of filver are paid for 10 tales of gold. Silver ingots
are ufed as money, and are from ^ to 100 tales, their,
value being determined by their weight. In payment of
fmall fums, they fometimes lay the ingot on the fire, and by
finking it with a hammer, detach fmaller pieces from it.
The Enghfii reckon the tale of filver at 6s. Sd. fterling, fo
that il. fterhng is =r 3 tales. The catty of 16 tales weighs
19 oz. 6 dwts. 4 grs. Englilh troy ; fo that 10 tales would
weigh 5792 Enghfh grains. Upon the whole, the weight
of a Chinefe tale may be taken at about j8o grains Englifh
troy ; and therefore 48 tales = 58 ounces troy weight.
One hundred Spanifh dollars weigh about 722 tales. The
heavielt weight for merchandize (peculiar to the coafl of
Canton) is called pecul, and contains 100 catties or 1600
tales, with the fame decimal divifion as above. Hence a
pecul = 132 lbs. 8 oz. 9 dr. avoirdupois: and a catty
=: 21 oz. 35dr. avoirdupois.

At Acheen, in the ifle of Sumatra, accounts are kept in
tales, pardows, mace, copangs, and cafhes. A tale = 4 par-
dows =: 16 mace = 64 copangs. The coins of the country
are mace and cafhes. The mace is a fmall gold coin
weighing nine grains, and worth about 14//. fterling. The
cafhes are fmall pieces of tin or lead, 2500 of which ufually
pafs for a mace, fubjeft to occafional variation. In Si.im,
accounts are kept in catties, tales, ticals or tuals, miams»
fanangs, and cowries. The catty is 20 tales : the tale = 4
ticals =16 miams =32 fanangs : the fanang is = 800
cowries. In Tonquin, accounts are kept in tales of 10
mace or 1 00 candareens. The tale weighs here I oz. 4dwt.
HI g""*- Englifh, which is about 10 grs. more than the
Chinefe tale. Kelly's Cambift.

TALED, in the Jewijh Antiquities, a fort of habit that
the Jews wore, chiefly when they repeated their prayers in
the fynagogue. Numbers, xv. 38. Deuteronomy, xxii. 12.

It ferved inftead of that fquare garment they wore here-
tofore, to wliich Mofes had appointed that they (hould
faften borders of blue to the four quarters, and fringes or
ribbands all along the borders. But at prefent, that they
may not be expofed to the laughter of tlie people for the
too great fingularity of their drefs, they content themfelves
with wearing a fquare piece of cloth underneath, with four
tufts at the fourcorners, and when they meet in the fynagogue
to fay their prayers, they cover their heads with a iquarq
woollen veil, which has four tufts at its four corners. It is
this they call thald, or taled. Calmet, Did. & Leo of
Modena, Ceremonies of the .lews, p. i. ch. 11.

G TALEGONG,

T A L

TALEGONG, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Do\vlatabad ; I ; miles S. of Oudighir.— Alfo, a town of
Baglana ; 12 miles S. of Chandor.

TALEKAN, a town and caftle of Perfia, m the pro-
unce of Khoraffan ; 160 miles N.E. of Herat.— Alfo, a
town of Perlia, in the province of Irak ; 30 miles N.L. ot

Hamadan. _ r xt- 1,

TALENNI, a town of Japan, in the illand ol Niphon ;

160 miles W.N. W. of Meaco.
TALENT, Talentl'm, a weight, and a com, both very

famous among the ancients ; but very different in different

count lies. • -n vru

The value of the talent it is very hard to allign in JinglUti
money, as being ufcd among all the people throughout the
Ealt, and its value, and the manner of computation, being
different among each : a difficulty abundantly fliewn by
Budius, in his learned treatil'e "De Affe."

There were various kinds of talents, both with regard to
weight and to fpeeies ; the value of thefe kit ftill increafing,
as the metal of which they confiftcd was purer, though the
talent weights contained the fame number of pounds and
drachms. Accordingly, all talent weights are equally fixty
mina;, and the mina oiic hundred drachms ; but the drachma
of one place exceeding that of another, there hence arofe a
difference in the talents.

The common Attic talent then (the talent weight \ve
mean) contained fixty Attic raina;, or fix thoufand Attic
drachmx ; equal, according to Dr. Arbuthnot's redudion,
to fifty-fix pounds, eleven ounces, feventeen and one-feventh
grains, Englilhtroy weight.

There was another Attic talent, by fome faid to confift of
eighty, by others of one hundred minae. The Egyptian
talent was eighty minx ; the Antiochian alfo eighty ; the
Ptolemaic of Cleopatra eighty-fix and two-thirds ; that of
Alexandria ninety-fix ; the Infular talent one hundred and
twenty ; and that of Antioch three hundred and fixty minx.
In the valuation of money, the Grecian talent, according to
Dr. Arbuthnot, was equal to fixty minx, or reckoning the
mina at 3/. -ff. -fd. equal to 193/. 15^. ; the Syrian talent in
this valuation confiiled of fifteen Attic minx ; the Ptolemaic
of twenty ; the Antiochian of fixty ; the Euboic of fixty ;
the Babylonic of feventy ; the greater Attic of eighty ; the
Tyrian of eighty ; the Eginean of one hundred ; the Rho-
dian of one hundred ; and the Egyptian of eighty minx.
(See Arbuthnot's Tables of Ancient Coins, &c. p. 33, and
Tab. 18, 19. 23, 24.) Stating the Attic drachm of filver at
nine-pence of our money, the beft medium value, the mina of
Athens will be worth 3/. 15^. ; and the Athenian common
talent, 225/. ; and the reft may eafily be eftimated in pro-
portion.

But Mr. Raper makes the Attic talent, which confifted
of fixty minx, or fix thoufand drachmx, each drachm being
equal to fixty-fix grains and a half troy weight, or 3/. I "js,
4,V<^. ilerhng, equal to 232/. 3J. Sec Drachm.

This ingenious writer alfo obferves, that hiftorians and
others mention the Eginean and the Euboic talent. The
former weighed ten thoufand Attic drachms ; but, like
other talents, contained only fix thoufand of its own ; which
being fo much heavier than the Attic, the Athenians called
it OTa;:^!i«v ifo.xu'^'i or the thick drachm. This talent was
\ifed at Corinth ; and in a paffage of Aulus Gellius, lib.i. c. 8.
it is valued at ten thoufand Attic drachms ; and was pro-
bably ufed in moft of the cities of Peloponnefus. If the
Attic drachm weighed fixty-fix and a half troy grains, the
Eginean ftiould weigh one hundred and ten and five-fixths,
•wiuch Mr. Raper ftates at one hundred and eleven. This

T A L

Eginean talent he concludes from the mean drachm of ITk
Macedonian coins, which he found to be one hundred and
eleven grains and one-fourth, muft have been the ftandard of
the Macedonian money, till Philip changed it. And it ap-
pears likewife to have been the ftandard of the Ptolemaic
money in Egypt. Phny indeed (Nat. Hift.lib. xxxiii. c. 3.)
tells us, on the authority of Varro, that the Egyptian talent
weighed eighty Roman pounds ; but he fuppofes that this is
a falfe reading, and that for ^gyptium we ftiould read
Euboicum : for Pliny is fpeaking of the riches of Afia,
where the Euboic talent was ufed for weighing gold ; and
it is known, that the weight of that talent was fettled at
eighty Roman pounds, by the treaty between the Romans
.ind Antiochus. There is a paffage in Pollux (hb. ix.
c. 6. § 86. ) which makes the Egyptian talent contain fifteen
hundred Attic drachms. But this, he apprehends, is an
injudicious interpolation in the laft coUeftion of that author.

The Euboic talent, fays this writer, certainly came from
Afia ; for Herodotus (lib. iii. feft. 8g. ) tells us, the kings of
Perfia weighed their gold by that talent : in the fame place
he informs us, that the Babylonian talent weighed feventy
Euboic minx. Pollux fays, it weighed feventy Attic minx.
Therefore the Euboic talent ffiould be equal to the Attic.
But iElian (Var. Hift. hb.i. c. 22.) tells us, that it weighed
feventy-two Attic minx ; and if fo, the Euboic talent
ftiould be heavier than the Attic, in the proportion of
feventy-two to feventy. By two paffages, cited by Mr.
Raper, from Xenophon, Exped. lib. i. it appears probable,
that the Babylonian talent weighed above feventy Attic
minx, and above feventy Euboic minx ; and if Pollux took
his value of the Babylonian talent from Herodotus, as the
text now ftands, and jElian his value of the fame from a
more correft copy of that author, or from fome^better autho-
rity, the Euboic talent muft have been equal to the Attic.
Accordingly it contained fix thoufand Attic drachms. Phil.
Tranf. vol. Ixi. part ii. p. 483, &c.

There is another tiJent much more ancient, and much lefs
than any of thofe already mentioned, which Dr. Arbuthnot
calls the Homerical talent of gold, fuppofed, he fays, to be
equal to three Attic aurei. Pollux fpeaks of fuch a talent.
Euftathius upon Homer reckons it worth twenty-four
drachmx. That its value was fmall, whether ftxed or un-
certain, is conjeftured from the paffage of Homer, where,
defcribing the prizes at the funeral of Patroclus, two talents
of gold are propofed as a more inconfiderable prize than a
mare with foal, &c. Hence Mr. Raper, ubi fupra, p. 527,
concludes, that it was the fame that the Dorian colonies car-
ried to Sicily and Calabria : for Pollux teUs us, from
Ariftotle, that the ancient talent of the Greeks in Sicily
contained twenty-four nummi, each of which weighing an
obolus and a half, the talent muft have weighed fix Attic
drachms, or three darics ; but the daric weighed very little
more than one guinea ; and if two talents weighed about fix
guineas, we may reckon the mare with foal worth twelve ;
which was no improbable price, fince we learn from a paffage
in the Clouds of Ariftophanes, that, in his time, a running
horfe coft twelve minx, or above forty-fix pounds fterling ;
therefore this feems to have been the ancient Greek talent,
before the art of ftamping money had introduced the greater
talents from Afia and Egypt.

According to this ancient talent, fays Dr. Arbuthnot,
fome reckon the treafure of king David, particularly that
mentioned 1 Chron. xxii. 14. which, according to the common
reckoning, would amount in gold talents to the value of
547,500,000/. and the filver to above 342,000,000/. ; or
reckoning according to the decuple proportion of gold to

filver.

TAT

T A L

filver, the two fums would he equal. As David reigned in
Judea after the ilege of Troy, it is not improbable but
Homer and he .-inght ufe the fame numeral talent of gold.

It is fuggefted by Mr. Piiikerton (ElTay on Medals,
vol.i.p. 65.) thatall the ancient coins of Afia, Africa, Greece,
Magna GrKcia, and Sicily, were reducible to three talents
or ftandards. i. That of Egina, ufed in moft of the more
ancient filver coinages ; and as it would feem in even the
later of Egypt, Carthage, Greece, &c. 2. The Attic,
being the Afiatic gold ftandard ; afterwards ufed by Phidon,
ling of Argos, in eftimating gold, and called Euboic, from
Eubosa, one of the quarters of the city of Argos. It was
afterwards ufed in Athens, and the greater part of the
world, as the ftandard both of gold and filver. 3. The
Doric, or Sicilian talent, of 24 nummi, each worth an obolus
end a half : whence the talent is eftimated at fix Attic
drachms, or three darics. Thefe weights continued to be
the ftandard of money after it began to be diftinguiftied by
impreflion ; nay, to the fall of Greece, and prevalence of
the Roman empire.

Among the Romans there were two kinds of talents, the
tittle and the great talent ; the little was the common talent ;
and whenever they fay fimply talentum, they are to be under-
ftood of this : the Iktle talent was fixty minas or Roman
poimds ; the mina, or pound, eftimated at one hundred
drachmx, or denarii : it was alfo eftimated at twenty-four
great fefterces, which amounted to fixty pounds.

The great talent exceeded the lefs by one-third part.
Budsus computes, that the little talent of filver was worth
75/. fterling ; and the greater 99/. 6s. 8rf. fterling. The
greater of gold was worth 1 125/. fterling.

Talent, as afpec'ies, or money, among the Hebrews, was
fometimes ufed for a gold coin, the fame with the Jheiel
of gold, called alfo /later, and weighing only four drachms.
The Hebrews reckoned by thefe talents as we do by
pounds, &c. Thus a million of gold, or million of talents
of gold, among them, was a million of ftiekels, or nummi ;
the nummus of gold being the fame weight with the ftiekel,
■viz. four drachms.

But the Hebrew talent weight of filver, which they
called dear, was equivalent to that of three thoufand ftiekels
(Exod. xxxviii. 25. 28.) or one hundred and thirteen pounds,
ten ounces, one pennyweight, ten grains and two-fevenths,
Englifti troy weight, according to Arbuthnot's compu-
tation.

It ftiould be obferved, however, that the talent was not
every where the fame. The Hebrew talent weighed more
than that of the Greeks, and is faid to have amounted to
341/. 10s. A^d. and J. The common Attic talent might be
■worth about 193/. 15/. which might probably have been
ufed by the Jews in their commerce.

TALESj in Law, a fupply or addition of men for thofe
impannelled on a jury of inqueft, and not appearing, or at
their appearance challenged by either party as not indifferent.

In I'uch cafe, the judge, upon motion, grants fupply to be
made by tlie (heriff^ of one or more tales, fuch as are prefent
inecjrt, equal in reputation to thofe impannelled. For this
purpofe, a writ of decern tales, o&o tales, and the like, was ufed
to be ifliied to the fheriff' at common law ; and muft be ftill
fo done at the trial at bar, if the jurors make default ; but
at the affizes, or nifi prius, by virtue of the ftatute
35 Hen. VIII. c. 6. and other fubfequent ftatutes, the
judge is impowercd, at the prayer of either party, to award
a tales de c'lrcumjlantthus, of perfons prefent in court, to be
joined to the other jurors to try the caufe ; who are liable,
however, to the fame challenges as the principal jurors.
This is ufually done till the legal number of twelve be com-

pleted. The tales de c'lrcumjlant'ibus is jn fome mcafure rfn-
dered ufelefs by the ftatute fur regulating juries, 3 Geo. II.
c. 25. See Challengk and Juiiv.

TALGA, in Geography, a town of Hungary ; 8 milet
N. of Tokay.

TALGARTH, a fmall town in a hundred of the
fame name, and county of Brecon, South Wales, is fituated
on the banks of the river Llyfni, at one end of the Black
Mountains, which ftretch hence into Hercfordlhire : from its
fituatioii it derived its name ; Talgarth meaning literally the
front of the hill. Tiie town is a borough by prefcription,
but without privilege, jurifdiAion, or municipal officers.
The parifli church is a fubftantial edifice, but has no archi-
teftural elegance, nor is it enriched by any remarkable
monuments, ancient or modern : it has a tower, which forms
a confpicuous objeft from moft parts of the furrounding
country. The population of the parifti, which, befides the
borough, contains five hamlets, was in the year 1811 re-
turned to parliament as 1 1 24, the number of houfes being
274. No lefs than eight annual fairs are held here.

In the Foreft hamlet of the parifli of Talgarth are fonie
veftiges of Dinas-caftle, which, at a remote period, was a
fortrefs of importance, but has long fince been demolifhcd.
In Leland's time, it was " ruinus almoft to the hard
ground." From his defcription, it muft have been of con-
fiderable dimenfions. It coufifted of three wards " waullid
about," and had three parks and a foreft attached to it.
From the fame writer we learn, that thecaftle was deftroyed
by the natives, that it might not be occupied by the favourers

of Owen Glendwr Beauties of England and Wales,

vol. xviii. South Wales, by T. Rees, F.S.A. CarUfle'*
Topographical Diftionary of Wales.

TALGAUTPORAM, a town of Hindooftan, in My-
fore ; 6 miles S. of Bangalore.

TALGRISTAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Irak ; 50 miles E. of Nchavend.

TALGUL, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 10 miles
S.S.W. of Sirpy.

TALHA-KIAMEN, a poft of Chinefe Tartary. N.
lat. 46° 16'. E.long. 123° 44'.

TALHAM, a town of Auftria ; 2 miles S.S.W. of
Voglabruck.

TALI, a town on the W. coaft of the ifland of Formofa.
N. lat. 23° 36'. E. long. 129° 41'.

Ta-LI, a city of China, of the firft rank, in Yun-nan.
This is the principal place where they make curious tables,
and other ornaments of fine marble, which is got from a
mountain called Tienjung, and is naturally beautified with
different colours, in the form of mountains, flowers, trees,
and rivers. Ta-li has under its jurifdiftion four cities of the
fecond order, and three of the third; 1205 n.iles S.W.
of Peking. N. lat. 25° 45'. E. long. 100°.

TALIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Upper
Moefia, on the route from Viminatium to Nicomcdia. Ant.
Itin.

TALJARA, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 46 miles
S. of Curruckdeah.

TALIFAY, a town on the N. coaft of the ifland of
Lu?on. N. lat. 14- 21'. E. long. 123° 24'.

TALIGALEA, in Botany, an unexplained name,
Aublet Guian. 625. t. 252. Jufl". 109, appears to be the
fame genus, and even the fame fpecies, as Amasonia of
Linnsus. (See that article.) The fruit of the latter
having been examined in a drier ftate, may folve all the
difficulty,

Aublet defcribesTiis only fpecies, T. campejirls, as an herb

with a perennial root, fometimes creeping. Slemt aunual*

G 2 two

T A L

two or three feet high, fimple, leafy, downy. Leavts slier-
natc, ftalked, eUiplical, pointed, from three to fix inches
long, downy, with tooth-like fcrratures. The variety with
a creeping root has fmooth leaves, and we ftiould prefume it
may be a diftind fpecies. The Jlawers are yellow, about an
inch lont^, numerous, in a long compound clujler, with ovate
purple iraatoj. Berry hlaek, with two hard feeds — -Tliis
plant grows abundantly in the fandy meadows of the idand
of Cayenne, as well as on the continent of Ssuth America,
bearing flowers and fruit all fummer long.

TALIGONG, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the Carnatic ; 7 miles N. of Tcrriore.

TALIGOV, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Riga ; 24 miles N. of Dorpat.

TALIHOU, afmallilland, with a lazaretto, onthecoaft
of France. At low-water the land which joins to the con-
tinent is dry ; 3 miles N. of La Hogue. N. lat. 49° 36'.
W. long. 1° 9'.

TALINA, a town of Peru ; 50 miles E.S.E. of Lipes.

TA-LIN-HO, a town of Chinefe T.artary. N. lat. 41°
10'. E. long. 1 20'' 50'.

TALINUM, in Botany, a genus of Adanfon's, well
feparated by him from the Linnian Portulaca. ( See that
article.) Its name no one, not even De Theis, has under-
taken to explain ; Adanfon having given fo many barbarous,
and even arbitrary ones, that the inquiry might well be
deemed alike hopelcfs and unprofitable. We conjefture,
however, that he muft have had in liis mind the verb SaA?.ie,
to ie verdant, or fiouri/hing, and confequently OxMc, or 9a>dcc,
M green bough ; for he often wrote words with a T which in
Greek begin with a 9 ; and the above idea is fuitable enough
to the fucculent, and durably verdant, habit of the genus.
We hence learn the true accentuation of the word, 7a/T««m.
Ehrhart called this fame genus Rulingia, after Dr. John
Philip Killings, who publifhed at Gottingen, in 1774, a
catalogue of the genera of plants, difpofed in natural orders.
Linnaeus had formerly diftinguifhed it by the name of

jinacampferos Adanf. Fam. v. 2. 245. JulT. 312. Willd.

Sp. PI. V. 2. 862. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 148. Purlh 365.
Lamarck lUuftr. t. 402. Gsrtn. t. 128. (Riilingia; Ehrh.
Beitr. v. 3. 132. Orygia ; Forik. ^gypt.-Arab. 103.
Anacampferos ; Linn. Gen. ed. i. 152. Sims in Curt.
Mag. p. 1367.) — Clafs and order, PolyanJrla Monogynia.
(Dodecandria Monogynia, Willd.) Nat. Ord. Succulenta,
Linn. Portulacett, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of two or five oblong,
rather unequal, permanent leaves. Cor. Petals five, fpread-
Ing, ovate, obtufe, as long or longer than the calyx. Stam.
Filaments numerous, capillary, not half fo long as the
corolla ; anthers incumbent, oblong. Pijl. Germen fupe-
rior, roundiih ; ftyle fimple, about as long as the corolla ;
ftigmas three, oblong, reflexed. Perk. Capfule ovate, of
one cell, and three, five, or fix valves. Seeds numerous,
roundifh, affixed to a globular central receptacle.

EfT. Ch. Petals five. Calyx of two or five leaves. Cap-
fule fuperior, with from three to fix valves, one cell, and
many feeds.

SeAion I. Stipulas none. Seeds without wings.
I. T. trianguhire. Triangular-ftalked Yellow Talinum.
Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. (Portulaca triangularis; Jacq.
Amer. 147. Obf. fafc. 1. 35. t. 23. P. racemofa ; Linn.
Sp. PI. 640. Heliaiithemum frutefcens, portulacas foho ;
Plum. Ic. 142. t. 150. f. 2.) — Leaves flat, channelled,
wedge-(haped, emarginate, with a fmall point. Clufter

fimple, with a triangular ft.ilk. Stem fpreading Native

of the fea-lhores of the Weft Indies. Cultivated in Chelfea
garden in 1739. Mr. Alton fays it bloflbms in the ftove,

T A L

moll part of liic fummer. The Jlcm is Ihrubby, two feet
high, round, fmooth, branched, decuii.Vient in the lower
part. Leaves fcattered, about one and a hai£ or two inches
long, fucculent, fmooth, fliining, brittle, entire aithe edges;
occafionally convex, being reflexed at the fides, tapering at
the bafe into a fliort footftalk. Flowers two or nwre, on a
terminal triangular ftalk, very elegant, of a brilliant yellow,
without fcent. Calyx of two leaves. Capfule with tlisee
valves.

2. T. crajftcaule. Thick-ftemmed Red Talinum. (T.
craflifolium; Willd. n.2. T. patens; Andr. Repof. t.253.,
Ait. n. 2. Portulaca craflicaulis ; Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 3.
29. t. 52. P. craffifolia ; Murray in Linn. Syft. Veg. ed.
14. 446.) — Leaves flat, obovate, entire at the point. Co-
rymbs compound, elongated. Stem ereift — Native pro-
bably of the Well Indies. Jacquin cultivated it at Vienna,
and we have feen it flowering in many of the Englifh ftoves.
This differs from the former in its more ereft and thicker

fiem, as well as in the fine pink colour of ilsjloiuers. The
leaves moreover are not emarginate. The corymbofe, or
panicled, many-flowered /aMj, at firft terminal, are fome-
times overtopped by the aggregate leafy branches, and thus
become lateral, or axillary. Murray, from mere inadver-
tence in tranfcribing, altered Jacquin's original name, for
one which has here no appropriate meaning — Willdenow
feems to have copied him, without feeing the work of Jac-
quin ; which from this, and fome other inilances, we fufpeft
he had not in his pofleffion. We do not think it neceifary
to perpetuate fuch an error, any more than that of Andrews,
who took this plant for Willdenow's T. patens, fee n. 4.

3. T . fruticofum. Shrubby White Talinum. Willd. n. 7.
(Portulaca fruticofa; Linn. Syft. Veg. ed. 13. 371. P.
paniculata ; Linn. Sp. PI. 640. P. americana latifolia
erefta, floribus albis ; Comm. Hort. v. i. 7. t. 4.) — Leaves
flat, obovate, fomewhat emarginate. Corymbs compound,
elongated. Stem creft. Calyx of five leaves. — Native of
the Weft Indies, or of South America. This fpecies, a
ftranger to our gardens, appears to differ eifentially from the
two foregoing in having five leaves to the calyx, inftead of
two ; to fay notliing of the white petals. In habit, leaves,
and injlorefcence, it comes very near the laft. The capfule is
faid to confift of three valves in both.

4. T. patens. Panicled Red Talinum. Willd. n. 4.
Haworth Succ. PL 123. (T. panic ulatum ; Gsertn. v. 2.
219. Portulaca patens ; Linn. Mant. 242. Jacq. Hort.
Vind. V. 2. 71. t. 151. P. paniculata ; Jacq. Amer. 148.)
— Leaves flat, obovate, obtufe. Panicle repeatedly com-
pound, forked, many -flowered. — Native of rocks on the
fea-coaft of Martinico and Hifpaniola. Jacquin. We have
feen it in the Englifh ftoves, as Mr. Haworth likewife
appears to have done, when he remarks that the patens of
Andrews is a widely different plant. ( See our 2d fpecies. )
That before us has an upright fhrubby Jlem, one and a half
or two feet high, branched ; fomewhat quadrangular below.
Leaves fcattered, or imperfeftly oppofite, obovate, lanceo-
late or oval, more or lefs obtufe, very fmooth and juicy ; the
lower ones three inches long, the reft fhorter ; all tapering
at the bafe into a fhort fuutjlalh. Panicles folitary at the
top of the ftem and branches, creft, from fix to ten inches
long, with numerous, moftly oppofite, repeatedly fubdivided,
and partly forked, flendtr, fmooth, fpreading ftalks, accom-
pariied here and there by fmall lanceolate bradttas at their
bafe. Flowers numerous, fmall, inodorous. Calyx of two
orbicular, concave, red, widely fpreading leaves. Petals
five, obovate, red, thrice the fize of the calyx, hkevpife
widely fpreading. Capfule globofe, fmaller than a pepper-
corn, its three valves, whi^h Jacquin defcribes as double, or of

twe

T A L

T A L

two layers, fufpended from the top of three intermediate
fibres. See Gitrtner's figure and defcription, where tlie
fynonym of CommeHn, which belongs to the foregoing,
is very erroneoufly cited for the prefent fpecies. This miiil
have arifen from Linngeus's having once called the former
Portulaca pati'tculata, and Gcertiier's having copied tlie above
fynonym without examination.

5. T. reflexam. Panicled Yellow Talinum. Cavan. Ic.
V. I. I. t. I. Havvorth Succ. PI. 124. Curt. Mag. t. 1543.
Ait. Epit. 375. (T. patens g; Willd. n. 4.) — Leaves
fomewhat convex, elliptic-lanceolate, acute. Panicle twice

compound, many-flowered Native of South America. —

An annual or biennial, fcarcely flirubby, plant in our lloves.
Mr. Haworth obferves, it is more tender, and much taller,
than the laft, of which Willdenow thought it a mere variety.
We are not fure that the differences indicated in our fpecific
charafters are fufficient or permanent, not having had an
opportunity of comparing the two plants. The flowers of
T. rijlexum being yellow, feems an important diilinftion in
this genus. Both fpecies are faid to be abundantly pro-
pagated by feed.

6. T. cuneifolium. Wedge-leaved Talinum. Willd. n. 5.
(Portulaca cuneifolia ; Vahl Symb. v. i. 33. Orygia por-
tulacifolla ; Forflc. jEgypt.-Arab. 103.) — Leaves flat,
wedge-fhaped, obtufe, with an occafional point. Panicle
many-flowered ; its lower branches umbellate, three-
flowered. — Native of Arabia Felix A Jhrub three feet

high. Leaves eatable, alternate, fpreading, feflile, taper-
ing at the bafe, about an inch long, thick and fmooth.
Calyx of two unequal leaves, deciduous. Pettils of a violet
red. Stamens green, with yellow anthers. Capfule three-
angular, of three valves. Seeds black, comprefled, fmooth.
Forjkall. — Vahl fays this fpecies is akin to T. patens, n. 4,
but differs in having thicker Jloiver^a/is, the lower ones
bearing three-flowered umbels.

7. T. decumbens. Decumbent Glaucous Talinum. Willd.
n. 6. ( Portulaca decumbens ; Vahl Symb. v. i. 33. Orygia
decumbens; Forlk. ^gypt.-Arab. 103.) — Leaves flat,
obovate, pointed. Clufters axillary. Stem decumbent.

Calyx of five leaves Native of Arabia Felix, in ftony

places near Mufa, but not common. Forjkall, Stem fhrubby,
with angular branches, clothed, like the reft of the plant,
with a gla\icous mealinefs. Leaves diftant, ftalked, thickifh,
fomewhat wavy. Clujlers from thebofoms of the uppermoft
leaves, with an awl-fhaped fcale, or braBea, oppofite to each
partial ftalk. Capfule of five valves. Vahl. — Forfkall de-
fcribes numerous lanceolate/f/aZr, about twenty, of a reddifh
violet ; and five cells, as well as valves, to the capfule.

8. T. teretifoHum. Cylindrical-leaved Talinum. Purfh
11. I. — " Leaves cylindrical, flelhy. Corymbs ftalked, ter-
minal."— On funny rocks in Delaware and Virginia, flower-
ing in July. Perennial. Flowers purple. Purjh.

Seftion 2. Stipulas luithinfide of the lea-ves, jagged. Seeds
•winged.

9. T. Anacampferos. Round-leaved Talinum. Willd.
n. 3. Ait. n. 3. " Decand. PI. Graffes, t. 3." (Rlihngia
Anacampferos ; Ehrh. Beitr. v. 3. 133. Haworth Succ.
PI. 124. Portulaca Anacampferos ; Linn. Sp. PI. 639. P.
africanafempervirenSjflorerubicundo ;Comm.Hort. v. 2. 177.
t. 89. Telephiaftrum folio globofo ; Dill. Elth. 375. t. 281.)
— Leaves ovate, acute, fmooth ; convex and tumid beneath.
Stipulas filamentous, many times fhorter than the leaves.
Petals obovate. — Native of the Cape of Good Hope. Cul-
tivated by Sherard in 1732. A greenhoufe plant, flowering
in July. A humble fhrubby fpecies, whofe extremely thick
and fucculent leaves, about an inch long, give it the habit of
an Ahe. They are feflile, of a pale glaucous green, not

na-
in-

fliining ; their upper fide nearly flat, with a longitudinal
furrow ; the under very convex. Slipulas fliort, in many
capillary fegments. Flotvers crimfon, the fize of our fecond
or third fpecies, in long-ftalked terminal fimple cluflers,
which are fometimes two together. Calyx of two leaves.
Petals fomewhat pointed. The feeds are faid to be winged.
Ehrhart calls them arillata, tunicated. — The fpecific name,
borrowed from PHny, derived from xyaxafM7r%, to return, and
!3o?, love, was at firtl adopted by Linnxus as a generic appel-
lation for the prefent plant, when he confidered it as a dif-
tindl genus from Portulaca, in liis earlier publications. But
this name, and the foolifh fuperftition to which it alludes, of
the very touch of the lierb retlorlng alienated love, rather
belongs to the Sediim Anacampferos of Linnaeus, and its near
relation S.Telephium. See Sedim.

10. T. arachnoides. Cobweb Talinum. Ait. n. 4. (Ana
campferos arachnoides ; Sims in Curt. Mag. 1. 1368. Riilin
gia arachnoides; Haworth Succ. PI. 125.) — Leaves ellip-
tical, acute ; flightly convex, and covered with cobweb-like
down above ; tumid beneath. Stipulas filamentous, fhorter

than the leaves. Petals elliptical Found by Mr. MafTon

at the Cape of Good Hope, and fent to Kew about the year
1790. It is treated like the laft, and agrees with that fpecies
in general habit, though fmaller in fize. The leaves are lefs
glaucous ; the lower ones covered with a kind of web.
Stipulas longer and more robull. Flowers white, with a faint

blulb. Seeds obferved by Mr. Haworth to be lefs winged

The leaves are reprefented in the Botanical Magazine with a
tinge of purphlh-brown. Perhaps Mr. Haworth's Riilingia
rubens, n. 3, may be only a higher-coloured variety.

II. T. filamentofum. Thready TaUnum. Ait. n. y.
(Anacampferos filamentofa ; Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 1367.
Riihngia filamentofa; Haworth Succ. PI. 125.) — Leaves
ovate, bluntifh, tumid and covered with cobweb-hke down
on both fides. Stipulas filamentous, longer than the leaves.

Petals lanceolate Found by Mr. Maffon, at the Cape

of Good Hope, and fent to Kew a few years after the
laft, from which it differs in having fmaller, blunter leaves,
and much longer, more confpicuous, Jlipulas, whofe feg-
ments are linear and flattened, like ftiavings of horn. Tne
petals are rofe-colourcd, and elliptic-lanceolate, very fuga-
cious, as in the two foregoing fpecies. We have never feen
Mr. Haworth's Riilingia lanceolata, n.j, but it feems, by his
definition, nearly akin to this.

The winged feeds can hardly entitle the fpecies of this
feAion to form a feparate genus, there being fo little differ-
ence in habit. If they did, the name of Riilingia muil cer-
tainly be preferred to Anacampferos, the latter, notwithftand-
ing its right of priority, having been arbitrarily and errone-
oufly applied to thefe Cape plants, with which the ancients
were of courfe unacquainted. See our remark under the
9th fpecies.

TALIO, Lex Talionis, or Pcena Talionis, a rct.-diation, or
punifhment, by which an evil is returned porft-ftly hke that
committed againft us by another ; which is what we ufually
exprefs by the words, eye for eye, tooth fur tooth.

The pcena talionis was enjoined by tlie law of Mofes,
among the Jews ; it was cfteemed a natural piece of juftice,
and yet the Romans fet it atide, inafmuch as fuch a parity
or equality of puniflimcnt could not always be obferved.
For this reafon the pra'tor allowed fuch as had fufFered an
injury to make an cftimale of it in nioiny, that juftice
might be done him that way ; only rei'erving to himfelf the
power of moderating the fame. And this was what was
conftantly praftifed, and thus the /ana talionis became quite
difuftd with them.

TALISIA, in Botany, a barbarous name of Aublet's,

which.

T A L

which lie appears to have fabricated out of the Caribbean
appellation of the plant in queftion, Toulichi. We (hoiild be
incxciifable in giving more than a temporary fantlion to fuch
a name, till the genus is eith.r better known than at prefent,
or fet alto'n'iher afide. — Aubl. Guian. 349. Jul!'. 247.
Lamarck lUuftr. t. 310. — Clafs and order, Oilandria Mono-
gyitia. Nat. Ord. Sapindi, Ju(T.

Gen. Cli. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five
deep, acute fegments. Cor. Petals five, ovate, inferted into
the orbicular receptacle of the flower beneath the gcrmen.
Nedary of five fhort, hairy, upright fcales, one inferted into
the bafe of each petal, covering the ftamens. Stam. Fila-
ments eight, fhort, inferted into the orbicular receptacle ;
anthers oblong, of two cells. Pijl. Gcrmen fuperior, mi-
nute, roundifli, of four cells ; ftyle one, very (hort ; ftigma
fimple, obtufe. Penc. unknown.

EfT. Ch. Calyx in five deep fegments. Petals five.
Neftary of five hairy fcales, attached to the petals. Germen
of four cells.

1. T.giiiiinenjls. Toulichi of Guiana. Aubl. Guian. 349.
t. 136. — Native of banks of rivers in Guiana, flowering in

Oftobcr A flirub, whofe tnmi is three or four feet high, and

as many inches in diameter, with a greyifli bark, and whitifli
wood ; the branches long, compound, varioudy fpreading.
Leaves alternate, pinnate, very large, each confifl;ing of
about thirty alternate, ftalked, elliptic-lanceolate, pointed,
entire, fmooth, veiny leaflets, befides an odd one, from five
to fix inches long, and above one broad. Clujlers axillary
and terminal, doubly compound, many-flowered, all over of
a fine rofe-colour, with a fmall fcaly hraSea under each fub-
divifion. Flowers fmall, in little tufts, nearly feflile. — No-
thing is known of the/rmV, except that the germen has four
cells, nor is any thing recorded concerning the qualities or
ufes of this plant.

TALISKERAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in
the province of Adirbeitzan ; 100 miles N.N.E. of Ar-
debil.

TALISMANS, magical figures engraven or cut under
certain fuperftitious obfervances of the charafterifms and con-
figurations of the heavens ; to which fome aftrologers, her-
metical philofophers, and other adepts, attribute marvel-
lous virtues, particularly that of calling down celeftial in-
fluences.

The word is pure Arabic ; though Menage, after Salma-
fius, thinks it may come from the Greek ■nXtsrfj.a., operation,
or conjecrat'ion. Borel fays it is Perfian, and fignifies literally
an engraven conftellation. Others derive it a talamacis Uteris,
which are myfterious charafters, or cyphers, ufed byforcerers,
thus called from lalamafca, a phantom, or illufion.

The author of a book, entitled, Talifmans jujlifiez, fays,
a tahfman is the feal, figure, charadler, or image of a hea-
venly fign, conftellation, or planet, engraven on a fympa-
thetic ilone, or on a metal correfponding to the ftar, &g.
in order to receive its influences.

The talifmans of the Samothracians, fo famous of old,
were pieces of iron, formed into certain images, and fet in
rings, &c. They were held prefervatives againft all kinds
of evils. There were other talifmans taken from vegetables,
and others from minerals.

In the general, we may diftinguifh three kinds of talif-
mans. AJlronomical, which are known by the figns or con-
ttellationsof the heavens engraven on them, with other figures,
and fome unintelligible charatlers. Magical, wliich bear very
extraordinary figures, with fuperftitious words and names of
angels unheard of. And mixt, which confift of figns, and
barbarous words j but have no fuperftitious ones, or names
of angels.

T A L

Some rabbins maintain, that the brazen fcrpent, raifed by
Mofes in the wildernefs, for the deftruftion of the fcrpents
that annoyed the Ifraelites, was properly a talifman.

All the miraculous things wrought by Apollonius Tya-
nasus are attributed to the virtue and influence of talifmans :
and that wizard is even faid by fome to have been the in-
ventor of talifmans.

Some authors take feveral Runic medals, at leaft medals
whofe infcriptions are in Runic charafters, for talifmans ; it
being notorious, that the northern nations, in their heathen
ftate, were much devoted to them. M. Keder, however, has
fliewn, that the medals here fpoken of are quite other things
than talifmans.

TALISSE, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Eaft
Indian fea, neai- the N. coaft of the ifland of Celebes. N.
lat. 1° 40'. E. long. 124° 50'.

TALK, in Mineralogy. See Talc.
TALKAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Irak ; 30 miles E. of Sultania.

TALKEAVE, a town of Perfia, in KhoraflTan ; 50 miles

E. of Tabaflvili Alfo, a town of Perfia, in Segeftan ; 21

miles S.W. of Kin.

TALKHAN, a town of Grand Bucharia; 80 miles
S.S.W. of Balk.

TALKING. See Speaking.

TALLAGH, in Geography, a poft-town of the county
of Dublin, Ireland, where is the ancient and noble refidence
of the archbifliops of Dublin ; 5 miles S.W. by W. from
Dubhn.

TALLANO, a town of Corfica, and capital of a dif-
trift, in the department of the Liamone, fituated in a bay
of the Mediterranean, called the " Gulf of TaUano ;"
30 miles S.S.W. of Corte. N. lat. 41" 33'. E. long.
9° II'.

TALLAPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 22
miles N.E. of Lucknow.

TALLARAPESCET, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Mazanderan ; 2 1 miles S. of Fehrabad.

TALLARD, a town of France, in the department of
the Higher Alps, on the Durance ; 9 miles S. of Gap.

TALLARO, in Commerce, a filver coin of Tufcany,
Venice, and Ragufa. At Florence the tallaro is = 6 lire
or 9 paoU, the hre bemg worth about 8^/. The new tallari
of Ragufa, called libertine, coined between 1791 and 1794,
are of the weight of i oz. 10 carats, containing 9 parts of
pure filver to 6 of alloy ; and the value of the tallaro was
reckoned at 80 groftetti. Since 1 796 there have been coined
ducats of 40 groifetti, containing 9 parts of pure filver and
1 1 of alloy. The ducat of 1 796 is worth i 7,\d. fterling,
which is nearly the value of the Turkifli piaftre of the latell
coinage.

By Mr. Bingley's aflay, the mint price of filver in Eng-
land being jj. 2d. per ounce ttandard, the tallaro of Venice
(■5, &c. in proportion) is worfe than Englifh ftandard (W. )
I oz. 3 dwts., its weight iSdwts. lofgrs., its content in
pure filver 367.1 grs., and value in fterhng 4^. ■^^d. The
tallaro and its divifions are marked with the head of a
woman, legend, Refpublica Veiteta ; reverfe, a winged lion,
and a book ; legend, the reigning doge's name, thus Paulo
Rainario duca.

The affay of the tallaro of Ragufa, or Ragufian of 1759,
is W. 4 oz. 2 dwts., its weight 18 dwts. 7^ grs., its con-
tent in pure filver 256.4 grs., and its fterling value 2J. I \\d.
That of 1774, W. 40Z. 4dwts., weight 18 dwts. 85 grs.,
content in pure filver 253.3 grs., and value zs. \\\d. That
of 1794, W. 3 oz, i9dvrts., weight 18 dwts. 17^ grs., con-
tent 267.6 grs., and fterling value 3^. i\d. The ducat of

17971

T A L

■'7W> ^^^- 5°'' 1 1 dwts., weight 8 dwts. i7:Jgrs., content
57 grs., and value is. l^d.

The tcillaro of Ragufa is marked with the head of the
chief magiftrate, called the rcttor ; legend, Reilor Reip.
Rhacitftn ; reverfe, arms of the city ; legend, Ducat et Sum,
Reip. Rac. In the Levant, and other places, the term tal-
laro is applied to dollars in general. Kelly's Cambiil.

TALLEVENDE, in Geography, a townof France, in the
department of the Calvados, containing near 3000 inhabit-
ants, chiefly employed in the mamifafture of earthenware ;
2 miles S.W. of Vire.

TALLIAGE, Tai-LAgium, a certain rate, according
to which barons and knights were anciently taxed by the
king towards the expences of the ilate, and inferior tenants
by their lords, on certain occafions.

That raifed to the king was on his demefnes, efcheats,
and ivardfhips, and upon the cities and burgiis of the realm.
When it was paid out of knights' fees, it was called y^j/Za^f
(which fee) ; when by cities and burghs, talliage ; when
upon lands not of a military tenure, hidage ; which fee.

This latter talhage of the cuftomary tenants was fome-
times fixed and certain, and fometimes at tiie pleafure of the
lord ; and was alfo fometimes compounded for.

Talliages were anciently called cuttings ; which name is
ftill retained in Ireland, though in a different fignification.

Talliage, fays fir Ed. Coke, is a general name including
all taxes ; and is derived from the French taille, tax, founded
on the tally of petty tradefmen ; as the country people
appointed to colleiil it, not being able to write, fcored down
what they received on tallies. See Land-tax and Sub-

MDY.

TALLIKA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Bondou, inhabited by Foulahs of the Ma-
hometan religion, in the road of the caravans ; 70 miles
W.S.W. of Fatteconda. N. lat. 13° 56'. W. long. 1 1° 40'.

TALLIPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 10
miles S.E. of Hajypour.

TALLIS, Thomas, in Biography, the mailer of Bird,
and one of the greateft muficians, not only of this country,
but of all Europe, during the i6th century, in which many
;;ble contrapuntiils fiourifhed.

He was born early in the reign of Henry VIII. ; but
though it has frequently been afferted that he was organift
of the chapel royal during the reigns of that monarch, Ed-
ward VI., queen Mary, and queen EUzabeth, yet it would
be difficult to prove that, in the three iirft of thefe reigns,
laymen were ever appointed to any fuch office. In the
reign of Henry, and his daughter Mary, when the Roman
Catholic religion prevailed, the organ, in convents, was
ufually played by monks ; and in cathedrals and collegiate
churches and chapels, by the canons, and otliers of the
priefthood. The firft lay orgajiills of die chapel royal upon
record were Dr. Tye, Bhthman, the mailer of Dr. Bull,
Tallis, and Bird ; all during the reign of queen Elizabeth.

1 nough the melody or plain-fong of the cathedral fervice
was firft adjufted to Englifh words by Marbeck, yet Tallis
enriched it with harmony. Indeed the melody ufed by
Talhs is not exaftly fimilar to that of Marbeck, it is only
of the lame kind ; confifting of fragments of the ancient ec-
clefiaftical canto fermo. But the harmony in vi'hich he has
clothed it is admirable ; and the modulation being fo an-
tique, chiefly in common chords or fundamental harmony to
each note of the diatonic fcale, often where the moderns
have fixths, fevenths, and their inverfions, produces a folemn
and very different effeft from any mufic that has been com-
pofed durmg the laft century. As all melody, in which
the femito-.ies are avoided, mufl refemble that of Scotland-;

T A L

fo all harmony, in which neither the tr'ttonus nor faife fifth
occurs, and where the fecond, third, and fixth of the k -y,
are only accompanied with common cho'ds, muft remind ug
of that which prevailed in the fixteenth century ; and though
fo ancient, appear new to our ears, from its long difufe.

There are two compofitions by Tallis for the organ, prc-
ferved in queen Elizabeth's Virginal Book, one of'which is
dated 1561, ar.d the other 1564; both built upon a dull
and unmeaning ground, or fragment of plain-chant (f.tlix
namque), and both alike dry, elaborate, and difficult, to
hands formed by modern mufic. The little melody and
rhythm in the compofitions of thefe times required all the
harmony that could be crowded into them. Notes are mul-
tiplied witiiout end, and difficulties created without effect.
It is not by the inftrumental mufic, which had been but
little cultivated, that we mufl judge of the genius of old
mailers ; but by vocal, in parts : where the harmony and
contrivance compenfate for want of accent, talle, and inven-
tion. The Latin motets and hymns, or " Caiitiones facroe,"
which he publidied jointly with thofe of his difciple Bird,
are perhaps the bed of his compofitions that have been pre-
ferved. Thefe appeared in 1575, under the following title :
" Cantiones qux ab Argumento facrx vocantur qiiinque et
fex Partium. Autoribus Tiioma Talliffio et Gulielmo
Birdo, Anglis, Sereniffima; Rcginas Majeftati a private
facello Gcnerofis et Organiilis." At the time of this pub-
lication, a very arbitrary and monopolifing patent was
granted by queen Elizabeth to thefe compofors, for twenty-
one years, not only for the publication of tlieir own produc-
tions, vocal and inftrumental, but thofe of all other mufi-
cians, whether Enghili, Frencli, or Italian, as well as for
the fole ruling and vending of mufic-paper.

Moft of thefe excellent compofitions, of which the words
were originally Latin, were afterwards adjufted to Enghfh
words by Dr. Aldrich, and others, for the ufe of our
cathedrals. The canons, inverfions, augmentations, dimi-
nutions, and other learned and fafhionablc contrivances of
the times, which were of very difficult accomplilhment, are
carried to a wonderful degree of ingenuity in thefe pro-
dudlions.

Dr. Thomas Tiidway, of Cambridge, made a very valu-
able colleftion of Enghfh church mufic, in fcore, from the
Reformation to the Reftoration, in fix volumes, thick 4to.
for Lord Harlev, afterwards earl of Oxford, which is now
among the Harleian manufcripts, in the Britifli Mufeum,
No. 7337. In the firft volume of this coUedlion we have
the whole fervice of Tallis in D minor, in four pai'ts, con-
fifting of the Te Deum, Benediilus, Kyrie Eltifon, Credo,
Magnificat, Nunc Diniittis, and Litany, as printed in 1760,
by Dr. Boyce ; with feveral anthems in four and five parts ;
as, " Wipe away my fins ;" " With all our hearts and
mouths ;" " O Lord, give thy holy fpirit ;" " I call and
cry;" and his anthem, " Difcomfit them, O Lord!" er-
roneoufly faid by Dr. Tudway to have been ftt for the vic-
tory over the Spanifli Armada, 1588.

In Chrift-Church, Oxford, are nianufcript fcores of his
Prices, Litany, and Anthems, among others by Bird,
Farrant, Bull, Gibbons, and Child. Five of his motets
and full anthems, in five parts, to I-atin and Englifli words,
are likewife here preferved among liie works of other Eng-
hfh mafters, in Dr. Aldrich's coUedlion. But the moil
curious and extraordinary of all his labours was his " Song
of forty Parts," which is ftill fubiilling, and now before
us. This wonderful effort of hrjmonical abilities is not di-
vided into choirs of four parts : fopraiio, altus, tenor, and
bafe, in each, like the compofitions a moiti cori, of Bencvoli,
and others ; but confiitg of eight trebles, placed under each

other J

T A L

other ; elclit mez.zi foprani, or mean parts ; eight conntcr-
tcnors ; eight tenors ; and eight bafcs ; with one line allotted
to the organ. All thofc feveral parts, as may be imagined,
are not in fimple counterpoint, or filled up in mere harmony,
without meaning or defign, but have each a (hare in the
fhort fubiefts of fugue and imitation, which are introduced
upon every change of words. The firft fubje£l is begun
in G, by the firft mezzo foprano, or medius, and anfwcred
in D, the fifth abovf, by the firft foprano ; the fecond me-
dius in like manner beginning in G, is anfwered in the oftave
below by the firft tenor, and that by the firft counter-tenor
in D, the fifth above ; then the firft bafe has the fubjeft in
D, the eighth below the counter-tenor ; and thus all tlic
forty real parts are feverally introduced in the courfe of
thirty-nine bars, when the whole vocal phalanx is employed
at once, during fix bars more. After which a new fubjeft
is led off" by the loweft bafe, and purfued by other parts,
feverally, for about twenty-four bars, when there is a general
chorus of all the parts ; and thus this ftupendous, though
perhaps Gothic, fpecimen of human labour and intelleft, is
carried on in alternate flight, purfuit, attack, and choral
union to the end ; when the Polyphonic phenomenon is ter-
minated by twelve bars of univerfal chorus, in quadragin-
tefimal harmony. The entire compofition confifts of one
hundred and thirty-eiglit bars, in alia breve time.

This venerable mufician died in November, 1585, and
was buried in the old parifh church of Greenwich, in Kent.
The following epitaph, which Dr. Boyce has printed in the
firft volume of his CoUeftion of Cathedral Mufic, Strype,
in his Continuation of Stow's Survey, printed 1720, fays
he found engraved in Gothic letters, on a brafs plate in the
chancel.

" Enterred here doth ly a worthy wyght.

Who for long tyme in mufick bore the bell :
His name to (hew was Thomas Tallis hyght.

In honeft vertuous lyfF he did excell.
He ferv'd long tyme in chappel with grete prayfe

Fower fovereygnes reignes, (a thing not often feene) ;
I mean king Henry and prince Edward's dayes,

Quene Marie, and Elizabeth our queue,
He maryed was, though children he had none,

And lyv'd in love full three and thirty yeres
With loyal fpowfe, whos name yclept was Jone,

Who here entorab'd, him company now bears.
As he dyd lyve, fo alfo dyd he dy.

In myld and quyet fort, O happy man !
To God ful oft for mercy did he cry.

Wherefore he lyves, let Deth do what he can."

The ftone to which this plate was affixed had been re-
newed by Dr. Aldrich ; but the old church having been
pulled down, about the year 1720, in order to be rebuilt,
no memorial remains of Tallis, or any other illuftrious per-
fon, who had been interred there anterior to that period.

TALLOW, a fort of animal fat, melted down and cla-
rified. There are fcarcely any animals but a fort of tallow
may be prepared from j but thofe which yield the moft, and
of which the moft ufe is made, are the horfe, bullock, (heep,
hog, goat, deer, bear, and viper. Some of which tallows,
or fats, are ufed in medicine, and called axung'ia.

Moft of the reft are ufed in the making of foap, and the
dreffing of leather ; but chiefly in making of candles. For
this purpofe, large quantities are annually imported from
RuiTia in ca(ks. (See Candle.) Tallow-chandlers alfo
melt tallow, which is done by chopping the fat, as it is
tjjien from oxen aijd (heep, and then boiling it for fome time
in a large copper ; and when the tallow is extrafted by tlus

T A L

procefs, the remainder is fubjefled to the operation of a
ftrong iron prefs ; and the cake that is left, after the tallow
is expreffed from it, is called a " greave." With this dogs
are fed, and moft of the ducks that are reared in the vale of
Avle(bury, and which fupply the London markets. It is
alfo fometimes given to oxen and pigs, but certainly without
meliorating the flavour of the meat.

It has been obferved, that candles (hould be made without
any admixture of oil or greafe ; and when laid up, (hould
be preferved from the aftion of the atmofphere. For this
purpofe, fome perfons keep their candles clofely covered up
in bran. If tallows are weak, a part foon becomes con-
verted to an acid by expofure to the air ; and this renders the
whole, when melted together, unfit for candles. Tallows,
alfo, that contain a large portion of febacic acid, require
much more barilla than good tallow, in the manufafture of
foap, and yet produce a lefs quantity. Foreign tallows,
which frequently contain a large portion of acid, rendering
them inferior to the Englilh, may be purified at an infignifi-
cant expence by chemical means ; and by the proper appli- •
cation of chemical agents, other brown tallows may be ren- ■
dered beautifully white, and fit for the beft purpofes. The
mode, fays a chemical writer of reputation, which naturally
prefents itfelf as the beft for feparating the febacic acid from
tallow, is that of melting it in water containing fome alkali ;
but old tallows may in general be fufliciently purified from
their rancidity by melting them upon lime-water, and giving
a confiderable agitation to the whole mixture ; for when the
water is again luffered to fubfide, it will be found to be of-
fenfive in fmell, and to have fubtrafted moft of the impurities
of the tallow. If the tallow, however, (hould not be fuifi-
ciently purified, a repetition of this procefs would completely
effeft it. Parkes's Chemical EflTays, vol. i. p. 67, &c.

Tallovi -Tree, in China, is a tree growing in great
plenty in that country, which produces a fubftance like our
tallow, and ferving for the fame purpofe. See Croton ■
Sebiferum. *

All the preparation they give it, is to melt it down and
mix a little oil with it, to make it fofter, and more pliant. —
It is true, their candles made of it ^neld a thicker fmoke, fl
and a dimmer light than ours ; but thofe defefts are owing, ^
in a great meafure, to the wicks, which are not of cotton,
but only a little rod or fwitch of dry light wood, covered
with the pith of a ru(h, wound round it ; which being very
porous, ferves to filtrate the minute parts of the tallow,
attrafted by the burning ftick, which by this means is kept
burning.

T ALhow -Chandlers' Greaves, in j^griculture, the refufe
of tallow-chandlery, which is found at the bottom of the
pan, after the melting of tallow, in a fort of cake, and
which is an excellent 7nanure ; which fee.

Tallow, in Geography, a poft-town of the county of
Waterford, Ireland, fituated within half a mile of the river
Bride, on which there is a village called Tallow-bridge. It
was a borough which returned two members, previous to
the Union. It is 104 miles S.W. by S. from Dublin, and
4 S. from Lifmore.

Tallow Point, a mark for anchoring in the harbour of
Port Royal, in Jamaica.

TALLOWING, in Rural Economy, a term applied to
the property or means of forming tallow internally in animals
of fome kinds, efpecially thofe of the (heep and neat cattle
forts. It has been ftated in the corrected Agricultural Re-
port of the County of Snftex, that it is by no means a fettled
point upon the South Downs of that diftriA, how far a (heep,
which gathers its fat upon the inteftines, is or is not pre-
ferable to another which collefts it upon the back and the

neck,

T A L

T A L-

neck. The Leicefterlliire gra/.iers, it is faid, contending
as much for the latter as the former, is confidered as a tell
of merit in Norfolk, and, various other counties. But when
it is confidered, that it requires a certain portion of food to
create a given quantity of fat, the queilion is, it is thought,
which is the belt part to colleft it upon, — \^•ithin or without ?
As long as the fat of the latter will fell at more than one-
third of the other, it would fcem, it is faid, that there can-
not be a dovibt which of the two is preferable ; and that,
upon the principle of food eaten to produce the tallow or
fat, that which tallows the leaft is the beft breed. The tal-
low, with the major part of the fifth quai-ter, is all the
butcher's profit, it is faid, who would no doubt encourage
that breed which tallows beft, and yields moil offal.

It is noticed, however, that the South Down (lieep are
not great tallowers, compared with fomc other forts ; but
that what they lofe in tallow, they make up in a difpofition
to fatten. The tallow of a wether, i'.i common management,
will, it is faid, [generally average from an eighth to a tenth
part of its dead weight. In a fat wether of Mr. Ellman's,
one-feventh pai-t of the dead weight was, it is faid, infide
fat (caul and loofe fat) ; and that in another which was
fince killed, one-fixth was infidc fat. In others, too, that
have been flaughtered, the variation has been found from a
feventh to a tenth. The quantity of infide fat depends, it
is faid, much upon the age and time of fattening. It
gathers itfelf much more in old fheep than in young ones.

The bad ill-formed breeds of fheep, for the mofl part,
tallow in the largeft and moil favourable manner ; and the
fame is moflly the cafe in neat-cattle ftock, as thofe which
have the beft forms and difpofitions for fattening have com-
monly the leaft property of tallowing well, or afford the leaft
proof, as it is often called.

In regard to the fuperiority of fat meat, it may be juft
noticed that, in fome great thoroughfares for travelling, the
inn-keepers agree with the butchers to give them a penny the
pound above the common price for mutton, provided it be
very fat. It is likewife the fame with beef. This is faid to
be the cafe at Petersfield, and to ilrongly (hew that very fat
mutton, or meat of any kind, will go much farther than that
which is not equally fo. It, however, makes againft tal-
lowing in animals of thefe kinds. See L,iVE-Sioci and
Sheep.

TALLWATER, in Geography, a river of Ireland, in
the county of Armagh, which runs with the CaUen into
Blackwater, near Charlemont.

TALLY, Taile, or Ttiilk, a piece of wood on which
retail traders ufe to fcore or mark, by notches or incifions,
the feveral quantities of goods they deliver out on credit,
to fave the trouble of writing down fo many httle articles in
books.

Each fcore confifts of two pieces of wood, or rather of a
fingle piece cleft length-wife, the parts of which falling
in with one another, things delivered are fcored on both
at the fame time ; the feller keeping one, and the buyer
the other.

Tallies are taken as evidences in courts of juftice, as
much as books. The ancient way of keeping all accounts
was by tallies ; the debtor keeping one part, and the cre-
ditor the other. Hence the lallkr of the exchequer, now
called the teller.

There are three kinds of tallies mentioned in our ftatutes,
and long ufed in the exchequer ; -via.

Tallies of Loans, one part of which is kept in the ex-

' chequer, and the other part given to particular perfons, in

lieu of an obhgation for the monies they have lent to the

government on ails of parliament. This laft part is called

Vol. XXXV.

the Jloci, and the former the counler-Jloch, or the conntcr-

tail.

The tallies are numbered, and bear the perfon's name,
and the fum lent : thus we fay, tiic tallies, N" have been
paid, or difcharged ; tallies are rifen, fallen, 4, 5, &c.

Tallies, or Ta'iks of Debt, are a kind of acquittances
for debts paid to the king.

E. gr. The univerfity of Cambridge pays yearly ifl/. for
fuch things as are by charter granted them in fee-farm. He
that pays this receives a taile, or tally, for his difcharge,
with which, or a note of it, he repairs to the clerk of the
pipe, and there R)r the tally receives a full difcharge oi»
parchment.

Tallies of Reivard, or allowance. Thefe are made t»
(lieriffs, for fuch matters as (to their charge) they have per-
formed in their office, or by fuch money as is by courfe cafl
on them in their accounts, but which they cannot levy.

In the exchequer there is a tally-court, where attend the-
two deputy chamberlains of the exchequer, and the tally-
cutter.

TALLY-Co«n/cr. See Counter.
Tallies, Cutter of the. See Cutter.
Tally, Petty. See Petty.
Tallies, Writer of. See Writer.
Tally the Sheets, at fea, a word of command, when the
flieets of a main-fail or fore-fail are to be hauled aft. See
Sheets,

Tally for Flowers and Plants, in Gardening, that fort
of mark or contrivance, either by pieces of lead or flips of
wood, employed for diftinguifhing thera.

The practice of marking flowers, trees, and plants, with
talhes of fome kind or other, is always highly ufeful and
necetTai-y in regulating their culture, as well as for many
other purpofes.

TALLYOOR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Myfore ; 8 miles N.W. of Dindigul.

TALMAS, a town of France, in the department of
the Somme ; 9 miles S. of Dourlens.

TALMAY, a town of France, in the department of the
Cote d'Or, at the union of the Vigenne and the Sa6nc ;
18 miles N.E. of Dijon.

TALMOND, afea-port town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Charente, on the right fide of the Gi-
ronde, with a harbour ; 18 miles S.W. of Saintes.

TALMONT, a town of France, in the department of
the Vendee; 6 miles E.S.E. of Sables d'Olonne.

TALMUD, or Thalmud, from -|V^^n> doar'inr,
from "XO^, he taught, a .Tewifh book, which contains a col-
leftion of all that relates to the cxphcation of tlieir law.

The Talmud is the body of the Hebrew law ; a compila-
tion of expofitions of the duties impofed on the people,
either in fcripture, or by tradition, or by authority of their
doftors, or by cuftom, or even by fuperftition : to fpcak
more plainly flill, it is the courfe of cafes of confcience, or
of moral theology, in which the duties are explained, and
the doubts cleared, not by reafoning, but generally by au-
thority, by the cuftoro of the nation, and by the decifions
of the moll approved of the ancient dotlors.

The Talmud confifts of two general parts, the one called
the Mifchna, the other the Gemara; which firft part is
alfo frequently called abfolutely the " 'i'almud," the general
name of the whole work.

The Jews divide their law into written, which is that con-
tained in the books of Mofes ; and unwritten, which is that
conveyed by tradition. This latter is, in effeft, no other
than a glofs or interpretation of the former, given by the
ancient rabbins,

H The

T A L

The Talmud then contains the traditions of the Jews,
their polity, duftrino, and tercmonics, which they obforvc
as rcligioufly as the law of God itfelf : they would never
put them in writing till they were compelled to it by the de-
ftruftion of Jerufalem, and till they faw themfclves difperfed
throughout the werld.

They had two famous fchools ; the one at Babylon, and
the otlier at Jerufalem : in thefe they made two feveral col-
feftions of thofe traditions ; the firft at Jerufalem, the other
at Babylon ; but both called Talmud, both exceedingly re-
verenced, efpecially the Babylonian, though full of extra-
vagancies. This was compiled by tlie Jews of Mefopotamia,
about 500 years after Chrift, according to Buxtorf : but
Father Morinus offers feveral reafons to prove that it was
not finiihed till the year 700. The laft edition of this Tal-
mud, at Amltcrdam, is in twelve folios.

The Talmud of Jerufalem is the Icaft efleemed. It was
compiled by tiie Jews of that city, and particularly by
Rabbi Jochanan, rcftor of the academy at Tiberias, about
300 years after Chrift, according to Buxtorf; but Father
Morinus, in his " Excrcitationes Biblica:," lib. ii. exerc. 6.
judges, from feveral bai-barous terms found in it, of Vnndalic
or Gothic extraction, that it did not appear till the fifth
century. This is publllhed in one large folio.

The Babylonian Talmud confifts of two parts : the one
tlic text, the other the glofs or comment : the comment,
called the Gemara, contains the decifion of the Jewilh doc-
tors, and their expofitions of the text. — This we find
ftuffed with dreams and chimeras; together with much ig-
norance, and many impertinent queftions and difputations :
the ftyle is alfo very coarfe. On the contrary, the text
called the Mtfchna, is written in a tolerably pure ftyle, and
the reafonings generally much more folid.

The Jews pretend that this was compofed by Rabbi Juda,
fornamed the Saint ; and that God revealed to him the doc-
trine, and the chief myfteries of it. But this is only to
be underftood of the Mifchna, not of the Gemara, the
compilation of which was' not begun till the fixth century,
after the dcftru&ion of the fecond temple.

Rabbi Juda is faid to have compofed the Mifchna under
the empire of Antoninus, in the fecond century ; but they
do not all agree about this antiquity, fome carrying it back
much farther.

It is the Talmud of Babylon that is ufually read, and moft
frequently confulted, among the Je%vs ; fo that when tliey
fay fimply " the Talmud," they always meant this ; never
quoting the other without the addition of Jerufalem.

Maimonidcs has made an abridgment of the Talmud,
which Scaliger prefers to the Talmud itfelf ; as being purged
of many of the fables of which the other is full. It is a
fyftem of the laws and cuftoms of the Jews, both of their
civil and their canon law, ajid the beft of their traditions.

About the year 1236, a Jew of Rochelle, well verfed in
the Hebrew, becoming Chriftian, made a journey to pope
Gregory IX., and difcovered to him a number of errors in
the Talmud : thefe the pope fent, in thirty-nine articles, to the
archbilhops of France, with a letter, appointing them to feize
the books of the Jens, and to burn all fuch as ftiould con-
tain thofe errors : in confequence of which order, about
twenty cart-loads of Hebrew books were burnt. He vrrote
to the fame effeft to the kin^s of England, France, Ara-
gon, Caftile, &c.

His fucceflbr. Innocent IV., giving commiflion to his
legate, Eudes de Chateauroux, to examine the Talmud,
and other Jewifti books, more carefully, and to tolerate fuch
errors as were not contrary to the Cluiftian religion ; the
legate wrote to the pope, that to tolerate them was to ap-

T A L

prove them ; and the 1 5th of May, 1 248, he alfo conderan^d
them juridically to the flames ; and Pa\d IV. ordered 12,000-
volumes of the Talmud to be confumed ; and Clement VIII.
ordered all the talmudic books that could be found to be de-
ftroyed ; a zeal worthy of the Papal fee ! See MiscHNA,
Gemara, Caraites, and Rabbixists.

TALO-CHAN, in Geography, a fmall ifland near tlic
coaft of China. N. lat. 29° 57'. E. long. 122° 4'.

TALOIRE, a town of France, in the department of
Mont Blanc ; 8 miles S.S.E. of Annecy.

TALON, in Ornithology, the claw of a bird.

Talos, in ArchiteHure, a kind of moulding, confifting^
of a cymatium, crowned with a fquare fillet ; frequently
found to terminate ornaments of joiners' work, as thofe of
doors, &c.

The word is French, and literally Cgnifies heel.

The talon, more properly fo called, is a moulding con-
cave at the bottom, and convex at top ; haN-ing an effeft juft
oppofite to the doucine.

\\'hen the concave part is at top, it is called an inverted
talon.

The talon is ufually called by our Englifli workmen ogee,
or O.G. and by authors an upright or in-verted cymatium.

TALOO,in Geography, a harbour on the N. coaft of Ri'
meo ; which fee.

TALOVKA, a river of Ruffia, which unites OTth the
Analik, and runs with it into the Irgis, 32 miles E. of
Vollk, in the government of Saratov.

TALPA, the Mole, in Zoology, a genus of the Mam-
malia Ferae, the charaAers of which are, that the front
teeth in the upper jaw are fix and unequal, thofe in the lower
jaw are eight ; the canine teeth are one on each fide, the
upper ones being the largeft ; and that the grinders are feven
in the upper jaw, and fix in the lower. Gmelin enumerates
four fpecies, befides feveral varieties.

Species.

EuroPjEA ; Common Mole. Has a (hort tail, and pen-
tadaclylous or five-toed feet. The body is thick and cy-
Hndric ; the fnout flender, but very ftrong and tendinous ;
the head not diftinguifhed from the body by any appearance
of neck ; the legs fo extremely fhort, as fcarcely to projeft
perceptibly from the body ; the fore-feet fituated obliquely
outwards, exceflively ftrong and broad, and fumifhed with
very large and ftout claws, fo as to give the animal the power
of working under the furface with the utmoft eafe and readi-
nefs ; the hind-feet are fmall in proportion to the fore-feet,
and are calculated for throwing back with eafe the mould
from behind the creatiu-e, during his fubterraneous progrefs ;
the tail is fhort and fmall ; the fkin is much thicker aiid
tougher in proportion than in other quadrupeds, and the fur
with which it is covered equally furpaffes that of other ani-
mals in finenefs and foftnefs. The mufcular ftrength of the
mole is very great, and it is enabled to force itfelf into the
ground with an extraordinary degree of celerity. The ge-
neral length of the mole is about five inches and three quar-
ters, exclufive of the tail, which meafures one inch. This
animal is fuppofed to pofTefs the power of hearing in an ex-
quifite degree ; and if at any time it emerges from a fub-
terraneous retreat, inftantly difappears on the approach of
any danger. When firft taken, either by digging it out or
otherwife, it utters a fhrill fcream, and prepares for defence by
exerting the ftrength of its claws and teeth. According to
the count de Buffon, fo hvcly and reciprocal an attachment
fi'bfifts between the male and female, that they feem to dread
or difrclifti all other fociety.

It has been doubted whether the mole has eyes adapted to

▼ifion.

T A L

vifton, or merely for the purpofe of apprizing it of the ap-
proach of light, fo as to warn it of the danger of cxpofure.
Galen is of the former opinion. Sir Thomas Brown refers
this to the clafs of vulgar errors ; but Derham, by dilTec-
tion, and the aid of a microleope, confirmed the opinion of
Galen. This animal is faid to feed not only on worms and
infefts, &c. but on the roots of vegetables: however, it is
more carnivorous than frugivorous. In particuLtr circum-
ftances it is very fierce and voraciousv Without damp mould
for its relidence, it is kept alive with difficulty in a Hate of
confinement. Like other animals of a black colour, the
mole is fometimes found perfeftly white, or creauKoloured,
and fometimes fpotted. Gmelin reckons four varieties, "vit.
the vai-iegated or fpotted mole of Edwards, the wiiite, the
yellow, and the cinereous. Of its furprifnig power in
Iwimraing, we have a curious initance recorded in the 3d vo-
lume of the Tranfaftions of the Linnjeaii Society ; which
is that of a mole that was feen fwimming towards a fmall
ifland in the middle of the loch of Clunie, in Scotland, at
the diftance of 180 yards from the land. Linnxus and
Gmelin affirm that the mole paffes the winter in a ftate of
torpidity ; but this is contradifted by Buffon, and he alleges
fadls to prove the contrary. The mole is faid to be unknown
in Ireland. In Siberia it attains a larger iize than in Eu-
rope, and its fur is fo foft and beautiful, that it would make
the moil elegant articles of drefs, were it not for the difficulty
of curing and dreffing the {Icin. See Mole.

AsiATiCA. Has no tail, and tridaftylous fore-feet. This is
the Siberian mole of Pennant. It is fomewhat fmaller than
the common mole, its length being four inches ; and is a na-
tive of the, Cape of Good Hope.

LoNGlCAUDATA. With a tail of middhng length, and
pentadaftylous feet, the hinder ones fcaly. This is the
long-tailed mole of Pennaiit : its length from iiofe to tail is
four inches and fix-tenths ; and it is a native of North
America.

Rubra ; Red Mole of Pennant. Has a fliort tail, tri-
da£Iylous fore -feet, and tridaftylous hind-feet. This is faid
to be a native of America.

Dr. Shaw mentions fome other fpecies, as the 7". purpu-
rafcens, or black mole, with a glofs of purple^ pentadafty-
loBS feet, and white tail, firft defcribed by Seba, and by
him faid to be a native of Virginia : — the 7". rad'iata, or black
mole, with v.'hite feet, and nofc radiated with papilla: ; an
inhabitant of North America : — the Sorex crijlatus of Liu-
naius ; a variety, as Dr. Shaw fays, of the T. longicaudata: —
and the T.fujca, or brown mole, with white teet and tail, the
fore-feet very broad ; a native of North America, and fup-
pofed to be the fame with the Sorex aquaticits of Linnaeus.

Talpa, (a mole,) in Surgery, a tumour, which makes its
way under the Ikin, as a mole under the furface of the
ground. Such is faid to be the derivation of the terra.
Talpa is often ufed in the language of furgery, to exprefs
an encyiled tumour, which forms on the head, and contains
a pap-like matter. See Atheboma.

TALPA R, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Irak ', 70 miles N.W. of Hamadan.

TALPARIA, in Surgery, an encyiled tumour, filled
with a pap-like matter. See Talpa.

TALPIA, in Geography, a town of Chinefe Tartary, in
the country of Hami ; 28 miles N.E. of Hatamtam.

TALSENGHE, a town of Hmdooitan, in Vifiapour ;
10 miles S.W. of Vifiapour.

TALSHIDE. SeeTALwooD.

TALSPERG, a town of France, in the department of
the Upper Rhine ; 12 miles E. of Porcntrui.

r A M

TALTITZ, a tovfn of Saxony, in the Vogtiand ; 4
miles S. of I'lauen.

TALUS, in Analomy, a name formerly given to the
allragalus, or that bone of the foot which is articulated to
the leg. (See ExTitKMiTiES.) This bone in the pecori
has a cubic (liape ; and was employed by the ancients in
their famous game, ludus talorum. (See Ariftotle, Hill.
Anim. lib. ii. c. 1.) For the various appellations of this
well-known bone in moll of the European and Oriental
languages, and for its form in dilfereiit animals ; fee Th.
Hyde, Hilloria Talorum, in vol. ii. of his Syntagma Dif-
fcrtationura, Oxon. 1767, 410.

Talus, or TiJud, in /Irchketlure, the inclination or flope
of a work ; as of the outfide of a wall, when its thickiiefs
is diminiflicd by degrees, as it rifes in height, to make it
the firmer.

Talus, or Talud, in Fortification. — Taltts of a bajlion, or
rampart, is the Hope or diminution allowed to fuch a work ;
whether it be of earth, or ftone ; the better to fupport its
weight.

The exterior talus of a work, is its flope on the fide to-
wards the country ; which is always made as little as pof-
fible, to prevent the enemy's efcaladc, unlefs the earth be
bad, and then it is abfolutely neceflary to allow a confider-
able talus for its parapet, and fometimes to fupport the earth
with a flight wall, called a re-uctcmmt.

The interior talus of a work, is its flope on the (ide to-
wards the place.

This is larger than the former, and has, at the angles of
the gorge, and fometimes in the middle of the curtains,
ramps or Hoping roads for mounting upon the terre -plain of
the rampart.

Talus, Superior, of the parapet, is a flope on the top
of the parapet, that allows of the foldiers defending the
covert-way with fmall-fhot, which they could not do if it
were level.

TALWOOD, Taliatura, in our Old Writers, fire-
wood cut and cleft into billets of a certain length : it ij
otherwife written talghwood and taljhide. Stat. 34 & 3^
Hen. VIII. c. 3. 7 Edw. VI. c. 7. 43 Eliz. c. 14.

TALYSIAN, in Geography, a town on the E. coall of
the iflaiid of Borneo. N. lat. 1^48'. E. long. 117° 40'.

TAM, a river of China, which runs into the Ta; 5 miles
S.E. of Khi, in Pe-tche-li.

Tam, El, a town of Perfia, in Segeftan, on the Heei^
mund ; 25 miles E. of Zarcng.

TAMA, a town of Circaffia, on the Black fca ; 60 mile*
E.N.E. of Theodofia.

TAMACH. See Taisacii.

TAMACHABAD, a town of Hindooftan, in Benares;
18 miles W. of Benares.

TAMACLIPA, a town of Mexico, in the proTince of
Gualleca ; 52 miles N. of Paiiuco.

TAMACUIL, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guafleca ; 40 miles S. of Panuco.

TAMAHOO, a fmall ifland in the Eaftern Indian fea,
near the wed coafl of Borneo. N. lat. 0° 7'. E. long.
109'' 21'.

TAMALAMEQUE, a town of South America,
in the province of St. Martha, on the river Magdalena ;
160 miles S. of St. Martha. N. lat. 8=^40'. W. long.

73° 0'.

TAMALAPATRA, in the Materia Medico, a name by
which fome authors have called the folium Indicum, or In-
dian leaf, ufed in medicine.

The tree which produces this leaf i« the laurus tajfia of
H 2 Linnxu*,

T A M

Lin'nafUS, or eaffia llgnra tree. It is a large and lofty tree,
the flow.TS uiid fruit of which refemble the cinnamon-tree.
Its kaves, when full grown, are ten inches or more in length ;
and fix or eight in breadth. The flowers {land in clullers,
in the manner of umbels on the tops of the branches, and
are of a ga-eni(h-white colour. The fruit is of the bignefs
of our currant.

The ancients recommended Indian leaf as ftomachic,
fudorific, and cephalic. At prefent, it is utterly difre-
garded, being only kept in the (hops as an ingredient in
mithridatc and thcriaca ; and is, in its greateft perfection,
far inferior to the mace wliich our college direfts as a fuc-
cedanenm to it. See Cassia Lignea.

TAMALIPAN, in Geography, a chiin of mountains in
Spanilh North America, called by Alcedo, in his defcription
of New Leon, the Grand Sierra, and a branch of which is
called tile Eallern Tamalipa by Al/ate. This laft branch
extends from the defarts of Jaumape to the callern coall of
the province of Santander, where it is marked in the Spanifh
chart of the gulf of Mexico by the names of various peaks ;
while the mountain of Orcafites, viiible at fea at the diftance
of J 60 miles inland, muft nearly equal Orizava in height,
and appears to belong to the fame branch of the grand ridge
of Tamalipa.

TAMALMA, a town of Africa, in the country of
Kawar ; I20 miles N. of Kanem.

TAMAMES, a town of Spain, in the province of
Leon ; i 5 miles E. of Civdad Rodrigo.

TAMAN, an idand at the mouth of the Kuban, and a
principahvy belonging to it, and alfo a town on the fame
ifland, called Phanagoria, (wliich fee.) This principality
was anciently occupied by the Chazarcs ; but it was wrefted
from them in the year 965 by the Ruffian combined with the
Byzantine Greeks, who made themfelves mailers of the
countries bordering on the fea of Azof in 1015, and com-
pletely overturned the Chazarian Hate, creating a d'.ftinft
principahtv on the ifle of Taman, to which both the Cha-
zarcs and the Zichians were for a long time tributary. See
Tmutarakak.

Towards the end of the nth century, while Ruffia was
torn bv inteftine broils, the principality of Taman was loft
to that empire. At length, in 1221, the Mongoles made
their firft attack. The Romanes were expelled or fubdued,
but the Ziches fought for their liberty, and could not be
made to fubmit till the year 1277, when they were over-
po'vered by Margu-Timur-Khan and the famous Nogay.
Neverthelefs, they retained fome degree of independence in
their woody and mountainous regions. The Ottomans
indeed, in 1484, conquered the cities and forts of Taman,
Teraryuk, and Atfchuk : but they gained no fovereignty
over the Tfchcrkaffians or Circaffians. At the peace of
1774, the fultan of the Ottomans relinquifhed his pofieffions
in thefe parts ; but, contrary to treaty, held Taman and
Temryuk in a ftate of fiege, till the Crimean khan, by the
aid of the Ruffians, drove the Ottoman garrifon out of
them. By the treaty of the year 1783, Ruffia obtained,
together with the Crimea and the Eallern Nogay, the
northern part of the Kuban as far as the promontory of
Caucafus.

The Zichians or Tfchekians, called by the Ruffians
Yafi, are the principal inhabitants of the ille of Taman.
They formerly paid a fmall tribute to the Crimean khan,
but in all other refpecls are governed by their own beys.
The ifle Atfchuk or Atfchuycf is likewife inhabited by
Zichians. Thefe two tribes, wliich, properly fpeaking, are
only one collateral branch of the Tfcherkafiians, have be-

T A M

longed to the Ruffian empire, as inhabitants of the Kuban,
fince the year 1783.

Taman, the ilrait or channel that forms a communi-
cation between the Black fea and the fea of Azof.

TAMANAH, a fca-port town of Hindooftan, on the
coatl of Malabar, in the country of Concan ; 25 miles S.
of Gheriah. N. lat. 16" 30'. E. long. 73° 15'.

TAMANDUA, in Zoology, a creature called in Englillt
the ant-bear ; and by the Brafilians tamanduaguaeu ; and the
tanianvir of Buffon ; different fpecies of the fame genus.
See Mykmkcoi'Iiaga.

TAMAR, ill Geography, a confiderable river, which
originates in the county of Cornwall, England, and fepa-
rates that county, except for the fpace of a few miles, from
Devon (hire. It riles in a moor in the parifli of Morwinftow,
about three miles from the North fea : paffing near Whit-
ftone, about ten miles from its fource, it reaches Tamerton,
which takes its name from this river ; here it receives the
waters of the V/errington, and about a mile and a half fur-
ther its current is increafed by the Attery, which runs
under the walls of the town of Launcefton : at Poulfton-
bridge it is a wide and rapid ftream ; a mile below Graifton-
bridge it is joined by the laney, which, rifing in Alternon,
paffijs through the parilhes of Lewanick and Lezant. In
the parifh of Stoke -Climfiand, the Tamar has a high, ftrong,
Hone bridge, called by Leland " Hawtebrig," or the High
bridge, now com.monly Horfe -bridge. The laft or loweft
bridge on this river is in the parilh of Calftock, and was
begun, according to Leland, by i"ir Piers Edgcombe. Five
miles farther the Tamar receives the Tavy from the eaft,
and having made a creek into the parifhes of Botesfieming
and Landulph on the weft, becomes a fpacious hai-bour ;
and after paffing near the ancient borough of Saltaffi, is
joined by the Lynher creek and river. Increafing in import-
ance as it winds along, it next forms, between Dock and
Saltafli, the noble baiin called the " Hamoaze," or Ply-
mouth Harbour, where a lai-ge proportion of the Britilh
navy rides in complete fecurity. Having made two large
creeks, one called St. John's, the other Milbrook, on the
weft, and Stonehoufe creek on the eaft, the Tamar, after a
coiirfe of about 40 miles nearly fouth, falls into the fea, having
mount Edgcumbe for its weftern, and the lands of Stone-
houfe and St. Nicholas ifland for its eaftern boundary, and
produces the noble road for ftiipping named Plymouth
Sound. The Tamar is one of the moll confiderable rivers
in the weft of England ; its banks are richly diverfified with
rocks, woods, and meadows ; and the fcenery in various
parts of its courfe is extremely interefting and beautiful.
The views about the Cater-marther rocks, Taviftock-New-
bridge, the Morwell rocks, Cotele and Pentilly, are pecu-
liarly romantic, and can fcarcely be equalled by any other
river in the weftern part of the kingdom. (See Plymouth
Harbour.^ Lyfons's Magna Britannia, vol. iii. Cornwall.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ii. Cornwall. By
J. Britton and E.W. Brayley.

Tamar, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hedsjas j
40 miles N.N.W. of Karac.

Tamak Bay, a harbour in the ftraits of Magellan, E. of
Cape Tamar.'

TAMARA, in ylneient Geography, a river of Spain,
which rofe in tlie mountains W. of Lucus Augufto, and
difcharged itfelf into the fea to the W. of a fmall gulf, on
the banks of which were Grandinirum and Acrse Seftianse.
Mela calls this river Tanaris. The Tamarifci inhabited its
banks.

Tamara, a town of the ifle of Albion, affigned by Pto-

lemy

T A M

T A M

l.emy to the Damnouii or Dumnonii. Mr. Hortley thinks
it was Saltafli ; but Mr. Camden and Mr. Baxti-r fiippofc
it, more probably, to be Tamertoii, which flill retains its
ancient name.

Tama K A, in Geography, a town of Morocco, on the
loaft of the Athintic ; 30 miles W. of Tanidant. — Alfo,
a fea-port town on the N.W. coafl of the illand of Soco-
tora, and refideiice of the king.

Tamaba I/les, or //lands of Idols, a duller of iflands
near the coait of Sierra Leone. N. lat. ^° 40'.

TA^(ARA', in Botany, the Hindoo name of a very cele-
brated plant. (See our article Cyaml'x, written by the late
Rev. Mr. Wood.) The above name fhould feem to origi-
nate from the Hebrew "IJ^H, Tamar, a Palm-tree, whence
dates are called Tamara by the Spaniards ; and it may
allude to the form of the feeds of the Cyamus, rcfembling
dates ; or to their llmilar ufe as an oriental article of food.
Tamar is alfo the Arabic name of the fame fruit. See
Tamarindus.

TAMARACA, Tamarica, or Itamaraca, in Geo-
graphy, a diftrift of Brafil, in the jurifdittion of Fernam-
buco. It has its name from an ifland on the coail, near the
mouth of the river Tamaraca, which conllitutes the prin-
cipal part of its diftrift, though the territory thereof ex-
tends inland between 30 and 40 leagues, having Parayba on
the north, Fernambnco on the fouth, the ocean on the eail,
aiid imfubdued Indians on the weft. It was reckoned one
of the moft ancient and flourilhing captainfhips in Bratil ;
but Parayba and Fernainbuco have lince exceeded it. The
ifland is parted from the main land by a very narrow chan-
nel. It is fertile and pleafant enough ; producing large
quantities of Brafil wood, cotton, cocoa-nuts, fugar, melons,
citrons, &c. befides a good deal of timber for fuel and
other purpofes. It is about nine miles in length, and three
in breadth, and about Z2 in circuit. It has a commodious
haven on the fouth fide, with fome good fprings and rivulets
of frefh water. The entrance into the port is by a channel
of between 15 and 16 feet water, commanded by a caftle,
built on an eminence, and formerly taken by the Dutch : who
alfo built Fort Orangj at the moutii of the channel, which
was inacceffible, by reafon of the marfhes furrounding it ;
fo that the veffels that failed dov/n from the illand were ex-
pofed to it, and they had in fome meafure flopped all the
avenues from the Portuguefe. This illand, and the terri-
tory on the continent belonging to it, pay 3000 ducats to
the governor of the captainfhip, and in it are reckoned to
be about 22 fugar-mills. The French had formerly a can-
ton or fettlement on this coail, ftill called from them " Porto
dos Francefe ;" but the Portuguefe obliged them to eva-
cuate it. The capital, called " Noftra Segnora de Con-
ceizao," or " Da Tamaraca," ilands at the entrance into
the river of the latter name ; and near it is a fmall callle
with a redoubt, commanding the avenues ; and about four
miles N. of the mouth of the river is the famous point de-
nominated " Punta Pedro."

Tamaraca, a river of Brafil, which runs into the At-
lantic, S. lat. 7° 52'.

TAMARIL, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, fituated
about a mile from the fea-coaft ; z miles N.E. of Tar-
ragona.

TAMARINDUS, in Botany, the Tamarind-tree, is fo
called from Taituir, which is Hebrew for a Palm-tree, (and
likewife the Arabic appellation of its fruit, the Date,) com-
bined with the Latin word Indus, Indian. The fonn of the
pod, and its ufe as an article of food, may well have given
rife to the name. (See Tamara'.) — Linn. Gen. 23.
Schreb. 450. WiUd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 577. Mart. Miil.

12

Dift. Y. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 134. .Tuff. 347.

Lamarck Illuftr. t. 2y. Grertn. t. 146 Clafs and order,

Triandria Monogynia, Linn. Monadlphia Tritmdria, Schreb.
Willd. Nat. Ord. I.omentaccf, Linn. Leg>imino/<t, Juif.

Gen. Ch. Cat. Periantli inferior, of one leaf : tube tur-
binate, comprelfed, tapering at the bafe, oblique at the
mouth, permanent ; limb in four deep, ovate, acute, flat-
tifii, reflexed, coloured, deciduous fegmonts ; the upper
and lower ones rather the broadeil. Cor. Petals three,
ovate, acute, concave, crenate, wavy, reflexed, the length
of the calyx, inferted into the mouth of the tube ; the two
lateral ones rather the largeft. Stum. Filaments three, in
ferted into the mouth of the calyx in the vacancy oppolite
to the uppermoft petal, awl-lhapcd, as long as the corolla,
connefted in their lower half, curved upwards ; anthers
ovate, large, incumbent. There are befides feven rudiments
of llamens ; five of them fetaceous threads, capitate, very
fhort, alternate with the above, connedled in their lower
part, two lower than the reft ; and two minute briftles, pro-
ceeding from the calyx beneatli the filaments, and Iving upon
them. Pijl. Germen oblong, comprefted, incurved, feated
on a ftalk, which fprings from the bottom of the calyx, and
is attached longitudinally to the back of its tube within,
the projefting part downy along its upper edge ; ftyle awl-
fiiaped, afcending, downy at its lower edge, rather longer
than the ftamens ; ftigma tumid, obtufe. Perie. Legume
oblong, comprefted, obtufe, with a point, fweUing at the
feeds, of one cell, not burfting ; its coat double ; the outer
dry and brittle ; inner membranous ; a quantity of foft
pulp being lodged between tlie two. Seeds few, orbicular,
fomewhat angular, flattened, hard, poliflied, with a central
circumfcribed di(l< at each fide.

Eft. Ch. Calyx in four deep fegments. Petals three.
Barren filaments feven. Style one. Legume pulpy- within.
I. T. indica. Tamarind-tree. Linn. Sp. PI. 48. Willd.
n. I. Ait. n. I. Jacq. Amer. 10. t. 10. and t. 179.
f. 98. Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 166. (Tamarindus; Rumph.
Amboin. v. 2. 90. t. 23. Ger. Em. 1607. Balam-puUi ;
Rheede Hort. Malab. v. I. 39. t. 23.) — This tree, a native
of Egypt, Arabia, and the Eaft Indies, is generally pre-
ferved, rather than cultivated, in both Indies for the fake,
both of its ftiade, and its acid, cooling, and highly grateful,
as well as falutary, fruit ; the pulp of uliicli, mixed with
boiled fugar, is frequently imported into Europe, and highly
efteemed. The triini is loftv, and of coniiderable thicknefs,
crowned with wide-extended branches, bearing umbrageous
tufts of alternate, abruptly pinnate, fmooth, bright-grccen
leaves, each conipofed of many pair of elliptic-oblong,
feffile, entire leajlets, rather glaucous beneath. Flowers
in fimple clufters, terminating tlic ftiort lateral branches.
Petals yellow, elegantly veined with red. Fruit pendu-
lous, like large beans. Gartner obferves that the Well
Indian Tamarind pod is fliorter than what Rheede and
Rumphius reprefent, and has fewer feeds. Hence he
diftinguiflies two fpccies, which appear from hiftory as
well as obfervation to be mere varieties, the plant being
more at home in the eaftern than in the weftern fide of
the globe, though .-ilmoll perfedlly naturalized in the
latter. It is often feen in our lloves, but feldom in bloftom.
— As Dr. Woodville lias given an original coloured plate of
this interefting plant, drawn by Mr. Sowcrby from a fpeci-
men that flowered in Kew garden, and the only one of au-
thority extant ; we conceive his work, in this inftancc, if
not in every other, might have been cited witli advantage,
by our friend Mr. Alton, in tlic Hortus Kcwenfis.

Tamakinhls, in Gardening, contains a plant of the exotic
tree kind, of which the fpecics is the tamarind-trcc (T. in-
dica) ;

T A M

dtca) ; which grows to a vcr)' large fir.e in the countries
where it if a native : the llein being very large, and covered
with a hrowli bark, dividing into many branches at tiie top,
which fpread wide every way ; the flowers come out from
the fide of tiie brandies, five, fix, or more togetlier, in loofe
bunches ; the pods being thick and comprefled ; thofe from
the Weft Indies from two to five inches in length, contain-
ing two, three, or four feeds ; but thofe from the Eaft
Indies are almoft twice as long, and contain five, fix, and
even fcvcn feeds. The tree is a native of both tlie Indies,
and of fome other places.

Method of Culture. — This is a plant wliich is incrcafed
from feeds, which fliould be fown in the fpring on a hot-
bed, and when the plants arc come up, each planted in a
feparatc fmall pot, filled with light rich earth, plunging them
into a hot-bed of tanners' bark to bring them forward,
watering and fliading them until they have taken root ;
and as the earth in the pots becomes dry, they ir.uil be
watered from time to time, and have air given in proportion
to the warmth of the feafon, and the bed in which tliey are
placed. When tlie pots in which they are planted are filled
with their roots, the plants fiiould be fhifted into pots of a
larger fize, which niuft be filled up with rich light earth,
and again plunged into the hot-bed, giving them air as
before, according to the warmth of the ieafon ; but in very
hot weather, the glafles (liould be fliaded with mats in the
beat of the day, otlierwife tiie fun will be too violent for them
through the glafles ; nor will the plants thrive if they are
expofed to the open air, even in the warmeft feafon ; fo that
they muft be conftantly kept in the bark-ftove both fummer
and winter, treating them in the fame maimer as the coffee-
tree. Thefe plants have a good effeft in the ftove col-
leftions.

It is the feed-pods of this tree which form and conftitute
the preferve called tamarinds, which is fold in the {hops ; and
18 of fuch a pulpy acid quality, as to be of great ufe in
abating and quenching thirll, and in cooling and allaying
exceflive heat. It is brought hither from both the Eaft and
Weft Indies ; but though the pods of the trees of the former
fituation are much finer and larger, the preferve from the
latter is generally confidered better, and of courfe moftly
preferred.

There is nothing peculiar in the making of this fort of
preferve, exaftly the fame methods being followed as are com-
mon in the preferviiig of other fubftances of fimilar kinds.

Tamarindus, in the Mntaia Medica. The Eaft India
tamarinds are longer than thofe of the Weft ; the former
containing fix or feven feeds each, the latter rarely above
three or four ; neverthelefs they feem to be the produce of
the fame plant : the Oriental fort is drier and darker-coloured
than the Occidental, and has more pulp ; the former is fome-
times preferved without addition, but the latter has always an
admixture of fugar.

In the Weft Indies, the pods are gathered in June, July,
and Auguft, when fully ripe ; and the fruit, freed from the
ftielly fragments, is placed in layers in a cafk, and boiling
fyrup poured over it till the cafk is filled. When cool, the cafk
is headed for fale. When tamarinds are good, they are not
in any degree mufty ; the feeds are hard, flat, and clean ; the
ftrings rough and entire, and a clean knife thruft into them
does not receive any coating of copper. They fhould be
pref' n-ed in clofely covered jars.

We owe the knowledge of tiie ufe of tamarinds, in medi-
cine, to the Arabians. The ancient Greeks knew nothing
of th-m; and S-rapion, Mefue, and Avicenna, are the firft
authors who prefcribe them.

The fruit of the tamarind, which is what we ufe, is only

T A ai

the piftil of the flower fwcUed into a pOd ; this is greenifh at
firft, but grows brownifti or reddifli as it ripens; its com-
mon fize is four inches in length, and one in breadth ; and it
is undulated on the back, and deeply notched in three or four
places at the front, which is terminated by a large rib, that
runs from the pedicle on which it grows, to the end of the
pod, and there frequently terminates in a fort of hook.

This fruit \% properly fpeaking, compofed of two pods,
the one inclofcd witliin the other ; the outer pod is flefhy,
and of the twelfth of an inch in thicknefs when frefh, and
the inner one is as thin as a line piece of parchment : between
thefe two there is an intermediate fpace of about a quarter of
an inch all the \vay ; and this fpace is filled up with a very
foft and pulpy fubftance, of a tart but very agreeable tafte,
which is what we ufe in medicine. This is blackifh, and ot
a vifcous texture, and is traverfed by three laige veiTels, or
rather bundles of veflels, one of which runs all along the
b.ick of the pod, and the two others are placed on the oppo-
fite fide, and often there are feveral rainifications of vefTels,
which run off different ways from thefe. Thefe veffels
carry the vinous juice, which afterwards hardens into the
vifcous matter of the pulp ; but this is not all their office,
for they alfo convey nouriihmcnt to the feeds in the inner
pod.

We ufe the tamarinds only in medicine ; but the Africans,
and the people of many of the Oriental nations, where they
are common, make them into a fort of confection with fugar,
which they eat as a delicacy, and which cools them in the
violent heats of their climates ; and at the fame time keeps
their bowels in a proper ftate of laxity. The four tafte of
this fruit proves, that acid particles abound greatly in it ;
and a chemical analyfis of it gives further proof of tiiis.

According to the analyfis of Vauquclin, the pulp contains,
independently of the fugar with which it is mixed, fuper-
tartrate of potafs, gum, jelly, citric acid, tartaric acid, malic
acid, and a feculent matter. The acid tafte chiefly depends
on the citric acid, as its quantity exceeds that of the others
Jxvj of the prepared pulp, containing Jifs of citric acid,
but only :;ij of tartaric acid, 3fs of fupertartrate of potafs,
and ^fs of malic acid. Annales de Chimie, vol. v. p. 92.

The effential fait of tamarinds, as Beaume obferves, may
be obtained more expeditioufly, by clarifying tlie decodlion
of the tamarinds with whites of eggs, than by filtering and
evaporating it to a proper confiftence, and fett'ing it to cool :
the fait ftioots into cryiials of a brown colour, and very acid
tafte, but in diffolving and cryftallizing them again, or barely
walliing them with water, they lofe almoit all their acidity ;
the acid principle of the tamarind feeming not to be truly
cryftallizable.

The pulp of tamarinds is an agreeable laxative acid, of
common ufe in inflammatory and putrid diforders, for
abating thirft and heat, correfting putrefaction, and loofen-
ing the belly. The dofe, as a laxative, is two or three
drachms ; an ounce or two prove moderately cathartic. It is
an ufeful addition with this intention to the purgative fweets,
cafGa and manna, in increafing their adlion, and rendering
them lefs liable to produce flatulencies : the refinous ca-
thartics are faid to be fomewhat v.'eakened by it. Lewis.

This pulp is an ingredient in confectio caffis, confeftio
fennas, and in the infufum tr.marindi cum fenna.

TAMARISCUS, in Botany. See Tamarix.

TAMARISK Plant, in Agriculture, is a plant of the
large fhrubby kind, which has lately, it is faid, been era-
ployed in fome louthern fituations which are much expofed
to the fea air, and other effefts of it, with great utihty. It .
is capable of being readily railed and propagated by means
of cuttings of the lall year's growth, as they take root with-
out

T A M

out any difSeulty, and are, of courfe, admirably adapted as
plants for forming hedges. It is the French fort tiiat is
made up of in this way. See Ql'k KSiir-//c^»c

TAMA RITE, in Gt-ography, a town of Spain, in Aragon ;
16 miles E.S.E. of Balbaftro.

TAMARIX, \n Botany, Tamarifciu of Tournefort, and
of fomc, but not all, of the older botanifts, isfuppofed to de-
rive its name from the Tamarifci, a people who inhabited a
country on the other fide of the Pyrenees, wliere the moft
common fpecies of this genus abounds. Such at leaft is the
opinion of De Theis. Martyn fays, fome deduce this word
from the Hebrew Tumaris, to wipe or cleanfe ; but we feel
no great fatisfaftion in either of thefe etymologies. — Linn.
Gen. 148. Schreb. 200. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 1498.
Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 338. Prodr. Fl.
Grac. Sibth. v. i. 208. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 171. Juff.

313. Lamarck llluftr. t. 213. Ga:rtn. t. 61 Clafs and

order, Pcniandria Tilgynia. Nat. Ord. Succulents, Linn.
Porlulaccs, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, in five deep,obtufe, ereft,
permanent fegmcnts, half the length of the corolla. Cot-.
Petals five, ovate, obtufe, concave, fpreading. Stain. Fila-
ments five at leaft, capillary ; anthers roundifb. Pijl. Ger-
men pointed ; ftyle none ; ftigmas tliree, oblong, feathery,
revolute. Per'ic. Capfule oblong, pointed, triangular, longer
than the calyx, of one cell and three valves. Seeds nu-
merous, minute, each with a ftalked feathery crown.

Obf. T. germanka has ten ftamens, five of which, alter-
nate with the others, are external and iborter ; all are con-
iiefted at the bafe. 1/tnn.

EIT. Ch. Calyx inferior, in five deep fegments. Petals
five. Capfule of one cell and three valves. Seeds with a
feathery crown.

I . T. gallica. French Tamariftc. Linn. Sp. PI. 386.
Willd. n. I. . Fl. Brit. n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 1 3 18. Sm.
FI. Grsc. Sibth. t. 291. unpubhflied. Mill. Ic. t. 262. f.i.
(Tamarifcus narbonenfis ; Ger. Em. 1378. Lob. Ic. v. 2.
218. Myrica ; Camer. Epit. 74. f. i.) — Stamens five.
Clufters lateral. Branches fmooth. I^eaves lanceolate,

imbricated, fpurred at the b;ife Native of rocks and banks,

or of fwampy ground, efpecially towards the fea, in the
fouth of Europe, and north of Africa, very abundantly. It
is plentiful about the coafts of Cornwall, Hampdiire, and
Suflex, undoubtedly wild. This fhrub appears to have been
common in the Englilh gardens, as it ftill is, in Gerarde's
time ; and yet Camden, in his life of queen Elizabeth, at-
tributes to archbilbop Grindall, who died in 1583, its being
firft brought into England, and made known as " exceeding
good to eafe the hard diftemper of the fpleen." (See our
7th fpecies. ) Mr. Hudfon has not admitted any of this
genus into his Flora. Dr. Sibthorp found this plant com-
mon in rather moift fituations in Greece, nor can there be
any doubt that it is the //.v^i/.r. of Diofcorides. The Turks
call it // Ghin. On the eaftern coaft of Italy we have ob-
ferved it to be the favourite food of (hecp, probably on ac-
count of a faltiili flavour, perceptible to our tafte. This is
^ elecfant, drooping, flender-branched Jhnib, with fmooth
and fhining twigs, of a mahogany red. Leaves minute, rather
flefiiy, lanceolate, acute, fmooth, deciduous, with a pofterior
fpur, as in fome fpecies of Seduni; imbricated on the youngeft
Aoots ; fcattered on the older twigs. The^^otvers appear in
July, in copious, long, cylindrical clujlers, rather thznfpiies,
at the fides of the lart year's (boots. Bradeas awl-(liaped,
folitary, at the bafe of each fmooth and naked partial ilalk.
Calyx bell-fhaped, acute, fmooth. Corolla midjlamens white
OT rof --coloured.

Willdenow's variety ^ we (hall next defcribe ai a diftind

6

T A M

fpecies; his'), the T. africana of Poirct, gathered by this
traveller in Barbary, is faid to have peculiarly (hurt, thick
and denfe^/'/vj-, but we are not furnifhed with any further
iiifonnation on the fubject.

2. T. tomeiitofa. Downy-branched Tamari(l<. (T. gal-
lica /3 ; Willd. n. 2. T. penlandra; varietas \ Pall, Rofs.
V. I. p. 2. 72. t.79. BCD.)— Stamens five. Cluft.-rs la-
teral. Leaves imbricated, awl-(haped, elongated, hyury and

downy as well as the branches Found by Pall.is in fait

fandy deferts about the Cafpian fea. He I'peaks of this
plant as a lingular very elegant variety of the preceding, about
fix feet high, with all its branches downy and hoary ; the
younger ones thicker than in the common 7'. gallica, ( which
he choofes to ca\l pentandra,) and the /faan.r longer, hoary,
denfely imbricated ; all the parts being thicker and more
crowded. In the clujlers and Jowers he obferved no differ-
ence. Willdenow's fuggeftion, of this being probably a
diitinft fpecies, is apparently well-founded.

3. T. articulata. Jointed-branched Tamarilk. Vahl
Symb. v. 2. 48. t. 32. Willd. n. 2. (T. orientalis ; Forlk.
./Egypt. -Arab. 206. Thuja aphylla ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1422,
excluding the fynonym of Sliaw.) — Stamens five. Spikes
lateral. Branches jointed. Leaves (lieathing, abrupt, with
a (hort ("preading point — Gathered by Forikall in Ar.ibia.
The original fpecimen, erroneoufly confidered by Linnsus,
for want of frndification, as a Thuja, appears to have been
brought from Egypt, or the Levant, by Haffelquill. The
plant of Shaw is Thuja articulata, which will hereafter be de-
fcribed under its proper ger.us. We find no certain evidence
of the Tamarix before us being a native, as Vahl fays, of the
Eafl Indies, and we imagine he confounded witii it our next
fpecies. The true plant of Halelquill and Vahl lias co-
pious flender branches, appearing when young as if jointed,
each joint being crowned with a minute dotted fcale-like leaf,
whofe annular bafe encircles the branch, and whofe fliort,
crcdl, keeled, acute point projefts on one fide. Thefe leaves
are permanent, enlarged, and membranous on the older
branches. The Jlotvers are defcribed by Vahl as forming
lateral ^(7a about the ends of the brandies, each flower
being feffile, accompanied by a IraSea rcfembling the leaves,
but with a widely-fpreading point. Segments of the calyx
roundifii and obtufe. Pctids ihe fize of T. gallica, linear, or
rather elliptical. Stamens five. Capfule with four angles,
pyramidal.

4. T. epacroides. Eaft Indian Tamarifl< Stamens five.

Clufters lateral and terminal. Leaves ovate, acute imbri-
cated, clafpiiig tlie ftem ; gibbous at the bafe. BraCteas
awl-ftiaped, longer than the ftov.ers. — Found by Kccnig
growing plentifully on the banks of a river in the Eaft
Indies, which he calls ^umcH Culloram maximum. We have
the fame from Rotller and Roxburgh. This is unqucf-
tionably diftiiift from the preceding, and hitlieito unde-
fcribed. The young branches have no jointed appearance,
nor do the leaves funound them v.ith an annular permanent
bafe. The latter are fucculent, of a broad triangular Ihape,
tapering into an inflexed point ; t!ie tloral ones, or bradeas,
much narrower, coloured, ftrongly keeled. Flwjicri very
fmall, on fhort partial Itaiks. S -gments of the calyx broad
and obtufe, fringed. Petals elliptical. Capfule fcarcely
above a line in length, prifnritic, accompanied by the pcr-
m'dncnt filaments, which are geia rally rather longer. Whether
the T. chinenjis of I>ourciro be this plant, his deicrijition it
not fufficient to determine. He fays the pitals are hnear.

5. T. mucronata. Pointed Tainari(l<. — Stamens eight or
ten. Spikes lati-ral and terminal. Leaves (heathing, abrupt,

pointed. BraCleas taper-pointed, lanceolate The fpeci-

incns of till* very diltinct fpecies, in the Liuuxan herbarium,

Wve

T A M

have no mark by wliich we cm afcertain its native country,
though w- fufpoft tlicm to have been fent from the Eall
Indies. The jointed appearance of the young branches, and
the (heathing abrupt form of the leaves, approach thofe of
T. arlkulata; but the leaves have mucli more elongated and
tapering points, and every part is twice the fizc of that
fpecics. T\\c foliage moreover is much lefs evidently dotted.
Flowers large, feffile, with lanceolate, membranous-edged
braBeas, whofe points are longer than the calyx, and very
flender. Segments of the calyx elliptical, obtufe, flat.
Petals obovate. Stamens eight or ten, we cannot be certain
which is their general number. Capfules prifmatic, glau-
cous, three-quarters of an inch long. Seed-dotvn long and
feathery.

6. T. fongarica. Songarian Tamarifl<. "Pallas Nov.
Aa. Petrop. v. lO. 374. t. 10. f. 4." Willd. n. 3.—" Sta-
mens eight or ten. Flowers axillary, fomewhat fpiked.
Leaves flefliy, obtufe, triangular." — Gathered by Pallas, in
a fait foil, on the banks of the Songari. We know nothing
of this fpecies but from Willdenow. The " triangular blunt
leaves" indicate an effential difference from the lalh

7. T. germanica. German Tamarifl<;. Linn. Sp. PI. 387.
Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 2. Fl. Dan. t. 234. Mill. Ic. t. 262.
f. 2. Pall. Rofs. V. I. p. 2. 73. t. 80. (Tamarifcus ger-
manica ; Ger. Em. 1378. Lob. Ic. 218. Myrica ; Camer.
Epit. 74. f. 2.) — Stamens ten, monadelphous. Cluiters
terminal. Leaves linear-lanceolate, feffile, obtufe. — Native
of fwamps in Germany, Siberia, Switzerland, and the
mountains of Dauria and Caucafus. Common in our gar-
dens, where it flowers in the open air from June to Sep-
tember. Mr. Aiton fays, on Hakluyt's authority, that this
was the fpecies introduced by archbilhop Grindall ; fee T.
gallica. Gcrarde fpeaks of both as profpering well in the
EngUfh gardens. The prefent is a more upright and ghu-
consjljrub than the gallica, as well as larger in all its parts.
Leaves feflile, imbricated, channelled, dotted, entirely point-
lefs, not dilated at the bafe. Brafleas ovate, pointed, with
membranous edges. Segments of the calyx ovato-lanceolate,
likewife membranous at the fides. Petals obovate, flefh-
coloured, not much longer than the calyx. Capfule glaucous,
the fize and fliape of our T. mucronata. Seed-doivn long and
finely feathery.

Pallas figures what he conceives to be an annual herbaceous
variety of this fpecies, of which, not having feen it, we do
not feel ourfelves competent to give an opinion.

Tamaiux, in Gardening, furniflies plants of the hardy,
deciduous, tree and fhrub kinds, of which the fpecies that
are cultivated are, the French tamaridc (T. gallica) ; and
the German tamarifl-c (T. germanica).

Though the firft in its native fituation grows to a tree of
middling fize, in this climate it feldom rifes more than four-
teen or fixteen feet high, fendmg out many flender branches,
moll of which fpread out flat, and hang downward at their
ends, being rather of a flirubby nature. It is prevalent in
the fouth of France, and in other fouthern coimtries.

But the fecond fpecies is rather a flirub than a tree, having
feveral woody ftalks arifing from the fame root, which grow
quite ereft, fending out many fide branches, which are alfo
ereft. It is found in many parts of Germany, &c.

Method of Culture — AH thefe plants may be increafed
either by laying down their tender fhoots in autumn, or by
planting cuttings in an eaft border, which will take root in
a ftiort time, if they are fupphed with water in the fpring,
before they begin to fhoot in dry weather ; but they (hould
not be removed until the following autumn, at which time
they may be either placed in a nurfery, to be trained up two
or three years, or where they are defigned to remain, mulch-

T A M

ing their roots, and watering them according as the feafon
requires, until they have taken root ; after which, the only-
culture they wiU require is to prune off the ftraggling flioots,
and keep the ground clear about them.

The layer method is not only tedious, but unneceffary, as
the cuttings grow readily, and the layers often will not
ilrike at all. The cuttings fliould be of the lalt fummer's
flioots, and a moiil border is mofl proper for them. In two
years they will be good plants for the fhrubbery% and may
be planted out in almofl any foil, though they like a light,
moiit earth befl:, efpecially the latter fort, which grows na-
turally in low watery fituations.

Both thefe plants are of a rather haidy nature, and beau-
tiful in their fohage and fine fpikes of flowers. They will
fucceed in almoft any fort of foil and fituation.

They are very ornamental in the fhrubbery borders, clumps,
and other parts of grounds.

The former fort has likewife been lately recommended as a
beneficial plant for forming quick or living hedges with, in
fuch fituations as are cxpofed much to the fea-air and blafts,
as it has been found to ftand fuch expofures remarkably well,
where not affefted by the winter trofts, of which it is ra-
ther impatient. See Quick Hedges, and Tamarfsk-
Plant.

TAMARUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of the ifle of
Albion, which ftill retains its ancient name, being called
Tamar, from Tamara, a gentle river ; and its mouth is
Plymouth haven.

TAMASA, or Tamasi, in Hindoo Mythology, is a name
given to the goddefs Parvati, in her black charafler ; the
word meaning blacknefs or darknefs . The name of Tamas,
or Tamafa, was given to a dark, gloomy, aftronomical cha-
rafter, called Rahu, (fee that article,) and Ketu, the names
feverally of the dragon's head and tail, or the afcending and
defcending nodes of aftrologers. One of the fons of Pa-
vaka, the Hindoo fire-king, is likewife named Tamafa.
(See Pavaka.) Alfo one of thofe mythological, or hif-
torical perfonages, called Menus, of whom fee under Menu.
In the Sanfcrit tongue, the root tarn is prolific of derivations
indicating properties of a dark, or gloomy, or malignant
tendency.

Tamasa, in Geography, a river of Afia, in Mingrelia,
which difcharges itfelf into the Black fea.

TAMASIDAVA, in Jncient Geography, a town fituated
in the interior of Lower Moefia, at fome diftance from the
river Hierafus.

TAMASQUI, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Guafleca ; 36 miles W.S.W. of St. Yago de
los Valles.

TAMASSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated in
the interior of the ifle of Cyprus, W. of Ledra, on one of
the flreams which formed the Pedaeus.

TAMATAMQUE, or Villa de las Palmas, in Geogra-
phy, a town of South America, in the kingdom of Gra-
nada, on the river St. Martha ; 25 miles S. of TenerifFe.

TAMATIA, in Ornithology, the name of a very flrange
bird of the Brafils. It is a fpecies of Bucco in the Linnaean
fyftem by Gmelin, and the fpotted-bellied barbut of
Latham.

Its head is very large ; its eyes large and black ; its beak
is two fingers breadth long, and one broad, fliaped fome-
what hke a duck's, but pointed at the end ; its upper chap
is black, its under one yellow ; its legs are long, and the
thighs in great part naked ; its toes are long ; its tail is very
fhort ; its head is black, ,aid its back and wings of a plain
duflcy brown ; its belly is of the fame brown, variegated
with white.

TAMATMA,

T A M

TAMATMA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Bornou.

TAMBA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Bcn-
guela ; 165 miles E. of Benguela. — Alfo, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in Vifiapour ; 20 miles S.W. of Sattarah.

TAMBA-AWRA, or Tambaoura, a town of Africa,
in the kingdom of Bambouk, liaving in its vicinity a gold-
mine ; 108 miles S.E. of Gallam. N. lat. 13° 20'. W.
long. 9° 25'.

TAMBAC, or Tambaqua, a mixture of gold and
copper, which the people of Siam hold more beautiful, and
fet a greater value on, than gold itfelf.

Some travellers fpeak of it as a metal found in its peculiar
Klines ; but upon what authority we do not know.

The abbe de Choify, in his Journal of Siam, doubts
whether this may not be the eledrum, or amber of So-
lonx)n.

The ambafladors of Siam brought feveral works in tam-
bac to Paris in the reign of Lewis XIV., but they were not
found fo beautiful as was expefted. See TosrBAC and Gold-
coloured Metal.

TAMBACH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the principality of Gotha ; 6 miles N.E. of Smalkalden.

TAMBACUNDA, a town of Africa, in the country
of Woolly ; 30 miles E.N.E. of Medina. — Alfo, a town
of Africa, in the country of Neola ; 52 miles W. of Ba-
niferile.

TAMBERCHERRY, a town of Hindooftan ; 18 miles
N.E. of Calicut.

TAMBILLO, a town of Peru ; 56 miles N. of
Oruro.

TAMBO, a town of South America, in the province of
Popayan ; 12 miles W. of Popayan. — Alfo, a town of
Paraguay ; 250 miles E. of AfTumption.

Tambo de Oeros, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of
Cufco ; 136 miles W.N.W. of Cufco.

TAMBONA, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of
Travancore ; 40 miles N.E. of Travancore.

TAMBOOKIES, a people of the colony of the Cape
of Good Hope, fituated N.E. of the Kouflis, or the Kooffis,
N. to the Orange river and tropic of Capricorn, are fup-
pofed by Mr. Barrow to be of Arabian extraft, as they
widely differ from the Hottentots and tlie Negroes, and are
acquainted with the fmelting of iron, and fome other rude
arts. He conceives that a belt of this race fpreads acrofs
to the Atlantic. The Demaras on the Copper mountains are
Kouflis ; and their country is fo barren and fandy, that
they cannot keep cattle. The Orange river, called the
Groot or Great river, feems to rife about S. lat. 30°. E.
long. 28°, and paffes W. by N. till it f;Jls into the fea be-
tween the Great and Little Nemakos. It has high catarafts
and inundations like the Nile. On the fhores are carne-
lians, calcedonies, agates, and variolites. See Orasge-
River.

TAMBOPALLA, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of
Arequipa, at the mouth of the Nombre de Dios ; 48 miles
S. of Arequipa. S. lat. 17^ 10'.

TAMBOS, in Peruvian Antiqttlty, buildings placed at
certain diftances, for the lodging of the princes of that
country, in their travels through their dominions. See M.
de la Condamine, in Mem. de I'Acad. de Berlin, torn. ii.
p. 435 ; who tells us (p. 438.) that he faw feveral remains
of thefe tambos, in his journey from Quito to Lima.

TAMBOV, in Geography, a city of Ruffia, on the Tzna,
capital of a government, and fee of a bifhop ; 228 miles
S.E. of Mofcow. N. lat. 52° 48'. E. long. 41° 4'.

TAMBOUR, in Jrditeaure, a term applied to the
Vol. XXXV.

T A M

Corinthian and Compofite capitals, as bearing fome refcm-
blance to a drum, which the French call tambour.

Some choofe to call it the vafe, and others camtana, or
the bell.

Tambour is alfo ufed for a little box of timber work,
covered with a ceiling, withinfide the porch of certain
churches ; both to prevent the view of pcrfoiis pafling by,
and to keep off the wind, &c. by means of folding-doors,
&c.

Tambour alfo denotes a round courfe of ftone, feveral
of which form the fliaft of a column, not fo higli as a dia-
meter.

Tambour, in the Arts, is a fpecies of embroidery.

Tlie tambour is an inftrument of a fphcrical foi-m, upon
whicli is ftrctched, by means of a ftring and buckle, or otiier
fuitable appendage, a piece of linen or thin filken Huff;
which is wrought, with a needle of a particular form, and
by means of filken or gold and filver threads, into leaves,
flowers, or other figures.

Tambour, Fr., a drum ; which fee.

Tambour de Bafque, a fmall drum ufed by the Bifcayans
as an accompaniment to the flageolet, or oftave flute : a
tabor and pipe.

TAMBOURIN, a French dance, much in favour for-
merly on the French ftage in all the opera dances of Lulli
and Rameau. The air is gay and in common time.

TAMBOURISSA, or TAMnouRtxissA, in Botany,
Sonnerat's name for what is now called Mithridatea ; fee
that article. The French appellation of this tree, Bois Tam-
bour, or Drum-tree, might be fuppofed to allude to the
lightnefs and hollownefs of the wood, or to its ufe, were not
this word evidently derived from the Madagafcar name of the
fame tree, Amlora.

TAMBOVSKOE, \\\ Geography, a government of Ruf-
fia, bounded on the north by the government of Vladimir,
on the eaft by the governments of Nizegorod, Penza, and
Saratov ; on the fouth by the government of Saratov ;
and on the weft by the governments of Riazan and
Voronez ; about 200 miles in length, and from 80 to
100 in breadth. N. lat. 51° 36' to 55^ 20'. E. long. 38*
30' to 48°.

TAMBRAX, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Hyrcania, which, according ta Polybius, was large, and
had a royal palace.

TAMBRAY, in Geography, a town of Hindooflan, in
Travancore ; 60 miles N.N.W. of Anjenga.

TAMBRO, a river of Spain, which runs into the At-
lantic, near Muros, in Galicia.

TAMBUCO, or Tabuco, a town on the eaft coaft of
the ifland of Celebes, fituated in a bay to which it givci
name. S. lat. 2° 50'.

TAME, a river of England, which rifes near Winflow,
in the county of Buckingham, and runs into the Thames

at Dorchefter, in Oxfordftiire Alfo, a river of England,

which rifes near Dudley, in the county of Staflbrd, and
runs into the Trent, about 7 miles above Burton.

Tamk. See Thame.

TAMEGA, a river of Portugal, which runs into the
Duero, 10 miles S. of Am.-irante.

TAMEG AN, a town of the ifland of Ceylon ; 48 miles
S. of Candi.

TAMERLANE, in Biography. Sec TiMOUR.

TAMETAVE, in Geography, a town on the E. coaft of
Madagafcar. S. lat. 18^ 5'. E. long. 49° 41'.

TAMIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the ifle of
Albion, in the vicinity of Banatia and Alata Caftra. Pto-
lemy alfiirns it to the Vacomagi.

f TAMI-

T A M

TAMIAGUA, in Geography, a river of Mexico, which

joins the Tufpa at its mouth Alfo, a town of Mexico, in

the province of Guafteca.

TAMIEH, a town of Egypt, on a canal which forms a
communication between the Nile and the Birket el Kerum ;
12 miles N.E. of Fayonm.

TAMINIZ, a river of Carniola, about four miles in
extent ; 4 miles S.E. of Veit. It has no vifiblc communi-
cation with any other river.

TAMINO, a river of Switzerland, virhich runs into the
Rhine, 2 miles S. of Sargans.

TAMISRA, denoting darknefs, a name of one of the
hells of the Hindoos, of which they had upwards of a fcore.
Another of the Hindoo hells is named Andha Taniifra,
meaning utter darknefs ; and as thcfe purgatories are dif-
ferently placed, this is fuppofed to be the one fituated in the
bowels of the earth, and its degree of puiiiftiment an ag-
gravation of the eaficr penalties inflifted in Tamifra. In the
Inllitutes of Menu it is ordained, that " a twice-born man,
who barely aflaults a Brahman with an intention to hurt him,
(hall be whirled about for a century in the hell called Ta-
mifra." (Ch. iv. v. 165.) By " a twice-born man" is meant
an individual of one of the three firft tribes or fe<fts, they
being fufceptible of regeneration by the inveftiturc of tiie
%ennaar ; which fee. See alfo O'm, and Sects of Hindoos.

TAMLOOK, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 35
miles S.W. of Calcutta.

TAMMAPUL, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guafteca ; 105 miles N.W. of Panuco.

TAMMELA, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Tavaftland ; 23 miles S.W. of Tavafthus.

TAMMERFORS, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Tavaftland ; 36 miles N.N.W. of Tavafthus.

TAMMESBRUCK, a town of Saxony, in Thu-
ringia, near the Unftrutt ; I mile from Langen Salza.

TAMMOWISCHKEN, atown of Pruffian Lithuania j
3 miles E. of Inftcrburg.

TAMNUM, in jincient Geography, a town of Galha
Aquitanica, upon the route from Burdigala to Auguftodu-
num ; now Talmon.

TAMNUS, in Botany, Tourn. t. 28. Juff. 43, a more
correft name, perhaps, than that of Tamls, ufed by Lin-
naeus, which will be found in its proper place. The word
has been corrupted occalionally into Tamarus and Tanmis.

TAMOATA, in Ichthyology, the name of an American
frefti-water fifh, called by the Fortugueie foldido.

It is a fmall oblong fifti, with a flat head, fomevvhat like
that of a frog. Its mouth is fmall, and from each angle of it
there hangs a long fmgle filament, by way of a beard. It
has no teeth, and its eyes are extremely fmall. It has eight
fins ; two at the gills, of one finger in length, and hard and
firm like horns ; two on the belly, of a fofter fubftance ;
and one on the middle of the back, another near the tail, and
another fmall one oppofite to it on the belly ; its tail is the
eighth ; its whole head is covered above with a hard coat
like a fhell ; and its body with a fort of coat of mail made
up of oblong, hard, fquamofe bodies, dented at their edges ;
its colour is a fort of rufty iron-colour. It is accounted a
very well-tafted fifh. It lives only in frefh-water rivers ;
and, it is faid, when the water where it is dries up, it
ivill crawl out upon the land, and go in fearch of more.
Marcgrave.

TAMOLA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
•vince of Tavaftland ; 20 miles S.W. of Tavafthus.

TAMONEA, in Botany, a name of Aublet's, faid by De
Theis to be in ufe among the inhabitants of Guiana, but this
does not appear from any thing mentioned in the original

T A M

author. Aubl. Guian. 659. t. 268. Juff. 109. Lamarck
lUuftr. t. 542. Verbena lappulacea of Linna:us is referred by
Jufticu to this genus. (See Verbena.) We are not certain
whether Tamonea ought to be admitted as a genus, and
therefore need not ftay to objeft to the name.

TAMONTACA, in Geography, a town on the weft
coaft of the ifland of Mindanao. N. lat. 7° 2'. E. long.
124' 36'.

TAMOOK, a fmall idand in the Sooloo Archipelago.
N. lat. 6° 21'. E. long. 121=58'.

TAMOS, in Ancient Geography, a promontory which
formed mount Taurus, in the Eailern ocean.

TAMPASSOOK, in Geography, a town on the nortlj-
weft coail of the ifland of Borneo. N. lat. 6= 2 1'. E. long.
116=13'.

TAMPICO, a fea-port of Mexico, in the province of
Guafteca, fituated in the bay of the gulf of Mexico ;
30 miles S.E. of Panuco. N. lat. 22" 40'. W. long.
98=36'.

Tampico, a name given to a river of Spanifh North
America, called the Panuco ; which fee.

TAMPING a Hole, in Mining, is ufed for filling the
upper part of a hole, bored in the rock for blafting with
gunpowder, upon the charge of powder, with clay or ftony
matter rammed down very clofe and tiglit : and the clay and
flone are called the tamping. This operation i* called, in
the North of England, ilemming a hole.

TAMPION, ToMPlON, Tamkin, or Tomkin, a kind of
plug or ftopple, ferving to clofe a vefTel.

The word is formed from the French tampon, a bung,
ftopper, &c. Some derive it from the Enghlh tap.

In Gunnery, the tampions are wooden cyh'nders put into the
mouth of guns, howitzers, and mortars, in travelling, to
prevent the duft or wet from getting in. They are faftcned
round the muzzle of the guns, &c. by leatliern collars. At
fca they are carefidly encircled with tallow or putty, to
prevent the penetration of the water into the bore, by which
the powder contained in the chamber might be damaged or
rendered incapable of fervice. They are alfo fometimes
ufed to put into the chambers of mortars, over the powder,
when the chambers are not full. Tampions are alfo iron
bottoms, to which the grape-fhot defigned for fea-fervice
are fixed.

TAMPISCO, in Geography, a river of Mexico, which
runs into the Pacific ocean, N. lat. 10° 38'.

TAMPOE, in Natural Hijlory, the name of an Eaft In-
dian fruit, approaching to the figure of the mangouftan, but
liot neai- fo agreeable to tlie tafte. This fruit is very much of
the fize, fhape, and colour of fome of our common fummer-
apples ; but its flcin is very thick and tough, and it has no
crown. The Indians eat it in places where better fruits are
fcarce, and in fome places call it the mangouftan.

TAM-SAN-HOTUN, in Geography, a town of Chinefe
Tartary. N. lat. 40= 20'. E. long. 123° 48'.

TAMSHUC Mountains, mountains of Thibet ; 30
milcs N. of Dharmfaleh.

TAMSWEG, a town of the archbiftiopric of Salzburg ;
1 2 miles W. of Muehrau.

TAMUADA, in Ancient Geography, a river of Africa,
in Mauritania Tingitana.

TAMUGADA, a town of Africa, in Maiu-itania, on the
route from Lambefe to Cirta Colonise.

TAMUS, in Botany, an old name, fometimes written
Tamnus, fee that article, and fuppofed to be taken from
the U'va Tamlnla of Pliny, which appears to have belonged
to the plant now called Black Bryony. To this therefore
the above name is at prefent appropriated. — Linn. Gen. 524.

Schreb.

I

T A M

Sclireb. 6()1. WiUd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 772. Mart. Mill Did.
V. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 1078. Prodr. Fl. Grmc. Sibth. v. 2.
358. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 386. (Tamnus ; Tourii.
t. 28. .lufT. 43. Lamarck lUultr. t. 8l7.)_Cl.ifs and
order, D'wecia Hexandria. Nat. Ord. Sarmentaced, Liiin.
/tfparagi, .Tuff.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Periaiitli in fix deep, ovato-lancen-
late fegments, moft expanded in their upper part. Cor.
none ; except the calyx be fo confidercd, which wo have
recommended in a parallel cafe, fee Smilax. Stam. Fila-
ments fix, fimple, (horter than the calyx (or corolla) ; an-
thers ereft.

Female, Cal. (or Cor.) of one piece, bell-fhaped, in fix
deep, lanceolate, fpreading fegments, fuperior, deciduous.
Neftary an oblong deprefiion in the bafe of each fegment, at
the infide. P'ljl. Germen inferior, large, ovate-oblong,
fmooth ; ftyle cylindrical, three-cleft, the length of the
•calyx (or corolla) ; ftigmas three, reflexed, emarginatc,
acute. Peril. Berry ovate, of three cells. Seeds two in each
cell, globofe.

Eir. Ch. Male, Calyx (or rather Corolla) in fix deep
fegments. Female, Calyx (or rather Corolla) in fix deep
fegments. Style three-cleft. Berry inferior, of three cells.
Seeds two in each cell.

I. T. communis. Common Black Bryony. Linn. Sp.
Fl. 1458. Willd. n. I. Fl. Brit. n. I. Engl. Bot. t. 91.
Mill. lUuftr. t. 89. ( Bryonia nigra ; Ger. Em. B71. Vitis
nigra; Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 622. Camer. Epit. 988.) —
Leaves heart-fhaped, undivided. — Native of hedges, woods,
and bufliy places, in the more temperate parts of Europe,
as well as in the Levant. It is common in England, not
in Scotland, flowering in June, and laden with bunches of
fcarlet berries in autumn, till rotten with wet and froft.
Dr. Sibthorp found this plant frequent in Greece, as well
as in the ifles of Crete and Cyprus. The young fprouts
boiled are eaten in the latter, like afpai-agus, to which they
are naturally allied. The flefhy perennial root is blackifh ex-
ternally, whence the ancient, as well as Enghrti, name.
Stems annual, herbaceous, branched, twining round every
thing in their way, and thus climbing, without tendrils, to a
confiderable height, till they become elegantly pendent in
feftoons. Leaves alternate, flalked, entire, acute, many-
ribbed, fmooth. Stipulas fmall, awl-fhaped, fpreading, in
pairs at the bafe of each footftalk. Floiuers in long, green-
ifh, axillary clufters. Berries oval, the fize of a large cur-
rant, bright red, infipid. The root is acrid. Its pulp fcraped
has formerly been ufed as a flimulating plaifter.

l.T . elephantipes. Tuberous Cape Black Bryony. L'Herit.
Sert. Angl. 29. Ait. n. 2. Willd. n. 2. Curt. Mag. t. 1347.
— Leaves kidney-fhaped, undivided. Root elevated, corky
and teflellated. — Found at the Cape of Good Hope, near
the town, by Mr. Maffon, who fent it to Kew in 1774.
A male plant flowered there, in the ftove, in 1783, from
whence I'Heritier caufed a drawing to be made, but tliis
plate never appeared. A female, originally imported by
Mr. George Hibbert, flowered in Mr. Knight's greenhoufe,
and being publifhed in the Botanical Magazine, has deter-
mined the genus, by its inferior germen, a point previoufly
only guefTed at. The fingular appearance of the great
flefliy root, rifing out of the ground, a foot in diameter, and
covered with angular, teflellated, brown knobs, more refem-
bles the clumfy (hell of fome huge tortoife, than an elephant's
foot. This uncouth mafs fends forth in the fpring a flender,
twining, annual Jiem, about eight feet long, not unlike the
laft; ; but the haves are very diff^erent, kidney-ftiaped, with
ftrong ribs ; their ends either emarginate, or abrupt with
a fmall point. Footjialks tumid, or jointed, at each end.

T A M

Flowers yellowilb -green. Germen oblong, furrowed. Fruit
not yet obfcrved.

3. T. eretica. Cretan Black Bryony. Linn. Sp. PI. 1458.
Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 3. Sm. Fl'. Grn»c. Siblh. I. 958, un-
pubhflicd. (Tamnua erotica, trifido foho ; Tourn. Cor. 3.)
— Leaves three-lobed. — Nut rare in the woods and hedges of
Crete and Cyprus, as well as Greece. Siblhorp. Miller
appears to have cultivated it in 1739, but we liave never
met with a plant in gardens, nor is this fpecics likely to be
a popular favourite. It difl"er8 from the firll chiefly in
haying a deep lateral finus, on each fide of the leaves, and
twin clutters of^oTOfrj, one much longer than its companion.
We know nothing uf the /rwiV — The young (hoots are eaten
boiled.

Tamus, in Gardening, furniflies plants of the hardy, herba-
ceous, climbing, perennial kind, among which the fpecies
mofl; generally grown are the common black bryony (T.
communis) ; and tiie Cretan black bryony (T. eretica).
The firil fort has a very large tuberous root, which is black-
ifli externally ; the ilcms arc fmooth, twinii.g about every
thing in tlieir way, and thus afcending, without the aid of
tendrils, to the height of ten or twelve feet in hedges or
among buflies, whicli their fottoons of tawny leaves and red
berries decorate in the autumnal feafon.

But the fecond fpecies lias a rounder root than the former ;
yet the ttalks twine in the fame manner.

Method of Culture. — All thefe plants are readily increafed
by fowing the feeds foon after they are ripe, under the fhelter
of buflies, where, in the fpring, the plants will come up, and
require no further care ; or in beds to be afterwards planted
out. The roots will abide many years, and fometimes
fend up fuckers, from which plants may be raifcd by fet-
ting them out in the autumn or fpring where they are to
remain.

The thick flefliy root of the firft fort is fometimes culti*
vated for ufe in the fliops.

Both the plants are ufeful in thickets, and in the wilder-
nefs parts of pleafure-grounds.

TAMUSIDA, \n Ancient Geography, a town of Africa,
in Mauritania Tingitana, between Banafa and Silda.

TAMUSIGA, a town of Africa, in Mauritania Tingi-
tana, on the fea-coaft, between the port of Hercules and the
promontory Ufadium.

TAMUZ, in Chronology, the fourth month of the Jewifti
ecclefiaftical year, anfwering to part of our June and July.
The 17th day of this month is obferved by the Jews as a fall,
in memory of the deftruftion of Jerufaleni by Nebuchad-
nezzar, in the 1 ith year of Zcdekiah, before Chrift 588.

TAMWORTH, in Geography, is a borough and market-
town, fituated partly in the hundred of Offlow, county of
Stafford, and partly in the hundred of Hemlingford, county
of Warwick, England: at the diltance of 22 miles S.E.
from Staff'ord, 27 miles N. by W. from Warwick, and 116
miles N.W. from London. It is feated near the confluence
of the rivers Tame and Anker, tlie former of which runs
through the town, and divides it into two nearly equiJ
parts. Tamworth appears to have been of confiderable
note at an early period ; and was the occafional refidence
of the Mercian kings. Ofla dates a charter to the monks of
Worceiler from his palace here in the year 781 ; and feveral
of his fucceflbrs in the next century alfo date their grants from
the fame place. At that period, a ditch, forty-five feel in
breadth, proteAed the town and royal demefne on the north,
weft:, and eaft ; the river ferving as a defence on the fouth
fide. Of this ditch, fome vediges can ftill be traced, and at
two angles which it forms, are two mounts, probably raifed
as foundations for towers. On tlic iuvaiiou of this kingdom
I 2 bj

T A M

by the Danes, Tamworth was almoft, or totally, deftroycd.
Ethclfleda, the daughter of the illuilrious Alfred, is faid to
have rebuilt it in 913, after the had, by her prudence and
valour, freed her brother's dominions from th« invaders.
She alfo ereftcd a tower on an artificial mount, which forms
the fcite of the prefent caftle ; and here fhe generally rc-
fided till her death, in 918. The caftle was beftowcd by
William the Conqueror on Robert Marmion, whofe de-
fcendants held it till 20 Edward I., when it pafled by mar-
riage to the Frcville family ; that of Ferrers fucceeded m
the reign of Henry VI. ; and they were followed by tlie
Comptons. This venerable fabric is ftill in a good ftate
of prcfervation, as to its exterior ; but the infide has dif-
fered much from age and ncgleft. Tbe rooms are numerous,
but ill-fuited to the liberal domeftic manners of the prefent
era ; and the whole is chiefly attraftive as a monument of
antiquity. The town of Tamworth is large and well-built.
It was incorporated by queen Elizabeth on a fcale pecu-
liarly liberal : the corporation confifts of two bailiffs, a re-
corder, high fteward, under fteward, a town-clerk, and
twenty-four principal burgeffes : one of the bailiffs is chofen
from each county. Tamworth has fent two reprefentatives
to parliament ever fince the year 1563. The right of elec-
tion is in the inhabitants paying fcot and lot : and the
members are returned jointly by the (heriffs of Warwickfliire
and Staffordfhire. The church is a fpacious edifice. The
mod ancient portion exhibits two round-headed arches, em-
bellifhed with zig-zag mouldings : whence it feems probable
that the original edifice was conftrufted foon after the Con-
queft. The church was rendered collegiate by the Marmion
family at an early period for a dean and fix prebendaries ;
with feveral lay prebendaries, which are ftill attached to the
church. The college was granted by queen Ehzabcth in
1 58 1 to Edward Downing and Peter Afhton. An liofpital
was eftabhfhed in this town by Philip Marmion in the 15th
year of Edward I. On its fcite another was founded and
endowed by Mr. Guy, to whom the borough of Southwark
is indebted for the noble hofpital which bears his name.
A grammar-fchool, founded by queen Elizabeth, is ftill
wellfupported. Here are fome manufaftures, the chief of
which is that of fuperfinc woollen cloths : but this trade,
though ftill refpeftable, has much decreafed. The print-
ing of calicoes, the tanneries, the manufadlure of flax, and
the fpinning of yarn, are branches of bufinefs which have
confiderably advanced. A weekly market, under queen
Elizabeth's charter, is held on Saturdays : and three fairs
annually. In the population return of the year 181 1, the
Staffordftiire divifion of Tamworth was llated to contain
279 houfes, and 1327 inhabitants; the Warwickftiire divi-
fion 325 houfes, and 1666 inhabitants: making a total of
2993 perfons, occupying 604 houfes.

About four miles fouth-eaft of Tamworth is Pooley-Hall,
the feat of the honourable colonel Finch. The lands at-
tached to this refidence formed part of the poffeffions of the
Marmions ; and after feveral intermediate tranfmifiions, came
to the family of Cokaine, in the latter part of the 14th cen-
tury. It is afccrtained that fir John Cokaine refided at
Pooley in the reign of Henry IV., and his defcendants, for
many generations, made it their principal feat. . The pre-
fent manfion was erefted by fir Thomas Cokaine, temp.
Henry VIII., and is a fine but irregular building, varying
in charafter between the embattled ftyle of the previous
troubled and fufpicious ages, and the open amplitude of
conftruftion then firft growing into praftice. — Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. xiii. Staffordfhire, and vol. xv.
Warwickfhire, by J. N. Brewer.

Tamworth, a town of America, in New Hamp-

TAN

fliire ; 56 miles N. of Portfmouth ; containing 1134 m'
habitants.

TAMYRACA, in ^Indent Geography, a town of Euro-
pean Sarmatia, near the Casrcinite gulf.

TAN, the bark of the oak, chopped, and ground by a
tanning-mill into a coarfe powder ; to be ufed in the tan-
ning or drefling of flcins. See Taknix.

New tan is the moft cftecmed ; when old and ftale, it lofes
a great deal of its effeft, which confifts in condenfing or
clofing the pores of the fliins ; fo that the longer the (kins
arc kept in tan, the greater ftrength and firmnefs they
acquire.

This bark, which is more abundant in the gummy refinous
part than any of our common indigenous aftringents, and
which, on account of its aftringent, gummy, refinous pro-
perty, ferves both to preferve leather from rotting, and to
render it impervious to water, is preferred to all other fub-
ftances for the purpofe of tanning. It is ufed either in the
way of infufion, which is called ooze | or the dry powder is
ftrewed between layers of hides and flciiis, when thefe are laid
away in the tan-pits. The ooze is made by macerating the
bark in common water, in a particular fet of holes or pits,
which, by way of diftinftion from the other holes in the tan-
yard, are called letches. See Tanning.

Every part of the oak-tree, of what age or growth foever,
is fit for the tanner's ufe, and all oaken coppice-wood, of
any fize or age, being cut and procured in barking-time,
will tan all forts of leather ; at leaft, as well as the baric
alone. When this material is got at the proper feafon, it
muft be very well dried in the fun, more than the bark alone ;
thence it is to be cut up, and preferved in a, covered place
for ufe.

When it is to be ufed, the greater wood muft be firft
cleft fmall, to fit it for the beating and cutting-engine j
and the fmaller muft be put into the engine as it is : which
doitf, it muft be again dried upon a kiln, and after that,
ground in the fame manner that the tanners grind their bark.
Such wood as is to be ufed prcfcntly after it is gotten, will
require the better and the more drying upon the kiln ; and
if this is omitted, it will blacken and fpoil all the leather it
is ufed about. Where oak is fcarce, black-thorn, or floe-
tree, will tolerably well fupply its place ; and where that is
not to be had in fufiicient plenty, the white-thorn will do.
Phil. Tran. N^ 108.

Birch alfo, being ordered in the fame manner with oak,
is fit for fome iifes in tanning, particularly it does very
well for tanning of flioe-fole leather. All thefe ingredients
will tan much better than bark alone ; and that with much
lefs charge ; fo that this difcovery may very well fave the
felhng of trees when the bark is wanted, at a feafon when
the fap is up, which, when it is done, caufcs the outfide of
the trees to rot and grow worm-eaten ; whereas, if the trees
had been felled in winter, when the fap is down, they would
have been almoft all heart, as the people exprefs it, and not
fubjeft to worms. This manner of ufing the wood with
the bark, in tanning, will alfo increafe the value of under-
woods very confiderably. Phil. Tranf. N° 105.

The engine neceffary for cutting the wood confifts of a
long fquare wooden block, and fome pieces of iron to be
faftened on and ufed about it, viz. a hammer, an anvil, an
iron holding the wood to be bruifed and cut, and a knife to
cut it. The whole is a very fimple and cheap machine, and
is defcribed at large, and figured in the above-mentioned
number of the Philofophical Tranfaflions.

By M. de Buffon's experiments upon different flcins, it
was found that a decoftion of young oak-wood fucceeded
perfeftly well in tanning fheep and calves' Ikins, but did

not

I

TAN

T.ot do equally well for o-x, and the other harder Skim.
This, however, he imagiiits, might bo only for want of
knowing the beft method of ufing the wood. And certainly
thefe trials defcrve to be farther profecutcd ; fincc tlie fmall
branches of the oak, which are of little value, miglit be thus
made to fupply the place of a much dearer commodity, the
'liu-k ; and as in many trees the bark of the young branches
■'S found to be of greatly more vintue than that of the larger
branches, or the trunk, the ufe of thefe fmall boughs, bark
^id all, might very probably be found to anfwer to all the
efTefts of the bark of the larger kind alone. Memoirs Acad.
Scienc. Par. 1736.

The Society of Arts, &r. granted a prt-mium of 100/.
in the year 1765, for the difcovery of a method of tanning
witli oaken faw-duft ; but the acquifition has not hitherto
had its defired effetl ; thougli it is faid that the ufe of oaken
law-dull has been advantageoufly adopted in Germany.
Doflie's Mem. of Agr. vol. i. p. 227.

We are told, in Phil. Tranf. N° 36, that the operation of
fanning is performed, on leather, better in the Weft Indies
fhan in England. They ufe three forts of bark, tlie man-
grove-bark, the olive-bark, and another ; and the whole
bnfinefs is fo foon done, that a hide dehvered to them, is in
ilx weeks ready to be worked into (hoes, though they bellow
Jefs labour than we do.

Mr. Albert Gefner, firft phyfician to the duke of Wir-
temberg, having made fome experiments on the duft of
heath, dried in an oven, and afterwards pulverized, as a fub-
ititute to that of oak -bark in tanning, found that the leather
prepared by this method was very good ; but he obferves,
that the operation is much more tedious. (Hift. R. A. S.
Paris, for 1756. ) Others have propofed a trial of the fmall
branches of heath, and the leaves of oak.

Tan, in Gardening, a fubftance of the oak-bark, or other
fimilar kinds, after it has been ground and foaked in the
ooze of the tanners' vats, and properly dried, is ufed for
the purpofe of making hot-beds, for forcing many forts
of exotic plants that require a durable fteady heat.

It has not been of very long ufe in England, and was
brought to us from Holland in the reign of king William,
and then ufed for the raifmg of orange-trees ; but after this
period it became difufed ; and it is of a much later date,
<viz. about the year 1 7 1 9, tliat it has been brought into ufe
again for the raiiing of the pine -apple, fmce which time it is
become generally ufed, wherever it is to be had, for all the
purpofes of the hot-bed, in raifing tender exotic plants.

Refufe tan, made up into cakes, ferves as fuel, in circum-
■ftances where a gentle and continued fire is advantageous.
See Y>A.KK.-Bed, Hor-Bed, Moj-Hoiife, and Stove.

Tan, Floiver of, is a name given by the people employed
in the tanning-trade, to a yellow fubftance, often found upon
old tan, or oak-bark broken to pieces, which has been ufed
HS tan, and is of no farther fervice.

The name, however, is very improper ; and though every
body converfant in tan-yards muft have feen the thing, yet
:t has always pafTed as an efflorefcence of the bark, till the
curious Mr. Marchand inquired more accurately into its na-
ture, and found it to be a plant of itfelf, wholly different
from the matter of the tan ; and to which the bark, which
had been often wetted and dried again, ferved as a proper
matrix. He found it to be more nearly allied to the fpunge,
than to any other genus of plants, and therefore named it
fpongia fugax mollis Jlava £5* amana in pidvere coriario najcens,
ioft, beautiful, yellow-fading fpunge, growing on tanners'
jbark.

It makes its appearance motl frequently in the furamer-

TAN

months, and is then feen in fmall tufts of a beautiful yellow
colour, on different parts of the old heaps of bark. It ap-
pears at firil in form of a thin yellow fcum, and is of a fort
of jelly-like ftrufture ; but it every day grows larger and
thicker, till it ftands above half an inch out from the furfacc
of the bark. As it grows, its fnrface becomes more and
more cavernous and fpnngy, the pores or holes being of dif-
ferent diameters, and the nitcrilicial matter forming a fort of
net -work more or lefs regular, and often interrupted by ir-
regular prominences in feveral parts ; and, in fine, when tlje
growth is complete, tlie whole more refembles a fpunge
than any vegetable fubftance, and is of a deep yellow co-
lour, and confiderably thick and tough confiilence ; there
are no roots to be difeovered ift'uing from it ; its fmcll is like
that of rotten wood, and its taftc is fomewhat ftyptic. It
always appears in tlie warm months, and always upon fuch
old tan as has begun to ferment, and is in the ftatc in which
our gardeners ule it for hot-beds. If it happens to ftand
expofed to the fouth fun, it is but of (liort duration ; but
if it be in a Iheltered place, it will lall a confiderable time,
and often fpread itfelf to a great extent, and make a
very beautiful figure for many weeks. Mem. Acad. Par.

'Xxs-Bed, in Gardening. See Bakk-^iW.

Tan-P/V. See Baiik-P/V.

T^A^-Spud, in Rural Economy, the name ufually given to
a particular fort of tool ufed for peeling of the bark from
oak, and fome other trees, in certain dilirifts ; but in others
they employ feveral different implements for effctling this
purpofe.

TAs-Stove. See Hor-Hoii/e and Stove.

TANA, in Geography, the moft confiderable river in
Finmark.

TANACETUM, in Botany, Tanfy, a barbarous Latin
word, of which, like Ofmunda, it is fcarcely poffible, as
Linnasus remarks, Phil. Bot. 160, to determine the mean-
ing, or from what language it is derived. Of OsMUNDA
we have attempted an explanation. ( See that article. ) De
Theis cites Linn;eus and Dodonxus as deducing Tanacetum
from Athanajia ; but we find no fuch etymology given by
them, though feveral writers fpeak of thefe words as fy-
nonimous, and fome lexicographers give that explanation.
ASxvKTia, as exprefBng an unfading, or everlafting, flower,
is little applicable to our Tanfy. — Linn. Gen. 417. Schrcb.
549. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 1809. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4.
Sm. Fl. Brit. 862. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 2. 167.
Ait. Hort. Kevv. v. 5. 1. Purlh 522. Jud". 184. Toum.
t. 261. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 696. Gsrtn. t. 165 — Clafs
and order, Syngenejia Polygamia-fuperjlua. Nat. Ord. Cum-
pofiliZ difcoidex, Linn. Coryndifer<t, JufF.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx liemifpherical, imbricated, with
acute compaft fcales. Cor. compound, tubular, convex.
Florets of the dilk numerous, funnel-fhaped, with five re-
flexed fegments in the limb, all perfedl : thofe of the radiut
few, fmall, three-cleft, moft deeply divided at their inner
fide. Slam, in the perfeCl florets. Filaments five, capillary,
very ftiort ; anthers united into a cylindrical tube. Pijl. in
the perfeft florets, Germen oblong, fmall ; ftyle thread-
fliaped, the length of the ftamcns ; ftigma in two revolutc
fegments : in the female ones, Germen oblong ; ftyle fimple ;
ftigmas two, reflexed. Peric. none, except the unchanged
calyx. Seeds folitary, oblong, crowned with more or lefs
of a flight margin. Recept. convex, naked.

Obf. Sometimes the radius is wanting, all the florets
being, in that cafe, perfcft. The feeds of fome fpcciet are
faid to want the crown.

Eir.

TANACETUM.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle naked. Seeds crowned with a
border. Calyx imbricated, hcmifpherical. Florets of the
radius thrce<left, obfoletc, fometimcs wanting.

1. T. ivjiilum. Leafy Cape Tanfy. Thunb. Prodr.
147. Wind. n. I. " Leaves (lender, triangular, imbri-
cated. Panicle terminal."— Native of the Cape of Good
Hope. Thunberg.

2. T. lonpfoiwm. Long-leaved Cape Tanfy. Thunb.
Prodr. 147."' Willd. n. 2.—" Leaves linear-thread-(haped.
Cluiler terminal, level-topped." — Found in the fame
country.

^. T. Imifolium. Flax-leaved Cape Tanfy. Tlnnib.
Prodr. 147. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. I. (Athanafia lini-
folia; Linn. Suppl. 361. J — Leaves linear-lanceolate, clian-
Helled, taper-pointed. Clufter terminal, fimple, corymbofe.

Native of the Cape of Good Hope. Sent to Kew by

Mr. Matron in 1774. A green-houfe fhrub, flowering in
Augall. The Jlem is fimple, round, and fmooth, clothed
with alternate, fimple, linear or awl-fhaped leaves. Floivers
ovate, fmooth, yellow. The length of the leaves is variable.

4. T. axillare. Axillary Cape Tanfy. Thunb. Prodi-.
147. Willd. n. 4. — " Leaves linear-thread-fhaped, com-
bined at the bafe. Flowers axillary, feffile." — Gathered by
Thunberg at the Cape.

5. T. uliginofum. Mar(h Levant Tanfy. Prodr. Fl.
Grxc. n. 2029. Fl. Grxc. t. 855, unpublilhed. (San-
tolina vermiculata cretica ; Tourn. Inll. 461?) — Leaves
linear ; the lower ones with one lateral tooth. Stalks foli-
tary, terminal, fingle-flowered. — Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp
in boggy parts of the iflc of Cyprus, intermixed with Junciis
hufonhis. The root is annual, fimple, tapering, with many
whitifh fibres. Stems feveral, afcending, branched from the
bottom, three or four inches high, round, fmooth, leafy.
Leaves alternate, feffile, an inch long, acute, channelled,
fmooth, moftly entire ; a few of the lower ones only dilated
(lightly at the end, and furnifhed with a lateral tooth.
Floivers terminal, folitary, yellow, liemifpherical, each on a
fimple, naked, fmooth, ereft Jlalk, two or three inches in
length, purphih at the top. Seed, according to Mr.
Bauer's drawing, crowned with an oblong tubular fcale,
fplit on one fide.

6. T. fuffruticofum. Shrubby Cape Tanfy. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1 183. Willd. n. 5. Ait.'n. 2. Thunb. Prodr. 146.
(T. africanum fruticans multiflorum, follis tanaceti vulgaris
decuplo minoribus ; Comm. Hort. v. 2. 199. t. 100.) —
Leaves in many pinnate, fubdivided, acute, fomewhat downy
fegments. Stem fhrubby. Flowers corymbofe, level-
topped. — Native of the Cape of Good Hope, from whence
the Dutch obtained feeds above a century ago, and it pro-
bably foon found its way into our more curious green-houfes.
The plant has little to attradl general admiration, though
the haves are delicately divided, and the leafy branches ai-e
terminated by abundance of little golden corjmho^e Jlomers,
whofe calyx is membranous and fliining.

7. T, ftbir'uum. Long-leaved Siberian Tanfy. Linn.
Sp. PI, 1 183. Willd. n. 6. (T. n. 116; Gmel. Sib. v. 2.
134. t. 65. i. 2.) — Leaves pinnate; leaflets hnear-thread-
fliaped, entire ; undivided or three<left. Flowers corym-
bofe, level-topped. Calyx-fcales nearly orbicul.-u-, fmooth.
— Gathered by Stellcr, in dry mountainous parts of Siberia,
beyond the lake Baical, flowering in June and July. The
root is brown, rather thick, with many fibres running deep
into the ground, and apparently perennial. Stems about
eighteen inches high, ereft, round, ftriated, fmooth, fome-
what leafy ; branched and corymbofe at the top. Leaves
picute, not unlike th9fe of Southernwood, but fmooth ; the

lower ones on long ftalks ; the uppermoft feflile, at the bafe
of each branch. Flowers bright yellow, partly drooping,
encompafied by the white membranous edges of the green
orbicular fcales of the calyx.

S. T. argentetim. Silvery Armenian Tanfy. Willd. n. 7.
" Ejnfd. Achill. 51. t. 2. f. 4." (Achillea argentea ; La-
marck Did. v. i. 29. Ptarmica orientahs, fohis argenteis
conjugatis; Tourn. Cor. 38.) — " Leaves pinnate, clothed
with filky down ; leaflets lanceolate, flightly toothed at the
extremity. Corymb terminal." — Gathered by Tournefort
in Armenia. This is faid to bear fome refemblance to the
Achillea Clavcnua:. The Jlem is about a foot high, fimple,
channelled, covered, hke the refl: of the herb, with filky
down. Leaves alternate, llalked, with linear or lanceolate
leaflets, moil of which, efpecially in the radical leaves, have
two or three teeth towards the end. Floiuers probably
white. Receptacle confliantly naked. Calyx membranous at
the edge of the inner fcales. Lamarck, Willdeno'w.

9. T. angnlatum. Dropwort -leaved Tanfy. Willd. ... 8.
" Ejufd. Achill. 52. t. 2. f. 3." (Achillea fihpendulina ;
Lamarck Dift. v. i. 27. Ptarmica orientalis, tanaceti folio
et facie, flore minimo ; Tourn. Cor. 38.) — Leaves pinna-
tifid ; fegments lanceolate, ferratcd. Corymb denfe. Ca-
lyx angulai-." — Gathered in the Levant by Tournefort.
Stem a foot, or rather more, in height, channelled, almoft
fmooth, but fparingly leafy in the upper part. Lower
leaves two or three inches long, deeply pinnatifid, green,
and fmooth ; upper about half as long. Flowers yellow, in
a fmall denfe corymliu. Florets of the radius fcarcely more
than two or three, \ery fhort. Receptacle elevated, furniflied
with a very few fcales at the margin. IVilU. Lamarck.

10. T. microphyllum. Small-leaved Siberian Tanfy.
(Achillea n. 164 ; Gmel. Sib. v. 2. 198. t. 83. f. 2. Ptar-
mica millefohi folio tomentofo, flore luteo ; Gerb. MSS. in
Herb. Linn.) — Leaves pinnate ; leaflets bipinnatifid, hairy,
obtufe. FIower-fl;alks corymbofe, hairy. Calyx fmooth.—
Gathered by Gerber, in deferts, on both fides of the river
Don, near upper Kundrufchewa. He remarked that the
receptacle is devoid of fcales, which induces us to introduce
this plant here, though referred to Achillea by Gmelin,
LiiuiKus has paffed it over. The root is woody and appa-
rently perennial. Stem a fpan high, more or lefs branched,
leafy, angular, and downy. Lcav s ftalked, hairy, finely
fubdivided and notched. Flowers yellow, rather hemi..
fpherical than cylindrical. Calyx-fcales oblong, ending in a
fuddenly dilated white membrane ; the bafe of the outward
ones only occafionally hairy, or fringed. Florets of the
radius very (hort, three-toothetU

11. T. incanum. Hoary Oriental Tanfy. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1183. Willd. n. 9. (Abfinthium orientale incanum
tenuifolium, floribus luteis in capitulum congeftis et furfilra
fpeftantibus ; Tourn. Cor. 34.) — Leaves pinnate, hoary;
leaflets crowded, in deep finger-hke fegments. Corymbs
denfe, compound, fomewhat panicled Native of the Le-
vant. The Jlem is faid by Linn^us to be fimple, leafy, and
very (hort. We have feen neither fpecimen nor figure.

12. T. eotuloides. May -weed Cape Tanfy. Linn. Mant.

282. Willd. n. 10 Leaves deeply pinnatifid, pointed,

hairy, dotted. Stem much branched. Flowers fomewhat
panicled. Calyx-fcales elliptical, nearly equal. — Native of
the Cape of Good Hope. Root fomewhat woody, with
many fibres ; Linnaeus judged it to be annual. Stem abou^
a fpan high, copioufly branched, round ; branches afcend-
ing, leafy, hairy. Leaves numerous, fcattered, fl;alked,
hardly an inch long, in feven or nine deep, acute, entire feg-
ments, clothed, on the lower fide «\t leaft, with very long

ftraight

TANACETUM.

ftraight loofe hairs. Flower-Jtalh panicled, hairy, leafy,
fomewhat corymbofe. Flozuers fmall, hcmirplierical, rather
convex, yellow, with few or no radiant florets. Calyx-fcales
acute, rather lax, roiighifli, with thin p;Je edges.

13. T. orientak. Silky-leaved Oriental Tanfy. Willd.
n. il. (Abfinthiuin orientale incanum, capillacco folio,
iloribusin capitulum congeftis; Tourn. Cor. 34.) — " Leaves
iilky and hoary ; the radical ones pinnate ; leaflets in three
deep, linear-thread-fliaped, acute fegments ; ftem-leaves in
three deep, lanceolate fegments. Panicle denfely corym-
bofe."— Native of Armenia. Root perennial. Leaves of
the root and barren ftems about three-quarters of an inch
long, on ftill longer footjlalks ; tliofe of the flowering Hem
broader, their fegments flat, occafionally divided. Panicle
corymbofe, terminal. Flowers feflTile, in round heads, upon
crowded ftalks. Calyx downy. Receptacle naked. Wllld.

14. T. annuum. Annual Tanfy. JLinn. Sp. PI. 1184.
Willd. n. 12. Ait. n. 3. (Santolina corymbis fimplicibu*
faftigiatis, foliis hnearibus confertis ; Mill. Ic. t. 227. f. I.
Elichryfon ; Cluf. Hift:. v. 1. 326. Elyochryfon, five
Coma aurea ; Ger. Em. 645.) — Radical leaves doubly pin-
nate ; thofe of the ftem deeply pinnatifid, downy ; their
fegments fhai-p-pointed. Corymbs level-topped. Calyx-
fcales oblong, hairy. — Native of Spain and Italy. Very
foon introduced into our gardens, where it proves a hardy
annual, flowering in July and Augufl:. TWJlem is two or
three feet high, round, furrowed, much branched, clothed
vrith innumerable fmall crowded pinnatifid leaves, of a rather
hoary green. Flowers yellow, in terminal flat corymbs ; the
fcales of their calyx unequal, imbricated, keeled, hairy,
tipped with a rounded membrane.

15. T. obtufum. Blunt-leaved Cape Tanfy. Thunb.
Prodr. 147. Willd. n. 13 — " Leaves doubly pinnate,
finooth ; leaflets linear, obtufe. Heads of flowers folitary,
fmooth." — Found by Thunberg at the Cape of Good
Hope.

16. T. grandiflonnn. Large -flowered Cape Tanfy.
Thunb. Prodr. 147. Willd. n. 14. — " Leaves doubly pin-
nate, villous ; leaflets linear, acute. Heads of flowers foli-
tary, downy." — From the fame country We have not

feen either of the two laft fpecies. Willdenow underftands
Thvuiberg's expreflion, cjpkulis folitunis, as mcsxAngJloribus

foUtariis ; but the fuppofition of fo great an inaccuracy is
fcarcely warrantable. We therefore preferve the original
fenfe ; whether it be accurate or not mufc remain with the
author.

17. T. mulliflorum. Many-flowered Cape Tanfy. Thunb.
Prodr. 147. Willd. n. 16. — " Leaves doubly pinnate, vil-
lous ; leaflets- acute. Panicles compoimd, level -topped." —
Found by Thunberg at the Cape.

18. T. myriophyllum. Millfoil Tanfy. Willd. n. 17.
" Ejufd. Achill. 50." (Achillea bipinnata ; Linn. Sp. PI.
1265. Ptarmica orieatalis incana, fohis pennatis, femiflol-
culis florum vix confpicuis ; Tourn. Cor. 38.) — Leaves

. doubly pinnate, downy ; leaflets ovate ; thofe of the item
toothed ; of the radical leaves entire. — Native of the Le-
vant. Only tg be feen perhaps in Tournefort's hcrbariiuTi,
or in coUeftions extraAcd from thence.

ig. T. vulgare. Common Tanfy. Linn. Sp. PI. 1 1 84.
Willd. n. 18. Ait. n. 4. Fl. Brit. n. I. Engl. Bot.
t. 1229. Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 115. Fl. Dan. t. 871.
(Tanacetum ; Ger. Em. 6jo. Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 259.
Camer. Epit. 650.) — ,S. T. crifpum anglicum ; Ger. Em.
650. — Leaves doubly pinnatifid, Iharply ferrated, naked —
Native of banks, hedges, and borders of fields, in moll
parts of the middle of Europe ; very frequent in England,

flowenng m July and Auguft. Root perennial, creeping,
Nerl> two feet high, leafy, dark green, with a (Iroiig b.nl.
fannc icent, and bitter talle. It was formerly more ufed
than at prefent to give a flavour, as well as a green colour, to
a rich knid of pudding. The lea-ves are copious, felfile, a fpaii
long, fometimes a little hairy underneath ; clafping the Item
with tlicir dilated bafe. Flowers compoCwg a large, flattifli,
terminal, golden corymbus. The raJiiij is fcarcely remark-
able but in hot fcafons, though its rudiments may' generally
be detefted. The curled-leaved variety is efteemed moll
aromatic and wholefome.

Willdenow's fiftcentii fpecies, T. monanlbot, Linn. Mant.
Ill, having a fcaly receptacle, is referred to Santolina,
(fee that article,) in the Prodr. Fl. (kaeca, by the fpecific
name of S. rigida. This is a deprell'ed annual jilant, with
doubly-pinnatifid jjointlefs leaves ; fingle-flowered afcending
hiury jalis ; and a hairy calyx, whofe fcales are nearly equal.
T\Kj!owcrs arc yellow. This is a native of Cyprus, and
very nearly akin to S. anthemoides, Linn. Sp. PI. 1 1 80 ;
whofe calyx is imbricated on all iides, and its leaves have
briftle-pointed fegments.

Tanacetum, in Gardening, furnifltcs plants of the her-
baceous and fhrubby perennial kinds, among which the
fpecies mod: commonly cultivated are, the common tanfy
(T. vulgare) ; the annual tanfy (T. annuum) ; the coft-
mary tanfy (T. balfamita) ; the Siberian tanfy (T. fibiri-
cum) ; the flirubbv tanfy (T. fufl"ruticofum) ; and the fan-
leaved twify (T. flabelliforme).

Ill the firit fort there are varieties with curled leaves,
called double tanfy ; with variegated leaves ; and with larger
leaves, which have little fcent.

Method of Culnire — All the different herbaceous fpecies
are increafed by parting the roots, and by feed.

In the firll mode the bufinefs is effefted by flipping or di-
viding the roots in autumn or winter, wlien the ftalks are
decayed ; or early in fpring, before new ftalks (hoot forth ;
planting the flips at once where they are to remain ; thofe for
the kitchen-garden, as the common tanfy, &c. in anv bed or
border a foot and a half afunder ; and thofe intended for va-
riety in the pleafure-ground, fingly here and there, at
fuitable diitances, to elfeCl a proper diverfity.

The feed faved in autumn fhonld be fown in the fpriner
following, in beds of light earth, broad-call and raked in,
when the plants will foon come up, and in July be fit to
prick out in beds, in rows a foot afunder ; fome to remain,
and others to be planted out in autumn where they are to
grow.

All the fhrubby forts are callly increafed by cuttings of
the branches, which Ihould be planted any time in fpring
and fummer, choofing the yoimg and moft robufl fhootf,
which fhould be cut off in proper lengths, and if early
in fpring, &c. be planted in pots of good earth, feve«
ral in each, plunging them in a hot-bed, where they will
be rooted, and fit for potting off feparatcly in fix weeks ;
or if in fummer, the young flioots may be planted in the full
ground, in a fhady border, or where they may be fhaJed
v.'ith mats from the fun ; or in ])ots, ajid placed ni the fliadc,
or under a garden-frame, &c.: in all of which methods,
giving plenty of water, they will readily take root ; but
thofe in the hot -bed will be fonvardell : they, iiowever, will
all be well rooted the lame feafon, and Ihould then be trani-
planted into feparate pots, and managed as other fhrubby
greenhoufe plants. See Gkef.n-hoUsk Plants.

Moft of the former forts require to be afterwards kept
free from weeds, culling down the decayed ftalks annually
in autumn ; and as the roots increafe fafViato large bunches,

fprcadjug

rden
oc-

tlie
and

TAN

fpreadinff widely round, they (hould be cut in, or be flipped
occafionally, otherwnfe they are apt to overrun the ground ;
and to have the ground dug between the plants annually.

All the latter forts are fomewhat tender, but only re-
quire (belter from froft, being kept in pots, and deporited
among the grcenhoufe plants, and treated as other (hrubby
exotics of that collection. They effeft a very agreeable
variety at all times of the year, but particularly m fummer
and autumn, when in flower.

The common tanfy has been long cultivated in the gan
as a culinary and medicinal herb ; the leaves bemg ufed
cafionally while young and tender, in fallads during
fprini' feafon, as well as for making cakes, puddings,
many other (imilar articles. The powder of the dried leaves,
the feeds, and the flowers, have alfo been fometimes employed
as a remedy againft worms. . .

The curled and variegated forts or varieties are pnncipaUy
made ufe of for ornamental purpofes.

The earl of Dundonald has propofed the cultivation ot
the tanacetum, or tanfy, for the produftion of potafs,
averting that it will yield more of this alkah than can be
procured from an equal weiglit of any other vegetable.
Tasacetum, in the Materia Maiica. See Tansy.
TANADASSA, in Jncienl Geo^rap/jy, a town oi Africa
Propria, on the route from the Grand Leptis to Tacapae.

TANjECIUM, in Botany, fo named by Dr. Swartz,
on account of its very long climbing ftem and branches,
from TX.MKW, Jl retched out, or rather having an elongated point.
—Swartz Prodr. 91. Ind. Occ. 1049. t. zo. Schreb. Gen.
412. 834. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 312. Mart. Mill. Dirt.

V. 4. Clafs and order, Didynamia Angiofpermia. Nat. Ord.

Lurtdt, or perhaps Putaminea, Linn. Swartz. Akin to
Solanaceit, Ju(r.

Gen. Ch. Ca!. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
undivided, abrupt, nearly or quite entire. Cor. of one
petal, long ; tube cylindrical, dilated upwards, limb fpread-
ing, in five, fomewhat unequal, or two-lipped, deep feg-
ments. Stam. Filaments four, Iborter than the tube of the
corolla, two of them rather (horter than the reft, with an
intermediate rudiment of a fifth ; anthers two-lobed. Pijl.
Germen fupcrior, roundifti, feated on an annular receptacle ;
ftyle fimple, about the length of the ftamens ; ftigma of two
thick fpreading lobes. Peric. Berry very large, globofe or
oblong, on a (hort ftalk, of two cells, with a hard coat.
Seeds fmall, numerous, oblong, angular, inferted into a
central globofe receptacle.

EfT. Ch. Calyx cylindrical, undivided, abrupt. Corolla
tubular, rather unequal, five-cleft. Rudiment of a fiftli
ftamen. Berry coated, of two cells, with many feeds.

Obf. This genus furely belongs to the Lurida: of Lln-
nxus, and is confiderably akin to another genus of Swart/.'s,
the SoLASDRA, fee that article, though he does not appear
to advert to this affinity.

I. T- parajilicum. Simple -leaved Tancecium. Willd.
n. I. Swartz Ind. Occ. 1053. Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr.

V. I. 61. t. 1 15 Leaves fimple, ovate, coriaceous. Stem

fhrubby, climbing parafitically. — Native of woods ffi the
weftern part of Jamaica. Stem when young clofcly at-
tached by fibrous radicles to the trunks of trees, round,
with a grey rugged bark ; when full-grown, it often de-
cays below, fupporting itfelf altogether parafitically, and
fending out round, fpreading, fmooth, leafy branches.
Leaves oppofite, on ihort thick ftalks, five or fix inches
long, entire, acute, fcaicely pointed, fmooth, of a fine
(hining green, with one rib, and many oblique veins.
plovitr-fialh axillary, (hort, each bearing about four elegant

TAN

drooping Jlowers, about an inch and a half long. Calyx
fwelling, purpli(h-red, contrafted at the mouth, quite en-
tire. Corolla with a pale yellowidi tube, and crimfon,
fpreading or reflexed, border, whofe fegments are rounded,
and nearly uniform, the lowermoft only a little the largeft,
and folding over the mouth like a Ud, before the flower ex-
pands. Berry globofe, as big as a fmall apple, with a
brown brittle coat. Swartz once found a fruit with three
cells.

2. T. Jaroba. Three-leaved Tanxcium. Willd. n. 2.
Swartz Ind. Occ. 1050. t. 20. f. I. (Jaroba; Marcgr.
Brafil. 25. Pis. Biafil. 173. Cucurbitifera fruticofa tri-
folia fcandens ; Sloane Jam. v. 2. 175.) — Lower leaves ter-
nate ; upper in pairs, with an intermediate terminal tendril.
Stem climbing. — Native of woods, on the banks of rivers,
in the weftern part of Jamaica. Swartz found it in flower
in February, climbing to the top of a tree of the Bignonia
leucoxyhn. The fhrubby Jlem mounts to a great height,
where it has an opportunity of fupport, fending out long,
pendulous, round, flightly ftriated, herbaceous branches.
Leaves oppolite, ftalked ; the lower ones with three ovate,
pointed, entire, ribbed, fmooth, fcarcely coriaceous, leaflets,
each half a foot long ; upper of two rather fmaller ones,
with a flender rigid tendril in tlie place of a third leaflet, by
which tile branches are fupported on thofe of neighbouring
trees. Clujlers axillary, of few flowers, with thick, round,
oppofite ftalks. Flowers white, fhort -lived. Calyx gibbous
at the bafe ; fometimes very minutely five-toothed at the
margin. Corolla funnel-fliaped ; its tube fix or feven inches
long, fwelling at the top, downy both within and without ;
fegments of the limb ovate, wavy or plaited, about three-
quarters of an inch in length, all nearly equal, though the
two uppermoft arc, as in the former fpecies, lefs deeply fe-
parated. Berry verj^ large, a foot long, oval, pendulous,
fmooth, brittle when ripe. Seeds large, broad, compreffed,
lying clofely over each other. The Portuguefe call this
plant Cafca amargofa, on account of its bitteniefs.

3. T.? pinnatum. Pinnate Tanxcium. Willd. n. 3,
(Crefcentia pinnata ; Jacq. Coll. v. 3. 203. t. 18.) — Leaves

pinnate. Stem arboreous, ereft Native of Mozambique,

where it is called Kigelikeia, and from whence it was carried
to the ifles of Mauritius or Bourbon, and thus got into the
imperial gardens at Schoeubrun, being accompanied by a dif-
fefted drawing of the jloiver, which is all that Jacquin has
exhibited of the plant. The young tree, about feven feet
high, and four inches in the diameter of its trunk, bore in
the ftove feveral branches, ■vn'Cd alternate pinnate leaves, each
of four pair of oblong leaflets with an odd one, all coria-
ceous, obtufe with a point, undulated, fparingly and (harply
ferrated ; fmooth above ; roughifti to the touch beneath ;
the largeft near fix inches long ; the odd one on a confider-
able partial ftalk. The Jlowers are faid to grow on the
trunk and older branches, but of their mode of infertion or
inflorefcence we have no account. The calyx is ovate, tu-
bular, fmooth, palcifh-green, about an inch long, with five
acute, rather deep, red fegments. Tube of the corolla cy-
lindrical, pale, the length of the calyx ; limb very large,
bell-(haped, three inches long, with five acute, unequal, re-
flexed, marginal lobes ; its outfide ftrongly and copioufly
ribbed, pale, with a tinge of red ; the whole infide of a fine
crimfon. The fifth Jlamen is apparently perfeft, with an
anther, though but half the length of the others ; all the
filaments hairy. Germen accompanied at the bafe by five
glands. Stigma of two lanceolate plates. Berry as large as
a man's head, coated, full of pulp, in which the feeds are
lodged. — Jacquin was doubtful of the genus of this magni-
ficent

TAN

Scent and curious plant, which is faid to form, in its native
country, a very large tree. There fecms as much reafon to
refer it to Crefcentla as to Tamcium, the calyx not anfwering
well to either, and the internal ftrufture of the fruit being
unknown.

TANAEIM, or TenAIBM, in Geoxraphy, a town of
Arabia, in the province of Yemen, famous among the
Arabian Jews, who had anciently their chief leat, and many
confiderable fynagogues in it ; at prefent it is almoft defo-
late ; 30 miles S.E. of Sana.

TANAGA, one of the Fox idands, in the North Pacific
ocean, about 40 miles in circumference. N. lat. 53° 20'.
E. long. 182° 14'.

TANAGER, 11 Jiume Negro, in Ancient Geography, a
river of Italy, in Lucania, according to Virgil. It has its
Source in a mountain called Albufnus, now monte Poftig-
lione, and difcharges itfelf into tlie Silanus.

TANAGRA, a confiderable town of Bccotia, towards
the weft, feated on an eminence, at fome diftance from the
mouth of the Afopns. In a temple of Bacchus at this town
was a fine ftatue of this god, and above, a triton of ad-
mirable workmanfhip. Befides the temple of Bacchus, here
were temples of Themis, Venus, Apollo, and Mercury.
In the moft confpicuous place of this city was the tomb of
Corinna, fo famous for her beauty and poetical talents, fo
that at Thebes fte gained a prize in preference of Pindar.
Here was alfo the tomb of Orion. Paufanias.

Tanagra, Tanager, in Ornithology, a genus of the order
Pafferes ; the characters of which are, that the bill is conic,
.icuminated, emarginated, fubtrigonous at the bafe, and in-
clining at the apex. Gmehn enumerates forty-fix

Species.

Jacapa. Black ; the forehead, neck, and breaft, crim-
fon-coloured. This is the jacapu of Maixgrave, the red-
breafted blackbird of Edwards, and the red-breafted tanager
of Latham. It is found in America.

Brasilia. Crimfon, with black tail and wings. This
is the cardinal of Buffon, and the Brafilian tanager of La-
tham. Found in South America. Of this bird there are
two varieties, one of which is the rumplefs blue, red, and
black Indian fparrow of Willughby.

Rubra. Red, with black wings and tail, and tail-
feathers white at the apex. This is the Canada tanager of
Pennant, and the red tanager of Latham. Found in Canada.
Of this the fcarlet fparrow of Edwards, or merula brafilienfis
of Ray and Willughby, is a variety.

Jacarina. Violet-black, with wings whitirti beneath,
and tail of two divaricated branches. This is a bird of Brafil
and Guiana, the jacarini of Marcgrave.

Violacea. Violet, and the under part very yellow : the
teitei of Marcgrave, the golden titmoufe of Edwards, and
golden tanager of Latham. A variety of this, found in
Brafil, Surinam, and Cayenne, is (hining black, with the ab-
domen, breaft, and front pale yellow, and the outer tail-
feather having on its inner fide a white fpot.

Olivacea. Ohve ; the throat and breaft yellow, the
abdomen wliite, the quills and tail-feathers brown, with a
white margin. This is the olivet of Buffon, and found
in Cayenne.

Gyrola. Green, red-headed, yellow collar, and ceru-
leous breaft ; the rouvardin of Buffon, the red-headed green-
finch of Edwards, and red-headed tanager of Lathani.
Found in various parts of South America.

Cayana. Yellow, green back, red cap, and black
cheeks. A bird of Cayenne, of which there is a variety,

Vol, XXXV.

T A N

underneath golden-coloured, back green and yellow, head
ceruleous, wings and tail green.

Atrata. Siiining black : the black tanager of Latham.
Found in India.

MiiXiCANA. Black, underncatli yelluwini, breaft and
rump bhieifh : the black and blue titmoufe of Edwards,
and black and blue tanager of Latham. The tangara bar-
badenfis ccruk-.i of Briffon is a variety. Found in Cayenne,
Guiana, and New Spain.

Tatao. Violet, black back, yellow rump, green head,
and violet breaft and wings: the titmoufe of paradife of
Edwards, the paradife tanager of L.itham, and the tang;u-a
of Brift'on, Ray, Willughby, and Buffon. Found in
Guiana.

Ai.bikosthis. Black, with a fpot on the wings, and
tail yellow, and a wliite beak : the wliite-billed tanager of
Latham. Of this there is a variety. It is an American
bird.

Gfi.AKis. Black, beneath white, red head, and purple
throat : the rouge-cap of Buffon, and red-headed tanager
of Latham. Found in Cayenne and Gui;uia.

Cayenxekms. Black, both fides of the breaft and under
part of the wings yellow. Found in Brafil, Guiana, and
New Spain.

Bhasiliensis. Black, under part white, tliroat and rump
blueifli, face and breaft black : the guira-genoia of Marc-
grave, the turquin of Buffon, and turquoife tanagiT of
Latham. A Brafil fpecies.

Dominica. BLick-fpotted, above, brown, and below
whitifti : called from the place of its refidence, by Latham,
the St. Domingo tanager.

M1LITARI.S. Brown ; breaft, neck, throat, and ftioul-
ders fanguineous : the military tanager of Latham, and
greater bulfinch of Edwards. Found in South America.

Grisea. Grey-olive, under grey, with wings and tail
black, grey at their margin. Found in Guiana and Loui-
fiana.

Ei'iscopus. Cinereous, with wings and tail externally
blueilh : the biftiop tanager of Latham. Found in Cayenne.
Sayaca. Hoary, with blueifti wings : the fayacu of
Marcgrave. Found rarely in Cayenne.

Punctata. Green, pointed with black ; under yel-
lowidi-whitiftl : the fyacoa of Buffon, fpotted green titmoufe
of Edwards, and fpotted tanager of Latham. Found in
Cayenne.

ViiiENS. Green, under yellowifti, cheeks and throat
black : the green tanager of Latham. Found in New
Spain, Peru, ajid Brafil.

MississiPENsis. Wholly red : the Miffiffippi tanagor of
Latham. Of this fpecies there arc two varieties ; one found
on the river Miffiffippi, and the other in New Spain.

Cristata. Blackilh, golden creft, throat and rump
yellow : the houppette of Buffon, and crefted tanager of
Latham. Found in Guiana.

jEstiva. Red, bill yellowilh : the fummer red-bird of
Catefby and Edwards, and fummer tanager of Pennant and
Latham. Found in Carolina and Virginia.

Magva. Olive-brown ; under rcddifti ; legs, front, and
temples blueifti ; vent-featliers and tliroat red, and the middle
of the throat white : the grand tanager of Latham. Found
in Guiana and Cayenne.

CvERULEA. Blueifti, black bill, and light-red legs : the
blue tanager of Latham. A Cayenne bird.

Variabili';. Green, partly blueifti and partly brown,
black band about the eye, quills and tail-feathers black, with
green margins : variable tanager of Latham.

K Tricolor.

TAN

Tricolor. Green ; head, chin, throat, and breaft pal?
fca-colour ; black neck-band, head and fides of the neck
golden-green, a large fpot on the throat, and back black,
the brcatl-band blucifh, the abdomen and vent-feathers yel-
lowifli-green : the green-headed tanager of Latham. Of
this there is a variety.

GilANENsis. Green, head cinereous-grey, front and
head-band on both fides from the front to the nape red : the
grey-headed tanager of Latham. Found rarely in the forefts
of Guiana.

NiOKicoLi.is. Ohve, beneath yellow, black throat,
golden bread, feathers of the wings and tail-feathers brown,
with ohvaceoiis margins : the black-throated tanager. Found
in Guiana.

Ri-FicoLLis. Black and blue, with a large red ftreak on
the throat, and black wings and tail : the rufous-throated
tanager of Latham. Found in Jamaica.

LiiLCOCEPHALA. Black and brown, white front, reddifli
throat, purple breaft and wings, and yellowifli abdomen and
tent-feathers : the quatoztli of Seba. Found in the moun-
tains of Brafil.

Flava. Yellow throat, breaft and fpots of the abdomen
black, quills and tail-feathers black, fea-coloured at the
margin. This is the guiraperea of Ray and Willughby,
ind the yellow tanager of Latham, Found in Brafil, of the
fize of a lark.

Amboinensis. Varied with black and blue, black vertex,
blucifti-green rump ; cheeks, chin, throat, and breaft blueifti ;
abdomen and vent -feathers white. Found in Amboina, and
called calatti.

Canora. Blueifti, varied with yellow ; black tail, white
at the apex ; and wings partly blueifti and partly yellow :
the xiuhtototlof Fernandes. Found in New Spain.

Sinensis. Olivaceous, beneath yellow, with the quills
and tail-feathers black, yeOow at their margin : the Cliinefe
tanager of Latham.

BoNARiENsis. Black and violet, with a flight greenifti
tint in the wings and tail : the violet tanager of Latham.

Atra. Cinereous, with the face, chin, and throat black,
(thofe of the female yellow:) the camail or cravatte of
BufFon, and black-faced tanager of Latham. Found in
Guiana.

PiLEATA. Blueifti -cinereous, beneath filvei-y, with the
vertex, temples, and fides of the neck black, and the ocular
fpot white ; the hooded tanager of Latham. Of this the
tijepiranga of Ray and Willughby is a variety. Found in
Guiana and Brafil.

Melanictera. Above ferruginous, beneath very yel-
low, head and nape black, wings ftreaked with white,
and tail brown : the black-crowned tanager of Latham.
Found on the Caucafus and in Georgia.

SiBiRiCA. Black, the tips of the down between the
{houlders and the rump ciliated with white. A Siberian
fpecies.

Atricapili.a. Reddifti and rufous ; head, tail, and
wings ftiining black, with a roundifti tail : the mordore of
Buffon, and black-headed tanager of Latham. Found in
Guiana.

Striata. Beneath yellow, with a head ftriated with
black and blue, back above blackifli and beneath golden,
quills and tail-feathers black, with a blue margin : the
onglet of Buffon, and furrow-clawed tanager of Latham.
Found in South America.

NiGERRiMA. Black, with a white fpot within the wings :
the Guiana tanager of Latham.

Capensis. Above ferruginous-brown, beneath ferru-

TAN

ginous, Taried with white ; the middle of the tail black, its
fides ferruginous-nifefcent, the bill yellowifti, the legs black.
Found at the Cape of Good Hope.
TANAH, in Geography. See San.
TANAIS, the Don, in Auclent Geography, a large river
which had its rile towards tlie eaft, in the territory of the
Thyrfagetes, traverfed the country of the Sarmatians,
turned its courfe to the fouth, and difcharged itfelf in the
lake of Maeotis. Its courfe was fo rapid, that it never
froze. Its borders were inhabited by the Sarmatians. The
two mouths of the Tanais were diftant 70 ftadia from one
another, according to Strabo. — Alfo, a town of European
Sarmatia, fituated between the mouths of the river of the
fame name. — Alfo, a river of Africa, which ran into the
Mediterranean, towards the fouth-weft, at five miles from
Thena.

Tanais, in Mythology, a divinity peculiar to the Arme-
nians, to whom were confecrated the flaves of both fexes ; and
it is alfo faid, that the people of better rank offered to him
their daughters, who, as foon as they were confecrated to
this god, were authorifed by the law to proftitute themfelves
to the firft comer, until the time of their mai-riage. Nor
did this conduft by any means prevent the addrefles of
fuitors.

TANAK Point, in Geography, a cape on the north
coaft of Java. S. lat. 6° 24'." E. long. 108^ 36'.

TANAKAKA, a fmall ifland near the fouth-weft coaft
of Celebes, belonging to the Dutch. S. lat. 5° 30'. E.
long. 119° 42'.

TANALITZKAIA, a fortrefs of Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Upha, at the conflux of the Urdafim and Ural ;
120 miles E. of Orenburg.

TANAMBE, a town on the eaft coaft of Madagafcar.
S. lat. 16° 20'. E. long. 50° 20'.

TANAON, a town on the eaft coaft of the ifland of
Leyta. N. lat. 11^ 10'. E. long. 125° l'.

TANAOSIMA, one of the Japanefe iflands, about
100 miles in circumference. N. lat 30° 20'. E. long.
132° 30'.

TANARGUE, a mountain of France, which gives name
to a diftrift in the department of the Ardeche ; 20 miles
S.W. of Privas.

TANARO, one of the fix departments of Piedmont,
after its union with the French republic, Auguft 26, i8oa,
formerly Acqui and Afti, in N. lat. 44° 45', weft of Ma-
rengo, containing 197 fquare leagues, and 311,458 in-
habitants. It was divided into three circles, wz. Afti,
including 131,910; Acqui, 82,914; and Alba, 96,634 in-
habitants. The foil is broken by torrents, which form many
lakes and marfties. The fouth-weft diftrift confifts of barren
fpots and fruitful vallies ; the northern part is fertile, and
the hills yield abundance of wine of an inferior quality.
The principal produfts of the department 3tre grain, fruits,
and paftures, with quarries of ftone, mineral fprings, &c.

Tanaro, a river of France, which rifes in the mountains
near Tenda, paffes by Coni, Cherafco, Alba, Afti, Alex-
andria, &c. and joins the Po, 3 miles E. of Valenza.

TANARUS, the Tanaro, in Ancient Geography, a river
of Italy, in Liguria, which having been formed by the con-
fluence of many rivers, difcharged itfelf into the Padus,
north-weft of Dertona.

TANASSERIM, in Geography. See Si AM.
TANAVELLE, a town of France, in the department
of the Cantal ; 4 miles W.S.W. of St. Flour.

TANAW, a town of Napaul ; 45 miles S.W. of
Catmandu.

TANBAY,

coaft of the ifland of
of
of

TAN

^ANBAY, a town on the E.
Negros. N. lat. lo'^ 3'. E. long. 123° 1'.

TANCACA, a town of Mexico, in the provnice
Guaileca ; 50 miles W.S.W. of St. Yago de los Valles.

TANCALE, a town of Mexico, in the province
Guafteca ; 50 miles N.W. of St. Yago de los Valles.

TANCANCHY, a town of Hindoollan, in Madura ;
8 miles S. of Vadagary.

TANCARVILLE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Seine; 10 miles S.E. of Montevilliers.

TANCHOY, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guafteca ; 35 miles N. of Panuco.

TANCICUY, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guafteca ; 15 miles S.W. of Panuco.

TANCOA, a town of Abyffinia ; 40 miles N.N.E. of
Mine.

TANCOBANCA, a river of Perfia, which runs into the
fea, 69 miles W.N.W. of Port Jaques.

TANCOS, a town of Portugal, in Eftremadura, at the
conflux of the Zezare and the Tagus ; 2 1 miles N.E. of
Santarem.

TANCUYLABO, a town of Mexico, in the province
of Guafteca ; 30 miles S.S.E. of St. Yago de los Valles.

TANCYTOWN, a poft-town of Maryland ; 27 miles
N.E. of Frederickftown.

TANDA, a town on the eaft coaft of the ifland of Min-
danao. N. lat. 8° 48'. E. long. 126° 12'.

Tanda, or Tanrah, a town of Hindooftan, called fome-
times Chatvafpour Tanda, from the original name of the
diftriA in which it was fituated. It was a ftiort time,
in the reign of Shere Shaw, about the year 1540, the
capital of Bengal, and became the eftablifhed capital under
Acbar, about 1580. It is fituated very near to the fcite
of Gour, on the road leading from it to Rajemal. There
is little remaining of this place, fave the rampart ; nor do
we know for certain when it was deferted. In 1659 it was
the capital of Bengal, when that fubah was reduced under
Aurungzebe.

TANDAH, a town of Bengal; 12 miles S.E. of Cal-
cutta.

TAND AM, a town of Bootan ; 57 miles N. of Dinage-
pour.

TANDAMORGONG,atovvnofHindooftan,inGoond-
wanah ; 25 miles E. of Nagpour.

TANDEGO, a town of Africa, on the St. Domingo
river ; 25 miles E. of Farim.

TANDERAGEE, a poft-town of the county of Ar-
magh, Ireland, which has a good linen market. It is near
the Nevnry canal, and 61 miles N. by W. from Dublin.

TANDLA, a town of Hindooftan, in Malwa ; 72 miles
W. of Ougein. N. lat. 23° 5'. E. long. 74° 30'.

TANDOO Baas, a fniall ifland in the Sooloo Archi-
pelago. N. lat. 5° 8'. E. long. 120° 15'.

Tandoo Battoo, a fmaU ifland in the Sooloo Archipelago.
N. lat. 5° 9'. E. long. 120° 12'.

TANDORF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Koni-
gingratz ; 20 miles E. of Konigingratz.

TANE, a river of Finmark, which runs into the Frozen
fea, N. lat. 70° 48'.

Tane. See Taroataiiietoomo.

TANG, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Weft Goth-
land ; 30 miles E.N.E. of Uddevalla.

TANGA, in Commerce, a money of account at Goa, in
the Eaft Indies ; fome of which are good, and others bad.
A pardo is worth 4 good tangas or 5 bad ; 16 good vintins,
or 20 bad, are equal to 300 good bafaruccos, or 360 bad.
The coins are the St. Thomas, a gold piece of money of

TAN

nearly the weight of a ducat, which pafTes for 11 good
tangas, more or lefs. The filver coins arc the pardo xera-
pliin of 5 good tangas, and the common pardo of 4 good
tangas. The copper and tin coins are the good and bad
bafaruccos. Venetian fcquins are worth if) good taugas ;
pagodas, 10 good tangas; and Spanifti dollars, 550 good
bafaruccos, all more or lefs. A good tanga is worth about
l\d ftcrhng ; a pardo, 2s. 6d. ; and a xeraphin, y. ^^J,
fterling nearly. Kelly's Cambift.

TANGALA, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Eaft
Indian fea, near tlie S. coaft of Java. S. lat. 8" 20'. E.
long. 1 1 1° 45'.

TANGALE, a town of the ifland of Ceylon ; 92 nvleg
S. of Candy.

TANGA R AC, in Botany, a poifonous Brafilian plant;
but the root, fays Pifo, is an antidote to the leaves, flowers,
and fruit. Boyle's Works, Abr. vol. i. p. 14.

TANGA WA, in Geography, a town of Japan, in tbe
ifland of Ximo ; 30 miles S.E. of Kokura.

TANGE, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland ; 21
miles N. of Gotheburg.

TANGEN, a town of Norway, in the province of
Aggerhuus ; 2 miles E. of Stromfoe.

TANGENE, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland ;
26 miles E. of Uddevalla.

TANGENT, in Geometry, a right line which touches a
circle, that is, meets it in fuch manner, as that, though
infinitely produced, it would never cut the fame ; that is,
never come within the circumference.

Thus^theline AD {P/ate XV. Geometry, fg. 3.) is a Un-
gent to the circle in D.

It is demonftrated in geometry; i. That if a tangent,
A D, and a fecant, A B, be both drawn from the Tan»e
point, A ; the fquare of the tangent will be equal to the
reftangle, under the whole fecant A B, and that portion of
it, A C, which falls without the circle.

2. That if two tangents, AD, A E, be drawn to the
fame circle from the fame point A, they will be equal to
each other.

As a right line is the tangent of a circle, when it touches
the circle fo clofely, that no right line can be drawn through
the point of contaft between it and the arc, or within the
angle of contaft that is formed by them ; fo in general,
when any right line touches any arc of a curve, in fuch a
manner that no right line can be drawn through the point
of contad, betwixt the right line and the arc, or within the
angle of contaft tliat is formed by them, then is that Unctbe
tangent of the curve at the faid point.

I'he tangent of an arc is tlie right line that admits the
pofition of all the fecants that can pafs through the point of
contaft, though, ftriftly fpeaking, it is no lecant. MacL
Flux. art. i8i. 505.

Tangent, in Trigonometry. — u4 tangent of an arc is a
right line, raifed perpendicularly on the extreme of the
diameter, and continued to a point, where it is cut by a
fecant, that is, by a line drawn from the centre through the
extremity of the arc of which it is a tangent.

A tangent oj an arc A {Plate II. Trigonom. fg. 'S-) is a part
of a tangent of a circle (that is, of a right line, which touches
a circle without cutting it), intercepted between two right
lines drawn from tlie centre C, through the extremes of the
arc E and A.

Hence the tangent F E is perpendicular to the radius-
EC.

And hence the tangent F E is the tangent of the angle
ACE, as alfo of that of A C 1 ; fo that two adjacent
angkg have only the fame commoa tangent.

]i, 2 Tangbmt,

TANGENT.

Takges'T, Co, or Tjnj^ent ef the Complement, is the tan-
«cnt of an arc, whicli is the complement of another arc to a
quadrant.

Thus a tangent of the arc A H, is the co-tangent of the
arc A E, or the tangent of the complement of the arc A E.

Tofnd the length of the tangent of any arc, the fine of the
arc being given : fuppofe the arc A E, the given fine A D,
and the tangent required E F. Since both the fine and
tangent are perpendicular to the radius E C, they are parallel
to each other. Wherefore as the cofine D C is to the fine
A D, fo is the whole fine to the tangent E F. See Sike.

Hence, a canon of fines being had, a canon of tangents is
eafily conftruAed from it.

Tangents, jirtificial, are the logarithms of the tangents
of arcs.

Tangents, Line of, is a line ufually placed on the feftor,
and Guntcr's fcale ; the dcfcription and ufes of which, fee
under Sector.

Tangent of a Conic SeSion, as of a parabola, is a right
line, which only touches or meets the curve in one point,
and does not cut or enter within the curve. See Conic
SeHioni.

Tangents, Method of, is a method of drawing tangents
to any algebraical curve, or of determining the magnitude of
the tangent and fub-tangent, the equation to the curve being
given. .'

The method of tangents is nearly related to that of maxima
et minima ; and the fame authors, who in the early ftate of
algebra attempted one of thofe cafes, never failed of touching
alfo on the other. Hence we have the methods of Def-
cartes, Fermat, Roberval, Hudde, &c. We have already
explained under the article Maxima et Minima, the feveral
methods of thefe authors relating to the latter fubjeft ; and
as their methods of tangents differ in no refpeft from this, we
fhall not repeat them again in this place, but merely explain
the principle which led to fo intimate a conneftion between
the two problems.

Defcartes' Method of Tangents It has been (hewn under

the article above referred to, that Defcartes' method of
maxima and minima, depended upon his making two roots
of his equation equal to each other, and the fame principle
led liim alfo to his problem of tangents.

Let us conceive, for example, a curve A B i, ( Plate XIV.
Analyft!, fig. l6. ) defcribed on an axis A C ; and from any
point in this axis, C, as a centre, let there be defcribed a
circle, which fhall cut the curve at leafl in two points, as
B, b ; from thefe draw two ordinates, which will ncceffarily
be common both to the circle and curve : let us now imagine
the radius of this circle to decreafe, while its centre remains
fixed ; and it is obvious that thus the two points of inter-
feftion will approach each other, and finally coincide, in
which cafe the circle will touch the curve at the point E,
and the tangent at that point will be common to both, and
perpendicular to the radius of the circle at that point.
Thus the problem of determining the tangent to a curve, is
reduced to finding the pofition of a perpendicular to the
curve, drawn from any point in its axis. In order to effeA
this, Defcartes fought, in a general manner, the points of
ijiterfeftion in the curve made by a circle defcribed with a
given radius from a given point in the axis. He thus ar-
rived at an equation, which, in the cafe of two interfeftions,
ought to contain two unequal roots, expreffing the diflance
•f the two ordinates from the vertex of the curve. But
when the two points of interfeftion are united in one, as in
the cafe of the circle touching the curve, then the tvi'o roots
of the equation are neceffarily equal to each other. His
objed, therefore, was, in the equation firfl obtaineii, and of

which the co-efficients were indeterminate, to
values, that the two roots fhoiild be equal ;
pofe, he compared the propofed equation w
of the fame degree, having two equal roots ;
equating the co-efficients, obtained the value
firft equation.

In order to illuflrate this, let A B i {fig.
bola, and B 4 a circle. Make C A — a,
radius C B = r, then CD =; a — k ; and
nate B D belongs to the circle, we have

give them fiicli
tor which pur-
ith an equation
and hence, by
of thofe in his

1 6.) be a para-

A D = x, the

fince the ordi-

CD" = r'- (a- x)-= r'-a'-}-

;a.■l: — X .

But the fame ordinate belonging alfo to the parabola, we
have from the known property of that curve, y' = px,jf>
being the parameter ; therefore

r^ — a^ -(- 2a.x — .v' = p.x, or
s,^ + (J>— 2a) X + {a^ — r') = o,

which, being an equation of the fecond degree, mull necef-
farily have two roots, or values, of x, anfwering to the two
abfciffes AD, Ad: for we Ihould arrive at the fame con-
clufion, if our equation had been deduced with reference to
the point 6 ; and it is obvious that thefe roots depend entirely
upon the relation of the co-efficients {/> — 2 a) and
(a' — r"), or upon the ratio of the quantities a, p, and r,
to each other ; and, confequently, fuch values may be
given to thefe quantities, that the two values of x may be
equal.

In order to find this ratio, Defcartes formed an equation
of the fecond degree, having two equal roots, as .\- ° — 2e s.
-t- e^ =: o, TOz. \x — e) (x — e) =. o; and comparing this
with that found above, he obtained the equation .v — a =
CD = \p, which (hews that in the parabola, the fub-
normal is equal to half the parameter ; whence it alfo fol-
lows, that the fub-tangent is equal to double the abfcifs,
which is the known property of the curve.

Defcartes had alfo another method for tangents, a little
different from the above in praftice, although it was th^
fame in principle ; thus he conceived a right line to revolve
about a fixed point in the axis of the curve produced,
which at firft fhould cut the curve in a certain number of
points, but by its revolution, thefe points of interfeftion ap-
proaching each other would finally coincide, and thus the
revolving line become a tangent to the curve. For this
purpofe he alfo firft obtained the general equation, which he
afterwards equated with another having two equal roots, and
thus determined the feveral relations of his indeterminate
co-efficients, exaftly as in the cafe above given.

Fermat' s Method of Tangents. — It will be found by com-
paring the above method of tangents of Defcartes, with
that of his maxima and minima, that the two ultimately de-
pend upon the fame principle, vi%. of making two roots of
an equation equal to each other ; and the coincidence of
Fermat's methods for thefe two problems is ftill more ob-
vious ; in faft, he fcarcely treats of them as diftinft cafes,
but refers immediately for the folution of the cafe of tangents
to that of his maxima and minima. In order, fays this
author, that a line may be a tangent to a curve, as for ex-
ample to the parabola A Bi, at the point h, {fig. 17.) it is
evident that every ordinate, except B C, will meet that tangent
beyond the curve, as in C. Thus the ratio of B C' : ce',
which is the fame as C D' : cDSwill be lefsthan that of C B':
c l>', or than that of C A to ir A ; but if we fuppofe thefe
ratios to be the fame, and confequently the diftance f C to
vanifh, the points B, i, will coincide, and we fhall have an
equation, which, treated in the fame manner as in his method
de tnaximii ct minimis, will give the ratio of C D ; C A.

A»

TANGENT.

fluxions of the abfcifs A P, and tJie ordinate PM- «nd
becaufe the triangles M m R and T M P arc fimilar, wc have
R m : M R :: P M : P T. Let, therefore, the ahfcifs A P
be put = X, and the ordinate P M =^, and we (hall hare

y : X .: y : —. = p Y. By means of this general eKpref.

fion for the fub-tangcnt, and the equation of the curve es-
prHl.ng the relation between x and y, the ratio of the
fluxions * and > will be found, and from thence the length
ot the fub-tangcnt ; whence the tangent itfelf may be cafilT
determined and drawn. This we fhaU iUuftrate in the fol-
lowing examples :

I. The equation defining a circle hax — Kx=y^- and
by taking the fluxions of thefe quantities, ax -2xiz=

2yy

confequently — =

y a — 2 X

i> J'

and, molti*

plying both fides by y, we have ^ = — i!_ = the fub-

y ifl — .V
fuppofmg P/. the increafe of the abfcifs = e, tangent PT {ice fig. 20.) ; whence U a — «) or AC —

r_„_.:._ : c. „. .u - _..: ^ P, i.e. C P : (^) P M :: (j,) P M?P T ; a property of

the circle deduced from the principles of common eeo-
metry. °

II. The equation defining the common parabola is ok
= >', a being the parameter, .-c the abfcifs, and y the or-

^/px;

dinate ; hence

ax = 2 yj,

and — = — ;

confequently.

y x
y

a

2 ax

As to the methods propofed by Hudde, Roberval,
Huygens, &c. they differ fromthofc given above, only in the
fame manner as in their methods of maxima and minima ; it
would therefore be ufelcfs to defcribe them in this place.

Barroiu's Method of Tangents — It is obvious from what is
faid above, and what has been ftatcd under the article Maxi-
ma et Minima, that both the method of tangents, and that
for the greateft and leaft ordinates, were very nearly related to
the prefent fluxional way of treating the fame fubjcfts ; hut
with regard to tangents, a flill nearer approach was made by
Dr. Barrow.

This accurate geometer confidered the little triangle
formed by the difference of the two ordinates, their diilance
from each other, and the indefinitely fmall part of the curve,
as fimilar to that which is formed by the ordinate, the tangent,
and fub-tangent. He then fought by the equation of the
curve, the ratio of the two fides ba, BiJ, (fg. 18.) of the
triangle B 3 a, when the difference of the ordinates is infi-
nitely little ; and then faid, 3& ba : B a :: ordinate B P : the
fub-tangent T P.

In the cafe of the parabola, for example, whofe equation
hf=px '.."__"./■

and b a the correfponding increafe of the ordinate y z= a%
then the equation for the ordinate p b becomes

(jr -f ay =/. (x + e), or

y^ + zay + a' — px + pi.

^ubtrafting from both fides j^^ =^ p x, there remains
2 ay -ir ci' ^= p e.

Alfo a being itfelf infinitely fmall, its fquai-e «' may be
entirely neglefted, and there refults z ay = pe\ therefore
a : e ■.: p : 2y ; but a ■=■ b a, and e =.^ a, alfo y =z
therefore, from the propofition ftated above, •uiz.

ab : aB :: ordinate : fubtangent,
we ha»e

p : 2 ^ px :: ^f p x ; 2 x, the fubtangent required.

Such were the principles employed in the folution of this

interefting problem prior to the brilliant difcovery of the

fluxional calculus, which from its generality fupplanted them

all, and they are now therefore merely matters of hiftorical

curiofity ; but as they exhibit the flow and progreflive ad-
vances of genius and fcience towards an ultimate ftate of per-

feftion, they are highly deferving of the attention of the

mathematician, who will find in them much to admire ; they

will at the fame time enable him duly to appreciate the tran-

fcendant talents of that great philofophcr, who formed out

of them one general and comprehenfive principle of folution,

which will apply with equal facility to algebraical curves of

every order.

The Method of Tangents accordingto the DoSrim of Fluxions. —

Its ufe is very great in Geometry ; becaufe in determining the

tangents of curves, we determine at the fame time the quad-
rature of the curvilinear fpaces : on which account it well

deferves to be here particularly infilled on.

To find the Sub-tangent in any algebraic Curve Let the pro-
pofed curve be A M O ( Plate XIV. Anal.jig. 19.), and the
right line T M Q a tangent to it at the point M ; let the
femiordinate pm \>e infinitely near another P M, and M R
parallel to A H ; then the relative celerities of the point M,
moving along the curve from A towards O, in the dircftions

M R and PM, with which A P and P M increafe in this po- _ _ „— _ _

fltion, will be truly expreffed by M R and R m ; but the " '^ 3 " •* " /v 2 " " a "

celerities by which quantities increafe are as the fluxions of T being given, through which the tangent muft pafs, the
thofe quantities ; therefore (Mm being the fluxion of the tangent itfelf may be drawn.

curve line A^) MR and Rw are the correfpondipg V. Becaufe the equation, exhibiting the nnture of all

kind»

V ; therefore the fub-tangcnt P T

{fs- 19- ) is the double of its correfponding abfcifs A P ;
which is a well-known property of the parabola.

III. The general equation for parabolas of any kind

being a"' k" = ji" + " ; we have n a" x"- ' k

any
m + n X

' ' i ; and, therefore.

X _ m-l-nxj''"

-; whence

y X m + n X y"
y ~ na" xT-

m-^-ny.a'" x'

na" x'

{heczuiey"*' = a"*")

m -\- n

X jc = the true value of the fub-tangcnt ; which,

therefore, is to the abfcifs in the conftant ratio of m -f n to n.
IV. The equation defining an cUipfis is b^ x ax — x*
= a' f, A P (fg. 21.) being = x, MP=y, AB=a,
and the leffer axis = b ; for by the property of the el-
lipfis, we have a' : b' :: a x - x'' {A P X P B) : >' (M P') ;

whence 3' x

and, therefore, b' x

ax— 2xx =

za'yy.

and — =

a- y;
2a^y

X a

2.V

and, con-

fequently, the fub-tangent P T p— ) = — -—/I— =

b'y

X a — 2x

whence the point

TANG

Itiuds 9^ elUpfcs, (putting a aad c fur llie two priii-
dpal ^ametws) is a-x^ x x" = ^ x jr"' * ", vre (hall

l»ve -mix a — x^" - \ x. x" + n x x" ' xa — x|'

•^ m + h X y"+'- 'y; and, therefore,

X m + n X 31"'

UL —

m + n X a — «) " X x*^

_ m x" X a - .v'>'" - ' + n.x"- ' X a- *'

. m-\-nXa — xXx m-r-tiy.ax — x''

,- + ■. = a _ xl"- X «") = ; = -

J -mx+nxa — x na — n+mxx

=r the fubtangent required.

VI. The equation defining the hyperbola is c' x
f X + x' = a'' y', a and c being ufed to denote the two
principal diameters ; whence we have, c^ x ax + z k x

X ^^ y V X

= 2 «' »i ; confequently — = ^ — ■ and - — =t

y c' X ^a +x y

a-y-

r X ax + X _

ax -{- X-

_ = the fubtangent ;

e' X ^a + X c'' X ^a + X \a + x

whence the diftance of the point of interfeftion of the
tangent and axis from the vertex, which is equal to the
difference of the fub-tangent and abfcifs, may be found ;

ax + x^ I „ ^

for ==^ - * = T^

■ ; and, therefore, that point

ExNT.

The preceding examples relate to curves, whofe ordinates
are parallel to each other. We fhall now briefly illuftratc
the method of drawing tangents to curves of the fpiral kind,
all whofe ordlnales iffue from a point : fuch as the fpiral BAG
( Plate XV. Anal. Jig. I . ) whofe ordinates, C B, C A , C G, are
referred to the point C, called the centre of tlie fpiral. Let
SAN be a tangent to the fpiral at any point A, and let
C T be perpendicular to it, and let the arc C B A (confi-
dered as variable by the motion of A towards G) be de-
noted by 2, and the ordinate CA by j'. Then z:y ::

AC (>) : AT =-''^. Hence, if upon C A, as a dia-
meter, a femicircle be defcribed, and in it, from A, a right
line equal to -r- be infcribed, that right line will be a tan-
gent to the fpiral at the point A.

VIII. Let the nature of the curve C B A be fuch, that
the arc C B A may be, always, to its correfponding ordi-
nate C A in a conftant ratio, w'z. as a to i : then, becaufe

X : y :: a : t, •we have z = -y-, and z ■

; and, confe-

being given, the tangent may be eafily drawn.

The manner of drawing tangents to all forts of hyper-
bolas umverfally, will be the fame as in the eUipfes, the
equations of the two kinds of curves differing in nothing
but their figns.

After the manner above explained, the fubtangent, in
curves whofe abfciffes are right lines, may be determined ;
but if the abfcifs, or line terminating the ordinate, on the
lower part, be another curve, then the tangent may be
drawn as in the following example.

VII. Let the curve B R F {Plate XIV. Anal. fg. 22.)
be a cycloid ; whofe abfcifs is here fuppofed to be the femi-
circle B P A, to which let the tangent P T be drawn, as
above. Moreover, let r R H be a tangent to the cycloid,
at the correfponding point R, and let G R e be parallel to
T P ■« ; putting the arc, or abfcifs, B P = z, its ordi-
nate P R ^ J-, A F = *, and B P A = ^ ; then, by the
property of the cycloid, we ihall have c (BPA) : b

(AF :: 2 (BP) :;, (PR) ) ; therefore j, = ^^ andi =

hi.

— = re. But by fimilar triangles, r* (j) : R« (= P ^

= i) t: P R (jy) : P H = ^ = ^ (becaufe J, = i?) ; con.

fequently, if in the right line P T, there be taken P H
equal to the arc P B, we (hall have a point H, through
i^lMct U^ tangent of the cycloid muft pafe.

quently, A T {^-P\ = ^ = — x A C : therefore A C

Snd A T being in a conftant ratio, the angle CAT muft
alfo be invariable ; which is a known property of the loga-
rithmic fpiral.

IX. Let BAA {Jig. 2.) be the fpiral of Archi-
medes ; whofe nature is fuch, that the part E A of the ge-
nerating ordinate, intercepted by the fpiral, and a circle,
BED, defcribed about the fame centre C, is always in a
conftant ratio to the correfponding arc B E of that circle.
Suppofe A n perpendicular to AC; B C = c, C A = ^,
and the given ratio of A E to B E, that of ^ to c ; then

I : c :: y — c {KY.") : -^—j — = B E ; whofe fluxion is =

cy

If the right line C E A a be fuppofed to revolve about

the centre C, the angular celerity of the generating point A,
in the perpendicular direftion A n, will be to that of E,
as A C to E C ; and as the latter of thefe celerities is ex-

preffed by -j-, the former will be exprelTed by -— x -

*'

jy

or ■'-J ; which is to j, the celerity of A in the direftion
A a, as ~j- to unit, or as y to I. Confequently, C T and
AT are in the fame ratio, and AC : CT :: -^ yy + bb

■.y; and AC : AT :: Vyy + i>b:b; whence C T and

A T are given, equal to — — ^ , and

'^ yy + ib "^ yy + ^^

fpeftively ; from either of which exprefllons the tangent
A T may be drawn ; aad, in the fame manner, may the
pofition of the tangent of any other fpiral be determined.
Simpfon's Flux. vol. i. feft. 3.

As to the method of inveftigating tangents by fluxions,
fee Macl. Flux, book i. c. 7. where it is demonilrated in-
dependently of infinitefiraals.

To

TANGENT.

To determine the tangents of curves, fuppofed to be de-
fcribed by the iiiterfeftions of right lines revolving about
given poles, fee Mr. Maclaurin's Fluxions, art. 210, fcq.
In finding the tangents of curves by tli- method of iiilinite-
fimal differences, it has been objeftcd that the conclufion is
found by a double error, i. By taking the curve for a
polygon of an infinite number of fides. 2. By the falfo
rule for taking the differentia] of a power. But there is no
need of fuch fuppofitions in the method of fluxions, for it
may be geometrically demonftratcd, tliat the fluxions of the
bafe, ordinate, and curve, are in the fame proportion to
each other, as the fides of a triangle refpeftively parallel to
the bafe, ordinate, and tangent. When the bafe is fup-
pofed to flow uniformly, if the curve be convex towards
the bafe, the ordinate and curve increafe with accelerated
motions ; but their fluxions at any term are the fame as if
the point which defcribes the curve had proceeded uniformly
from that term in the tangent. Any farther increment
which the ordinate or curve acquires, is to be imputed to
the acceleration of the motions with whicli they flow. See
Maclaurin's Fluxions, book i. chap. vii. and viii.

Any two arcs of curve lines touch together, when the
fame right line is the tangent of both at the fame point.
But when they are applied to each other in this manner,
they never perfeftly coincide, unlefs they be fimilar arcs of
Cmilar and equal figures.

In the Philofophical Tranfaftions, we have the following
method of drawing tangents to all geometrical curves, with-
out any labour or calculation, by M. Slufius.

Suppofe a curve, as D Q {Plate XV. Anal. jig. 3.)
whofe points are all refcrrible to any right line given, as
E A B, whether that right line be the diameter or not ; or
whether there be more given right lines than one, provided
their powers do but come into the equation. In all his
equations, he puts -o for the line D A, y for B A ; and for
E B, and the other given lines, he puts b, d, Sec. that is,
always confonants only.

Then, fuppofing D C to be drawn touching the curve in
D, and meeting with E B produced in C, he calls the fought
line, C A, by the name of a.

To find which, he gives this general method. I. Rejeft
out of the equation all members which have not either
■V or y in them ; then put all thofe that have j on one fide,
and all thofe which have v on the other ; with their figns +
or — ; and the latter, for diftinftion and eafe fake, he calls
the right, the former the left fide. 2. On the right fide, let
there be prefixed to each member the exponent of the power,
which V hath there ; or, which is the fame thing, let that
exponent be multiphed into all the members. 3. Let the
fame be done alfo on the left fide, multiplying each member
there by the power of the exponent of y ; adding this more-
over, that one y mufl:, in each part, be changed into a.
This done, the equation thus reformed will (hew the method
of drawing the required tangent to the point D ; for, that
being given, as alfo y, v, and the other quantities exprefled
by confonants, a cannot be unknown. Suppofe an equa-
tion iy — yy = v v, in which E B is called b ; ^ A — y,
D A = 1), and let a, or A C, be required fo as to find the
point C, from whence C D being drawn, (hall be a true
tangent to that curve Q D in D. In this example, nothing
is to be rejefted out of the equation, becaufejr or v are in
each member : it is alfo difpofed, as required by the rule I ;
to each part, therefore, there mud be prefixed the expo-
nent of the powers of y or i>, as in the rule 2 ; and on the
left fide, let one y be changed into a, and then the equa-
tion will be in this form, ba - 2ja = zvv, which equa-
JO

2VV

tion reduced, gives cafily the value of a = ' " '" = A C.

6 — Zy

And fo the point C is found, from wliich the tangent DC
may be drawn.

To determine wliich way the tangent is to be drawn, whe-
ther towards B or E, he direcis to confidcr the numerator
and denominator of the fratlion. For, i. If in bolii paru
of the fraftion all the figns are affirmative ; or if the affirm-
ative ones are more in number ; then the tangent is to run
towards B. 2. If the affirmative quantities are greater than
the negative in the numerator, but equal to thole in the de-
nominator, the right line drawn through D, and touching
the curve in that point, will be parallel to A B ; for in thi»
cafe a is of an infinite length. 3. If in both parts of the
fraftion the affirmative quantities are lefs tlian the negative,
changing all the figns, the tangent mufl: be drawn now alfo*
towards B ; for tliis cafe, after the change, comes to be
the fame as the firll. 4. If the affirmative quantities are
greater than the negative in the denominator, but in the
numerator are lefs, or -vice verfi, then changing the figns in
that part of the fraftion where they are lefs, the tangent
mud be drawn a contrary way ; that is, A C mud be taken
towards E. 5. But whenever the affirmative and negative
quantities are equal in the numerator, let them be how they
will in the denominator, a will vanifh into notiiing : and,
confequently, the tangent is either A D itfelf, or E A, or
parallel to it ; as will eafily be found by the data. This he
gives plain examples of, in reference to the circle, thus : let
there be a femicirclc, whofe diameter is E B ; in which there
is given any point, as D (Jig. 4.), from which the per-
pendicular D A is let fall to the diameter. Let D A = -u,
B A =^', B E = i : then the equation will be by — yy -=1
■V V, and drawing the tangent D C, we have AC, or a =

2 7) 1;

2y

Now, if 6 be greater than zy, the tangent rnxiH

be dravvn towards B j if lefs, towards E ; if it be equal to
it, it will be parallel to E B, as was faid in the firil, Ucond,
and fourth rules.

Let there be another femicircle inverted, as N D D
i/s- 5-)» the points of whofe periphery are referred to the
right line B E, parallel and equal to the diameter. Let N B
be called d, and all things elfe as before ; then the equa-
tion will be by — yy z= dd ^ -vv — idv; which being ma-
naged according to his rules, you have a = '"'" ~ ^"'"^

b — 2y

Now, fince V here is fuppofed to be always lefs than d ;
if b be greater than 2y, then the tangent muft be drawn
towards E ; if equal, it will be parallel to B E ; if lefs,
changing all the figns, the tangent muft be drawn towards
B, as by rules fourth, fifth, and third. But there could be
no tangent drawn, or at leaft E B would be it, if N B liad
been taken equal to the diameter. Let there be another
femicircle, whofe diameter N B {fg. 6. ) is perpendieular
to E B, and to which its points arc fuppofed to be referred.

Let N B be called b, and all things elfe as above ; the

•11 L I J bv — 2W ,,

equation will he yy = b-u — vv, and a = . If

zy

now, b be greater than 2 v, the tangent muft be drawn to-
wards B ; if lefs, towards E ; if equal, D A will be the
tangent, as appears by rules fourth and fifth.

Tancjents, Inverfe Method of, is a method of finding the
equation, or the couftruAion, of any curve ; from the tan-
gent

TAN

gent of any other line, whofc determination depends on the
tancent pivcn.

This mt-thod is alfo one of the great refults of the new

caliulus intfgralis. .... , r n tu a

Its application we fliall give m what follows. 1 he Hux-
ional exprcffions of the tangent, fub-tangent, &c. being de-
livered under the lall article, if you make the given value
equal to the fluxional txpreflion, and either fum up the
fluxional equation, or, if that cannot be, conftrua it, the
curve required is had. For example :

^ y'

I. To fnd the curve-line, nuhofe fub-tangent = —^^

Since the fub-tangent of an algebraic line is =

haveJ^ =

2S-

and

ay X =^ ty yt

and

a X =■ zy y

therefore (taking the fluents by the inverfe method of flux-
ions) ax = y"".

The curve fought, therefore, is a parabola ; whole con-
ftruftion is (hewn under Parabola.

2. To find the curve, nuhofe fub-tangent is a third propor-

yx
tiond /o I a - x and y. Since ia - x : y :: y : —.we

have \a — x:y {-.-.yy -.yx) ::} : i; confequently lai
— XX = yj, and, taking the fluents, \ax — i x' = i ^%
i.e. ax — x'' =■ y''- The curve fought is, therefore, a
circle.

3. To find a line, wherein the fub-tangent is equal to the

femiordinate. Since ^ = y ; y x = yy , zni. x = y ; there-
fore X ^= y.

Hence it appears, that the line fought is a right hne,
which refpefts the cathetus of an equicrural triangle, as an
axis, or the hypothenufe of an equicrural reftangled triangle.
If X had been taken for the arc of a circle, the line fought
had been a cycloid.

TANGER, in Geography, a river of Weftphalia, which
runs into the Elbe at I'angermunde.
TANGERE, ATo/ime. See Noli.
TANGERMUNDE, in GfOfra/ij-.atown of Weftphalia,
in the Old Mark of Brandenburg, fituated on the Elbe, where
feflels pay a toll : the chief trade of the town is brewing ;
24 nules N. of Magdeburg. N. lat. 52° 32'. E. long.
12° 2'.

TANGHOO, or Tenhoa, a capital of a province of
Tonquin, fituated on a fmall river near the W. coaft of
the gulf of Cochinchina. Rice and cattle conftitute the
chief riches of the province. The town is called " Cua-
bang." N. lat. 19° 40'.

TANGIA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hedf-
jas ; 50 miles W.N.W. of El Catif.
TANGIBLE. See Tactile.

TANGIER Islands, in Geography, feveral iflafids of
the Chefapeak, near the coaft of Maryland, oppofite to the
mouth of the Potomack. N. lat. 38° 12'. W. long.
76° 12'.

TANGIERS, anciently called Tinjis and Tingia, and
now by the Arabs Tinjiah, a town of Africa, in Fez, fituated
at the weftern mouth of the ftraits of Gibraltar, about a day's
iourney from Tetuan. This town was firft poflefled by the
Romans, who took it under Strtorius ; next by the Goths ;
and it was furrendered by count Julian to the Saracens. It
was taken in 147 1 by Alonfo, king of Portugal ; and given

TAN

to Charles II., king of England, in 1662, as a. marrjagir
portion with the princefs Catherine of Portugal. The
Englifli abandoned it in 1684, after deftroying the mole and
fortifications. Although now almoft. in ruins, it ftilF re-
tains fomc batteries, in tolerable condition, facing the bay ;
at the bottom of which are a river, and the remains of the
bridge of Old Tangiers ; but on account of the accumu-
lated fand, the bridge, if it had continued, as well as the rivt-r,
would be ufck'fs. The bay of Tangiers, independently of
Ceuta, is fo fituated, being the narroweft part of the ftraits,
that it muft be favourable to Moorifli piracy ; but Tangiers
can never be a commercial town, as it has few produftions iij
its vicinity ; the Spaniards, however, formerly (hipped in this
place, eggs, vegetables, and fome fruits ; and the Englifli at
prefent obtain fupplies for their garrifon at Gibraltar.
The bay of Tangiers is not very fafe when the wind is in the
weft, having been encumbered by the ruins of the mole and
fortification, as the cables are liable to be rent, and the fliips
to be driven on (hore. The beft anchorage for frigates and
the larger velTels, is at the eaftern point, whence they may
eafily fail whatever way the wind fets : however, the bay is
only dangerous in winter ; 108 miles N.N.W. of Fez, and
38 W.S.W. of Gibraltar. N. lat. 35° 42'. W.long. 5°5o^
Clienier's Morocco.

TANGLAKE, in Ichthyology, the viviparous blenny of
Pennant ; the muftela vivipara of Willughby, Ray, &c. ;
and the blennius viviparus of the Linnean fyftem.

TANGME W, in Geography, a town of the Birman empire,
on the right bank of the Ava ; 10 miles N.W. of Prome.

TANGO, a town of Japan, in the illand of Niphon ;
65 miles S.W. of Meaco.

TANGOLOTANGO, a feaport town of Mexico, in the
province of Guaxaca, near the gulf of Mexico ; 100 miles
S.S.E. of Guaxaca. N. lat. le" 8'. W. long. 97° 36'.

TANGONE, a town of New York ; 9 miles "W. of
Kingfton.

TANGOUZI, a town on the eaft coaft of Madagafcai.
S. lat. 19° 5'. E. long. 49-^12'.

TANGOUZLIO, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Na-
tolia ; 70 miles E.S.E. of Smyrna.

TANGU, a city of Pegu, and capital of a province
which was formerly a kingdom ; fituated a conliderable dif-
tance to the north of Pegu.

TANGUEY, or Tonguey, a town of Chili, on the coaft.
S. lat. 30° 30'.

TANGUI A, a river of Chinefe Tartary, which rifes near
mount Ilha, and running nearly fouth, falls into the river
Ya-lou-kiang.

TANGULAW, a fmall ifland in the Spanifli Main, near
the Mofquito fliore. N. lat. 13° 35'. W. long. 83° 55'.

TANGUT. See Thibet.

TANG-YANG, a lake of China, about thirty miles in
circumference ; 32 miles N. of Hoai-ngan.

TANIALA, a town of Hindooftan, in Palnaud ; 25
miles E.N.E. of Timerycotta.

TANIBOUCA, in Botany, a Caribsean name, to be tole-
rated only till the genus is properly underftood. — Aubl.

Guian. 448. Ju(r. 76 Clafs and order, Decandria Mono-

gynia. Nat. Ord. Elaagni? JulT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, bell-(haped,
internally downy ; its limb in five deep, roundi(h, acute feg-
ments. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments ten, thread-fhaped,
inferted into the tube of the calyx, as long as its limb ;
anthers oval, of two lobes. Pfl. Germen inferior, round-
ifli ; ftyle folitary, thread-fliaped, curved ; iiligma fimple.

Peric

Eff.

T A N

Eir. Cli. Calyx bell-fliapcd, five-cleft, fuperior. Corolla
none. Fruit

1. T. guianenfis. Aubl. t. 178. — Native of maifhes in
Guiana, flowering in May. A tree, whofe trunk is twenty
foet, or more, in'height, and two feet in diameter, tvitli a
vvhitilh, light and brittle wood ; the batk, greyifh.. Branches
fpreading every way ; their young {hoots leafy at tiic ends.
Leaves deciduous, alternate, ftalked, obovate, pointed, en-
tire, coriaceous, fmooth ; the largell feven inches long, and
three broad. Spikes axillary, folitary, ftalked, about three
or four inches long, of many fmall, alternate, greenidi, fra-
grant Jlowers, clothed internally with white hairs. Aublet
not having met with the fruit, nor liavjng been able to deter-
mine any thingiof the internal ftrufture of the minute ^frmm,
we are left in great doubt as to the effential characler of this
genus, and even fts natural order. Nothing is recorded of
its ufe or qualities.

TANICHI, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
Carnatic ; 16 miles S.S.W. of Tritcliinopoly.

TANILA, a river of Mexico, wliich runs into the gulf
of Mexico, N. lat. 18° 10'. W. long. -95° 6'. •

TANINGE, a town of France, in the department of the
Leman ; 24 miles S.E. of Geneva.

Takjong Currang, a town on the weft coalt of the ifland
of Lombock. S. lat. 8° 31'. E. long. 115° 48'.

Tanjoxg Putus, a town of Malacca, on the north fide of
tlie river Pera, where the Dutch have a faftory.

TANJORE, a country of Hindooftair, included in the
Carnatic ; bounded on the north and weft by part of the
Carnatic, and on the call and foutli by the gulf of Bengal :
about ninety-five miles in length from north to fouth, and
lifty in breadth from eaft to weft ; watered by the river
Cauvery, which divides itfclf into feveral fti-eams. Though
torming a part of the Carnatic, it is governed by a prince or
•rajah, and pays an annual fubfidy to the Englifti of 160,000/.
ilerling.

Tan.fore, a town of Hindooftan, and capital of a country
to which it gives name, fituated in a plain between two
branches of the Cauvery ; including the iuburbs, about two
leagues in circumferejice ; a double wall and a large ditch
are the only defence. The palace is fituated to the eaft of
the town, and is a grand fquare, fortified with a wall and a
wet ditch, abounding in crocodiles. It was originally only a
pagoda. In 1773, this city was taken by the Britifti under
general Jofeph Smith ; 176 miles S.E. of Seringapatam.
N. lat. 10=' 46'. E. long. 79" 10'.

TAN IS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Egypt, fitu-
ated bet%veen the Mer.defian mouth of the Nile towards the
■weft, and the Pelufiar. mouth to tlie eaft. It lay on a fmall
branch of the Nile, and gave its name to one of the mouths
of the river. This town was the capital of the nome called
Tanites.

TANISTRY, Takjstria, an ancient municipal law, or
tenure, which allotted the inheritance of lands, caftles, &c.
held by this tenure, to the oldeft and moft worthy and
capable perfon of the deceafed's name and blood, without
any regard to proximity. This, in reality, was giving it to
the ftrongeft ; and this naturally occafioned bloody wars in
families ; for which reafon it was abolifhed under king
James I.

Sir John Davies defcribes it thus : " Quant afcun perfon
moruft feifie des afcuns caftles, m.jmors, terres ou tenements
del jiature et tenure de tenijlry ; que donques mefmes le caftles,
&c. doent defcender, et de temps dont memory ne court ont
ufe de defcender, Seniori et dignijfimo viro fanguints et cogno-
minis de tiel perfon," &c.

Vol. XXXV.

TAN

TANITICUM Ostium, in Ancient Geography, the name
of the fixth mouth of the Nile, in palling from the weft to
the eaft.

TAN RABAT, \n Geography. See Tantabee.

TANKARD Turnip, in Agriculture, the common
Eiiglifli name of a particular fort of this kind of root, which
has thj property of ftaiiding high above the ground. It is
a good fort for feeding off before the froft fets in, in the
winter fcafon ; but after that has taken place, it is not fo
v.iluable or ufeful, as being more liable to be injured and
affeded by it than the other forts, in confequence of ftand-
ing expofcd fo much above the furface of the land. Sec

TUUNIP.

TANKERDSONG, in Geography, a town of Thibet ;
230 miles E. of Lafla. N. lat. 29° 50'. E. long. 100°.

TANKESIR, a town of Perfia, near the gulf; 9 mile
N. of Buftleer.

TANKISA, a town and fortrefs of Thibet, at the foot
of a mountain, which is faid to exhale fuffocating fumes ;
1 20 miles N. W. of Taffafudon. N. lat. 28° 23'. E. long.
87° 20'.

TANKROWAL, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Kaeii, with a faftory belonging to the Englifli African com-
pany, near the river Gambia. The Portugucfe have a church
there. The chief trade is in wax. N. lat. 13° 10'. W.
long. 14° 27'.

TANKUNNY, a town of Hindooftan, in Berar ; 20
miles W. of EUichpour.

TANLA Y, a town of France, in the department of the
Yonne ; 6 miles E. of Tonnerre.

TANLOCOM, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guafteca ; 40 miles S.W. of St. Yago de los Valles.

TANNA, an ifland in the South Pacific ocean, and one
of thofe called New Hebrides, difcovered by captain Cook
in the year 1774 ; about twenty-two miles in length, and ten
in breadth. Tiic inhabitants would not fuffer captain Cook,
or any of his company, to advance far into the ifland. The
produce, as far as could be feen, is bread-fruit, plantains,
cocoa-nuts, a fruit like a nectarine, yams, tarra, a fort of
potatoe, fugar-cane, wild figs, j fruit like an orange, which
is not eatable, and fome other fruits and nuts. Captain Cook
doubts not but nutmegs likewife grow in this ifland. The
bread-fruit, cocoa-nut, and plantains, are neither fo plenti-
ful nor fo good as at Otaheite ; on the other hand, fugar-
canes and yams are not only in great plenty, but of fuperior
quality, and much larger. One of the latter weighed fifty-
fix pounds, every ouHce of which was good ; hogs did not
feem to be fcarce ; but they faw not many fowls. Thcfe
are the only domeftic animals they have. Land-birds are
not more numerous than at Otaheite, and the other iflands ;
but they faw fonie fmall birds, with a very beautiful plu-
mage, whicli they had never feen before. There is a great
variety of trees and plants. The inhabitants of this ifland,
as well as thofe of Erromango, were at firft thought to be
a race between the natives of the Friendly Iflands and
thofe of Mallicollo ; but upon further acquaintance, it was
found that they had little or no affinity to either, except in
their hair, which is generally black and brown, growing to
a tolerable length, and very crifp and curly. Their beards,
which are ftrong and briftly, are generally fhort. One of
the languages which they fpeak is nearly, if not exaflly, the
fame wjth that of the Friendly Iflands : the other, which is
alfo that of Erromango and Annatom, is properiy their own.
Thefe people are of the middle fize, rather {lender than othjir-
wife ; many arc little, but few tall or ftout ; moft of them
have eood features and agreeable countenances, are, like all
^ ^ L the

TAN

the tropical race, aflive aiul nimble, and fcem to excel in the
ufc of arms, but not to be fonil of labour. Both fexes are
of a very dark colour, but not "black ; nor have they the lead
charafterillic of the negro about them. They make them-
fclves blacker tlian they really are, by painting their faces
with a pigment of the colour of black lead. They alfo ufe
aiiother fort, which is red ; and a tliird fort, brown, or a
colour between red and black. All thcfe, but efpecially the
firft, thev lay on with a liberal hand, not only on the face,
but on the neck, flioulders, and breaft. The men wear no-
thing but a belt, and the wrapping-leaf, as at MaUicollo.
The women have a kind of petticoat, made of the filaments
of the plaintain-tree, flags, or fome fuch thing, which reaches
below the knee. Both fexes wear ornaments, fuch as brace-
lets, car-rings, necklaces, and amulets. The bracelets are
chiefly worn by the men ; fome made of fea-fliells, and
others of thofe of the cocoa-nuts. The men alf6 wear amu-
lets ; and thofe of mod value being made of a greeniih ftone,
the green ftone of New Zealand is valued by them for this
purpoft. Necklaces aie cliiefly ufed by the women, and
made moftly of fhells ; ear-rings are common to both fexes,
and thofe valued moft are made of tortoife-fltell. Thefe
people, befide the cultivation of ground, have few other arts
worth mentioning. They know how to make a coarfe kind
of matting, and a coarfe cloth of the bark of a tree, which is
chiefly ufed for belts. The workmanfhip of their canoes is
very rude ; and their arms, with which they take the moft
pains in point of neatnefs, come far fhort of fome others.
Their weapons are clubs, fpears, or darts, bows and arrows,
and ftones. The clubs arc of three or four kinds, and from
three to five feet long. Captain Cook knew no more of their
cookery, than that it confifts of roafting and baking ; for
they have no veftels in which water can be boiled. Nor did
he kno.w that they had any other liquor but water, and the
juice of the cocoa-nut. They were utter flrangers to their
religion, and but little acquainted with their government.
They feeni to have chiefs among them, at leaft fome were
pointed out to him by that title-, but they appeared to have
very little authority over the reft of the people. They gave
ntimations that they praftjfed circumcifion, and that they
allowed themfelves to eat human flefti ; but captain Cook fays,
that it admits of doubt whether they are cannibals. The
idand contains a very conliderable volcano, and fome hot
fprings were difcovered, which raifed the thermometer frpm
80° to 170°, and in one place to 202°. Captain Cook
named the harbour where he lay. Port Refolution, from the
name of the fliip, wliich was the firft that had ever entered
it: which is fituated in S. lat. 19° 32' 25". E. long.
169° 44' 3j". The variation of the needle was 7° 14' I2"E. ;
and the dip of its fouth end 45° 2^'. The time of high
water on full and change days was about 5'" 45'", and tlie
tide rofe and fell three ieet.

Tanna, a town of Hindooftan, in the ifland of Salfette,
on the eaft coaft ; 15 miles N.E. of Bombay. N. lat. 19° 13'.
E. long. 72° 53'.

Tanna, or Thann, a town of Saxony, in the county of
Reuffen ; 17 miles S.W. of Greitz. N. lat. 50° 25''.. E.
long. 1 1° 57'.

Tanna Balloo, a fmall ifland in the Eaft-Indian fea,
near the eaft coaft of Borneo. N. lat. 4° C2'. E. lone-.
118° 21'. ^

Tanna Mera, a fmall ifland in the Eaft-Indian fea,
near the eaft coaft of Borneo. N. lat. 3° 45'. E. long.
117=5'.

TANNA R, a town of Bengal ; 35 miles E.S.E. of
Moorftiedabad.

TAN

TANNAS, a town of Sweden, in Harjedalen ; 15 miles
N.W. of Langafchantz.

TANNASER, a town of Hindooftan, in the fubah of
Delhi. This place was formerly held facred by the Hindoos.
In 101 1 it was taken by Mamhood, king of Gizni ; 45 miles
N.E. of nifl"ar. N. lat. 29° 31'. E. long. 76° 20'.

TANNAY, a town of France, in the department of the
Nievre ; 16 miles S.S.E. of Clamecy.

TANNDORF, a town of the principality of Culmbach ;
S miles S. of Culmbach.

TANNEBERG, a town of Auftria ; 8 miles S. of
Aigen.

TANNED Hide. See Hide and Leather.

TANNENBERG, in Geography, a town of PruflTia, in
the province of Oberland ; 6 miles S.S.W. of Hohenftein.
— Alfo, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Erzgebirg ; 6
miles S.W. of Wolkenftein.

TANNER, Thomas, in Biography, an Englilh prelate,
and eminent antiquary, was the fon of a clergyman, who was
vicar of the parifh of Market Levington, in Wiltfliire, where
he was born in the year 1 674. He entered into Queen's
college, Oxford, in 1689, and having graduated as B.A.,
he removed to All-Souls college in 1694, of which he became
a fellow in 1696. At the univerfity he devoted himfelf very
much to the ftudy of antiquities, and in 1695 publiflted his
" Notitia Monaftica," or " A ftiort Account of the rehgipus
Houfes in England and Wales," which attrafted notice ; and
foon after Dr. Moore, biftiop of Norwich, appointed, him his
chaplain, and in 1701 made him chancellor of his diocefe ;
which office led him to acquire an extenfive and correft ac-
quaintance with municipal and ecclefiaftical law, fo that he
was often confulted by the dignitaries of the church.
Having married the bifhop's daughter, he obtained in fuc-
ceflion various prefeiTnents ; and in 1 710 he took the degree
of DiD. In 1723 he became canon of Chrift-church, Ox--
ford; in 1727, prolocutor of the lower houfe of convo-
cation ; and in 1732, bifhop of St. Afaph. He died at
Chrift-church, in 1735, where he was buried. He was
thrice married, but left only one fon. He was diftinguiftied
by the exemplary difchargeof his clerical fun&ions, and by
the liberality of his charities. Availing hmifelf of papers
prefented to him by Wood, lie puhlillied a fecond edition
of his " Athenae Oxonienfes," much correfted and enlarged,
with the addition of more than five hundred lives from the
author's MS. Lond. 1721. 2 vols. fol. A pofthumous work,
founded on his Notitia, and entitled " Notitia Monaftica j
or, an Account of all the Abbies, Priories, and Houfes of
Friars, heretofore in England and Wales, and alfo of all the
Colleges and Hofpit^ls founded before 1540," was pub-
hflied by his brother, the Rev. John Tanner, Lond. 1744.
fol. Another elaborate work, on which he had beftowed
the application of forty years, entitled " Bibliotheca Bri-
tannico-Hibernica ; five, de Scriptoribus qui in Anglia,
Scotia, et Hibernia, ad Szeculi xvii. initium floruerunt, lite-
rarnm ordine juxta familiarum nomina difpofitis Commen-
tarius, &c." was publiflied in 1748, fol. under the care of
Dr. Wilkins, who prefixed to it a learned preface. He
had alfo made coUeftiqns for the hiftory of his native
county of Wilts, but by removal to a diftance he was pre-
vented from profecuting his delign. To the Bodleian li-
brary he bequeathed many valuable papers, tending to illuf-
trate the hiftory of thefe illands, and he made feveral com-
munications of a fimilar nature to the Society of Anti-
quaries, of which he was a member. His various labours in
this way rank him among the moft valuable contributors to
Britifti hterature and ecclefiaftical hiftory. Biog. Brit^
Gen. Biog.

Tannt;r,

T A N

Tanker, a perfon who m;uuif;i£tiiix-s liidca and (liins by
tanning.

It is only within a few years paft, tliat the tanners ot this
country have been Hberated from a variety of penalties and
prohibitions, which were extremely opprelllvc, and long re-
tarded the progrcfs of the manufafture.

Ill the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. when patents of
monopoly were in exiftence — when the true principles of trade
were not well undetilood — and when the leather manufac-
ture was condufted by unllcilful pcrfons, fome rules and re-
gulations as to the mode and manner of tanning, the ma-
terials to be employed, and the time to be confunied in the
procefs, might, perhaps, be in fome degree necelfary : but
fuch prohibitions and reltriftions were, wholly inapplicable
to the prefent enlightened age. It was not, however, till
4808, after a long parliamentary inveftigation, that the aft
I James I. c. 22, and others of a fimilar tendency which had
long difgraced our ftatute-book, were at length repealed
by the 48 Geo. III. c. 60. By this aft, the tanner is
now allowed, like all other manufafturers, to exercife his
ingenuity in the difcovery of new materials or new methods,
in abridging the time or improving the procefs. Nor can
any injury thereby arife to the community ; for the compe-
tition which in this country exills in every branch of trade,
combined with the credit and the intereft of the parties, will
always infure to the public the produftion of the belt ar-
ticles which can be manufaftured. See Leather, Taw-
ing, and Vellum.

TannerV Bart, is the bark of the oak or other tree,
which, after it has been ground in a mill into a coarfe pow-
der, is ufed in tanning of leather. When the tanning prin-
ciple has been wholl)' exhaufted, it is taken out of the pits,
aiid called tan. It is then fold to the gardeners, who ufe
it \n hot-houfes to produce an artificial heat, for the pur-
pofe of railing pine-apples, &c. After a certain time the
tan ceafes to caufe fermentation : it is then taken out of the
hot-houfe, and, when entirely rotted, becomes a vegetable
mould, and is employed as a manure in kitchen-gardens and
on grafs-land.

With refpeft to its advantages as a manure, different opi-
nions are entertained. MiDer, Mortimer, and others, have
reprefented it as highly nutritious, while more modern agri-
culturalifts confider it of very little value. When, however,
it istlended and incorporated with other vegetable fubftances,
or with hme or earthy matter in certain proportions, cautioufly
employed, and laid on foon after Michaelmas, it will be found
a good top-drefling for ftiff and cold grafs-land.

TANNETE, in Geography, a town on the W. coaft of
the illand of Celebes. S. lat. 4° 14'. " E. long. 1 20° 4'.

T ANNE WANG, a river on the S. coart of the illand of
Celebes, which runs into the fea, 5 miles W. of Bonthain.
TANNHAUSEN. See THA>ranAUSEN.
TANNIN, in Vegetable Chemijiry, a peculiar fubtlance
which is naturally formed, and exifts in a great number of
vegetable bodies, fuch as oak bark, galls, fumach, catechu,
&c. Its name is derived from the eft'eft it has in converting
the gelatine into leather.

Several proceffes have been given to obtain pure tannin,
which have been fo various in their refults, as to induce che-
rhifts to fufpeft the identity of tannin.

The procefs recommended for procuring pure tannin, is
to powder nutgalls, and make an infufion in water, which wdl
be of a deep brown colour. Evaporate th.e infuijon with a
gentle heat till it is very ftrong, but ilill retaining its humi-
dity. Add to this a faturated folution of carbonate of potafh.
A^yellowilh-white precipitate is formed, which is faid to be

TAN

pure tannin. When the liquid part is poured ofl', a little
cold water mull be added to walh the precipitate, as a large
quantity would dilfolve it again. When the precipitate is
feparated and dried, it alTumes the appearance of rcfin, having
a vitreous frafture. It is of a brown colour. Its talle ij
bitter, and (Irongly aftringent. It is very foluble in water.
The folution becomes frothy by agitation, as if it contained
foap. It dilTolves ftill more plentifully in alcohol. The fo-
lution is of a dark-brown colour, diflfering little in its pro-
perties and appearance from what has been termed tinfturc of
galls.

For our firft knowledge of this fubftance in a definite ftatc,
we are indebted to Deyeux. Scguin afterwards feparated
it by means of a folution of gelatme, the matter which was
prccipatcd being a fubftance, having the fmell and many
other properties of leather. Thefe fads led to the great
nnprovements he made in the procefs of tanning, of which
no true theory was known before his time.

For a more minute inveftigation of the properties of
tannin, we are indebted to Prouft. He obtained his tannin
by adding an acid to a concentrated infufion of nutgalls.
A preeipitate is obtained of the confiftency of pitcli. This
precipitate is tobewafhedwitha littlccoldwater, withtlic fame
caution obferved in the lail procefs. The precipitate is now
to be diffolved in boiling water, and carbonate of potafh
added, which takes up the acid and precipitates the tannin.

Prouil recommends the following procefs for procuring
pure tannin. Drop into an infufion of nutgalls, a folution of
muriate of tin. This gives a yellow precipitate, which being
fepai-ated, wafhed, and dried, is of a buff-colour. This is a
compound of oxyd of tin and tannin. He then mixes this
powder vi-ith water, and palVes through it fulphuretted hy-
drogen gas. The fulphur combines with the tin, and
becomes infoluble, while the tannin diffolves in the water.
When the fulphuret is feparated, and the folution of tannin
evaporated with a gentle lieat, a brown fubftance is left be-
hind, v/hich he contidercd as pure tannin.

Another procefs for obtaining tannin from infufion of
nutgalls, has been given by Merat Guillot. This confills in
mixing pure water with an infufion of galls. If to this
mixture dilute nitric or muriatic acid be added, a deep
brown precipitate is formed, which, when dry, becomes black.
This he fuppofes to be pure tannin.

Trommfdorff has fhewn that all thefe proceffes are infuf-
ficient to produce pure tannin. As the fubftance called
extraft was contained in all the above precipitates, and more
or lefs gallic acid, he made a great number of experi-
ments to obtain pure tannin ; and although he obtained it
nearer to a Hate of purity than any of his predeceffors, his
labours were not completely fuccefsful. He evaporated the
infufion of galls with a gentle heat to one-fourth its bulk.
The liquid became muddy from the precipitation of ex-
traftive matter, and was feparated by ftraining. It was
now" further evaporated to the confiltence of jelly, and ulti-
mately dried by a gentle heat. He now digefted the mafs
with pure alcohol, till no more gallic acid could be taken up.
He then confidered the mafs left behind as pure tannin, or
nearly fo. In order to afcertain if it ftill contained extraft,
he re -diffolved it in pure water, and evaporated this and
future portions of water from it, judging that if any extraft
ftill remained it would become infoluble by oxygenation,
and thus be precipitated, but no depofition took phice. Suf-
pefting it might contain mucilage, he left the folution in a
warm place for fome time. It became covered with mould,
which he attributed to the prefence of mucilage. The
mould was feparated by filtration, and the folution cvapo-
L 2 rated

TANNIN.

rated to dryiicfs, which left the tannin in "a (tatc of eon-
fidcrablc purity.

He ftill, however, found that it contained a portion of
fulphate of lime. In order to feparate this fait, he diflblved
ihe tannin in water, to which he added carbonate of potafs :
this caufed a precipitation, which has been already noticed.
The dear liquor being feparatcd, a foiution of acctite of lead
was added to it. A precipitate fell down, which confifted
of tannin, combined with ox yd of lead, and probably ful-
phate of lead. The hmc alfo combined with the tannm,
forming an infoluble compound. He then fcparated this
precipitate, mixed it with water, and pafTcd a ftrcam
of fulphurctted hydrogen gas through it. The lead and
falphur became feparatcd, and the combination of lime
and tannin unchanged, while the pure tannin remained in
foiution, which was obtained by evaporating the feparatcd
liquid to drynefs. The tannin thus obtained, approaches
much nearer to purity than that obtained by any of the
former proceffes. But we (hall (hew further on, that, even
in this (late, its purity is doubtful.

Tannin obtained by the above procefs does not differ
much from that formed by the other proceffes. We' have
already ilated it to be foluble in alcohol : when, however,
bioth the tannin and alcohol are pure, the tannin does not
diffolve.

Moll of the metallic oxyds form infoluble compounds
with tannin. There is, however, great reafon to believe
that the gallic acid, which is difficult to feparate from it,
has a much greater " effect upon thefe bodies. It is fup-
pofed that when the metallic oxyds are precipitated by tan-
nin, the latter combines with the oxygen, and, in feme
inftances, converts the tannin into extraft.

The common method of detaching the prefence of tannin
is by a foiution of gelatine in water. Ifinglafs is moftly
ufcd for this purpofe. The folutions both of the tannin and
the gelatine (hould be in a coniiderably concentrated ilate ;
as weak folutions of either rediffolve, to a certain extent,
the precipitate which the tannin forms with the gelatine.

The gelatine fhould be quite frefh, as the precipitate is
imperfecl when it has the lead figns of putridity.

Sir Humphrey Davy ftates that the proportion of the
gelalme to the water (hould be 1 20 grains of the former to
20 ounces of the latter.

According to the authority of the fame chemift, the com-
pound formed by the tannin and gelatine dried at 1 50°, is
compofed of

Gelatine . . . . ^^

Tannin - - - - 46

100

Potafh, foda, and ammonia, combine with tannin, forming
compounds which are lefs foluble in water than pure tannin.
Thefe idkalies have a ftronger attraftion than gelatine for
tannin; as the alkaline folutions do not precipitate gelatine
till the alkali is faturated by an acid.

The combinations of the earths vpith tannin are moftly
infoluble. Thofe with barytes and lime are (lightly fo, and
do not precipitate gelatine till an acid is added.

Moft of the acids form infoluble compounds with tannin ;
but v.hen extraft is prefent, it is alfo precipitated : hence
the imperfetlion of the procefs for feparating tannin by
acids.

When perfectly free from gallic acid it has no aftion
upon fulphate of iron ; but it produces a deep bhie pre-
cipitate from the oxyfnlphate : hence its efieft in commoD

5

writing-ink and black dye. The black is not complete
without expofure to the air. The precipitate which the
tannm forms is very heavy, and alniolt immediately feparates
from the water ; while that formed by the gallic acid re-
mains longer fufpendcd, ajid certainly, on that account
alone, is an cflTential ingredient in writing-ink.

Taimin exifts in a great number of vegetables in fome
proportion, but is the moft abundant in nutgalls ; and of
them, the Aleppo galls afford the moft. Sir Humphrey
Davy has given the following analyiis of the Aleppo galls.
He extrafted, by infufion with water, all the foluble part
from 500 grains of powdered galls. .This foiution he fub-
mitted to (low evaporation, from which he obtained, in folid
matter, 1 85 grains. Thefe he found to confift of

Tannin ......

GaUic acid, with extractive matter
Mucilage and matter rendered infoluble"}
by evaporation . - . .j

Calcareous earth and (aline matter

130
3'
12

12

185

We are indebted to the fame diftlngui(hed chefijift for
bringing into notice a new fubftance, which contains a large
proportion of tannin. This fubftance is brought from the
Eail Indies, and is known by the names of catechu, or terra
Japonica. It is produced by the evaporation of a vegetable
fufion from the wood of a fpecies of mimofa, which grows
in India.

There are two varieties of this fubftance, one brought:
from Bengal, and the other from Bombay. The former is
of a chocolate colour, of the fpecific gravity I-.28 ; the
latter of a lighter colour, of the fpecific gravity 1.39-
Both have an aftringent tafte, leaving an impreffion of fweet-
nefs. They are not changed by expofure to the air.

Sir Hiimphrey procured an infufion from this fubftance
by long decoftion, the fpecific gravity of which was 1.102 :
500 grains of this infufion yielded, by evaporation, 41 grains
of folid matter ; 34 of which were tannin, and 7 of a pe-
culiar extraftive matter.

This fubftance, in its original ftate, feems to contain a
very large proportion of tannin. The above chemift found
that 100 grains of the powdered catechu required 18 ounces
of water for its infufion. The refiduum, or undiffclvcd
part, is feldom more than -rT-th of the original weight, and
condfts of calcareous and aluminous earth, with a little fine
fand : 200 grains of the Bombay catechu gave

Tannin -.-... jop

Peculiar extraft . - . . . gg

Mucilage - - - - - - 13

Of the refiduum above-mentioned - lo

. 200

The catechu from Bengal gave, in 200 grains,

Tannin - - . - - . py

Peculiar extraftive matter ... yj

Mucilage -..-.. i5

Refidual matter, confifting of hme, :du-7
mine, and fand - - ■ "i

»4

The

TANNIN.

Die great iincertjiinty which has prevailed refpefting the
definite nature of tannin, feems to have been completely
removed by the very important difcovery made by Mr.
Hatchett, who has fucceeded in forming artificial tan-
nin. An account of his experiments may be found in
three papers in the Philofophical Tranfaftions for 1805
;uid 1806.

The moft direfl procefs which is given for obtaining it,
is by pouring an ounce of nitric acid, diluted with two
parts of water, upon 100 grains of charcoal, in a matrafs.
This is to be placed in a fand-heat. Great effervefccnce
takes place, and much nitrous gas is difcngaged. At the
end of two days he added a fecond ounce of acid, and
fometimes even a third. The digelUon is continued till
the whole is difTolved. This folution is of a reddifli-brown
colour. It is then to be (lowly evaporated to drynefs,
which produces a brown glolTy fubftance, exhibiting a refi-
no js frafture.

This fubftance has the following properties :

1. It diflTolves in cold water and alcohol.

2. The flavour is highly allringent.

3. Expofed to heat, it fmokes a little, fwells up, and af-
fords a bulky coal.

4. The folution in water reddens litmus paper.

5. It copioudy precipitates the metallic falts, efpecially
the muriate of tin, acetite of lead, and oxyfulphate of iron.
The precipitates are commonly of a brown colour.

6. It precipitates gold in the metallic flate.

7. It precipitates the earthy falts ; fuch as the nitrates of
lime, barytes, &c.

8. When the ahkalies are added to this folution, the
colour becomes deeper, and ultimately turbid.

9. A folution of ifinglafs added to the fame folution jjro-
duces a precipitate, which is infoluble in boiling water, re-
lembling in its cffential properties the precipitate formed by
the natural tannin. .

Mr. Hatchett produced the fame fubftance by treating
various kinds of coal in the fame way, fuch as pit-coal, coke,
and animal charcoal. What may feem very curious, he
formed it from the coal ot one portion of ifinglafs to pre-
cipitate another portion difTolved in water ; and hence aflferts
that one portion of the Ikin of an animal may be employed
to convert the other into leather.

Of the different fubftances employed, he found thofe the
beft which confifted of carbon unmixed with other vege-
table matter, which always reduced the quantity ; and
that thofe. vegetable fubftances which contained gum or
mucilage, produced the leaft tannin.

When he fucceeded in producing tannin from other vege-
table fubftances, fuch as indigo, refin, lac, and many
other bodies, it was by repeatedly adding frefh nitric acid ;
by which he \erf properly fuppofes that the carbon be-
comes feparated, fo as to put it under fimilar circumftances
to the charcoal itfelf. Indigo produced the moft in this
way. At the commencement of his paper he mentions the
faft of Mr. Chenevix having found that coffee-berries ac-
quired, by roafting, a portion of tannin. He made fome .
experiments which, although not very fuccefsful, convinced
him that the chief charafteriftic properties of tannin may be
formed or developed at fome particular temperature and
under favourable circumftances, by very fimple means.

He ingenioufly conjeftures, that the tannin found in fome
varieties of peat has been produced in this way.

In making ufe of fulphuric acid to char various fubftances,
he found that, in ^me inftances, the artificial tannin, or a
fubftance nearly rcfembhng it, was formed. He firll difTolved

too grains of camphor in an ounce of concentrated fulphuric
acid. The camphor firft difTolved, without producing mucli
change of colour. In a little time it became brown, and
ultimately black. During this cliange, fulphurous acid gas
was dilengaged. After two days, during which time the
alembic had not been heated, the difengagement of gas dimi-
nifhed, and the veflel was placed in a moderately liealed fand-
bath. This increafed the aftion. At the end of two days,
fix ounces of cold water were added ; the liquid ciianged to
a reddifli-brown colour ; the difengagement of gas ceal'ed, and
was fucceeded by a fmell refembling a mixture of tlie oils
of lavender and peppermint. By gradual diftillation, the
water came over impregnated ftrongly with the above
odour, and accompanied by an cffential oil, which weighed
tlnee grains.

When the whole water had come over, two ounces more
were added. The fmell before mentioned did not return, and
the evaporation was continued to drynefs. The blackifli-
brown refiduum was not afted upon by water, but by feveral
digeftions with alcohol, leaving behind a compaft coaly re-
fiduum, which, when dried and heated to a red heat in a
clofe vefTel, weighed 53 grains. The alcohol was then drawn
ofT from tlie folution by diftillation in a water-bath, leaving
a blackifli-brown mat's, of the appearance of a gum refin,
and the fmell of calomel. Its weight was 49 grains. The
whole of this therefore confifted of

The effential oil above-mentioned - - - . - 3

A compaft hard coal in fmall fragments - - J3

And the b lac kifti -brown mafs above-mentioned - 49

105

•This increafe 'of five grains Mr. Hatchett attributes lo
the oxygen united to the carbon by the acid, or the water
combined with the blackifh -brown fubftance.

This latter fubftance had the following properties :

1. It had an aftringent tafte, and when difTolved in cold
water, formed a d;u-k-brown folution.

2. It yielded a dark-brown precipitate with fulphate of
iron, acetite of lead, muriate of tin, and nitrate of lime.

3. It precipated gold in its metallic ftate.

4. It formed fo complete a precipitate with a folution
of ifinglafs, thatthe liquid became colourlcfs as water.

The precipitate was nearly black, and was, hke the
other compounds of tannin and gelatine, infoluble in hot
water.

Mr. Hatchett obferves that although this fubftance pof-
feffcs the general charafter of that obtained by the nitric acid
with charcoal, yet it feems to aft lefs powerfully upon Ikin.
The precipitate, at the time of its formation, is more floc-
culent and lefs tenacious than that produced by the other
procefs.

Mr. Hatchett fuppofes this difference may arife from the
want of azote, which feems to exift in that produced by
nitric acid and charcoal.

He afcertained this by fubjefting to analyfis a portion
which had been prepared from vegetable charcoal. He ex-
pofed in a retort fome of this tannin in the dry ftate, to the
heat of a lamp connefted with a jar, to obtain the gafeouB
produft.

Firft a fmall quantity of water rofe ; thin a little niuic
acid, which had not been expelled in th-- evaporation. Next
a fmall quantity of yellowilh liquor, whicli fta.:.ed the neck
of the retort. Tlie fire was liien raifed, when a quantity
of gas was explofively d^fengaged, and upfet the jar.
This gas he judged from the fmcllto be ammonia. He .illo

obfcrved

TANNIN.

obffrvcd fome wliitc fumes, which ri'fuhed from the nitric
acid uniting with the ammonia.

On replacing the jar, he continued the procefs. The
future gas which came over was carbonic acid, and a little
of another, which he fuppofed to be nitrogen.

Although the artificial tannin appears in almoft every re-
fpeft fimilar to the natural tannin, it might be expefted that
eacli would have been fimilarly affected by nitric acid, yet
Mr. Hatchctt found that the one was dellruftible by that
acid, while the other was not in the lead affected by it/ He
frequently diftillcd nitric acid from the artificial tannin,
without producing any change upon it.

The fame acid being added to infufion of galls, fumach,
Pegu cutch, and kafcutti, completely deftroyed the tannin.
The common catechu and oak bark treated in the fame way,
had not the whole of their tannin deftroyed. He then made
infufions of equal ftrength of nutgalls, ■ fumach, fhavings of
oak wood, oak bark, and the artificial tainiitig fubftances.
To half an ounce of each of thcfe, one drachm in meafure
of ftrong nitric acid was added. The tannin of all were
deftroyed, with the exception of the oak bark and the ar-
tificial tannin. Mr. Hatchett obferves that the tannin of
thofe bodies containing much mucilage is the moft hable to
dcftruftion by the nitric acid ; and that in the cafes where
the tannin is deftroyed, the oxalic acid is moftly formed.
The oak bark and the common catechu contain little or no
mucilage, and hence have lefs of their tannin deftroyed.

Thefe fafts feem to prove that pure tannin, unmixed with
otlier matter, is not affefted by nitric acid, and that in thofe
inftances in which it is deftroyed, the effeft muft arife from
fome new fubftance being formed by the aftion of the acid
upon the extraneous matter, and alfo that mucilage contri-
butes the moft to this change.

Mr. Hatchett has not given us any precife analyfis of this
fubftance, but concludes, from its formation, that it has car-
bon for its bafe'. From the circumftance of its being formed
with greater facility when the nitric acid is diluted, he thinks
that the water is decompofed, and that the hydrogen enters
into its conipofition.

In the cafe of its decompofition by heat, the formation
»>f ammonia led him to believe that azote was alfo one of its
elements.

This, however, does not agree with the faft of its being
formed with fulphuric acid and vegetable matter only. Al-
though this objeftion feems partly to be removed by the cir-
cumilance of the tannin from fulphuric acidteing different in
fome of its properties from that produced from the nitric
acid and charcoal, it may, however, be here obferved that
the natural tannin, which is not known to contain azote,
more nearly refemblcs that formed with nitric acid, than that
from the fulphuric acid.

It does not appear probable that azote is a component
part, even of the natural tannin. The ammonia which Mr.
Hatcliett obtained might be in combination with the tannin,
and may perhaps always be formed when the tannin is formed.
Tile circumftance of the tannin not being changed by re-
peatedly digefting it with nitric acid, would feem to favour
the idea of its confifting of carbon and oxygen only. The
importance of this fubftance in the art of tanning, ought to
be a fufficient ftimulus to future experiments.

If in the procefs of forming artificial tannin, the nitric
acid is decompofed merely into nitrous gas, it might be
pratticable to bring it back to its original ftate by the oxy-
gen of the atmofphere only, and thus produce a valuable
produft, which is now obtained at confiderable expence from
certain vegetables.

. The following table flievvs the proportions prcfent of na-
tural tannin in a variety of fubftances.

Catechu from Bombay

Bengal

Aleppo nutgalh

Sumach - - -

Souchong ti.a

Green tea

Leiccfterfhire willow baik

Oak bark

Spaiiifti chefnut bark

Elm bark

Common willow bark

54-5
48.5

26

18

1 1
9.2
7.5
6.6
5 ■
3
2.5

in the Philofophical

Mr. Biggin alfo has publifticd
Tranfaftions for 1799, the rcfult of fome experiments on
the proportions of tannin in various kinds of bark, which
nearly correfponds with the preceding flatement, as will be
feen by the following table, in which the maximum of the
tanning principle is luppofed to be 20.

Tanning Principle.

By lilt

Weight

Hyilroineter.

ill Grains.

Elm - - - -

2.1

28

Oak (cut in winter)

2.1

30

Horfe chefnut

2.2

30

Beech

2.4

31

Willow (boughs)

2.4

31

Elder

3-0

41

Plum-tree - . -

4.0

58

Willow (trunk)

4.0

52

Sycamore . . -

4.1

53

Birch

4.1

54

Cherry-tree

4.2

59

Sallow ...

4.6

59

Mountain afti - -

4.7

60

Poplar

- 6.0

76

Hazel - ■-

- 6.3

!•}

Afh -

6.6

82

Spanifli chefnut

9.0

98

Smooth oak

9.2

104

Oak (cut in fpring)

- 9.6

108

Huntingdon or Leieefter willow lo.i 109

. Sumach .... 16.2 158

It appears from this table that fimilar barks, when taken
from trees at different feafons of the year, differ as to the
quantities of tannin contained in them. In the winter they
contain the leaft, and in the fpring (which is the ufual time
of felling oak -timber), if the feafon is very cold and un-
genial, the quantity is diminifhed. This is well known to
praftical men, as likewife that all barks contain the greatefl
proportion of tannin ; at the time when the buds of the trees
begin to germinate. It is found by experience that, on an
average, four or five pounds of good oak bark are required
to form one pound of leather.

Sir Humphrey Davy obferves that the aftringent princi-
ples in barks vary cbnfiderably, according as their age and
fize are different. That in every aftringent bark, the in-
terior white bark (which is the part next to the alburnum)
contains the largefl quantity of tannin. The proportion of
extraftive matter is generally greateft in the middle ; but
the epidermis feldom furnifties either^ tannin or extraftive
matter. The white cortical layers are, comparatively, moll
abundant in young trees ; and hence their barks contain, in
the fame weight, a larger proportion of tannin than the
7 ' barks

TAiNNING.

barks of okl trees. (Pliil. Traiif. 1803, p. 264.) From
thefe obfervatioiis, founded 011 cxpcrimeiils, Mr. Hatchctt
infers that, there is an intimate coinieftion between the form-
ation of new wood and the formation of tannin in fuch ve-
getables as afford the latter ; and this idea is corroborated
by the chemical nature of thofe fubitances.

It has been fuggcfted that the extraftive matter found
in barks, or in lubRances ufed in tanning, affetts t<ic
colour, if not the qtiahty of leather. Thus, (kin tanned
with gall-nuts is much paler than (kin tanned with oak bark,
which contains a brown extraftive matter. Leather made
from catechu is of a reddidi tint.

It is found that the precipitates obtained from infu-
fions containing this principle or tannin by ilinglafs, when
dried, contain at a medium rate about ^o per cent, of vegetable
matter ; and that it is eafy to obtain the comparative value
of different fubftances for the ufe of the tanner, by com-
paring the quantities of precipitate afforded by infufions of
given weights mixed with folutions of glue or ilinglafs.
In order to make experiments of this kind, an ounce
or 480 grains of the vegetable fubftance in coarfe powder,
fhould be a<il:ed upon by half a pint of boiling water : the
mixture (liould be frequently ftirred, and fuffered to ftand
twenty-four hours ; the fluid fhould then be paffed through
a fine linen cloth, and mixed with an equal quantity of folu-
tion of gelatine, made by diffolving glue, jelly, or ifmglafs
in hot water, in the proportion of a drachm of glue or ifm-
glafs, or fix table fpoons full of jelly, to a pint of water. The
precipitate is to be collected by pafTmg the mixture of the
folution and infufion through folds of blotting paper, and
the paper expofed to the air until its contents are quite dry.
If pieces of paper of equal weights are ufed, in cafes in
which different vegetable fubilances are employed, the dif-
ference of the weights of the papers when dried, will indi-
cate, with tolerable accuracy, the quantities of tliis principle
or tannin contained in the fubftances, and their relative value
for the purpofes of manufaflure.

TANNING, the art of converting the gelatinous part of
the (kins of animals into the fubftance c.illed leather, by im-
pregnating it with tannin or the tanning principle, in fuch a
manner as to render it tenacious, durable, and impermeable
to water.

It is difficult to fay at what period the art of tanning was
difcovered. It was doubtlefs known to the ancients in fome
degree of perfeftion ; and it is highly probable that the (l<ins
of animals were employed by man as a covering long before the
art of tanning was known : but they would require in this
ftate to be conftantly kept dry, as moilfure would foon
bring them into a ftate of putrefaftion.

The aftringent matter, which converts the fkin into leather,
abounds in io many vegetables in every country, that ac-
cident w^ould foon lead to fome method of producing the
change. Independent, however, of vegetables, many earthy
and metallic fubftances have the property of rendering fl<ins
incorruptible to a certain extent ; and fome mineral waters
containing copper or iron will occafion this change.
Hence we may conclude that fome means of giving prefer-
vation to the fldns of animals muft have been known at a
very early period.

Though there has been no radical alteration or any great
praftical improvements in the art of tanning, yet /or the
laft twenty or thirty years it has attrafted the attention of
many celebrated chemifts and philofophers in all countries,
who have inveftigated the fubjed with great accuracy and
precifion. Previous to this period we occafionally find fome
experiments and obfervations by men of fcicncc on the ma-

terials of tanning, as by the Hon. Charles Howard in 1 674,
(Phil. Tranf. vol. ix.) by the abbi- Nollct, Gefncr, Glc-
ditfch, Buffon, dc la Lande, and others, in Mem. Acad.
Sc. Paris and Berlin.

In the year 1765, the Society of Arts and Sciences in
Loudon granted a premium of loc/. for the difcovery of
a method of tanning with oak faw-dull ; and in i 795 the
Rev. G. Sw.iyne fuggeilcd the ufe of oak leaves. It in
unqueftionably true that all thofe fubftances, and indeed
every part of almoft every vegetable in nature, poffeffes a
certain portion of the tanning principle ; Jjut, exciufive of
oak b;u-k and two or three other well-known articles, the
quantities of all tlic reft added together would be fo incon-
fiderable, and the proportion of tannin contained in them
fo inadequate to the purpofes of manufacture, that, except
for philofophical curiofity and chemical experiment, tiicy
are unworthy of notice. As the theories of fpeculative
minds lliey are ingenious and amufing, but they afford very
little uieful information on the nature and properties of
tannin, and have produced no beneficial refults in practice. '
■ Deyeux, about 1793, (Annales de Cliimie, vol. xvii. )
appears to be the firfl chemift who fucccfsfully explained
the true principles of tanning ; which afterwards, witli more
praftical application, were ftill further developed by the
labours of M. Seguin in 1795. Before his invelligation of
thib fubjeft, the theory of tanning was ftriftly mechanical.
The aftringency of vegetables, which produced tlie change
in the flcin, was confidered as a refinous body, which had the
efteft of giving firmnefs to the fibres of the (kift, and render-
ing it infoluble.

Seguin faw the operation in a chemical point of view :
he examined the nature of the procefs fcicntifically, and
difcovered that the cliange which the fl<in underwent in
the operation of tanning, was the refult of a chemical union
between a fubftance funiiihed by the vegetable employed,
and the gelatinous part of the ilvin. Thefe principles be
confirmed, by combining the vegetable fubftance in queftion
with the gelatine of a folution of ifinglafs.

It will be feen, from our article Tannin, that the com-
pound difcovered by Seguin, and which is precipitated when
an infufion of nutgalls is added to a folution of ifinglafs, is
an infoluble fubftance, having many properties common to
leather. See Nicholfon's Journal, vol. i. p. 271. 410.

The praftice which M. Seguin founded upon his theory
was generally admired. He firft extrafted the tannin from
the vegetable, which was oak bark, and applied it to the pre-
pared ft<in in a more concentrated form, with a view to im-
pregnate it as fpeedily as polfible with the tannin. This was
laid to be done with great fuccefs in one-third of the ufual
time, and to have produced fuperior leather. The lame of
this difcovery foon fpread throughout Europe, and Mr.
Dcfmond, a man of education and intelligence in this fountry,
took out a patent for the exciufive right of ufing M.
Seguin's method of tanning.

Although this procefs of fufpending the hides vertically
in a very ftrong folution of bark f'aved much time, yet it
was foon found to be adapted only to the thickeft hides
ufed for fole leather, and quite unfit for the lighter kind of
fl<ins which required flexibility and tenacity. This method,
therefore, of Seguin's, however chemical ajid philofophical
it might appear, did not anfwer in the refult ; and as it
was attended with mucli additional expencc, has never been
generally praftifed in England.

It was not, however, till 1803, when fir Humplirey
Davy (a name ever to be recorded in the annals of fcicnce
with gratitude and admiration) began to invcftigalc the fub-

jcdl,

TANNING.

jcd, tliat the art of tanning was thoroughly underAood, and
reduced to fcieiitific principles. Ho inllitutcd a fcrics of
experiments on the various fubftances employed — exjmined
their chemical affinities and agencies — their aftion upon
animal matter, and combination with other bodies — and
developed and explained the whole with a firaplicity and
perfpicuity which forcibly elucidated the effential principles
on which the art depends. If this elucidation has not been
produftive of any materia! improvements in the mode of ma-
luifafturing leather, it may perhaps be attributed more to
the prejudices ariflng from long habit, than to any defett
in the tlieory and demonilrations of that enlightened philo-
fopher. And here it may be remarked, tliat thefc demon-
ftrations and that theory derive additional importance, and
are entitled to peculiar attention, from having been ftrongly
confirmed and fuccefsfuUy praclifed by an intelligent and
refpcftable manufadlurcr (now retired from buiinefs), to
whom we are chiefly indebted for this' article.

From thefe and other fources of information now open
to the public, and from the general diffufion of knowledge •
among all clalTes, the man of fcience and the mannfa6lurer
are daily becoming more affimilated to each other ; and if
the latter Ihould be taught to difcard all unfounded preju-
dices, and to adopt more fcientific principles, there is reafon
to believe that the various procefTes of the art of tanning
may yet be capable of great praftical improvement.

In the two valuable papers which fir Humphrey^ Davy has
given in the Philofopliical Tranfaftions for 1 803, he confiders
the procefs of tanning as depending fimply on the chemical
■ imion of the tanning principle with the matter of ikin, fo
as to form an infoluble compound. He lias fhcwn that
Seguin's quick method of tanning is not the befl ; becaufe
the exterior ftrata of il<iu being perfeftly combined with
tannin, before the interior ftrata are materially a6ted upon,
thereby prevent the latter in fome degree from imbibing
the full aftion of the folution. This renders the texture of
the leather lefs equable, makes it harlh and brittle, liable to
crack, and of courfe lefs durable.

Sir Humphrey thinks it probable that another fubftance,
befides tannin, combines with the Ikin, namely, tlie cxtratl,
to which it owes much of its fupplenefs and tenacity — that
the leather gets more of this fubftance from weak infufions
of bark, than from the ftrong ones recommended by Seguin
— that it is equally infoluble in water — and that, upon the
whole, the methods now generally in ufe, may, with a few
alterations, be confidered the beft.

The various difcoveries pretended to have been made, and
the numerous patents obtained for their ufe and application,
have hitherto tended very little to the advancement of fcience
or the progrefs of the art. This may fairly be infen-ed from
the conclufion of the celebrated chemiil above-mentioned.
Indeed it appears by the fpecifications annexed to the pa-
tents, that moft of thefe projefted improvements purport
to be either for the different conftrudlion and arrangement
of the various pits — for the application of mechanical appa-
ratus to dimini(h labour — or for extrafting the tannin and
warming t!ie infufion by artificial heat, with a view to acce-
lerate the procefs. Thefe fancied improvements are only
the idle theories and vifionary projefts of fpeculative minds :
but as it may afford information to the curious, and furnilh
hints for future difcovery, we fubjoin

■^ ^jft °J Patents for Tanning.

'1790, Anthony Fay, efq. of London, for a mechanical
apparatus to dimmifti the labour of handling, to grind the

bark veiy fmall, and to concentrate it, by boiling, into a
ftrong extraft.

1794. Samuel Afliton of Sheffield, for tanning ludes
and (kins with certain mineral produftions. As fuch mate-
rials were prohibited by the ftatute of James I. an aft of
parliament was paifcd to legalize the ufe of them.

1795. Mr. Tucker of Wickham, Hants, for triple pits
compofed of wood, metal, and bricks, to keep up a con-
ftant fire at the bottom, to warm the infufion and expedite
the procefs.

1796. William Defmond, efq. of London, for a new
mode of tanning, according to M. Seguin's metliod, as be-
fore ftated.

1797. Robert Crofs of Lancafter, for pits on a new
conftruftion, to enable him to apply artificial heat and to
tan quickly.

1799. Francis Brewin, efq. of London, for a peculiar
conftruftion and arrangement of pits, and for the ufe of
machinery, &c.

1802. John Lawrence, for the ufe of oak faw-duft in
tanning.

1802. Thomas Martin of London, for conftrufting pits
on a nev.' plan, &c.

1 802. John Cant and John Miller of Montrofe, for boil-
trig the bark, &c. fo as to extraft the tanning principle more
effedlually.

1807. Robert John Stanley of Lincoln/hire, for tanning
light leather without bark, for a peculiar preparation pre-
vious to the application of ooze, and for boiling the mate-
rials of tanning.

18 1 3. Sparks Moline, for the ufe of the folid extratl
of bark.

18 15. Thomas Afhmore, efq. for the ufe of all kinds
of loot, whether from coal, wood, peat, or bones, and the
oils and erapyreumatic liquors arifing from them by diftilla-
tion or combuftion, to be applied to the purpofes of tan-
ning. .

Of the utility of the laft-named patent, we fliall give no
opinion at prefent ; but of the remainder it may be affirmed
that none of the methods therein recommended iiave ever
been much praftifed : fome of them which were adopted by
a few individuals, were attended with confiderable lofs ; and
as moft of them are now laid afide, we may reafonably con-
clude that they have not proved beneficial to the projeftors
or to the public.

Before we defcribe the prefent method, it may be ne-
ceffary to premife, that in different parts of the kingdom,
the faine terms and denominations are fometimes employed
to defignate diftinft kinds of leather : but all tanned leather
is technically claffed and univerfally known under two gene-
ral denominations ; namely, /jid^-s and jhns. The former
term being commonly applied to the larger animals, as bulls,
oxen, cows. Sic. which are chiefly intended for the foles of
itout ftioes, and other purpofes requiring very thick and
folid leather ; while tlie latter term is ufed for calves,
feals, &c. which, being thinner and more flexible, are in-
tended for the upper leathers of flioes and boots, for faddles,
harnefs, &c.

The heavieft and ftouteft of the bull and ox hides are
generally feleAed to make what are technically called iiitts
or l/rtcis, and are manufa£tured in the following manner.

When the horns, &c. have been removed, the raw hides
are laid on a heap for two or tliree days, and are then fuf-
pended^ on poles in a clofe room, called a fmoke-houfe,
which is heated fomewhat above the common temperature
by a fmouldering fire : this occafions incipient putrefadlion,

which

TANNING.

which loofeiis the epidermis, and renders the hair and other
extraneous matter eafy of feparation from the true (kin.
Tiiis is efFefted by extending the hide on a wooden horfe or
beam of a convex form, and fcraping it witli a large two-
handldd knife, called ■i.fejhing-kr.^fi:, which is bent, to fuit
tlie convexity of the beam.

The hides are then immerfcd in a pit containing water
flightlv impregnated with fulphuric acid. This operation,
which is called raijing, by diftcnding the pores and fwelling
the fibres, prepares the liide for the reception of the tannin,
and renders it more fufceptible of its aftion.

X^Tien the hides are fufficiently raifed, they are removed
into a pit, in which they are lain fmooth with a ilratum of
oak bark ground to a coarfe powder between each.

The pit is then filled with the tanning lixivium or ooze,
prepared from oak bark and water, and the hides remain
a month or fix weeks without being moved. At the end of
this time, the tajining prmciple being exhaufted, the ooze
and fpent bark are taken out of the pit, and tiie hides put
in again, ftratified with frefh bark, and covered with frefli
ooze as before. Here they remain about three months,
■when the fame procefs is repeated, at about the fame inter-
vals, three feveral times or mor.e, according to the ftrength
of the lixivium and the fubftance of the hides. When
fuf&ciently tanned, they are taken out of the pit, hung up
in a flied to dry gradually, and being comprefied with a
fteel inftrument, and beaten fmooth to render them firm and
denfe, the operation is complete ; and having been numbered,
weighed, and ftamped by the excife officer, to afcertain the
amount, and denote the payment of the duty (which will be
noticed at the end of this article), they are ready for fale, and
are termed butts or backs. Thefe form the thickeft and mofl
fubftantial fole leather for very llrong (hoes, and are chiefly
intended for exportation.

Crop hides are thus manufaftured. The horns having
been removed, the hides are immerfed in pits containing a
mixture of lime and water, where they remain three or four
days, being occafionally moved up and down, that each
part may be uniformly expofed to the aflion of the lime-
water. They are then taken out of the lime-pits, and the
hair and other extraneous matter being fcraped off on a
wooden beam, as before defcribed, are wafhed in water, to
free them from the lime and filth adhering. They are now
immerfed in a weak ooze, and by degrees are removed into
other pits, containing folutions gradually increafing in ftrength,
during which time they are taken up and put down (techni-
cally termed handling) at leaft once in every day, that all
parts of the hide may be afted upon by the tanning principle
equally and uniformly. This is continued for about a month
or fix weeks, when they are put into other pits with ftronger
ooze and a fmall portion of ground bark ; from whence, as
tlie tannin becomes exhaufted, they are removed to other
pits in regular fuccelTion, with frefh ooze and frefh bark, for
two or three months.

At the end of this period, the hides are put into larger
vats, called layers, in which they are ftratified, or lain fmooth,
in a lixivium of greater ftrength, and with a larger quantity
of ground bark between each fold. Here they remain about
fix weeks, when they are taken up and relaid in the fame
manner, with frefli bark and ftrong ooze, for two months.
This procefs is repeated, with little variation, once, twice,
or thrice, at the difcretion of the manufafturer, till the
hides are thoroughly tanned ; when they are taken out of
the pits, fufpended on poles to dry, and being comprefied
and fmoothed, nearly in the manner before defcribed, arc
called crop hides, and form the principal part of the fole
leather which is ufed in England.

Vol. XXXV.

The procefs ot tanning_/f/«r (cilvcs, feals, &c.) is fomc-
what different from hides. They are continued in tlie lime-
pits for ten or fifteen days ; they arc then depilated and
wafhed in water, after which they arc immerfed in an in-
fufion of pigeon's dung, called a graiuer, having the pro-
perty of an alkali. Here they remain for a week or ten days,
according to the ftatc of the atmofphere and other circum-
ftances, during which time they are frequently handled, and
fcraped on both fides upon a convex wooden beam. This
fcraping, or ivorling, as it is termed, with the aftion of the
graincr, helps to difcharge all the lime, oil, and faponaceous
matter, and renders the dun foft and pliant, fitted to imbibe
the tanning principle. They are now removed into pits con-
taining a weak folution of bark, where they undergo nearly
the fame procefs of haHdling, &c. d.^ crop hides ; but they
are feldom ftratified in layers ; and the time occupied in tan-
ning them is ulually from two to four months, according to
their nature and fubftance. The (Itins are then dried, and
fold to the currier, who dreffes and blacks them for the
upper leathers of boots and ftioes, for harnefs, and various
other purpofes.

The light and thin fort of cow-hides and horfe-hides lui-
dergo nearly the fame procefs in tanning as calf-(kins, and
are applied to Cmilar ufes.

Thefe procelFes are fuch as are now commonly praAifed,
vaiying, however, with the nature and condition of the pe-
culiar kind of hides and (Icins — with local habits and cir-
cumftances — and with the (kill and experience of the manu-
fafturer. The greateft defeft in the common method* ap-
pears to exift in the means of extrafting the tannin from the
bark. Cold water is chiefly ufed for that purpofe ; but
fome perfons conceiving that this does not entirely cxhaull
the tanning principle, fubjcdl the bark, as before obferved,
to the aftion of boiling water, &c. If, however, as fir Hum-
phrey Davy has ftatcd, the extraft as well as the tannin
combines with the fkin, the cxtraftion of the tannin by lieat
would tend to oxygenate the former, and render it infoluble
in the liquid.

The late ingenious Dr. Macbride. of Dublin invented
and publifhedin 1778 a new method of tanning, the leading
feature of which was the ufe of lime-wafer, which he con-
ceived would extraft the virtues of oak bark more com-
pletely than plain water.

It has, however, been obferved, that both natural and artifi-
cial tannin form compounds with the alkalies and the alkaline
earths, and thefe compounds are not decompofable by flcin.
Lime forms with tannin a compound not foluble in water,
and therefore Dr. Macbride's fyftem is founded on erroneous
principles, as fo much of the tannin as combined with the
lime contained in the water was loft. It was alfo found, by
the praftical experience of tanners, that this method was in
all refpecls injurious rather than beneficial ; and as it has
long been univerfally rejefted, it is not necelTary to enter into
the detail. The reader who is defirous of further information
on this point, may refer to Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixviii. part i. art.8.

The application of fome new and cheap fubftitute for
oak bark has been long a defideratum in tanning. Cate-
chu, the fubftance we have fpokcn of under the article
Tannin, has been recommended, and its powerful tanning
properties have been fully afcertained by experiment and
aftual praftice : but it is not likely that tlie article can be
procured in fufficient quantity, or at an adequate price,
for the purpofes of manufafture. The bark of elm, wil-
low, larch, and other trees, together with vallonia (the
acorn of a peculiar fpecies of oak in Turkey), have all been
employed in tanning with confiderablc effedl.

The greateft hope which chemical fcience prcfents, is the
M pf^*

T A N

probability that tlic tanning principle will, at I'oine future
period, be formed artifici;Jly in fuch quantities and at fuch
expenfe as will admit of its general application to praftical
purpofes. The important difcovcry of Mr. Hatchett al-
ready goes far towards the accomplKhment of this objcft.
He has diftinaiy afccrtained tliat a fubftance very analogous
to tannin may be produced by expofing carbonaceous mat-
ter, whether vegetable, animal, or mineral, to the aftion of
nitric acid ; and has atlually converted fldn into leather by
deal faw-du(l, afphaltum, pit-coal, wax-candle, and even by
a part of the fame fort of (Icin itfelf. The changes pro-
duced in thefe bodies, by difuniting and rccombining tlieir
elementary principles, may by further developement lead to
a more economical procefs of tanning, and thus render ef-
fential fervice to the arts and manufafturcs.

Tanned leather is fubjcft to a very heavy excife duty. In
the ninth year of queen Anne, a duty of ii!. pfr]h. was laid
on all hides and fkins tanned in Great Britain. In the fol-
lowing year an additional ^d. per lb. was impofed. Thus it
remained, amidll all the financial difficulties of fucceffive
chancellors of the exchequer, till 1812, when, by the aft
52 Geo. III. c. 94. a further duty of l{d. per lb. was added,
making the whole duty on tanned hides and flcins 31^. per lb.
The annual revenue arifing therefrom now amounts to up-
wards of 500,000/.

It may not be improper here to remark, that the excife
duty on leather tanned in Ireland, is levied and collefted in a
different manner.

The aft 40 Geo. III. c. 9. pafled in Ireland in 1800, in-
ftead of impofing a certain duty per pound weight, as in
England, on all hides and (Itins tanned with oak bark, im-
pofes a duty of nine pence by the year, for every cubic foot
contained in all the pits in the yard of the tanner, allowing
a dedudion of two-nintli5 for certain pits called hitches, which
are ufed folely for the purpofe of preparing the hxivium or
ooze. By this aft the tanner was permitted, on giving cer-
tain notice, to difcontinue not lefs than one-fourth, and by
43 Geo. III. c. 97. not lefs than one-eighth for fix months,
receiving a proportionate deduftion from his monthly pay-
ments of the duty. By the 48 Geo. III. c. 62. thofe afts
were made perpetual.

Previous to the paffing the Irifh aft 40 Geo. III. the wri-
ter of this article was confulted by the then chancellor of the
exchequer in Ireland, on the relative amount of the intended
duty of nine pence per cubic foot ; and upon accurate cal-
culation It was found to bear a fair proportion to the duty
then exifting in England. If the prefent duty on leather
tanned in this part of the united kingdom were propor-
tionably commuted on a fimilar plan, it would materially
tend to the progrefs of the manufafture.

The chief obftacle to great praftical improvement is the
excife duty — not fo much from its amount (though that is
very confidcrable), as from tlie mode in which it is now
levied and afcertained, namely, by weight, when the leather
is dry and fit for fale. This mode neccffarily requires a
fyftem of rules and regulations, which, from their multi-
plicity and complicated nature, fubjeft the manufafturer to
daily inconvenience, and to occafional hardihips. For, not-
withftanding the repeal of the opprefGve aft i James I.
cap. 22, and other fubfequcnt ftatutes, the tanner is ftill
reftrifted, by various excife laws, from advantageoufly
{having and reducing his hides and fkins — from mixing and
removmg them at his difcretion — and alfo from exercifing
the trades of a currier, &c.

Thofe reitriftions, it muH be acknowledged, are in fome de-
cree ncceffary for the proteftion and fecurity of the revenue,
wliite the duties are impofed and collefted upon the prefent

T A N

fyflem. But if a different mode of taxation and colleftion (as
in Ireland, on the admcafurement of the pits ; or on the ra\^
material, or any other plan ) could be adopted, the benefits
which would refult, both to the manufafturer and to the
community, are incalculable. It would leave the tanner at
full liberty to conduft his bufinefs entirely according to his
flfill and judgment, and to unite with it the trades of currier
and leather-cutter, which are fo naturally connefted with his
own. It would enable him to facilitate the procefs ; to fave
muchfuperfluous labour; to economize the materials of tan-
ning, which are now unavoidably wafted on ufelefs or inferior
leather ; to Ihave, divide, feleft, and appropriate certain
hides and flvins, or parts of hides and flcins, at the proper time
for their peculiar purpofes ; to prevent the injury which lea-
ther often receives in dr^'ing at particular feafons ; and ulti-
mately to improve the quality and reduce the price of one ef
the moll aifcful articles of general confumption.

Thefe are matters well worthy the confideration of the
executive government and the legiflaturc. Some attention
has already been given to this fubjeft by the houfe of com-
mons in the fefTions of 18 15 and 1816, and we have no
doubt that by further inveftigation, intelhgent and unpre-
judiced perfons might eaiily arrange and complete a plan
which would afford pcrfeft fecurity to the revenue, would
iimplify the coUeftion, would prevent the poffibility of
fraud, and at the fame time prove extremely beneficial to the
manufafture and to the pubUc.

TANNRODA, in Geography, a town of the principa-
lity of Weimar ; 9 miles S.S.W. of Weimar.

TANORE, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of
Calicut ; 25 miles S.S.E. of Calicut. N. lat. 10^ 58'.
E. long. 75° 54'.

TANOS,in Ancient Geography, atown ofthe ifland of Crete-

TANOT, in Geography, a river of North Wales, which
rifes in the county of Montgomery, and runs into the Severn,
7 miles below Welfhpool.

TANOUMDAIN, a town o f the Birmln empire ; 30
miles N.E. of Pagahm.

TANREC, in Zoology, a name given by Buffon to the
Erinaceus Ecaudatus ; which fee.

TANS A, in Geography, a branch of the river Mobile.

TANSCHA. See Tangia.

TANSE, a town of Brafil,in the jurifdiftion of St. Paul.

TANSIET, or Texsift, vulgarly called Wed Mar.-ikofh,
or the river of Morocco, becaufe it paffes through the dif-
trift of that name, a river that rifes in mount Atlas, E. of
Morocco, and taking its courfe about five niiles N. of that
city, proceeds through the territory of Morocco, and Ra-
hamana, and nearly divides the two maritime provinces of
Shedma and Abda ; difcharging itfelf into the Atlantic
ocean, about 16 miles S. of the town of Saffy. In it?
courfe it receives fome tributary ftreams iffuing from the
Atlas, the principal of which is the Wed NifRs. In many
places it is very deep ; and about fix miles from Morocco
it is croffed by a bridge, erefted by Muley El Manfor,
which is very ftrong, but fiat, with many arches. At the
mouth of this river, on the N. fide, amid fome fands and'
marfhes, are the ruins of n fmall town, called by the Moors
Suera, from which the infalubrity of the air, or the inunda-
tions of the Tanfif, have driven the inhabitants. On the
other fide of the river, which is paffed by fording, or on
rafts made of reeds tied to leathern bags inflated with wind,
is a fquare caftle, built in the reign of Muley libmae], to
defend the paffage of the i-iver, during the time of the in-
teftine difturbances of the empire. This caftle at prefent
only contains a few families ; and the country round it is un-
cultivated.

TAN-

1

TAN

TANSILLO, LuiGi,in Biography, an Italian poet, was a
native of Nola, and born about the year 1510. The fiid ipcci-
men of his talents in Tufcan poetry, when he was twenty-four
years of age, was his " II Vandemmiatore," tirft printed in
1 734, and it afterwards pafTed through feveral editions, under
the title of " Stanze amorofe fopra gli orte della Doinie."
This poem was fucceeded by another of the fame licentious
charafter, entitled " Stanze in lode della Menta." His re-
putation was fo much funk by thefe publications, that all
his poems and other pieces were configned by pope Paul IV.
to the lift of prohibited books. The author, deeply morti-
fied by this circumftance, addreffed a penitential letter to the
pope, fupphcating forgivenefs, and informing him that he
had made reparation by compofing a devout poem, entitled
" L.e Lagrime di San Pietro," or, " The Tears of St.
Peter." The apology was admitted, and his name was
crafed from the lift. In 1569 he was judge-royal at Gsta,
and being then declining in health, he probably did not
long furvive. His " Tears of St. Peter" was publilhed,
after his death, in fifteen cantos, and much applauded. It
was trandated into French by Malherbe, and alfo into
Spanifti. His other poems have been often printed ; but
the moll complete edition is that of Venice in 1738. Two
other elegant poems, entitled " La Balia" and " II Podera,"
were publiftied in the year 1767 and 1769. Some perfons
have reprefented TanfiUo as equal to Petrarch ; but though
this degree of praife ftiould not be allowed, he is confidered
by the bell judges as one of the moft elegant and fpirited
poets of his age. Moreri. Gen. Biog.

TANSITARO,in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Mechoacan.

TANSOR, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Fez,
30 miles N. of Fez.

T ANSOU, a town on the E. coaft of Madagafcar. S.
lat. 15° 40'. E. long. 50° 8'.

TANSUCHE, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guafteca ; 83 miles N.W. of Panuco.

TANSY, or Tanzy, in Botany. See Tanacetum.
Tansy, in the Materia Medica. The leaves and flowers
of tanfy have a ftrong, not very difagreeable fmell, and a
bitter fomewhat aromatic tafte. They give out their virtue
both to water and fpirit, but moft perfeftly to the latter :
the tiniElure made from the leaves is of a fine green ; from
the flowers, of a bright pale yellow colour. Diftilled with
water, they yield a greenifli-yellow eflential oil, fmelling
ftrongly of the herb, and probably containing camphor ; the
remaining dccoftion, infpiffated, affords a ftrong, bitter,
fjubfaline extraft.

According to Bergius, the virtues of tanfy are tonic, fto-
machic, anthelmintic, emmenagogue, and refolvent, qua-
lities ufually attributed to bitters of the warm or aromatic
kind. Tanfy has been much ufed as a vermifuge, and its
efficacy has been afcertained by the teftimonies of many re-
fpeftable phyficians.

The feeds have been chiefly recommended in this laft
intention, and fubftituted for thofe of the fantonicum,
from which they differ not a little in quality as well as
in appearance, being much lefs bitter, and of a more aro-
matic flavour. ^

Dr. Clark mformsus ( Efl". and Obf. Phyf. and Lit. vol. iii. )
that in Scotland tanfy was found to be very beneficial in va-
rious cafes of gout, and Dr. Cullen fays, that he has known
feveral who have taken it v^ithout any advantage, and fome
others who reported that they had been relieved from the
frequency of their gout. Tanfy is alfo recommended in the
•feyfteria, efpecially when this difeafe is fuppofed to proceed
from menftrual obftruAions.

T A N

Tiic leaves ol this plant may be given in powder to the
quantity of 3j to 3j, for a dofe twice a day ; but it has
been more commonly taken in infufion, or drank aj tea.
It is now fcarcely ever ufed, except as an anthelmlr.tic for
expelling lumbrici, to which it has certainly fome prclcn-
fions. Lewis. Woodville. Thomfon.
Tansy, Wild. See Cin'uuefoil-

TANT, in Natural Hijlory, an Engliftiname for a fmall
fpider of the phalangium kind, having only two eyes, and
eight very long legs, and commonly fuppofed to be very
poifonous.

It is all over of an elegant fcarlet colour, rcfembling that
of the flowers of the red poppy when full blown, except
that the belly has a whitifli caft. I'our of its legs are in-
ferled in the upper part of the breall, and the other four
near the belly ; and near the origin of each leg there is a fmall
black fpot. Its body is round and full, and it is ;J1 over co-
vered with a fine, fliort, velvety down. It is not unfrequent
in dry pailures in the fpring-feafon. It is terribly dreaded
by our farmers, who fuppofe that an ox will die who chances
to iwallow it. Ray's Hill. Infefts, p. 44.

TANTABEE, or Tankabast, or J.op, in Geography,
a town of Little Bucharia, on the river Yarkan ; 100 miles
S. of Tourfan.
TANTALAM. See Ligok.

TANTALITE, in Mineralogy, \.\\q arc oi 3. newly difco-
veredmetalcalledtantalium,ortantalum. ( SeeTANTALlu.M. )
This ore has been called columbite by Mr. Hatchett, who
obtained a fpecimen of it from Maflachufetts bay, in North
America, and difcovered the metal which he denominated
columbium, and which is now found to be the fame with
tantalium. The colour of tantalite is iron-black, fometimes
with a tinge of blue. It occurs imbedded in angular pieces,
from the fize of a pea to that of an hazle-nut. It is alfo
cryftallized in acute oftohedrons, with fquare bafes. The
furface of the angular pieces is uneven ; that of the cryftaU
is fometimes fmooth, and fometimes ftreaked ; it has a
ftiining metallic luftre, inclining to refinous. The frafture
is uneven and granular, inclining to conipaft or conchoidal.
The fragments are irregular, ftiarp, and angular. It
fcratches glafs, and gives a few fparks with lieel. The
ftreak is dull, and the powder a brownifli-black. The fpe-
cific gravity varies from 7.15 to 7.953. The columbite,
according to Hatchett, is 5.918. Tantalite is infufible be-
fore the blow-pipe, without addition ; and it fuffcrs no
change but a diminution of luftre.

The conftituent parts of tantalite from Finland are, ac-
cording to

Wollafton. Vauquclin. Klaproih. Beriolius.

Oxyd of tantalium 85 83 88 83.2

Oxydofiron 10 12 10 7-2

Oxyd of manganefe 482 7.4

Oxyd of tin - o o o 0.6

The North American columbite contained, according to
an analyfis of Dr. Wollafton, 80 parts of oxyd of tantalium,
15 of oxyd of iron, and 5 of oxyd of manganefe.

Tantalite occurs in the parilh of Kcmito, in Finland, dif-
feminated in coarfe red granite. It bears a confiderable
refemblance to feveral other minerals, particularly to mag-
netic iron-ftone, tin-ftone, wolfram, yttryotantalite, and
gadohnite. It is diftinguilhed from magnetic iron-ftone by
its greater fpecific gravity, and by not affeAing the mag-
netic needle ; from compaA black tin-ftone, by its metallic
luftre, and by the aftion of the blow-pipe, which reduces
tin-ftone on charcoal ; from wolfram, by the abfence of the
foliated frafture ; from yttryotantalite, by the form of the
M 2 cryftals,

TAN

cryftals, and by refifting the aaion of the h!ow-pip«, by
which yltryotai.talite is melted into a greenilh-yellow flag ;
lallly, tantulite is dillinguilhed from gadohmte, by its
greater ■fpocific gravity, uneven fraaure, and infufibihty.
Yttryotantahte, another ore of tantalium, contains the newly
difcovered earth called yttria, from Ytterby, near Rof-
lagen, in Sweden, where it was firft difcovered. See Tan-
TAi.iiM and Yttkyotantalite.

TANTALIUM, or Tantalum, the metal obtamed
from tantalite and yttryotantahte. The method of reduc-
tion confifts in boihng the ores with alkalies, and adding
nitro-muriatic acid to the folution. The oxyd of tantalium
is thrown! down in white powder: this muft be wafhed,
dried, and ftrongly ignited in a crucible lined with charcoal.

Berzehus preifed tlie oxyd into a cavity of the Cze of a
|;oofe-quill, made in a lump of well-burned charcoal, and
expofed it to a violent heat, in a HelTian crucible. The
reduced metal was not melted, but the particles of it
firmly adhered together, and formed a mafs, through which
water would not penetrate. The grains were hard enough
to fcratch glafs. The fpccific gravity, as afcertained by
Dr. Wollailon, was 5.61 ; but as the mafs had not been
melted, the weight of tantalium muft be fomething heavier.
Its colour is dark grey ; and when fcratched with a knife, it
affumes the metallic luftre, and has the appearance of iron.
It may be reduced to powder by trituration ; the powder is
of a dark brown colour, without the fmalleft metallic luftre.
This powder is not in the leaft altered by muriatic or nitric
icids, nor by aqua regia, though it be digefted with them
for feveral days. In this refpeA it agrees with chromium,
lita»ium, ofmium, iridium, and rhodium.

When heated to rednefs, it takes fire, burns feebly with-
ojt flame-, and goes out direftly if it be removed from the
fire. By this means it is converted into a greyilh-white
matter, which may again be reduced to the metallic ftate by
heating it with charcoal : 100 parts of tantahum, treated in
this manner, combine with 8.5 or 4.5 of oxygen. But by this
procefs it is fcarcely poffible to oxydize tant£ium completely.

If tantalium, when pulverized, is mixed with nitre, and
thrown into a red-hot crucible, a feeble detonation takes
place. The mafs is fnow-white, and is a compound of pot-
afh and oxyd of tantalium.

The mean of four experiments on the reduftion of the
oxyd of tantalium to the metallic ftate, makes it a compound
of 100 metal with 5.485 oxygen. The fuppofition that the
exygen in the water, which converts the oxyd into a hy-
drate, is twice as great as that in the oxyd, would make it
a compound of 100 metal with 5.5 oxygen. Muriatic acid
throws down oxyd of tantalium, from its combinations with
potafh : it is then a hydrate of a white colour ; and when
walhed and dried, it is compofed of 100 of oxyd of tan-
talium and 12.5 water. From experiments of Berzelius, it
appears that the oxyd of tantalium poffefles acid properties.
He fucceeded in alloying feveral metals with tantalium, as tung-
ften andiron. Thomfon's Annals, September, 1816, p. 233.

TANTALUS, in Ancient Geography, a town in the ifle
of Lefoos — Alfo, a town in Afia Minor, upon the bank of
the Meander.

Tantalus, one of the many names given by chemifts to
mercury.

Tantalus, in Mythology, a king of Lydia, Phrygia, or
Paphlagonia, according to fome, but, according to others,
the fon of Jupiter by the nymph Plota, who is faid to have
prefented the mangled members of his fon Pelops, whom he
murdered, to the gods, at a feaft, in order to prove their
divinity ; or, according to the modern explication of this
fable, he offered i^ his fon as a facrifice to the gods.

9

TAN

Others, however, have charged him with revealing the fe-
crcts of the gods, ;'. c the rayfteries of their worftiip, of
which he was the high-prieft. But whatever was the nature
of his crime, the poets reprefent him as condemned to hell,
and tormented there with perpetual hunger and thirft in the
midft of plenty of both meat and drink. Some reprefent
him as ftanding up to the chin in water, which he was in-
capable of reaching ; or as ftanding under a tree, fome of
the branches of which, loaded with the fineft ripe fruits,
hung down juft before his mouth, which, the moment he
endeavoured to take, always waved out of his reach. Others
reprefent him as ftanding under a heavy ftone, which was
fufpended over his head, and which he fufpefted would
every moment fall and crufti him.

Horace (lib. i. fat. i. v. 71.) feems to make Tantalus
only an emblem of the covetous r as Lucretius (lib. iii.
v. 1015.) makes Sifyphus, who is reprefented as bending
under the weight of a great ftone, or labouring to heave it
againft the fide of a fteep mountain, and which always rolls
precipitately down again- before he can fix it on the top, as
an emblem of the ambitious.

Tantalus, in Ornithology, a genus of the order of
Grallae. Its charafters are, that the bill is long, thick at
the bafe, and fomewhat incurvated ; the face naked ; the
tongue fhort and broad ; the noftrils linear ; and the feet,
with four toes, palmated at the bafe. Linnjeus enumerates
twenty-one

Species.

Loculatok. With a blueifti face, reddiih bill, quills
and tail-feathers black, and white body : the curicaca of
Marcgrave, the wood pelecan of Cateftiy, and wood ibis of
Pennant. It is found in New Holland and South America.

Falcinellus. With a black face, blueifli legs, wings
and tail violet, and chefnut body : the bay ibis of Pennant
and Latham, and green courhs of Buffbn. A variety is the
numenius caftaneus of Brifibn. It is found in flocks about
the lakes of Italy, fouth of Germany, Denmark, the Ural
defert, and the Cafpian and Euxine leas.

MiNUTUS. With face, biU, and legs greenifli, ferru-
ginous body, beneath white : the lefter ibis of Edwards and
Latham. Found in Surinam.

Ibis. With red face, luteous bill, grey legs, black
quill-feathers, and reddifti-white body : the Egyptian ibis of
Latham. Found plentifully in Egypt. See Ibis.

Ruber. With face, bill, and legs red, fanguineous
body, and the apices of the wings black : the guara of
Marcgrave, Willughby, Ray, &c. and the fcarlet ibis of
Pennant and Latham. Found gregarious in the Bahama
iflands, in parts of America between the tropics, particularly
Eaft Florida.

Albus. With red face, bill, and legs, white body, and
the tips of the wings green : the white curlew of Cateft)y,
and white ibis of Pennant and Latham. Found in the Bra-
fils and in Carolina.

Fuscus. With red face, bill, and legs, brown body,
beneath white : the brown curlew of Ibis, and brown ibis
of Pennant and Latham. Found in the warmer parts of
America, and in fummer in Carolina. .

ViRiDis. With black face and legs, green and cyaneous
wings, neck cinereous-black, beneath faiciated with white,
upper part of the body and tail green-golden, beneath and
rump brown-blackifti : the green ibis of Latham.

Igneus. With black head and neck, green legs, body
cyaneous, refplcndent with green, beneath blackifti-red, with
the quills and tail-feathers green-golden ; the gloiTy ibis of
Latham.

Leuco-

TAN

Leucocei'HALUS. With wliite head, neck, and body, bill
and face yellow, legs pale, and rump witli very long rufous fea-
thers : the white-headed ibis of Latham. Found in Ceylon.

Calvus. With white head, the hinder part of the neck
tuberculated, with the jugular bag bare, the crown, bill,
and legs black, and body black : the bald ibis of Latham.
Found in the weftern parts of Africa.

Makilleksis. With the bill and orbits greenifli, legs
\ermilion-coloured, ajid body red-brown : the Manilla ibis
of Latham. Found in the ifland of Lu^on.

Cristatus. With pale face, head, part of the neck,
tail, and vent black, the creft on the hinder part of tlie head
long with feathers partly white and p.irtly black, ferru-
ginous body, and whitifli wings ; the crefted ibis of Latham.
Found in Madagafcar.

Niger. With face, bill, and legs red, and black body :
the black ibis of Latham. Found in Egypt, near Da-
inietta.

Coco. With face and bill ycllow-flcniy, legs flediy pale,
body white, wings as far as the apex white, the three outer
quill-feathers black above at the apex. Found in the Ca-
ribbee i Hands.

Pii,i,us. With face, bill, and legs brown, body white,
quill and tail-feathers black. Found near the rivers and
Lkes of Chili.

Cayennexsis. With face obfcurely reddifh, obfcure
bill, body black and fhining green : the Cayenne ibis of
Latham.

MEXiCANtJS. With blueifh bill, reddifh face, head and
neck obfcure and white, a little varied with green and yel-
low, back, rump, and legs black, breaft and abdomen
trown, tail and quill-feathers brafiy-green : the acalotl of
Ray and Willughby, the acalot of Buffon, and the Mexican
ibis of Latham. Found near the lakes of New Spain.

Melanopis. With bill, face, and nails black, crown
yellow, neck and breaft yellowilli, the feathers of the back,
the fcapulars, and tail-feathers, and peftoral band, cinereous,
brown at the margin, the eyes and tail green and black, and
the legs red : the black-faced ibis of Latham.

Albicollis. , With black bill, head and neck rufous-
white, body brown with grey waves and lliining green, and
red legs : the white-necked ibis of Latham. Found in
Cayenne.

Griseus. With fpadiceous bill, face and nails black,
hind part of the head and neck grey, body whitifh, back,
rump, quills, and tail greenifh-black, and reddifh legs : the
grey ibis of Latham, and matuiti of Willughby and DufFon.
Found in Brafil.

Tanta Lva's Clip, in Hydraulics, is a cup, as A ( P/. VI IL
Hydraulics, fig. 6. ) with a hole in the bottom, and the longer
leg of the ilphon B C E D cemented into the hole ; fo that
the end D of the fhorter leg D E, may almoft touch the
bottom of the cup within. Then, if water be poured into
this cup, it will rife in the fhorter by its upward prefTure,
extruding the air before it through the longer leg ; and
when the cup is filled above the bend of the fiphon at F,
the prefTure of the water in the cup will force it over the
bend of the fiphon ; and it will defcend in the longer leg
C B G, and even through the bottom, until the cup be
emptied. The legs of this fiphon are almoft clofe together,
and it is fometimes concealed by a fmall hollow ftatue, or
figure of a man placed over it ; the bend F being within the
neck of the figure as high as the chin. So that poor thirfty
Tantalus ftands up to the chin in water, according to the
fable, imagining it will rife a little higher, and he may drink ;
but, inftead of that, when the water comes up to his chin,
it immediately begins to defcend, and therefore, as he cannot

T A O

Hoop to follo^' it, he is left as much tormented with tiiirll
as ever.

TANTAMOUNT, fomcthing that amounts to, or ia
equivalent to, fome other.

TANTANEH, in Geography, a mountain of Africa,
which form? the fouth boundary of Bcrdoa.

TAN-TCHING, a town of Corea ; 33 miles W.S.W,
of Tfin-tcheou.

TANTECO, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Guafteca ; 25 miles N. of Panuco.

TAN-THOUI-TCHING, a toxni on the W. coall of
the ifland of Formofa. N. lat. 25° 8'. E. long. 120^49'.

T ANTRA, tiie name of a branch of literature among
the Hindoos, of which we have hitherto received but very
imperfeft information. The books bearing this title appear
to contain direttions for certain religious ui'ages adopted by
fome fefts and condemned by others. (See Sakta.) The
name Tantra, or Yantra, is alfo given to myfterious hiero-
glyphics, facred to particular deities. See Mantra, Yan-
tra, and Parlisha.

TANTUM Deoies. See Decies.

TANTUMQUERI, in Geography, a town of Africa,
in the country of Fantin, on the Gold Coaft, with two forts,
one belonging to the Englifh, the other to the Dutch. N.
lat. 5° 20'. W. long. 2" 54'.

TANTUR. SeeToRTiiRA.

TANUM, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland; 31
miles N.W. of Uddevalla.

TANUO, a town of Peru, i» the arclibilhopric of Lima,
and jurifdiftion of Cagnete.

TANURI, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Bahus ; 30 miles N.N.W. of Uddevalla.

TANUS, in yincient Geography, a river of Greece, in
the Peloponnefus, which had its fource in mount Parnon,
traverfed the Argolide, and difch.arged itfelf into the gulf
of Thyraea.

TANXIPA, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Guafteca, at the foot of a mountain ; 70 milet
N.N.W. of Panuco.

TANYGONG, a town of Hindooftan, in Berar ; 36
miles W. of Nagpour.

TANZIPAO, a river of Louifiana, which runs into
Pontchartrain lake, N. lat. 30° 18'. W. long. 90° 10'.

TANZU, a town of Africa, in Angola, near the coaft ;
20 miles S.W. of Loando.

TANZY, in Botany, Sec. See Tanacetum and Tan.sy.

TAOCE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the
interior of the Perfide, near the town of Orcbatis. — Alfo,
a promontory of Afia, on the coaft of the Perfide, 500
ftadia from the mouth of the river Oroatis, and 700 ftadia
from that of the river Rhogoniagus.

TAOCENA, a country of Afia, in the Perfide.

TAOCHL a people of Afia, in the mountains of Ar-
menia.

TAO-LOU-SAC, or Ta, in Geography, a town of
Lower Canada. N. lat. 48° 5'. W. long. 69° 30'.

TAONABO, in Botany. See ToNABEA and TeRK-

STROMIA

TAONEROA, in Geography. See Poverty Bay.

TAOO LsLAND, one of the Friendly iflands, in the
South Pacific ocean, about 24 miles in circumference.

TAOOK, a town of Curdiftan, fituated in a barren
country, N. of an extonlive vale, which is about 20 miles
over, and has a chain of mountains on each fide, running E.
and W.

TAORMINA, the ancient Tauromenium, a town of
Sicily, in -the valley of Demona, fituated on the E. coaft,

oa

T A O

on a narrow level above a precipice of mount Taurus, and
overhung by immenfe mafles of rocks. According to
Swinburne it contains 3cx>0 inhabitants. It has been much
celebrated for its coftly marble and excellent wine. The an-
-ient Tauromenium was much more extenfive than the pre-
fcnt town, and comprehended within its walU the town
of the promontory of St. Andrew, where was a theatre
placed between two high rocks, tmd commanding a full view
both of jEtna and of tiie plains. This theatre is reckoned
the moll beautiful monument of antiquity extant. A con-
fiderable portion of this building has efcaped the ravages of
time, and affords tiie antiquary, as well as the architect, an
opportunity of examining that divifion of a theatre on which
the adors ilood ; a part that is wanting in almoft all other
ruined theatres. The arcades are all compofed of brick,
the reft of the walls of pebbles, and covered with cafings
of marble. The wliole range of the vomitoria and galleries
that encircled the feats is yet Handing as high from the
ground as the bottom of the fecond order ; the profcenium,
which formed the ciiord of the arch, is almoft entire ; it is a
thick wall, with a large opening in the centre, and three
niches ; a fmall door, and a fourth niche on each fide ; be-
tween each of thefe apertures, or recclfes, are marks in the
wall, where columns were placed. According to the plan
deduced from thefe ruins, the ftage was a parallelogram of
138 feet by 58 ; on each fide was a lofty fquare building,
confifting of a bafement and .two upper ftories, from the
higheil of which a communicating gallery was carried along
the back fcenes : the diameter of the femicircular part of
the theatre, where the audience fat, was 142 Englilh feet.
The ftreets of the modern town, the courts and houfes, are
every where interfpcrfed with fragments of antique walls,
aquedufts, and mofaic pavements. The afcent to Taormina
is very fteep and difficult ; but the charms of the landfcape
amply recompenfe the labour of attaining the height. Every
thing belonging to it is drawn in a large fublime ftyle ; the
mountains tower to the clouds ; the caftles and ruins rife on
weighty maftes of perpendicular rock, and feem to defy the
attacks of mortal enemies ; ^tna, with all its fnowy and
woody fwceps, fills half the horizon ; the fea is ftretched out
upon an immenfe fcale, and occupies the remainder of the
profpeft. The beach is confined by high cliffs, that are cal-
careous and confining generally of a fpecies of red and white
marble, which was in high efteem among the ancients. The
houfes in the vicinity are inhabited by peafants, who occupy
them with their children and cattle. Thefe feveral monu-
ments are undoubtedly coeval with the Romans ; that is, pof-
terior to Cifar, who, having expelled the inhabitants of
Tauromenium, placed in it a Roman colony. The origin
of this city is loft in the obfcurity of ages. It is known
that it was confiderably augmented, when Dionyfius, in the
94th Olympiad, 443 years B.C., having taken and deftroyed
Naxos, caufed it to be deferted by its inhabitants, who fettled
here. This proud city was at length deftroyed by the Vene-
tians, and fortified by the Norman conquerors ; and it ftill ex-
ifts in a reduced ftate. When it was taken by the Saracens
from the Greek emperor in the loth century, it was one of
the ftrongeft places in the ifland, and called by them " Al
Moezzia," which name it retained for a confiderable time ;
27 miles S,S,W- of Meffina. N. lat. 37° 51'. E. long.
15° 23'.

TAOS Lapis, the peatock-Jione, a name given by fome
of the ancient writers to a very beautiful variegated agate,
refembling, in fome degree, the great variety of colours in
the peacock's tail.

TAOSANLU, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in Natolia ; 20 miles N.W. of Kiutaja.
10

TAP

TAOUKA, one of the Society iflands, in the South Pa-
cific ocean. S. lat. 14° 30'. W. long. 145° 9'.

TAP, among Hunters. A hare is faid to tap, or beat,
when fhe makes a particular noife at rutting-time.

Tap. See Tapping.

Tav-RooI, that fort of root which (hoots direftly down-
wards to a great depth. There are many roots of this na-
ture, which are in conftant ufe by the farmer, fuch as the
carrot, parfnip, beet, &c. ; and there are many plants of the
tree kind which have tap-roots, as the oak, &c. See-
Tapping.

In the vegetable kinds of tap-rooted plants, they all re-
quire a deeply broken-down and prepared foil, in order to
grow them with any fuccefs, and to any confiderable fizes.
And, as in the tree forts, they muft always rife from the
feeds where they are fown ; as they cannot be tranfplanted
out with any kind of propriety or advantage. Where the
land is not properly prepared to a fuitable depth, they are
ufually ftiort, forked, and of aukvvard growth ; and when
raifed by tranfplanting, very fmall and ftunted ; but fome of
them cannot be at all grown in the laft method.

T AP-Rooti-cJ Turnip, in Agriculture, that fort which gjrows
much with this kind of root. It is not a favourable kind of
growth for this fort of crop. See Turnip.

TAPACRI, in Geography, a town of Peru; 20 miles
N.E. of Cochabamba.

TAPAJOS, a river of Brazil, in the Capitania of
Matto GrofTo, which runs N. between the Madeira and the
Chingu for 300 leagues, flowing into the Amazons, in lat.
2° 24' 50" and long. 55°, the geographical pofition of the
town of Santarem fituated at its mouth. This river rifes in
the plains of the Paresis, fo called from an Indian nation
wliich inhabits them. From thefe elevated plains defcend
the two greateft rivers of South America, iiiz. the Para-
guay, and the Madeira, the largeft river that flows into the
Amazons on the fouth. The Tapajos flows in a contrary
dircftion from thefe mountains. Its weftenmioft branch is
the river Arinos, which entwines its fources with thofe of
the Cuiaba at a fhort diftance from thofe of the Paraguay.
The largeft and wefternmoft branch of the Tapajos is the
Juruena, which rifes in lat. 14° 20', 20 leagues N.N.E. of
Villa Bella, and running N. 120 leagues, flows into the
Arinos, and with it forms the bed of the Tapajos. The
Juruena may be navigated to its upper fall, within two
leagues of its own fource. From the geographical pofition
of the Tapajos, it is evident that this river facilitates naviga-
tion and commerce from the maritime city of Peru to the
mines of Matto Groflb and Cuiaba, by means of its large
branches, the Juruena and Arinos. The Tapajos is known
to be auriferous through a great part of its courfe.

TAPANA, a name of the Hindoo regent of the fun.
It means the inflamer. (See Surya.) One of the five ar-
rows with which the Hindoo Kama, or cupid, wounds his
votaries, is named Tapana. Its head is formed of a flower
of a fuppofed inflaming quaUty.

TAPARICA, in Geography, an ifland at the entrance of
All Saints' bay, on the coaft of Brafil, about 25 miles long,
and 5 broad. S. lat. 13*^.

TAP AS, the name of a fpecies of devotion, to which
great merit and efficacy are afcribed by the Hindoos. It
confifts of intenfe contemplation, accompanied by aullerities.
See Jap.

The performance of the Tapas, or, more correAly writ-
ten, Tapafya, is ftrongly recommended in Hindoo books ;
and numerous inftances are there given of benefits conferred
on the fuppliants by the gods fo propitiated. An individual,
while in the performance of the penances of Tapafya, is

called

TAP

called Tapafwi : he is much revered, and liis prayci-s are
earneftly folicited by the fuperftitious as neceflfarily efficacious.
(See Ravena.) Among his aufterities he went through
the following feries, each of the eleven fpeciiic mortifica-
tions enduring one hundred years.

I. He Hood on one foot, Iiolding the other and both
hands up toward heaven, with his eyes fixed on the fun.

2. He flood on one great toe. 3. He took as fuftenance
nothing but water. 4. He lived fimilarly on air. 5. He
remained in the water. 6. He was buried in the earth, but
continued, as in the other inflexions, in inccfTant adoration.
7. The fame in lire. 8. He Hood on his head, with his feet
upwards. 9. He flood on one hand. 10. He hung by his
hands on a tree. 11. He hung on a tree with iiis head
downwards.

Some of the Puranas, or books of divine authority, con-
tain a feries of eighteen fpecific mortifications. One is now
lying before iis, and we give their denominations, with fome
explanatory obfervations.

I. T'hcdfftr, is an elevation of the head, as the word de-
notes, during life : in this penance fome devotees profefs
never to fit. 2. Akas-muiii : this means etherial contempla-
tion : the afpirant in this cafe looks conflantly on the heavens.

3. Med' ha-miim, indicates felf-examination : the arms are ufu-
ally croffed over the breall, and the penitent preferves a
thoughtful pofture or gait, with downcafl looks. 4. Pherfa-
bahu, with arms projedled horizontally. 5. Dhami-paiia,
inverfion ; by fufpenfion on a tree, &c. head downwards,
over a fire. 6. Patala-muni: this is the reverfe of Akas-
muni, meaning fubterrene contemplation ; Patala being the
name of the lower regions, and Yama the lord thereof. The
Patala-muni conflantly looks downwards to the earth.

7. Mum, preferving continued filence in aid of abftraftion.
The word means a wife man, a fage, or faint, as well as
wifdom and contemplation. We know of no difference be-
tween this fpecies of devotion and that called Jap, which fee.

8. Chouraft-afin : the meaning of this compound word is
eighty-four fitting pofitions ; but it may have fome other
more myflerious and lefs obvious meaning. It would feem
to be the reverfe of fome other penances, the merit of whicli
confifl in preferving one pollure ; whereas this imphes an in-
ceflant variation to the extent of eighty-four changes.

9. K off all : the Areka or betle-nut penance. This con-
fiHs in Handing foles upwards, the head relling on the nut
placed on the ground. This is done at flated times ; but
cannot, one wovdd think, be long continued. 10. Patal't,
the earthly or fubterrene penance. This is defcribed to be a
partial burying of the body up to the breait, head down-
wards, and of courfe under ground, with the feet in the air,
as in the lafl. One can fcarcely fee at firfl how this can be
done ; but probably the earth is placed very loofely about
the head, &c. with the body or legs fupported againft
a tree or wall. II. Urd'ha-bahu, with elevated hands,
keeping them above the head. This is a common penance,
perfevered in fometimes till the arms become mere fl<in and
bone, the fore-arms fixed immoveably, crofling horizontally,
and the finger-nails perhaps perforating the palms. A mofl
eminent Urdha-bahu is defcribed, with a portrait, in the
fifth volume of the Afiatic Refearches, art. ii. i 2. B'ditftr'i,
fitting pofture, never rifing or lying. 1 3. Nyas-d'hean, re-
taining the breath. To this praftice great merit is afcribed,
and it is perfevered in to n very extraordmary extent ; till at
length no refpiration is vifible. In this ftate impoflors pre-
tend to beatific vifions, and the credulous of courfe admire
the wonders they relate. 14. Chourangi-qfn, a quadrupedal
pofition, obtained by refting on the elbows and knees, put-
ting the hands backwards over the fhoulders, and keeping

T A P

iiold of the toes. This mufl be a very aukward and un-
cafy pollure, and not obtainable without much praftice.
15. Brahm-hanfa : this is a ftage of aufterity much vene-
rated, and cafily prafticable, .at Icall oflenfibly. The de-
votee profefTes total indifference to fvery thing fublunary :
he provides or afl<s for no food or clotliing : he wanders or fit.s
naked : if any one bring him food, he eats: liis whole time,
in fhort, is occupied in divine contemplation. 16. Panch-a^ni,
five fires. The devotee fits on the ground, with a fire to'the
cardinal points, intenfc and near in proportion to his ability
to bear them. The fun over head is the fifth fire. (See
Panch-agni.) 17. r/rian^/j;, (landing on one foot. This
Lakfhmi is related to have done for 100,000 years in the
flower of the lotos, during one of her terrellri.il incarnations,
that file might be reunited to her lord Vifhnu. ( See Pavaka. )
18. Surya-varti, propitiating Surya, or the fun. This is
done in various ways. Sometimes by abftinence merely till
he is rifen, or until other prcfcribed ceremonies have been
performed. Fixing the eyes conftantly on the fun is another
mode. See Surya.

TAPASSANT, among Hunters, denotes lurking, or
fquatting. Hence alfo, to tappy, is to lie hid, as deer may do.

TAPA-TACSO, in Geography, a town of Thibet ; 45
miles N.E. of Laffa.

TAPAUACA, a town of South Am.erica, in the pro-
vince of Daricn ; 40 miles E.S.E. of St. Maria de Darien.

TAPAYAXIN, in Zoology, the name of a very remark-
able fpecies of lizard, called by Hernandez the lacertut
orbicularis.

It is not of the long and flender fliape of the common
lizards, but as broad as it is long, and much refembling the
ray-fifh in fhape, though feldom exceeding four inches in
length or breadth. It is a cartilaginous Kzard, of a very
beautiful variety of colours, always very cold to the touch,
and fo fluggifh a creature, that it often will not move out of
its place even on touching it. Its head is exceedingly hard
and elate, and has a fort of crown of prickles for its de-
fence ; yet it is a perfedlly harmlefs animal, and fo far from
having the feai- of man, and (hynefs that other beafls have,
that it loves to be taken up and played with, and will fland
perfeftly ftill, and feem very happy while played with. Her-
nandez, lib. ix. cap. 1 6.

TAPE-WoRM, a fpecies of worm breeding in the human
bowels, and called by authors tunia, and htmlricus latiu, or
the broad worm. SeeT.ENlA.

The Greek and Roman phyficians, as well as thofe of
our own time, have defcribed thofe forts of worms to which
the human bowels are fubjedl. The common long worms,
which refemble earth-worms; the afcarides, or fmall worms;
and this tape-worm, wliich they have alio called virnus cucuf
bititius, or the gourd-worm, from its refembling, in fome
degree, the feeds of that fruit.

The interpreters of fome of the Greek phyficians have,
however, been guilty of a great error, in confounding the
gourd-worms and the afcarides together, though nothing
can be more unlike. The ancients feem to have had a very
juft opinion of this aiiimal in c.ilhng it vermis cucurlilinus,
fince it is plain by this, that they underftood evci7 joint, as
we call them, of this creature, to be a dillinft worm ; and
what we call a fingle worm, to be a long feries of thefe
worms, joined together end to end.

The true hiftory of this animal is, that it is fhort and
broad. What is called a link of t!ie long ^orm is really a
diflinft worm ; and when one of thefe multiplies in tlie
bowels, its young adhere to it, and to each other endwifc,.
fo as to form a fort of chain, wliich lengthens as they con-
tinue

TAP

tiiHic to increafe, and in line becc«iies immoderately long.
Hence it is that the breaking, as it is called, of this vvorm,
does not dellroy it, and that the voiding large pieces of it is
no cure, fince it Hill recovers that length a^ain by new young
ones. Every feparate link of fuch a chain, if examined, is
found to be entire, lively, and briflc, and not at all injured
by the feparation.

Dr. Tvfoii, in the Phil. Tranf. N'' 146, gives a curious
account of this worm : it is always fingle ; it lies vanoudy
convoluted, being fometimes as long as all the guts, and
fometimes it very much exceeds that lefigth. Olaus Bor-
richius afTures us, that a patient of his, in a year's time,
voided eight hundred feet in meafure of tliis worm, though
in that length he did not meet with the head ; in voiding, thc
patient always obferved it to break off.

Dr. Tyfon parallels this cafe with that of a patient of
his, who difeharged vaft quantities of this vvorm for feveral
years, but in various pieces, of two, three, four, fix, or more
yards long, but all put together, would (he fays) much ex-
ceed the length of that of Boirichius.

The joints in this worm are very numerous. In one of
twenty-four feet long. Dr. Tyfon numbered five hundred
and feven joints. Above the middle of the edges of each
joint, he obferved a protuberant orifice. Thofe orifices he
takes for fo many mouths ; the beft microfcopes difcovering
no mouth in that part which ufually pafTes for the head.
This worm is common in mofl kinds of animals, as dogs,
oxen, crabs, herrings, pikes, &c.

Some authors have afferted, that it is not one, but many
worms linked together, and included in a fpolium of the
inteftines ; and that this fpohum is not animated, but
receives its fenfe and motion from a fort of vermiculi cuciur-
bitini enclofed in it. This Gabucinus, de Lumb. Com.
fays, he has plainly difcovered ; but Dr. Tyfon abundantly
evinces the contrary.

Authors who have treated of thefe worms as a difeafe,
have given a canine appetite, or unnatural appetite to food,
as one of the fymptoms ; but this is wrong, for it has never
been found, in reality, that thefe worms, even where moft
numerous, have at all increafed the natural appetite ; and
indeed it is very difficult to judge of their being in the body
by fymptoms, fince they occafion none which are not alfo
common in many other difeafes. Many people have had
them a long courfe of time, without being fenfibly hurt by
them ; and there has never been known an inftance of their
occafioning any one's death, or indeed any confiderable dif-
order.

Fern-root has been long known as a remedy againft worms.
Sec Difeafes ©/"Infan't.s, and Worms.

However, it was funk into negleft till a few years ago,
when it again came into notice, by being difcovered to be
the remedy which had become greatly celebrated in Switzer-
land as a fpecific in the cure of the tsnia or tape-worm. The
fecret was purchafed by the king of France, after its
efficacy had been attefted upon trial by fome of the princi-
pal phyficians at Paris.

The following has been publifhed as the mode of its ex-
hibition. After the patient has been prepared by an
emollient clyfter, and a fupper of panada with butter and
fait, he is direfted to take in bed in the morning a dofe of
two or three drachms of the powder of male fern-root. The
dofe to infants is only one drachm. The powder muft be
wafhed down with a draught of water, but nothing elfe
mufl be taken till two hours after, when a bolus of
calomel, joined with fome of the ftrongefl cathartics, is to
be given. If this does not operate, it mufl be followed by
a dofe of purging falls. By this method the worm is

TAP

commonly expelled in a few hours. If the trial does not
fuccced, the procefs mull be repeated at due intervals.
Lewis's Mat. Med. by Aikin, 1784.

TAPEANDURIAN, in Geography, a town on the K.
coaft of the ifland of Borneo. N. lat. 1° 24'. E. long.

ii7°J4'-

TAPEANTAN, a fm.ill ifland in the Sooloo Archi-
pelago. Nlat. 6° 15'. E.long. 122° 9'.

TAPECON, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome to the
fifli generally called the uranofcopus, or ftar-gazer.

TAPEINIA, in Botany, a little plant of the ftraits of
Magellan, fo named by Commerfon, from TaTEivoc, humble, or
low ; JuiT. 59. This is the Ixia pumila of Forfler, PI.
Magell. 1 1, t. 2, referred by Vahl to Witsenia. See that
article.

TAPER, Tapering, is underllood of a piece of timber,
or the like, when broad at one end, and gradually dimini/hing
to the other ; as is the cafe in pyramids, cones, &c.

To meafure taper timber, &c. fee SLlDlNG-i?a//?.

T APTiR-Borerl is applied to a piece of ordnance, when it is
wider at the mouth than towards the breech.

Taper alfo denotes a kind of tall wax -candle, placed in a
candleftick, and burnt at funeral proceflions, and in other
church folemnities.

Tapers are made of different fizes ; in fome places, as
Italy, &c. they are cylindrical ; but in moft other countries,
as England, France, Sic. they are conical or taper ; whence
pofTibly the name ; unlefs we rather choofe to derive taper
in the adjeAive fenfe from the fubftantive taper, in the Saxon
tapen or lapon, ceretis, luax-candle.

Both kinds are pierced at bottom, for a pin in the candle-
ftick to enter.

The ufe of lights in religious ceremonies is of a long
ftanding ; the ancients, we know, ufed flambeaux in their
facrifices, and particularly in the myfteries of Ceres ; and
they had tapers placed before the ftatues of their gods.

Some fuppofe that it was in imitation of this heathen
ceremony, that lights were firft introduced into the Chriftiaii
church ; others take it, that the Chriftians borrowed the
practice from the Jews ; but recourfe need not be had to
the one or the other. Doubtlefs, as in the firft ages of
Chriftianity, they had their meetings in obfcure fubterraneous
vaults, there was a neceffity for tapers, &c. ; and there was
even occafion for them after they had the liberty of building
churches, thofe being contrived in fuch a manner as only to
receive very httle light, that they might infpire the greater
awe and refpeft by the obfcurity.

This original of tapers in churches is the moft natural ;
but it is now a long time fince the ufe of tapers, which
neceffity firft introduced, is become a mere ceremony.
St. Paidinus, who lived at the beginning of the fifth cen-
tury, obferves, that the Chriftians of his days were fo fond
of tapers, that they even painted them in their churches.

There are two ways of making tapers, the firft with the
ladle, the fecond by hand.

In the firft, after the wicks (which are ufually half cotton,
half flax) have been well twifted, and cut of the due length,
a dozen of them are hung, at equal diftances, around an
iron hoop, direftly over a large copper bafon full of melted
wax.

Then taking an iron ladleful of the wax, they pour it
gently over the wicks, a little below the tops of them, one
after another ; fo that, the wax running down them, they
become foaked and covered with it, and the furpliis re-
turns into the bafon, under which is a pan of coals to keep
it in fufion.

Thus they continue to call on more and more wax for ten

or

1' A P

«>r twelve times, till the tapers be brought to the required
dimenfions. The firft call only foaks the wick, the fecond
begins to cover it, ajid the reft give it the form and thick-
neis ; in order to which, they take care that every caft, after
the fourth, be made lower and lower below the wicks to
make them taper. The tapers, thus formed, are laid, while
yet hot, one againft another, in a feather-bed, folded double,
to preferve them foft ; and afterwards taken out thence, one
after another, to be rolled on a long fmooth table, witli an
oblong inllrumcnt of box, polifhed at the bottom, and fur-
nifhed with a handle above.

The taper thus rolled and polifhed, a piece of its larger
end is cut off, and a conical hole bored in it, with a boxen
inftrument, into which the pin or point of the candleftick is
to be received.

While the broach is yet in the hole, they ufe to ttamp
the maker's name and the weight of the taper, with a boxen
ruler, on which proper charaifters are cut. The taper is theu
Iiung up to harden, after which it is fit for ufe.

Making of Tapers by Hand — The wicks being difpofed,
as in the former manner, they begin to foften the wax, by
working it in hot water, in a narrow, deep, copper veffel.
They then take a quantity of this wax out with the hand,
and apply it gradually on the wick, which is faftened to a
hook in the wall, at the end oppofite to the collet ; fo that
they begin to form the taper by the lai'ge end, and proceed,
ftill leffening the thicknefs to the neck or collet.

The reft is performed after the fame manner as in tapers
m.ide with the ladle, except that they do not lay them in
the feather-bed, but roll them on the table as faft as they are
formed.

Two things there are to be obferved in the two kinds of
tapers ; the firft, that, in the whole procefs of tapers with
the ladle, t\\ej ufe water to moiilen the table, and other
inftruments ufed therein, that the wax may not ftick ; and
that, in the other, they ufe oil of olives, or lard, for the
fame end.

Tapeu, Pajchal, among the Romanijls, is a large taper,
on which the deacon apphes five bits of frankincenfe, in
holes made for the purpofe, in form of a crofs ; and
which he lights with new fire in the ceremony of Eafter-
Saturday.

The Pontifical makes pope Zofimus the author of this
ufage ; but Baronius will have it more ancient ; and
quotes a h)rmn of Prudentius to prove it. That pope he
fuppofes to have only eftabliftied the ufe of it in parifh-
churches, which till then had been reftrained to greater
churches.

F. Papebroch explains the original of the pafchal taper
more diftinCtlyin his"ConatusChronico-Hiftoricus,"&c. It
feems that, though the council of Nice regulated the day on
wliich Eafter was to be celebrated, the patriarch of Alexan-
dria was enjoined to make a yearly canon of it, and to fend it
to the pope. As all the other moveable feafts were to be regu-
lated by that of Eafter, a catalogue of them was made every
year ; and this was written on a taper, cereus, which was
"■lefTed in the church with much folemnity.

This taper, according to the abbot Chaftelain, was not a
wax -candle made to be burnt ; it had no wick, nor was it
any thing more than a kind of column of wax, made on pur-
pofe to write the lift of moveable feafts on ; and which
would fufficc to hold that lift for the fpace of a year.

For, among the ancients, when any tiling was to be

TAP

they came to write the moveable feafts on paper, but they
ftiU faftened it to the pafchal taper ; which pradice waa ob-
ferved for a long time at Notre Dame, in Rouen, a;id through-
out the order of Cluny. Such is the original of the benedic-
tion of the pafchal taper.

TAPER A, in Ornithology, a fpccies of fwallow. Sei-

HiRUNDO.

T.APERA dos Bocas, in Geography, a town of Brafd, in ihf
govtrninent of Para, on the Guanapu ; 90 miles S.W. of
Para.

TAPERI, a town of Peru ; 16 miles N.E. of Cocha.
TAPESTRY, or'TAPlSTRV, a curious kind of nianu-
fa<Sure, ferving to adorn a chamber, or other ap.irtnient,
by hanging or lining the walls of it.

Some ufe tapeftry as a general name for all kijids of
hanging, whether woven or wrought with the needle ; and
whither filken, woollen, linen, leatliern, or of paper, (in
which they are countenanced by the etymology of the word,
formed from the French tapijfer, to line; of the Latin tapei,
a cover of a wall or bed, &c.) But, in the common ufe
of our language, the term is now appropriated to a kind of
woven hangings of wool and filk, frequently raifed and en-
riched with gold and filver, ceprefenting figures of men,
animals, landfcapes, &c.

The invention of tapeftry feems to have come from the
Levant ; and what makes tliis the more probable is, that
formerly, the workmen concerned in it were called, at leaft
m France, Sarazinj, or Sarazinois,

Some have fuppofed that the Englifti and Flemifh, who
were the firft that excelled in it, might bring the art with
them from fome of the croifades or expeditions againft the
Saracens. Accordingly they fay, that thofe two nations
were the firft who fet on foot this noble and rich manufac-
ture in Europe, which afterwards became one of the fineft
ornaments of palaces and churches, &c. At leaft, if they
be not allowed the inventors, they have the honour of being
the reftorers, of this curious and admirable art, which gives
a kind of life to wools and filks, in fome refpefts not inferior
to the paintings of the beft mafters. However, it does
not appear at what precife era this manufaiEfure was intro-
duced into Europe ; nor is it certain to whom it was owing.
Guicciardin, in his " Defcription and Hiftory of the
Netherlands," printed at Antwerp in 1582, afcribcs the
invention of the art of making tapeftry hangings to the
Netherlanders, but he does not adign the time of the
invention.

The art of weaving tapeftry was brought to England
by William Sheldon, efq. about the end of the reign of
Henry VIIL See Dugdale's Warwickshire in Stemmate
Sheldon, p. 584.

In the reign of king James, the manufafturc of tapeftry
was fet up at Mortlake, in Surrey. Aubrey, indeed, in his
hiftory of that county, dates its inftitution in the fubfequcnt
reign ; but Lloyd (State Wortliics, p. 953.) is not only
pofitive for the former era, but affirms, that at the motion
of king James himfelf, who gave two thoufand pounds to-
wards the undertaking, fir Francis Crane erefted the houle
at Mortlake for the execution of the defign ; and this i«
confirmed by authentic evidence ; for, in Rymcr's Focdt-ra,
vol. xviii. p. 66, there is an acknowledgment from king
Charles in the firft year of his reign, via. 1625, that he owes
fix thoufand pounds to fir Francis Crane for tapeftry ; and

written to laftlfor ever, they engraved it' on marble or fteel ; he grants to him two thoufand pounds yearly, for ten ycirs,

■when it was to laft a long while, they wrote it on Egyptian towards the manitenance of the f;ud work,
paper ; and when it was only to laft a ftiort time, they con- Thefe works at Mortlake, which at firft had been con-,

rented themfelves to vrnte it on wax. In procefs of time, duded after old patterns, were afterwards formed from
Vol. XXXV. N defigns,

TAPESTRY.

defigns, both in hxhory and grotesque, furniflicd by Francis
Cloy*, and thus carrit-d to fingular pcrfeftion.

Frora tho dcd above recited, it is plain that the manu-
faAurc was then arrived at great perfedion. See Mr.
Walpole's Anecdotes of Painting in England, vol. ii. p. 36.

In the year 1663, a ftatute was enacted (cap. 15.) for the
rr.coiir?ge'meiit of the linen and tapeftry nian\ifaaures of
Enffland, and difcouragement of the very great importation
of ioreig.i linen and tapellry.

The firfl eftabhlhinent of a tapeftry manufafture at
Paris was under Henry IV., in the year 1606 or 1607, by
means of fcveral excellent arlifty, wliom he invited from
Flanders.

But this fell with the death of that prince. Under
Lewis XIV. the manufafturc was retrieved by the care and
addrefs of the great M. Colbert, to whom is owing the efta-
blilhment of the Gobelins, a royal tapeftry manufaClory,
which has produced works of this kind fcarcely inferior to
the fineft Enghfti or Flemilh tapeftry, either with regard to
the defign, the colours, or the ftrength.

In this manufaftory both wool and filk are ufed, and
fometimes gold and filver. The finuft paintings may be
copied in this work, and the greateft marters have been
employed in draughts for the tapeftry weavers.

The weavers of the Gobelins work behind, or on the
wrong fide of the loom, which ftands upright, and the pat-
tern is placed on either tide of the workman.

As the tapeftry of the Gobelins is made of pieces of a
certain breadth only, there are other workmen, called ren-
trayeurs, or fine-drawers, who are employed in fewing or
fine-drawing the feveral parts together, fo that no feam is
difcernible, but the whole appears as one defign, like a piece
of filk from a loom. Thefe workmen are alfo ufeful in
mending and cleaning tapeftry when damaged or fullied.

The tapeftry -men diftinguifti two kinds of work ; viz.
tapeftry of the /ji^k and tlie lo'W ivarp, though the difference
is rather in the manner of working, than in the work itfelf,
which is, in effeCl, the fame in both, only tlie looms, and
ionfequently the warps, are differently fttuated ; thofe of
the lonu tvarp being placed flat, and pwallel to the horizon,
and thofe, on the contrary, of the high warp, erefted per-
pendicularly.

The French have had three confiderable tapeftry manu-
factories befides that of tlie Gobelins ; the firft at AubulTon,
in Auvergne ; the fecond at Felletin, in the Upper Marche ;
and the third at Beauvois : they were all equally eftablilhed
for the high and the low warp ; but all laid afide the former,
excepting that of the Gobelins.

There are admirable low warps in Flanders, generally
exceeding thofe of France ; the chief and almoft only
FlemilTi manufaftories were at Bruffels, Antwerp, Oudenard,
Li.He, Tournay, Bruges, and Valenciennes.

At Bruffels and Antwerp they fuccteded both in human
figures and .inimals, and in landfcapes : and that both with
refpeft to the defigning and the workmanfhip. At Oude-
n.ird their landfcapes and animals were good, but their
human figures not well executed. Lifle, and the other
cities named, came behind Oudenard. The French manu-
fafture of Felletin has done tolerably well in landfcapes,
AubufTon in figures, and Beauvois in both.

The ufual widths of tapeftries were from two ells to
three ells and a half, Paris meafure.

The manufafture of tapeftry of each kind (though lefs
fafhionablo and in ufe than formerly) is too curious to be
here paft over without a fhort defcription. We fhall give
»ach under its feparate article.

Manufadure of Tapejlry of the High Warp The loom

on which this is wrought is placed perpendicularly j \i
confifts of four principal pieces j two long planks or checks
of wood, and two thick rollers or beams, l^he planks are
fet upright, and the beams acrofs, one at top, and the
other at bottom, 2 foot diftance from the ground. They
have each their trunnions, by which they are fufpended on
the planks, and arc turned with bars. In each roller is a
groove, from one end to the other, capable of containing a
long round piece of wood, faftened in it with hooks. Its
ufe is to tie the ends of the warp to. The warp, which is
a kind of worftcd, or twifted woollen thread, is wound qb
the upper roller ; and the work, as faft as woven, is wound
on the lower.

Withinfide the planks, which are feven or eight feet high,
fourteen or fifteen inches broad, and three or four thick,
are holes pierced from top to bottom, in which are put thick
pieces of iron, with hooks at one end, ferving to fuftain the
coat-ftave : the pieces of iron have alfo holes pierced in them,
by putting a pin in which, the ftave is drawn nearer, or fet
farther oft' ; and thus the coats or threads are ftretched and
loofened at pleafure. The coat-ftave is about three inches
diameter, and runs all the length of the loom ; on this are
fixed the coats, or threads, which make the threads of the
warp crofs each other. It has much the fame effe£k here as
the fpring-flave and treddles have in the common looms.
The coats are little threads faftened to each thread of the
warp, with a kind of fliding-knot, which forms a fort of
mafh or ring. They ferve to keep the warp open, for the
paffages of broaches wound with filks, woollens, or other
matters ufed in the piece of tapeftry.

Laftly, there is a number of little fticks, of different
lengths, but all about an inch diameter, which the workman
keeps by him in bafkets, to ferve to make the threads of the
warp crofs each other, by palTmg them acrofs : and that the
threads thus croffed may retain their proper fituation, a
packthread is run among the threads above the ftick.

The loom thus formed, and mounted with its warp, the
firft thing the workman does, is to draw, on the threads of
this warp, the principal hues and ftrokes of the defign to be
reprefented on the piece of tapeftry ; which is done by ap»
plying cartoons made from the painting he intends to copy,
to the fide that is to be the wrong fide of the piece ; and then
with a black-lead pencil following and tracing out the con--
tours of tliem on the thread of the right fide ; fo that the
firokes appear equally both before and behind. As to the
original defign the work is to be finifhed by, it is hung up
behind the workman, and wound on a long ilaff, from which
a piece is unrolled, from time to time, as the workman
proceeds.

Befides the loom, &c. here defcribed, there are three other
principal inftruments required for working the filk, or wool
of the woof within the threads of the warp. Thefe are 3
broach, a reed, and an iron needle.

The broach is of hard v.-ood, feven or eight inches long,
and two-thirds of an inch thick, ending in a point, with a
little handle. It fervesas a fhuttle, the filks, woollens, gold,
or filver, to be ufed in the work, being wound on it. The
reed, or comb, is alfo of wood, eight or nine inches long,
and an inch thick at the back ; whence it ufuaUy grow*
lefs and lefs, to the extremity of the teeth, which are more
or lefs apart, according to the greater or lefs degree of fine-
nefs of the intended work.

Laftly, the needle is in form of a common needle, only
bigger and longer. Its ufe is to prefs clofe the wool and
filks, when there is any line or colour that does not fit
well.

All things being prepared for the work, and the work-

inan

TAPESTRY.

«)»ii ready to bfgiii, he places himfelf on the wrong fido of
the piece, with his back towards the defign ; fo tliat he
works, as it were, blindfold, feeing nothing of what he does ;
and being obliged to quit his poll, and go to the other
fide of the loom, whenever lie would view and examine the
piece, to correct it with his prefling-necdle.

To put any filk, &c. in the warp, he firft turns and
looks at his defign ; then taking a broach full of the proper
colour, he places it among the threads of tlie warp, wliich
he brings acrols each other with his fingers, by means of the
coats or threads failened to the llaff : this he repeats every
time he is to change his colour.

The filk, or wool, being placed, he beats it with his reed,
or comb ; and when he has thus wrought in feveral rows
over each other, he goes to fee the cffedl they have, in
order to reform tlje contours with his needle, if there be
occafion.

As the work advances, they roll it up on the lower
beam, and unroll as mucli warp, from the upper beam, as
fuffices them to continue the piece : the like they do of the
defign behind them. When the pieces are wide, feveral
workmen may be employed at once.

We have but two things to add : the firft, that this high-
warp tapeftry goes on much more flowly than the low-warp,
and takes almoit double the time and trouble. The fecond,
that all the difference the eye can obferve between the two
kinds confifts in this, that in the low warp there is a red
fillet, about one-twelfth of an inch broad, running on each
fide from top to bottom-; which is wanting in the high
warp.

ManufaBure of Tapejlry of the Loiu Warp. — The loom,
or frame, on which the low warp is wrought, is much like
that of the weaver's : the principal parts of it are two
ftrong pieces of wood forming the fides of the loom, and
bearing a beam, or roller, at each end : they are fuftained at
bottom with other ftrong pieces of wood, in manner of
treftles ; and to keep them the firmer, they are likewife
faftened to the floor with a kind of buttreftes, wliich prevent
any (baking, though there are fometimes four or five work-
men leaning on the fore-beam at once.

The rollers have each their trunnions, by which they are
fuftained : they are turned by large iron pins three feet long.
Along each beam runs a groove, in which is placed a iv'ich, a
piece of wood of about two inches diameter, and almoft of
the length of the roller : this piece fills the groove entirely,
2nd is l^ftened in it, from fpace to fpace, by wooden pins.
To the two wiches are faftened the two extremities of the
warp, which is wound on the farther roller ; and the work,
as it advances, on the nearer.

Acrofs the two fides, almoft in the middle of the loom,
paffes a wooden bar, which fuftains little pieces of wood,
not unlike the beam of a balance : to thefe pieces are
faftened ftrings, which bear certain fpring-ftaves, with which
the workman, by means of two treddles, under the loom on
which he fets his feet, gives a motion to the coats, and makes
the threads of the warp rife and fall alternately. Each loom
has more or fewer of thefe fpring-ftaves, and each ftaff"
more or fewer coats, as the tapeftry confifts of more or
fewer threads.

The defign or painting, the tapeftry-man is to follow, is
placed underneath the warp ; where it is fuftained from
fpace to fpace with ftrings, by means of which the defign is
brought nearer the warp.

The loom being mounted, there are two inftruments ufed
in working of it : w'z. the reed, and the flute. The flute
does the office of the weaver's (huttle ; it is made of an hard
polifhed wood, three or four lines thick at the ends, and

fomewhat more in the middle, and three or four inchcj lonp.
On it are wound the filks, or other matters, to he ufed a>
the woof of the tapeftry. The comb or reed is of wood or
ivory ; it has ufually teeth on both fides ; it is about an inch
thick in the middle, but diminillies each way to thi- ex-
tremity of the teeth : it ferves to beat th<- threads of the
woot clofe to each otlier, as faft as the workman lias pafted
and placed them with his flute among tiie threads of tiie
warp.

The workman is feated on a bench before tiie loom, with
his breaft againft th<- beam, only a eiilhion or pilloW between
them ; and, in this pofture, feparating, with his fingers, the
threads of the warp, that he may fee the defign under-
neath, and taking a flute, mounted with a proper colour,
he pafl'ea it among the tlireads, after having raifed or
lowered them, by means of the treddles moving the fpring-
ftaves and coats.

Laftly, To prefs and clofe the threads of the filk or yarn,
&c. thus placed, he ftrikes each courfe (/'. e. what the
flute leaves in its paffing and coming back again) with the
reed.

What is very remarkable in the manufafture of the low
warp, is, that it is all wrought on the wrong fide ; fo that
the workman cannot fee the right fide of his tapeftry, till
the piece be finiftted and taken out of the loom.

M. Le Blon, in endeavouring to 'iw the true harmony of
colouring in painting, found that all vifible objefts may be
reprefented by the three primitive colours, red, yellow, and
blue ; becaufe out of thefe, all others, even black itfelf,
may be compounded.

From the principle of producing any vifible objeft with
a fmall number of colours, and from obferving the com-
pounded colours wliich were reflected from two pieces of filk
of different colours, placed near to one another, he arrived
at the fliill of producing in the loom all that the art of paint-
ing requires. In weaving, indeed, he hath been obliged to
make ufe of white and black threads, befides red, yellow,
and blue ; and tliough he found that he was able to imitate
any pifture with thefe five colours, yet for cheapnefg and
expedition, and to add a brightnefs where it was required,
he found it more convenient to make ufe of feveral inter-
mediate degrees of colours.

In his new way of weaving tapeftry in the loom with a
draw-boy, it may be performed almoft as expeditioufly as
fine brocades ; for when the loom is once fet and mounted,
any common draught-weaver, unacquainted with drawing or
painting, and indeed hardly knowing what figure he is about,
may exaftly produce what the painter hath reprefented in
the original pattern : and thus a piece of tapeftry may be
woven ni a month or two, which, in the common way of
working, would take up feveral years \ and what in the
common way cofts a thoufand pounds, may, by tliis mcana,
be afforded f-ner and better for a hundred.

The main fecret of this confills in drawiiig the patterns,
from which any cominon draught-weaver can mount the
loom ; and when that is done, llie piece may be made of any
fize, by only widening the reeds and the warp : and a re-
verfe may be made with the fame cafe ; wliich is done by the
boy's puOing the lafties up again in the fame order in which
he pulled them down before : by which contrivance the
tapeftry may be fuited to any room, whether the light comes
in on the right, or on tiie left. The patterns are painted
upon paper, on which are printed fquores from copper,
plates, and thefe fubdiN-ided by as many lines aa anfwer to
the threads of the warp, which run lengthwife ot the piece ;
then they try how m.any threads of the {hoot anfwer in
breadtk to every fubdiyifion of the fquwes. Every tiircad
N » ot

TAPESTRY.

of the warp goe» tliroujrh a liiiall biafs riiij; called a male, or
through a loop in the kifli, and hath a final! long weight or
hngoe hung below, to counterbalance the packthreads,
wluch goin| from Uie top of the rings or loops, are palTed
over the pidlies in tlie table diredly over the loom, and are
continued nearly in an horizontal pofilion on one fide of the
loom to a convenient dillance ; where they are all fpread on
a crofs piece fallcned to two ftaples : thefe are called the
tail of tk' mountun- ; and from each of thefe packthreads,
juft by the fide of the loom, arc faftened other packthreads,
called /;«/>/«, which defcend to the ground; fo that by
pulling thefe fimple cords, you raife any of the threads of
the warp at pleafure : wherefore they fatten a loop or pot-
lart to as many of thefe fimple cords as there are threads of
the warp to be pulled up at every (hoot, or every throw of
the (huttlc ; by which means the (hoot (hews itfelf on the
right fide, where the warp is pulled up : and in ordering
this, they are guided by the pattern, on which they count
the difta'nces of the fubdivifions, which contain the fame
colours in the fame line, and can be (hot at once : then they
fallen potlarls to the feveral fimple cords that draw up the
rings, through which thofe threads of the warp run, which
are to lie behind this colour ; they tie all thefe loops to-
gether, and fatten a piece of worfted or filk to the knot, of
the fame colour that the workman is to thro\v ; and the
boy, when he pulls each loop, names the colour, that the
weaver may take the proper (huttle, and fo on for every
colour to be thrown. Phil. Tranf. abr. vol. vi. p. 469, See.
In conneftion with this fubjeft, we are naturally led to
give a brief account of the manufadure of carpets. This is
faid to have been introduced into France from Perfia, in the
reign of Henry IV., where it has been dittinguiihed by ex-
traordinary encouragement. The moft confiderablc manu-
faftory of this kind was that of Chaillot, or the royal manu-
factory of La Savoniere, or the Soap-houfe, about a league
from Paris. This manufafturc was altogether of wool, and
worked in the manner of velvet. AU forts of figures of
animals may be imitated in this work, but fruits and flowers
anfwer beft ; and it is moft fuccefsfully applied to the manu-
fadure of carpets and all forts of fcreens.

The carpets are, in fome refpeft, wrought by the upright
way of tapeftry. The two rollers are placed the fame way :
the warp is braced from the top downward ; the chain, with
its loops, keeps all the threads of the warp equally per-
pendicular ; the ftick, which facilitates their croffmg, runs
through them in the fame manner, and feparates the fore-
moft threads from the reft ; the lizier-pole holds all the
firings, which ferve to draw the fore-threads in their turns,
and then the oppofite threads, in order to infert the fpindles
of wool. But the method of working in this manufactory
differs from the upright way of tapeftry in the following
particulars.

The warp is divided, both before and behind, into parcels
of ten threads, nine white and one blue ; which is regularly
continued through the whole width of the piece. The
weaver works on the fore -fide, and confcquently fees what he
docs. The defign or pattern is traced in its proper colours
on cartons, tied about the workman, who looks at it every
moment, becaufe every ftitch is marked upon it, as it ought
to be in his work. By this means he always knows what
colours and (hades he is to ufe, and how many ftitches of the
fame colour. In this he is affitted by fquares, into which
the whole defign is divided ; each fquare is fubdivided into
ten vertical lines, correfponding with each parcel of ten
threads of the warp ; and befides, each fquare is ruled with
ten horizontal fines, croffmg the vertical lines at right angles.
The woik/nan having placed his fpindles of thread near him,

begins to work on the firll horizontal line of one of the
fquares. Thefe lines marked on the carton are not traced
on the warp, for this would be endlefs ; becaufe an iron-
wire, which is longer than the width of a parcel of ten
threads, fupplies the place of a crofs Une. This wire is
managed by a crook at one end, at the workman's right
hand ; towards the other end it is flatted into a fort of knife,
with a back and edge, and grows wider to the point. The
workman fixes his iron wire, or rod, horizontally on the
warp, by twitting fome turns of a fuitable thread of the
woof round it, which he paifes forward and backward, be-
hind a fore-thread of the warp, and then behind the oppofite
thread, drawing them in their turn by their leilhes. After-
wards, if it be neceffary, he brings his (voof-throad round
the wire, in order to begin again to thruft it into the v^'arp.
He continues in this manner to cover the iron rod or wire,
and to fill up a fine to the tenth thread of the warp, which
is the blue one. He is at hberty either to ftop here, or go
on with the fame crofs line in the next divifion. According
as he pafTes the thread of the woof round the iron wire, and
into the warp, the threads of which he caufes to crofs one
another at every inttant ; wheu he comes to the end of the
line, he takes care to ftrike iu, or clofe again all the ftitches
with an iron reed, whofe teeth freely enter between the
empty threads of the warp, and which is heavy enough to
ttrike in the woof he has ufed. This row of ftitches is again
clofed and levelled, by a dweet of blue thread doubled,
which the workman puts into the warp, Aiding his hand
over the whole length of line he has wrought. He crofles
the fame threads of the warp, and then ftretches through
them another fingle blue thread. He beats in thefe two
threads, one after another, with his reed ; thefe dweets of
crofs thread, which are a fupport to each line, will be hid
by the pile on the fore-fide, and they indeed diminifh the
beautv of the wrong fide ; but this is of no coniequence.
This done, the workman draws the iron rod or knife out of
the loops of the woof that covered it ; and as it is wider to-
wards its end, thefe loops refift its pafTage ; but being edged
at its fore part, it cuts them through. Then the workman
witf: his left hand lays a ftrong pair of (liears alCng the
fini(hed fine, cuts off the loofe hairs, and thus forms a row of
tufts perfectly even, which, together with thofe before and
after it, form the (hag. One line of this fort comprehend-
ing the row of ftitches and woollen pile, with the two blue
threads which fupport them, fomewhat furpafs in thickncfs
the fpace between the firft and fecond crofs line of a fquare.
By this means the workman always fees what he is doing.
He follows, ftitch for ftitch and colour for colour, the plan
of his pattern which he is at, and paints magnificently, with-
out having the leaft notion of painting or drawing.

The manufacture of carpets, after the manner of Chaillot,
was introduced into London in the year 1750, by two
workmen who left the manufaftory in difguft, and came
here to procure employment. They were encouraged and
furnifhed with materials by Mr. Moore, to whofe alTiduity
and zeal the eftabUfhment of this fort of manufacture has
been princi{>ally owing. However, thefe men afterwards
connected themfelves wath a Mr. Peter Parifot, \vl\o, under
the patronage, and by means of the pecuniary afGitance of
his royal highnefs the duke of Cumberland, piu-fued the
manufacture of a carpet already begim at Paddington.
This undertaking was foon removed to Fulham, and, under
the munificence of the duke, promifed to be durable and
advantageous. In 1752, Parifot, the undertaker, propofed
a plan of fubfcription, the nature of which it is now needlefs
to recite ; as the whole fcheme, as far as he was concerned
io it, foon came to nothing. But Mr. Moore, being pro-
vided

T A i»

vided with the nfccflary materials, and fngagiiifr proper
workmen, and rifking a very confidcrablc cxpeiice, fuc-
ceeded in eftablifhing this important and idcful manufafture,
infomuch that, in 1757, he obtained a premium from the
Society of Arts, &c. for the bed carpet in imitation of the
Turkey carpets ; and by his ingenuity and porfeverance in
bringing this manufafture to perfedion, it is nou- arrived at
a very high degree of reputation.

Mr. Whitby and Mr. Paflfavant were alfo lionoured with
premiums for carpets of their manufafture by the Society
of Arts in 1757 and 1758. We have alfo manufaftorics
for carpets that are much efteemed at Axminller and Wil-
ton ; not to mention thofe of Kidderminiler and other
places.

TAPETI, in Zoology, the name of an animal common
in the Weft Indies, and called by fome cumruliis Americanus,
the American rabbit. In the Linnsean fyftem, this animal
is a fpecies of hare, or lepus Brafillenjis. (See Lepus.) It
lias large ears like the common hare ; a white ring round the
neck, though fome have not this ring ; the face of a rcddilh
colour ; the chin white, the eyes black ; colour of the body
like that of the common hare, but darker ; the body whitilh,
without a tail. Thefe animals inhabit Brafil, live in woods,
do not burrow, are very prolific, and afford good meat.
The tapeti is found alfo in Mexico, where it is called citli.
Pennant.

TAPHICESIUS Lapis, a name given by Pliny and
the ancients to a fpecies of jEtites, or eagle-ftone, found in a
place of that name near Leucadia.

TAPHNEUS, a word ufed by fome writers to exprefs
r.ny thing when depurated or purified to the greateft degree,
as the falts, by repeated folutions and cryftallizations, and
the like. Paracelfus ufes it for a fpecies of earth, the things
produced from which, he fays, never alter their nature by
calcination or reverberation, or the hke operations.

TAPHNIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Egypt,
mentioned by the prophet Jeremiah, to which he and the
Ifraelites that were with him retired.

TAPHRA, a town fituated in the ifthmus of the Tau-
ric Cherfonefus, mentioned by Pliny and Strabo.

TAPHROS, a name which was given to the ftrait that
fepar;ites the idand of Sardinia from that of Corfica.

TAPHRURA, orTAPHRA, a town of Africa Propria,
upon the gulf of Numidia.

TAPHUA, a town of Palefline, in the tribe of Juda.
— Alfo, a town of Paleftine, which belonged to the tribe
of Ephraim, and was fituated upon the frontier of that of
ManafTeh.

TAPIA, in Botany, an American name, adopted by
Plumier from Pifo. See Crateva.

Tapia, in Geography, a town of South America, in the
kingdom of New Granada, and province of St. Martha.

TAPIAN Point, a cape on the W. coaft of Mindanao.
N. lat. 7°. E. long. 124° 30'.

TAPIAU, a town of Pruflia, in Samland, on the Pregel ;
20 miles E.S.E. of Konigfberg. N. lat. 54° 36'. E. long.
21° 13'.

TAPICURU, a river of Brafil, which runs into the
fea, S, lat. 12° 20'.

TA-PI-HOTUN, a town of Corea ; 690 miles E. of
Peking. N. lat. 40° 20'. E. long. 125° 22'.

TAPINOSIS, TxTiiv^^t.-, in Rhetoric, the fame with di-
minution ; which fee.

TAPION, Le, in Geography, a town on the W. coaft
of Hifpaniola 5 10 miles E. of St. Marc.

TAPIR, or Tapijerete of Marcgrave, in Zoology, the
name of an animal found in fome parts of America, and

T A P

called by tlic Portuguefe anln, by others lianta, by Dainpier
yache montagnarile, and by otiiers <'/rtn, m<\ fiu nrjualicui, and
in the tenth edition of the Linna;an Syftem, hippopottimut ter-
rejlris. Gmelin makes it a dillind genus ; and his generic
charafters, amended by Dr. Shaw, are as follow ; front
teeth in both jaws ten ; canine teeth in botii jaws lingle, incur-
vated ; grinders in both jaws five on eacli fide, very broad ;
feet witii three hoofs, and a falfe hoof on the fore-feet.
This animal {Tapir Americanus) is of the fizc of a young
calf, or iieifer, and in fhape fomewhat approaching to the
figure of the liog, and the back arched ; its head is tiiicker
than a hog's, and ends in a iharp ridge at top ; and the male
has a fnout, or fort of probofcis, lianging over the opening
of the moutli, in wliich he has a vi ry itrong mufcle, (erving
to retraft it at pleafure ; the nofe of the female is deftitutc
of the probofcis, (this circumftance is doubted by Sonnini,)
and the jaws are of equal length; its eyes are fmall, and
very hke thofe of the hog; its ears roundifh, bordered with
white ; and thefe he can draw forward at pleafure ; its legs
arc thick, and not longer than thofe of our hogs ; its fore-
hoofs are divided into three portions ; and a lort of falfe
hoof behind ; but its hind-hoofs into three ; its tail i* ver*
fmall ; the (kin is hard and folid ; and the hair (liort, and of
a pale brown, and when yoimg, variegated with white fpots ;
and along the neck is a brillly mane, an inch and a half high.
It lives in thick woods, on the eaftern fide of South Amenca,
from the iithmusof Darien to the river of the Amazons ; and
fleeps all day, but at night, or early in the morning, goes out
for its prey : it feeds on vegetables, and is particularly fond
of the ftalks of the fugar-cane ; it often takes the water,
and fwims excellently : the natives, in places where it it
common, eat its flefti, which is faid to be good : the In-
dians (hoot it with poifoned arrows, and cut the /kin into
bucklers. This animal is falacious, flow-footed, and (luggifti,
and makes a kind of hilfing noife ; but perfectly harmkfs :
the young are eafily tamed, and may be rendered domellic,
which is laid to be the cafe in fome piu-ts of Guiana. When
attacked by dogs, it makes a vigorous refiftance. The tapif
produces but one young at a birth, of which it is very care-
ful, leading it at an early age to the fea, and inftrufting it
to fwim. Ray and Pennant.

TAPIRIA, in Botany, .luft. 372, (lightly altered from
the ftill more barbarous Tapirira, Aubl. Guian. 470. t. 188,
which is itfelf an alteration of the Caribbean name Tupiriri,
by which this tree is known in Guiana. See Jonquetia.

TAPIR-TALA, in Geography, a town of Chinefc
Tartary. N. lat. 43° 15'. E. long. 120° 39'.
TAPIS. See Tunica.
TAPE, in Geography. See Topel.
TAPLAKEN, a town of Pruffia, in Samland, on the
Pregel ; 24 miles E. of Konigfberg.

TAPLEYS, a town of North Carolina ; 12 miles N.E.
of Hillfborough.

TAPLINGS, in the Engli/h Salt-Worts, Uie name giten
to certain bars of iron which fupport the bottom of the
pan in which the brine is boiled.

Thefe pans are very large, and cover a wide furnace ;
but as their width would make them apt to bend in the mid-
dle, which would fpoil the working of the fait, there is a
fort of wall of brick carried along the middle of the fur'
nace, and on the top of this are placed thefe t^phngs : they
are about eight inches high, and from four to fix in ihicknefs,
being fmalleit at the top. Thefe are placed at about thre*
feet diftance one from another, and the wall wiiich fupports
them, and which is called the mid father, is broad at the
bafe, and fo narrow at the top, as bwely W give room for
ttte bafes of the tapUugt.

TAPOA-

T A 1'

TAPOAMANAO, in Geography. See Sir Charles
Saisueks'/ IJhnd.

TAPO AN A, a river of Brafil, which runs into the fca,
S. lat. 2 1^ lo'.

TAPOCOROI, a river of Brafil, whicli runs into the fea,
S. lat. 27".

TAPOGOMEA, in Botany, from the Caribbean name
of one of the fpecies, Tapogomo ; Aubl. Guian. 157. .luff.
208. Sec Cai.licocca.

TAPOOKAS, in Geography, a town of the ftate of
Georgia, on tlic Yazoo. N. lat. 35° 57'. W. long.

TAPOOL, a fmall ifland m the Sooloo Archipelago.
N. lat. 5' 37'. E. long. 120° 52'.

TAPObR, a town of Hindooftan, in the Myforc ;
15 miles S.S.W. of Darampoory. — Alfo, a river of Hin-
dooftan, which runs into the Cauvery, 4 miles N. of Cave-
ripatam.

TAPOSIRIS, in ylncient Geography, a town of Egypt,
at fome dillance from the fea, between Cynofl'cma and Pin-
thyna. — Alfo, another town, called Parva Tapofiris, on a
tongue of land between the fea and the canal which pafled
from Canopus to Alexandria.

TAPPA, in Geography, one of the fmall Molucca iflands ;
feparated by a narrow channel from Latalatta : on it is a

fool of frefh water ; a little to the north of the line.
;. long. 127^ 5'.

TAPPAHANOCK, a town of the United States
of America, in Virginia, on a fmall river, which runs into
the Rappalianock ; 43 miles N.E. of Richmond. N. lat.
57= 58'. W. long. 76^ 55'.

TAPPALANG, a town on the weft coaft of the ifland
of Celebes. S. lat. 2° 25'. E. long. 1 19° 5'.

TAPPAN. See Oraxgk-town-.

TAPPANOOLY, a fea-port town of the ifland of Su-
matra, fituated on the weft coaft, in the country of Batta,
on a fmall ifland called Punchongcacheeie. The bay is
very deep, capable of containing the united navies of Eu-
rope, and confifting of a number of harbours within one
another. The bay ftretches into the heart of the Batta do-
rninions, and its borders are inhabited by that people, who
barter here the produce of their country for fuch articles as
they want. The Englifli Eaft India company have a fac-
tory here. N. lat. 1° 40'. E. long. 98° 12'.

TAPPI, or Tai'I, called by the Moors Chedder, a river
of Hindooftan, which, as Thevenot fays, has its fource
ten miles from the little town of Brempore, in the kingdom
and mountains of Deccan, and runs into the fea about z\
leagues below Sural. The Banians and Gentoos efteem this
a very holy river.

TAPPING, tiie aft of piercing a hole in a veffel, and
applying a tube, or cannula, in the aperture, for the com-
modious drawing off the liquors contained therein.

Tapping, in Agriculture, is the making an incifion in the
bark of a tree, and letting out the juice.

To tap a tree at the root, is to open it round about the
root.

Ratray, the learned Scot, affirms, that he has found by
experiment, that the liquor, which may be drawn from the
birch-tree in the fpring-time, is equal to the whole weight of
the tree, branches, roots, and all together.

In the tapping of trees, the juice, taken in from the
earth, afctaids from the root ; and, after it is concofted and
affimilated in the branches, Ac. it defcends, Uke a hquor in
ao alembic, to the orifice or incifion where it iflues out.

One of the moft effeftual wayj of tapping, fo as to obtain
the greateft quantity of fap in the Ihorteft time, is not only

T A r

to pierce the bark, or to cut the body of the tree almoft t»
the pith, with a chiftel (as fome have direfted), but to bore
it quite through all the circles, on both fides of tin- pith,
leaving only the outermoft and the bark on the north-eaft
fide unpierced.

This hole is to be bored floping upwards, as large as the
largeft auger will make ; and that alfo through and \nider a
large arm near the ground. So will it not need any ftone to
keep open tiie orifice, nor tap to direft the fap into the
receiver.

By this method the tree will, in a fliort time, afford liquor
enough for brewing ; and with fome of this fweet fap, one
bufliel of malt will make as good ale as four bufttels of malt
with ordinary water. The large maple, which we call the
fycamore, is faid to yield the beft brewing fap, its juice
being very fweet and wholefome. See Betula.

To preferve the Sap for Breiuing Infolate it by a conftant

expofure to the fun in proper veflels, till the reft be gathered
and ready, otherwife it \\ ill contraft an acidity ; when there
is enougii, put into it as much very thin cut and hard-toafted
rye-bread, as will ferve to ferment it ; and when it works,
take out the bread, and bottle up the liquor. A few cloves
in each veftel that receives the fap, as it oozes from the tree,
will alfo, certainly, preferve it a twelvemonth. See Dr.
Tonge's Obf. in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, W 43, 44.
46. 68. or Abr. vol. ii. p. 673, &c.

Tapping of Oaklings and other Trees, the praftice of cutting
off^ the tap-roots of young oaks and other trees or plants of
that kind.

It has been noticed by Mr. Nicol, in his work on planting,
that thofe who are in favour of this method, rather tlian that
of fowing the feeds of thefe forts of trees, fuppofe that
tapping the downward roots of the young plants while they
are in the nurfery plantation, has the power and capability
of making their roots ever afterward have a horizontal ten-
dency in the earth or foil ; that in confequence of it they are
not liable to injury by infinuating themfelves downwards into
bad foil ; and that by a plentiful planting of nurfing plants,
to draw them upright, the neceflity of heading them down
is prevented. But that thefe are correft and folid arguments,
he thinks, it is much to be queftioned. No doubt, he fup-
pofes, exifts that tapping is of infinite advantage to all tap-
rooted plants of the tree kind, previous to their removal,
fince it caufes them to put forth fibres on the upper part of
the root, which they otherwife would not have done ; fitting
them thereby for being tranfplanted into ftiallow foils, and
for feeking pafturage for the fuftenance of the plants. But
that the roots will, ever afterwards, have a horizontal ten-
dency, may, it is believed, be fairly denied. Every plant,
unlefs conftrained, it is maintained, will follow its own na-
tural inchnations and habits of growth. Nor can all the art
of man prevent a downward tendency in the roots of thefe
forts of tree-plants, and at the fame time allow them depth
of foil. See Tav-RooI.

Tapping o/" Springs, the praftice of boring through the
furface covering materiids of land with the auger, and
letting oft" the hurtful water which is pent up, confined,
and contained in the clayey bed or ftratum below. See
SpRlNG-Z)ra/n.

Tapping, a term applied to an operation which is fome-
times performed on ftieep for removing a difeafe of the local
dropfical kind in the head. It is executed either by means
of a very large pin, or a trocar made for the purpofe. See
Sturdy.

Tapping, in Mechanics, a term applied to the making and '
reftifying of female fcrews by means of a tap, ;'. e. a Icrew
prepared and referved for this purpofe. The procefs, which .
J confift-s

T A K

■-onfifts of various manipulations, is minutely dcfcribed in
Nicholfon's Journal, vol. i. p. 160 — 163. See Sckew.

Tapping, in Surgery. See Parackntesis.

TAPPOOS, in Gfogrnphy, a town on the W. coall of
Sumatra ; 25 miles N. of Tappanooly.

TAPROBANA, orTAPRor.AXE, in Ancient Geography,
J name anciently given to the illand of Ceylon ; which fee.

TAPSAGUN, a town in the interior of Africa, and
one of thofe wliich were fubjugated by Cornelius Balbus.

TAPSAS, a river of Africa, which ran near the town
of Ruficada.

TAPSON, in Geography, a town of Thibet ; 50 miles
E. of Tchontori.

TAPSUS, or TllAP.sUS, in Ancient Geography, a penin-
fula on the eaftcrn coail of Sicily, between Hybia parva
and Syracufe — Alfo, a promontory of Africa, I 2 leagues
E. of the promontory Tritum. This formed the caltern
extremity ot the Sinus Nuraidicus.

TAPTEE, in Geography, a river of Hindooftan, formed
by the union of feveral fmaller rivers in the Candeilh country,
which runs into the gulf of Cambay, about i 2 miles below
Sural. See Tappi.

TAP-TOO. See Tat-too.

TAPUI-TAPERA, in Geography, a town of Brafil,
on the coaR ; 15 miles N.W, of St. Luis de Marannon.

TAPURA, in Botany, an unexplained name of Aublet's.
See RoHRlA.

Tapura, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the
jnountains of Lefler Armenia.

TAPURI, or Tapyri, a people of Afia, in Media.

Tapuri Monies, mountains of Scythia, on this fide of
mount Imaus. Ptolemy.

TAPUYAS, in Geography, a river of Brafd, which runs
into the river of the Amazons ; the banks of which are in-
habited by Indians, independent of the Portuguefe.

TAQUARI, a river of Brafil, having the largeft of its
many mouths in the Paraguay, in lat. 19° 15', and long.

54°-

TAR. See Pami.ico.

Tar, or Tarr, a thick dark-brown or black refinous ad-
hefive juice, iffuing from the wood and bark of old pines or
isrs, either naturally, or by burning. See PiNUs.

Some modern writers inform us, that tar flows from the
trunks of pines and firs, when they are very old, through
incifions made in the bark near the root ; that pitch is only
tar infpiffated ; and both are the oil of the tree grown thick
and black with age and the fun. The trees, like old men,
being unable to perfpire, and the fecretory dufts obftrufted,
they are, as one may fay, choaked and Huffed with their
own juice. But the method ufed by our colonies in America
of making tar and pitch, is, in effe<ft, the fame with that
of the ancient Macedonians ; as appears from the account
given in the Philofophical Tranfactions. And the relation
of Leo Africanus, who defcribes, as an eye-witnefs, making
of tar on mount Atlas, agrees in fubflance witli the methods
ufed by the Macedonians of old, and the people of New
England of this day. The greater part of the tar im-
ported into Britain is brought from the Baltic, and is ftill
prepared in nearly the fame method which is defcribed by
Diofcorides .is having been praftifed by the ancients. The
branches of the trees are cut into billets, and piled up in
large flacks, which are covered with turf. Fire is then .ip-
plied to the wood, and it is fuffered to burn with a flow
fmothered flame, during which procefs the tar is formed by
the decompofition of the refinous juice, which flows to the
bottom, and runs out through a fmall channel cut for the
purpofe. The Hacks are generally built on the Hope of a

T A 11

hill, fo lliat the tar is cafily coUefted, .ind put iiito fcarrels ;
in which f\ate it is brought into this countrv. The procefs
now defcribed is termed " diflillatio ijcr defccnfum." Se»
Pine.

A more expeditious and economical method of obtaining
tar is praftifed in France and Switzerland. The vood if
heated in huge brick ovens, conflrufted for the purpofe,
and thus it is charred more eciually, and the tar is of a more
uniform and better quality. In the Vallais the pines arc
felled in the preceding year, that the wood may be fuffi-
ciently dry, and when the outer bark and twigs are flripped
off, ttie remainder of the tree is cut into billets of tolerably
equal li/.e. The oven is conflrutled of flone or brick, of
the (hape of an egg placed on its fmall end : the floor is
made either of a flat flone, fcooped out into a hollow, or
of feveral flones accurately joined together. On one fide of
it, about five inches above the lowell part, is a hole, in
which a gun-barrel is thrufl, and this fcrves to convey off
the liquid tar that is collefted. A large iron grate is laid
at the bottom of the oven. The largeft of thefe ovens are
about ten feet high, and five or fix feet in the largell dia-
meter. In charging the oven, bundles of billets are thrown
in and fpread as evenly as poffible, the interftices being filled
with chips, till the charge nearly reaches the top. The
whole is then covered with a layer of chips, and the top
of the furnace is clofed with flat ftones heaped upon one
another, gradually leffening the opening, and forming a
kind of vaulted chimney, the mouth of which is fi>ur or
five inches acrofs. The dry chips at the top of the furnace
are then fet on fire, and the heat fpreads downwards, till the
whole charge is fufficiently kindled. The chimney is then
entirely clofed with a large flone, and wet earth is heaped
on the flones at top, and thrown on wherever the fmoke is
obferved to burfl out too flrongly. The melting then be-
gins, and the tar falls to the bottom, fills the hollow of the
floor (which detains any bits of wood and other impurities),
and runs off through the gun-barrel into cafl<s placed for
receiving it. The fire mult be occafionally refrefhed by
letting in a fmall draught of air through fmall holes left for
the purpofe in the fides of the kiln. When the procefs is
finifhed, the wood, completely charred, is taken out, and the
oven, after having been cle.ired out, is again filled. The
red wood and knots, being the richefl in refin, are found
to yield .ibout one-fourth of their weight of tar ; but the
general average product is about 10 or \ 2 per cent, of the
weight of the whole charge. After each procefs, a quantity
of " lamp-black" Ls collefted beneath the flones that form
the vault of the temporary chimney.

According to Theophrafhis, not only the turpentine'
trees, the pines, and the firs yield refin or tar, but alfo the
cedars and palm-trees ; and the words ^/'x and rofm are taken
by Pliny in fo large a fenfe, as to include the weepings of
the lentifcus and cyprefs, and the balms of Arabia and
Judasa ; all which perhaps arc- near of kin, and in their
mofl ufeful qualities concur with common tar, efpecially the
Norwegian, which is the moll liquid and befl for nv.'dicinal
ufes. Thofe trees that grow on mountains, enpofed to the
fun or north wind, are reckoned to produce the bell and
pureil tar ; and the Idjean pines were dilliiiguilhed from
thofe growing on the plain as yielding a thinner, fweetcr,
and better fcented tar. Every part of the tree, which is at
all refinous, is fit for yielding tar ; but the red wood and
the hard roots yield the bcfl in quality as well as the greatcil
in quantity.

Every kind of wood will produce the pyroligneotis acid
(which fee), and tar by the dellrudtive diltillation. Peat
alfo will yield it in abundance.

There

TAR.

TKert is alfo a kind of tar, the projca of making which
was fuggeftfd by Bechcr, the celebrated chemift, in the
time of king Charles II., w+ich has for fevcral years been
prepared from coal in the bifhonric of Liege, and m other
parts of Germany : we alfo make confiderable quantities in
England, efpecially near Brofcley, in Shroplhire, and at
Briilol. In the bilhopric of Liege the coal is diftilled m a
Ijind of ftill, compofed of two large caft-iron pots. In
England the coal is put into ovens, w-bich are heated by fires
lighted under their bottom, and the liquid matter is forced
through an iron pipe inferted into the top of the oven, and
which communicates with proper condenfing veflels. Wat-
fon's Cheni. Eff. vol. ii. p. 346, &c.

The earl of Dundonald, m Scotland, has lately invented
the art of extrafting tar and pitch from pit-coal, by a new
procefs of diUillation. See Addiefs and Propofals by fir
John Dalryraple, 1784.

A fubftance refembling tar, called " brai-gras," and much
ufed by the French for careening (hips, is made in the follow-
ing manner. The oven, defcribed in the preceding part
of this article, is ch;u-ged with alternate layers of chips of
green wood, and billets of dry, and all the refufe matter of
turpentine, &c. Over tlie whole is laid a ftratum of " brai-
hee," or rofin, and the gun-barrel pipe is ftopped up, aad
not tapped till the whole of the wood is reduced to char-
coal. The vault of the oven is alfo covered more carefully
after the charge is fufficiently kindled, and the whole pro-
cefs is carried on more flowly, and the heat of the fire melts
the rofin at the top, which mixes with the refinous fap, and
the whole concretes into a dark refinous liqui^ at the bot-
tom. When it is fufficiently cooled, it is dra\\Ti off and
barrelled. This " brai-gras" is of an intermediate confid-
ence between tar and rofin. Aikin's Dift.

Tar is properly an empyreumatic oil of turpentine, and
has been much ufed as a medicine both internally and ex-
ternally.

Tar in fubftance, mixed with honey, has been found an
excellent medicine for coughs.

The ancients efteemed tar good againft poifons, ulcers,
the bites of venomous creatures ; alfo for phthifical, fcro-
fulous, paralytic, and afthmatic perfons. But the method
of rendering it an inoffenfive medicine, and agreeable to the
ftomach, by extrafting its virtues in cold water, was un-
known to them. Siris, feft. 9. 16, 17. 21. 28. SeeTAK-
'UftUer, infra.

Tar is fometimes given in fubftance, mixed with fo much
powdered liquorice, or other fvich powdery matter, as is
fufficient to render it of a fit confiftence to be formed
into pills. An ointment of tar has been direfted in the
pharmacopeias, which has been chiefly employed in cutane-
ous diforders. See Unguentum e Pice.

Dr. Cullen mentions an empirical praftice, with refpeft
to tar, which is as follows. A leg of mutton is laid to
roaft, and whilft it is roafting it is bafted with tar. Wliilft
the roafting is continued, a (harp (l<ewer is frequently thruft into
the fubftance of the mutton, fo that the gravy may run out :
with a mixture of the tar and gravy found in the dripping-
pan, the body is to be anointed for three or four nights fuc-
ceffively, and during the time the fame hnen is to be worn.
This is alleged to be a remedy in feveral cafes of lepra ; and
Dr. Cullen knew one inftance of its having been employed
in a lepra ifthyofis with great fuccefs ; but he had no op-
portunities of repeating the praftice.

But the chief ufe of tar is for paying the fides of ftiips
and boats, and their rigging, in order to preferve them from
the efFeAs of the weather, which would otherwife crack or
rot them.

The tar obtained from the depofition of pyrohgneous
acid has been recommended as the beft prefervative for
every kind of wood-fence. For this purpofe, it (hould be
gently heated in an iron pot, and laid on with a bru(h. It
foaks into the wood, and feems to leave no body, as the
artifts exprefs it ; but after fome days' expofure to the fun,
the furface and texture of the wood will be much altered ;
for it will be found fo impervious and hard, that it will be
very difficult to make any imprelTion upon it. If a fecond,
and efpecially if a third coat of this tar be put upon wood,
it will then bear out, as the painters call it, fufficiently well;
and Mr. Parkes is of opinion that it will preferve all outfide
wood-work much more efFeftually than any other means
that have hitherto been employed for the purpofe. For or-
namental paling, and all outfide work, a firft, and perhaps a
firll and fecond coat of this tar might be ufed with great advan-
tage ; and when thefe are dry, white lead and oil might be ufed
to finilh the work. This fubftance not only hardens the wood,
but effeftually preferves it from worms and from all other
infeifts. It will (lop the progrefs of decay, when wood has
become worm-eaten. It is obferved, however, that this tar
is very difterent from that which is diftilled from mineral
coal, but which the earl of Dundonald recommended for a
fimilar purpofe. The appearance of the application may
be ver)' confiderably improved by the following prepara-
tions ; w'z. I gallon of tar, i oz. of tallow, 2 oz. of pul-
verized rofin, melted together and put on warm ; — or,
I gallon of the tar and 2 oz. of pulverized fulphate of iron,
ufed as the other. This tar has alfo been found an ufeful
varnifh for articles made of rolled iron, or of caft-iron. A
beautiful varni(h for thefe purpofes may be formed by in-
tin.ately mixing in a gentle heat one gallon of the wood-tar
with half a pint of reftified fpirits of wine. If this be laid
on hot and properly hardened, it will prove a beautiful and
durable black varni(h. Parkes's Chem. EfT. vol. ii.

Tar may fometimes be found ufeful as an application for
cuts in (heep by chpping, and alfo to the parts affefted by
the fly ; as well as in thofe of many other forts of animals.
It is likewife apphed to the axles of wheel-carriages, in order
to prevent friftion, and might probably be ftill more bene-
ficially made ufe of in this intention, by having a portion of
black-lead incorporated with it, as it would laft longer, and
be, at the fame time, more powerful in obviating the effefts
of friftion.

It is a material which has alfo been recommended for being
applied to the parts of trees from which boughs are taken ;
in which cafes, the faces of the wounded parts and the edges
of the bark are to be made perfeiftly fmooth by means of 3
proper knife ; and in a few hours afterwards, or as foon as
the parts are become quite dry, they are to be carefully
plaillered over with the tar, which is fimilar to that employed
for fmearing of (heep ; or they may be laid over with white or
blue lead paint, well mixed with oil, and made rather thicker
than that commonly ufed in painting. The tar is, however,
certainly preferable, being of a more adhering, healing na-
ture ; and, when laid on in a thin ftate, is not fo apt to fall
off in a fcaly manner by the aftion and effefts of the weather,
as is the cafe with the other fubftances.

As the component parts of vegetable tar have been found
toconfift of oil, refinous matter, pyrohgneous acid, and water ;
that which is of the fineft brown colour, has the leaft acri-
dity, and which is the freeft from a dark black appearance,
is probably the beft and moft proper for ufe in apphcations
as dreffings to animals ; though the other kifids may be
equally or more beneficial in different other intentions.

Tar, when in intimate mixture and union with butter or
lard, and the different precipitates of mercury or fulphur,

fonnf

TAR.

forms an excellent application in different difeafcs of various
kinds of animals, efpecially thofe of the flcin.

Tar, Barbadoes. See Bitumen, and Petroleum Bar-

hadenfe.

Tau, Mineral. See Bitumen.

T AV.-lVater. As the cold infufion of tar has been for-
merly much in vogue, and has been recommended by one of
the moll learned and ingenious writers of the age, it may
not be improper to give fome account of its virtues from
the bilhop of Cloyne's Siris, or chain of refletlions con-
cerning the virtues of tar-water.

In fome parts of America, tar-water is made by putting a
quart of c«ld water to a quart of tar, and ilirring them well
together in a veffel, which is left ftanding till the tar fmks
to the bottom. A glafs of clear water being poured off for
a draught, is replaced by the fame quantity of frefh water,
the veuel being fhaken, and left to (land as before. And
this is repeated for every glafs, fo long as the tar continues
to impregnate the water fufficiently, which will appear by
the fmell and talle.

But as this method produces tar-water of different degrees
of ftrength, the author fays he chufes to make it in the
following manner : Pour a gallon of cold water on a quart
of tar, and ftir and mix them thoroughly with a ladle or flat
ftick, for the fpace of three or four minutes ; after which
the veffel muft ftand eight -and-forty hours, that the tar may
have time to fubfide ; when the clear water is to be poured
off, and kept for ufe, no more being made from the fame tar,
which may ftill ferve for common purpofes.

This cold infufion of tar hath been ufed in fome of our
colonies as a prefervative or preparative againft the fmall-
pox, which foreign praftice induced the bifhop to try it in
his own neighbourhood, when the fmall-pox raged with great
violence. He fays the trial fully anfwered his expeftation ;
all thofe within his knowledge, who took the tar -water,
having either efcaped that diftemper, or had it very favour-
ably. Several were preferved from taking the fmall-pox by
the ufe of this liquor ; others had it in the mildeft manner ;
and others, that they might be able to take tlie infection,
were obliged to intermit drinking tar-water. He fays, he
has found it may be drank with great fafety and fuccefs for
any length of time, and this not only before, but alfo during
the aforefaid diftemper.

The general rule for taking it is, about half a pint night
and movning, on an empty ftomach, which quantity may be
varied according to the cafe and age of the patient ; provided
it be always taken on an empty ftomach, and aboOt two hours
before or after a meal.

It has been found, that feveral perfons infefted with cuta-
neous eruptions and ulcers were immediately relieved, and
foon after cured, by the ufe of this medicine. It is faid, that
even in the fouleft diftempers, it proved much more fuccefs-
ful than falivations and wood-drinks had done. It alfo fuc-
ceeded, beyond expedtation, in a tedious and painful ulcer-
ation of the bowels, in a confumptive cough, and (as ap-
peared by expectorated pus) an ulcer in the lungs, in a
pleurify and peripneumony. And when a perfon who had
been for fome years fubjedl to eryfipelatous fevers, perceived
the ufual forerunning fymptoms to come on, the drinking of
tar-water prevented the eryfipelas.

Tar-water cures indigellion, and gives a good appetite.
It is an excellent medicine in an afthma ; it imparts a kindly
warmth, and quick circulation to the juices, without heat-
ing, and is therefore ufeful, not only as a peAoral and bal-
famic, but alfo as a powerful and a fafe deobftruent in ca-
cheftic and hyfteric cafes. As it is both healing and diu-
retic, it is very good for the gravel. The bilhop fays he
Vol. XXXV.

believes it to be of grtat ufe in a dropfy, haN-ing known it
cure a very bad anafarca in a perfon whofe third, though
very extraordinary, was in a fhort time removed by the
drinking of tar-water. From the fuccefs of this medicine in
five or fix inftances, the bifliop believes it to be the beft and
fafeft, either for preventing the gout, or for fo ftrengthcning
nature againft the fit, as to drive it from the vitals.

It may likcwife be fafely ufed in inflammatory cafes ; and,
in faft, hath been found an admirable febrifuge, at once the
fafeft cooler and cordial.

The falts and more aftive fpirits of tar are got by infufion
in cold water ; but the rcfinous part is not to be diffolvcd
tliereby. Hence the prejudice whicli fome, perhaps, may
entertain againft tar -water, the ufe of which might inflame
the blood by its fulphur and refin, as a medicine, appears
not to be well grounded. It is obfer\ed by chcmifts, that
all forts of balfamic wood affor'd an acid fpirit, which is
the volatile oily fait of tlie vegetable. Herein is chiefly con-
tained their medicinal virtues ; and this author affirms, that
by the trials he has made, it appeai-s that the acid fpirit in
tar-water poffeffes tlie virtues, in an eminent degree, of that
of guaiacum, and other medicinal woods.

It is certain tar-water warms, and therefore fome may per-
haps ftill think it cannot cool. The more effectually to
remove this prejudice, let it be farther confidered, that, as
on one hand, oppofite caufes do fometimes produce the fame
effeft ; for inftancc, heat by rarefaftion, and cold by con-
denfation, do both increafe the air's elafticity ; fo, on the
other hand, the fame caufe ftiall fometimes produce oppofite
effefts. Heat, for inftance, in one degree thins, in another
coagulates, the blood. It is not therefore ftrange, that tar-
water ftiould warm one liabit and cool another ; have one
good effeft on a cold conftitution, and another good effeft
on an inflamed one ; nor, if this be fo, that it ftiould cure
oppofite diforders.

A medicine of fo great virtue in fo many different dif-
orders, and efpecially in that grand enemy the fever, muft
needs be a benefit to mankind in general. There are never-
thelefs three forts of people to whom the biftiop fays he
would peculiarly recommend it ; fea-faring perfons, ladies,
and men of. ftudious and fedentary lives. See Two Letters
from the Biftiop of Cloyne, &c. publiftied in 1747.

If it be aflied, what precife quantity, or degree of ftrength,
is required in tar-water ? It is anfwered, that the palate,
the ftomach, the particular cafe and conftitution of the pa-
tient, the very feafon of the year, will difpofe and require
him to drink more or lefs in quantity, ftronger or weaker in
degree. Precifely to meafure its ftrength by a fcrupulou»
exaftnefs, is by no means ncceffary.

It is to be obferved, that tar-water fliould not be made in
unglazed earthen veffels, thefe being apt to communicate a
naufeous fweetnefs to the water.

The fame ingenious author recommends tar-water in tlie
plague, and for the diftemper among the horned cattle ; with
what fuccefs, muft be left to experience.

Though this medicine, fays Dr. Lewis, is undoubtedly
very far inferior to the charafter that hath been given of it»
it is apparently capable of anfwering important purpofes,
as a deobftruent balfamic folution, moderately warm and
ftimulating. It fenfibly raifes the pulfe, and incrcafcs either
perfpiration or the groffer evacuations. He adds, " I have
been informed of fome late inftances of its good effefts in
diforders of the leprous kind." Mat. Med.

Dr. Cullcn thinks that the acid principle gives the virtue
to tar-water, and on this account the biftiop of Cloyne pro-
perly preferred the Norway tar to that of New England, as
the former contains more acid than the latter. This eminent

O phyfician

TAR

pTiyfician acknowledges tliat he found tliis preparation in
fcveral cafes to be a taluablc medicine ; and that it appeared
to ftrengtlien the tone of the ftoraach, to excite appetite, to
promote digeftion, and to cure all fymptoms of dyfpcpfia.
At the fume time, it manifeftly promotes the excretions,
particularly that of urine. From all thefe operations, it will
be obvious, as tlie do&OT thinks, that in many diforders of the
fyllem this medicine may be highly ufeful. Lewis. Wood-
tille.

It has been lately obfervcd by Dr. Darwin, that the wa-
tering of ground with tar-water is capable ofdeftroying the
while Aug, which is fo highly deftruftive to vegetables.

T.\n-Ketlle, in Rope-Making, is made of copper, and holds
from ten to twenty barrels of tar. It is fet in ihong brick-work,
and over it is faftened, from fide to fide, in the direction of the
nipper, a bridge, made of three -inch oak -plank, thirteen inches
broad, through the middle of which is a nortife for the ftep
to go through, to keep the yarn down and clear of the bot-
tom, when drawing through the kettle. On the fide of the
kettle next the capftern, is an upright port, twelve inches
fquare, in which is fixed a nipper to prefs the tar out of the
yarn ; and a flaf, with a weight fufpended at the end, is
fixed on the fid' of the nipper to keep it down, that the yarn
may imbibe no more tar than is neceffary.

Tau-.'?o/c, a term ufed to fignify tarred rope, or rope-
yarn, fuch as the thread of old cables, &c. This fort of tar-
rope is ufeful for a great Humber of different purpofes, fuch
as thofe of tying up the wads or (heaves of beans in the field,
and many other fiinilar articles ; the fattening of plants and
trees to various kinds of (upports ; and for bein^ applied to
a variety of other little ufes of the more domeilic kind, as
being cheap and readily procured.

Tar, in Commerce, a fmall filver coin on the coaft of
Malabar.

Tar, in Sea Language, a figurative expreffion for a failor
of any kind.

TARA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Tobolfls, on the Irtifch ; 220 miles E.S.E. of
Tobolfk. N. lat. 57°. E. long. 74° 43'.— Alfo, a town
of Japan, in tlie ifland of Xicoco ; 28 miles N.N.E. of
Ovutfi.

Taua Hill, a mountain of Ireland, in the county of
Wexford, near the fea-coaft ; 4 miles N. of Newborough.
See Tahagh.

Tara, the name of a fimian hero renowned in the
Hindoo epic the Ramayana, for mighty deeds in battle with
the hods of the tyrant Ravena, for the recovery of Sita, the
ravifhd fpoufe of Rama.

TAR A AN, in Geography, a town of Grand Bucharia ;
JO miles E. of Samarcand.

TARABAD, a town of Hindooftan, in Baglana ; 13
miles E. of Saler Mooler.

TARA BE, in Ornithology, the name of a Brafilian parrot,
larger than the common green parrot. Its general colour is
green ; but its head, breaft, and the origin of its wings, are
fed ; its beak and legs are of a dufliy grey. Marcgrave.
See PsiTTACus.

TARACASSA, in Geography, a diftrift of South
America, in the viceroyalty of Buenos Ay res, part of the
jurifdiftion of Carangas.

TARAE Laimk, the name given by the writers of the
middle ages to a (lone which they fay had the power of
Hopping all forts of fluxes. They have left us no defcrip-
tioD of It, and it feema to have been loft; even in their times ;
for they obferve that the phyficians ufed theyanjaw draconis,
er dragon's-blood, in its place.

TARAGH, in Geography, a fmall town or rather village

T A R

of the county of Meath, Ireland, on tfie noted hill of Taragh 7
where the ftatea of Ireland are faid to have antmbied, and
where fome pretend that there was a magnificent palace
belonging to the kings of Ireland ; but as no trace of any
fuch palace is to be found, its liaving exiftcd muft be re-
garded as improbable. General Vallancey accounted for
there being no trace of it, by fuppofing it to have been
made of mud and ftraw. A Danifh invader is alfo fuppofed
to have taken up his abode here, and to have built the fine
Dinilh fort, or rath, on the fouth.<-ait fide of the hill, which
is now beautifully planted. It is 5 miles N. by W. from
Dunfiiaghlin, and 19 miles from Dublin, on the road to
Cavan. There are two other hills of the fame name, one ii»
the county of Down, and the other in the county of Wex-
ford, both of them near the fea.

TARAGOT, or Taragale, a town of Africa, in the
country of D.irah ; 130 miles S.E. of Morocco.

TARAGUICO Aycuraba, in Zoology, the Brafilian
name for a fpecies of lizard, much approaching to the nature
of the taraguira ; but its tail is covered from its beginning
with fmall triangular fcales, and very regularly marked with
four brown fpots ; the back alfo, particularly that part
which is next the head, is variegated with undulated brown
lines. Ray.

TARAGUIRA, the name of an American lizard. It
grows to about a foot long ; its body is rounded, and every
where covered with fmall triangular du(]<y grey fcales ; its
back is fmooth, and it has not that falfe g^iUet under the
throat which the iguana has.

This is the fpecies of lizard of which it is reported, that
it will wake a fleeping perfon, if it fee him in danger of
being bitten by a ferpent. It is very common about houfes
and gardens in South America, and runs very fwiftly,
but with a waddling motion ; and when it fees any thing
at a dillance, has an odd way of nodding its head very
fwifdy. Ray.

TARAGUPALA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
Jn Telhngana ; 25 miles N.W. of Warangole.

TARAKLI, a town of European Turkey, in Beffa-
rabia ; 24 miles S.S.W. of Bender.

TARALEA, in Botany, a barbarous name of Aublet's.
See DiPTERYX, fpecies 2d.

TARAMA, in Geography, a jurifdiftion of Peru, in the
audience of Lima. The air is healthy, and the foil fertile.

TARAMAMON, a name given by Loubere to a ridge
of mountains that pafles E. and W. in Siam, not far to the
north of Yuthia.

TARAMANDAHU, a river of Brafil, which runs
into the Atlantic, S. lat. 30° 40'.

TARAMEH, Al, a town of Egypt, in ruins ; 2 miles
N.E. of Tineh.

TARAMUNDE, a town of Spain, in Afturia ; 45
miles W. of Oviedo.

TARANCON, a town of Spain, in New Caftile ; 33
miles S.E. of Madrid.

TARANDUS, in Entomology, a fpecies of Lucanui i
which fee.

Tarandus, in Zoology, a name given by Agricola, and
fome other authors, to the rein-deer. See Cervus Ta-
randus.

TARANIOLO, in Ornithology, a name by which the
whimbrel, or fmall curlew, called the arquata minor by
authors, is known in the markets of Italy.

TARANIS, probably from taran, thunder, in jiacient
Mythology, a name given by the Gauls to Jupiter, under
which appellation they facrificed human viftims to him.

Taraais

TAR

Tiranis coiTcfponded to the Jupiter Tonans of the
Romans. See Thok.

TARANNON, in Geography, a river of North Wales,
which runs into the Sevrn ; 4 miles W. of Newtown in
Montgomery ihire.

TARANSA, one of the Weftern iflands of Scotland,
ahout four miles in length, and two in breadth, where
wideft, but in fome places fcarcely half a mile acrofs ; 5 miles
N.E. from Toe-Head. N. lat. 57° 52'. W. long. 6^ 59'.

TARANTA, the name of mountains of Abyfilnia, tliat
Jje on the calt of the kingdom.

TARANTARA, according to Ennius, the military
trumpet's flourifli of the Romans.

TARANTELLA, a rapid tune played to perfons in
Calabria, fuppofed to be bitten by the tarantula, in order
to excite them to dance, which has been thought, while the
difeafe was believed, to be the only fpecific.

TARANTISMUS, in Medimu, the difeafe or affedion
of thofe hit by the tarantula.

The patients und^r this malady are denominated ta-
rantati.

Dr. Cornelio, in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, repre-
fcnts this as an imaginary difeafe ; and tells us, that the
tarantati, or thofe that think themfelves feized with it,
(excepting fuch as for particular ends feign themfelves fo,)
are moft of them young wanton girls, fuch as the Italian
writers call Donne difaJe, who, falling from fome particular
iudifpofition, into melancholy maduefs, perfuade themfelves,
according to vulgar prejudice, that they have been bitten by
t. tarantula.

But the evidence, on the other fide of the queftion, has

fained confiderable credit, as will appear from the article
"arantula.

TARANTOLA, in Geography, a town" of Naples, in
Abruzzo Citra ; 10 miles E.N.E. of Sulmona.

TARANTULA, or Tarentula, in Natural Hiflory,
s Teiiomous infcft, whofe bite gives_name to a new difeafe,
called tarantifmus.

Tlie tarantula is a kind of fpider, the aranea tarantula of
Linna»us, fo denominated from the city of Tarentum, in
Apulia, near which it is chiefly found. It is alfo called
phalangtum ApuUum. Valetta, a monk of Apulia, who
had always refided about the places where this mifchievous
animal is moft frequent, and had many opportunities of
tracing its feveral qualities, publiflied a fuccinft, but very
accurate hiftory of it in the year 1706, under this name.

It has its name phalangium, from the three phalanges or
joints of its legs, and this name equally fuiting many other
fpiders, as well as this, it ceafed to be its appropriated name,
and was applied as a generical term to feveral other fpiders
of the larger kind, among which this fpecies was always dif-
tinguifhcd by the epithet ApiiVtan, from the place where it
was fo frequently found.

Tlie tarantula, or Apulian phalangium, is frequent in all
parts of this country, in uncultivated places, but more
efpccially it breeds moil in funny dry hills, and particularly
in fuch parts of them as are cxpofed to the fouth.

It is faid not to be found any where except in Apulia,
But probably it is an inhabitant of many other places,
though its poifon may not be violent enough any where
elfe to bring on the efFefts it does there : as we find in
vipers and many other poifonous creatures, that the ftrength
of tlieir poifon differs greatly in degree in different places.

M. GeofFroy fays, that it is the opinion of fome that the
tarantula is never venomous but in the coupling feafon ;
ini Baglivi fays, that it is never fo but in the heat of

T A II

fummer ; particularly in the dog-days, when, becoming en-
raged, it flies on all that pafs by.

As this fpider is very tender, and eafily injured by cold
wuids and rain, it always digs itfclf a cave in the fide of
a hill for its liabitation ; and ufually chufcs for this pur-
pofe the hardcft ground it can find, which is better able
to defend it, and which it eafily woi-ks into, with its forcept
and claws. This always is hollowed upward in the liill, and
by that means is fafe from wet, all the water in rainy feafoas
running down over its top. Sometimes it burrows itfelf a
cave in a valley or plain, but then it always chufes a dry,
ufually a chalky foil. In this cafe, the entrance into it»
cave is fmali, and within, there are feveral winding pafiages :
if it happens to be furprifcd with wet in this place, from
hard rains, it quits the floor and hangs by its feet againft
the top of the cave. It preys upon a number of fmall
infefts, with which the fields of Apuha abound, and feldom
appears in the day-time, but creeps out about the time of
fun-fct, and preys at large upon the animals which arc the»
betaking themfelves to reft ; without the danger it would be
expofed to from its own enemies by day-light. If at any-
time he remains the whole evening in his cave or den, it i»
only to praftife another method of hunting his prey. la
this cafe, he comes forward to the mouth of the hole, and
there lies in wait ; his fore-legs are placed at the extremity
of the hole, and his eyes have a clear view all round. The
other infefts are not aware of this trick, but as they walk
near his hole he burfts out upon them, and feizing them, he
conveys them into his habitation ; where, as foon as he ha«
eaten them, he retires back into his cell to difpofe of the
wings and other fragments, till he can carry them out at a
more convenient time, and then places himfelf in his former
pofture for another prey.

The peafants of Apulia have a method of getting him out
of his hole in the day-time, in order to deftroy him. This
they do by making a foft liiffing noife through an oat
ftraw : whether it be that the creature loves this found, or
rather that he takes it for the voice of fome infcft that he it
ufed to prey upon, he always comes out, and falls a facrifice
to his greedinefs.

The creature has eight legs, and waUcs very well ; hit
legs have each three joints, and are covered with a fine
downy hairinefs ; they are of a whitifh colour at the bottom,
and variegated with black lines, and are wholly black in their
upper part, where they are joined to the breaft : thefe all
arife from a kind of oval fhield, which is placed upon the
breaft, and is black, hairy, and very hard : this is caUed hy
fome the Jpcciilum of the tarantula. From the fhoulders there
grow a pair of horns, at leaft they are ufually called fo,
though they fcem much better to deferve the name of arms;
the ufe of thefe is to hold faft the prey, that it may not be
able to efcape while he is kilhng it witii his forceps : thefe
horns or arms have the fame number of joints that the legs
have, but they greatly differ from the legs, in that they are
fhorter, and of a yeliowilh colour ; they are alfo covered
witii a longer and tliicker hair, for the more certainly hold-
ing the prey, and are terminated by black claws, and they
are much fmallcr and more capable of motion every way. '
The belly is either white, or of a pale yellow, and is marked
with a tranfverfe black ftreak : tills is furrounded with feve-
ral other fmall fpots of the fame colour, and is clothed with
a very fine and fhort down ; the whole body befidc is covered
with longer hairs, and is of a whitifli or brownifli colour ;
the apex of the head, the fliield of the breaft, and the ends
of the forceps, are as hard a.s a crab's claws ; but the reft
of the bodv is covered with a tender fupple flcin : the eye» are
O 2 rery

TARANTULA.

very large, and of a fine fhining black ; they are continually
in motion, and, when fccu in tlic night, or in a dufky place,
they ihinc like the eyes of a cat. In the place where the
mouth is placed in other animals, there ariles in this a black
hard forceps ; the upper part of this inllriiment is covered
with a yellow hairinefs, and it is terminated by extremely fine
and (harp claws, which tiie creature can open or clofe up at
plcafure. While the arms hold the prey in a proper pofi-
tion, thefe (harp points make wounds in the body, and the
other parts of the forceps fqueczc the body till all its juices
are preffed out, and the creature feeds on them : the mouth
is placed much below thefe, and ftands exaftly in the proper
place to receive the juices exprefled by this operation. The
tarantula (Iccps in his cave tlie whole winter, and a great
part of the autumn and fpring ; and if during this time he
is ploughed up, as is often tlie cafe, or is any other way
taken out of his hole, he is found quite torpid and numbed,
and is unable to do any mifchief by biting.

The hole or mouth of a tarantula's cave always gives
fome idea of the fize of the creature witliin : he makes it
fmall if he enters it wliile young ; and as he grows larger,
he eats away more and more of the earth to widen it ftill
more, fo that the diarneter of it is ufually about equal to
the diameter of the botly. The fize of a chefnut is about
the llandard of a full-grown tarantula ; but there are fome
old ones found much larger and more hairy. The female is
known from the male by having longer legs and a larger
belly. They copulate in June and July, and at that fea-
fon the females are often met witli in the fields carrj'ing the
males upon their backs. In Auguft and September they lay
their eggs, which remain the whole winter ; and in the fum-
mer after are hatched.

Pliny tells a ftory of the young ones always eating up
their motlier for the firft food, which is countenanced by
the relation of the peafants in tliofe parts, who fay that they
all fwarm about her and fuck her juices from many places at
"once, till they leave her a lifelefs carcafe on the field, and
then go each their fevcral ways in fearch of other food. The
bite of the tarantula, as it is called, is' not properly a bite,
but a wound inflifted in a very peculiar manner. The crea-
ture pierces the (kin with its forceps, and at that inftant in-
jefts from its mouth a poifon into the wound. The time in
wluch their wounds are fatal, is that of their copidation ; at
this time they are in their utmoft vigour and power of hurt-
ing. People of falhion are rarely hurt by them, but prin-
cipally the poor labourers, who deep half naked in the field,
and the women wlio travel the country with naked feet, ga-
thering medicinal herbs.

The bite occafions a pain, which at firft feems much like
that felt on the flinging of a bee, or an ant : in a few hours
the patient feels a numbnefs, and the part affefted becomes
marked with a little livid circle, which foon after rifes into
a ver)' painful tumour ; a httle after this he falls into a pro-
found fadnefs, breathes with much difficulty, his pulfe grows
feeble, and his fenfes fail ; at length he lofes all fenfe and
motion ; and dies, unlefs relieved. But thefe fymptoms
come fomewhat differently, according to the nature of the
tarantula, and the difpofition of the patient. An averfion
for black and blue ; and, on the contrary, an afFcftion for
white, red, and green ; are other of the unaccountable fymp-
toms of this difeafe.

AU the affiftance medicine has been able to difcover by
reafoning, confifls in fome chirurgical applications on the
wound, and in cordials and fudorifics ; but thefe are of httle
efficacy : a thing that avails infinitely more, is, what reafon
«ould never have difcovered — mudc.

As foon as the patient has loft his fenfe and motion, a
mufician tries feveral tunes on an inftrument ; and when he
has hit on that, the tones and modulations of which agree
with the patient, he is immediately feen to make a faint mo-
tion : his fingers firft begin to move in cadence, then his
arms, then his legs, by degrees his whole body ; at length
he rifes on his feet, and begins to dance ; his ilrength and
activity ftill increafing. Some will continue the dance for
fix hours without intermiffion.

After this he is put to bed, and when he is judged fuffi-
ciently recruited from his firft dance, he is called out of bed,
by the fame tune, for a fecond.

This exercife is continued for feveral days, fix or feven at
leaft ; in which time the patient finds himfelf exceedingly
fatigued, and unable to dance any longer ; which is the cha-
ratleriftic of his being cured ; for as long as the poifon afts
on him, he would dance, if one pleafed, without any dif-
continuance, till he died of the mere lofs of ftrength.

The patient, on this, perceiving himfelf weary, begins
to come to himfelf ; and awakes as out of a profound deep ;
without any remembrance of what had paflTed in his pa-
roxyfm, not even of his dance.

Somefimes the patient, thus recovering from his firft ac-
cefs, is quite cured ; if he be not, he finds a melancholy
gloom hanging on him ; he fhuns the fight of men, and
feeks water ; and, if he be not carefully looked to, throws
himfelf into fome river. If he do not die, the fit returns
at that time twelvemonth, and he is driven to dancing again.
Some have liad returns regularly for twenty or thirty years.

Ever)- tarantula has his particular and fpecific tune ; but,
in the general, they are all very briflc, fprightly ones, that
work cures.

This account was given in the Royal Academy of Sciences,
by M. Gepffroy, at his return from Italy, in 1702, and
confirmed by letters from F. Gouye. The like hiftory is
given by Baglivi, in an exprefs diifertation on the tarantiJa,
publifhed in 1696.

Authors are divided about the nature of the poifon of
the tarantula. Cardan fays it is a cold one, and Scaliger
fays it is a hot one ; but, be this as it will, Valetta informs
us, that its effett is verj' fudden ; it is no fooner received
into the flefii, but the veins take it up and carry it to the
heart, where it becomes diffufed through the whole mafs •£
blood, and gives an immediate trembUng of the limbs, and
a difficulty of breathing. The next part it feizes is the
brain, where it produces different effetls in different fub-
jeAs ; and, according to their ilate of liealth, and the con-
dition of their juices, brings on various fpecics of phrenfies.
The patient fees a thoufand phantoms, fometimes all jovial
and merry ones, and fometimes imaginary fcenes of blood
and cruelty. Some are fond of feeing httle ftreams of wa-
ter trickling down into a bafon ; others are never eafy un-
lefs they have green leaves before them . this indeed is almoft
an univerfal fymptom. Some are delighted with various
colours, and fome are fond of violent motion, fuch as danc-
ing, leaping, and the like ; and fome are in love with flow
and graceful movements, as walking majeftically, bowing,
and dancing flow dances. Some are military mad, and call
out for the noife of drums and trumpets, and the clafhing
of fv.'ords ; but all of them, as well the brifk and noify, as
the lethargic and dull, are pleafed with mufic.

They will get up and dance to any inftrument ; and the
moment it ceafes playing, they will fall down to the groimd
as if apopleftic, and not ftir again till the mufic is renewed.
Many people have laughed at the whole hiftory of the bite
of a tarantula, from this one accident of its poifon being

cured

TARANTULA.

cured by muiie ; but all who have been upon the fpot atteft
it. Valett. de Phaleng. Apulo.

To fuch extraordinary fafts, it is no wonder a few fables
fhould be added ; as, for inftance, that the patient is no
longer infefted than while the infeft lives ; and that the ta-
rantula itfelf dances, all the while, to the fame air with the
perfon bitten.

Dr. Doniinico Cirillo, profefibr of natural hiflmy at the
univerfity of Naples, pofitively eoiitraditts the telUmonies
above recited. Having had an opportunity of examining
the efFefts of this animal, in the province of Taranto, where
it -is found in great abundance, he affirms that the furpriiing
cure of the bite of the tarantula by mulie, has not the halt
truth in it ; and that it is only an invention of the people,
who want to get a little money, by dancing when they fay
the tarantifm begins. He makes no doubt but the heat of
the climate contributes very much to warm their imagina-
tion, and to tlu-ow them into a delirium, which may be in
fome meafure cured by niufic : but feveral experiments have
been tried with the tarantula ; and neither men nor animals,
after the bite, have had any other complaint, except a very
trifling inflammation on the part, like that produced by the
bite of a fcorpion, which goes off by itfelf without any
danger at all. In Sicily, where the fummer is ftill warmer
than in any part of the kingdom of Naples, the taran-
tula is never dangerous, and niufic is never employed for
the cure of the pretended tarantifm. It is without doubt
very extraordinary, fays this writer, that a man of fenfe,
and a phyfician of great leai-ning, as Baglivi was, fliould
have been fatisfied with the account of this diforder ; and
that, inftead of examining the fafts by experiments, he
{hould rather have tried to explain it : but even philofophers
like vei-y much to meet with wonderful and extraordinary
things, and though they are againft all reafon, flill they want
them to be true, and endeavour to find out the caufe of
them. Every year this furprifing diforder lofes ground ;
and he is perfuaded, that in a very little while it will en-
tirely lofe its credit. The Neapolitan phyfieians all look
upon the tarantula in the fame light, particularly after the
ingenious book publifhed on this fubjeft by the leai-ned Dr.
Serao ; who, by various experiments, has proved, that the
bite of the tarantula never produced any bad effefts, and
that mufic never had any thing to do with it. Phil. Tranf.
vol. Ix. art. 22.

The bite of the tarantula, and the method of its cure,
were, however, for many years fubjefts of elaborate dif-
cuffion ; and different theories were propofed for explain-
ing them, fome account of which it may not be improper to
preferve.

Theory of the Tarantula' s Bite, by M. Geoffroy. The poi-
fonous juice injecled by the tarantula, M. Geofi"roy conceives,
may give the nerves a degree of teniion greater than is na-
tural to them, or than is proportionate to their funftions :
and hence may arife a privation of knowledge and motion.
But, at the fame time, this tenfion, equal to that of fome
ftrings of an inilrument, puts the nerves in unifon to certain
tones, and obliges them to (hake, after being agitated by the
undulations and vibrations of the air proper to thofe tones.
And hence this wonderful cure by mufic : the nerves, thus
reftored to their motion, call back the fpirits thither, which
before had abandoned them.

It may be added, with fome probability, and on the fame
principles, that the patient's averfion for fome colours arifes
hence, that the tenfion of his nerves, even out of the parox-
yfm, being ftill different to what it is in the natural ftate, the
vibrations thofe colours occafion in the fibres of the brain,

are contrary to their difpofition, and occafion a kind of dif-
fonance, the effedt of which is pain.

Theory nf the EffeBs of the Tarantula's Bite, by Dr. Mead.
The m dignity oftlie poifon of the tarantula feems to eonfifl
in its great force and energy, whereby it immediately raifes
an extraordinary fermentation in the whole arterial fluid, by
whicli its texture and crafis are confiderably altered': the
confequence of this alteration, when the ebullition is over,
muff neceffarily be a change in the cohefion of its parts, by
wliieh the globules, whicli did before with equal force prefs
each other, have now a very differing and irregular nifus,
or adfion ; fo that fome of them do fo firnily cohere together,
as to compofe moleeulx, or fmall clufters : upon this ac-
count, as there is now a greater number of globules con-
tained in the fame fpace than before, and the impulfe of many
of thefe, when united together, differing according to the
conditions of their cohefion, as to magnitude, figure, &c.
the impetus with which this fluid is dinven towards the
parts, will not only be feen at fome ftrokes greater than or-
dinary, but the preffure upon the blood-veffels mull be very
unequal and irregular ; and this will be particularly felt in
thofe which are moft eafily diftended, as thofe of the brain,
&c.

Upon this, the nervous fluid muft neceffarily be put into
various undulatory motions, fome of which will be like
thofe, which different objefts, afting upon the organs or
paffions of the mind, do naturally excite in it ; upon which
fuch aftions muft follow in the body, as are ufually the con-
fequences of the feveral fpecies of fadnefs, joy, dcfpair, or
the like determinations of thought.

This, in fome degree, is a coagulation of the blood, which
will, the more certainly, when attended with uncommon
heat, as is the cafe in thofe countries where thefe creatures
abound, produce fuch like effefts as thefe : becaufe the
fpirits feparated from the blood tluis inflamed, and com-
pounded of hard, fixed, and dry particles, muft unavoidably
fliare in this alteration ; that is, whereas their fluid confifts
of two parts, one more aftive and volatile, the other more
vifcid and glutinous, which is a kind of vehicle to the
former ; their aftive part will bear too great a proportion to
the vifcid ; and confequently they muft have more than
ordinary volatility and force ; and will, therefore, upon the
leaft occafion imaginable, be irregularly determined to every
part.

Whereupon will follow tremblings, anger, or fear, upon
a light caufe ; extreme pleafure at what is trivial, as parti-
cular colours, or the like ; and, on the other hand, fadnefs
at what is not agreeable to the fight ; nay laughter, obfcene
talk and attions, and fuch other fymptoms as attend perfons
bit ; becaufe, in this conftitution of nervous fluid, the moll
flight occafion will make as real a reflux and undulation of it
to the brain, and prefent as lively fpecies there, as tlie
ftrongeft caufe and impreffion can produce in its natural ftate
and condition : nay, in fuch a confufion the fpirits cannot
but fometimes, without any manifeft caufe at all, be hurried
towards thofe organs, to which, at other times, they have
been moft frequently determined ; and every one knows
which thefe are in hot countries.

The effeft of mufic on perfons touched with this poifon
confirms the dofti-ine above delivered. For mufcular mo-
tion,-we know, is no other than a contradion of the fibres,
from the arterial fluid's making an cffervefcence with the
nervous juice, which, by the light vibration and tremor of
the nerve, is derived into the mufcle.

Thus there is a twofold effeft and operation of the mufic,

that is, upon the body and the mind ; a brilli harmony ex-

9 cites

TAR

cites lively fpecies of joy and gladnefs, which are alway*
accompanied with a mort; frequent and ftronger pulfe, or
an incrcafcd impiilfc of the hquor of the nerves into the
mufcles ; upon which fuitable adliona muft immediately
follow.

As for the body, fince it was fufTicient to put the mufcles
into action, to cauie thofe tremors of the nerves, by which
their fluid is alternately dropped into the moving fibres, it is
the fame thing whether it be done by tlie determination of tlie
will, or the outward impreflions of an elaftic fluid : fuch is the
air; and that founds are the vibrations of it, is beyond difpute :
thefe, therefore, rightly modelled, may fliake the nerves as
really as the impcrium -voluntatts can do ; and, confequently,
may produce the hke effefts.

The benefit of mufic arifes not only from their dancing
to it, and fo evacuating by fweat a great part of the m-
flammator)- fluid ; but, befidcs this, the repeated percuflions
of the air hereby made, by immediate contaft, (baking the
contraftile fibres of tlie membranes of the body, efpecially
thofe of the ear, which, being contiguous to the brain, com-
municate their tremblings to its membranes and veffels : by
thefe continued fuccefiions and vibrations, the cohefion of
the parts of the blood is perfeftly broken, and the farther
coagulation prevented ; fo that the heat being removed by
fweating, and the coagulation by the contraftion of the
mufcular fibrillse, the wounded perfon is reftored to his
former condition.

If any one doubts of this force in the air, he may con-
fider, that it is demonftrat.d in mechanics, that the fmallell
percuflion of the fmallell body may overcome the refiitance
of any the greateft weight, which is at reft ; and that the
languid tremor of the air, which is made by the found of a
drum, may fhake the largeft edifices.

But, befides this, we mull allow a great deal to the de-
terminate force, and particular modulation of the trembling
percuflions ; for contraftile bodies may be afted upon by
one certain degree of motion in tlie ambient fluid, though a
greater degree of it, differently qualified, may produce no-
thing at all of the like effeft. This is not only apparent in
two common-ftringed mufical inftruments, tuned both to the
fame height ; but alfo in the trick which many have of find-
ing the tone or note peculiarly belonging to any wine-glafs,
and, by accommodating their voice exaftly to that tone, and
yet making it loud and lafting, make the veffel, though not
touched, firft to tremble, and finally to burft ; which it will
not do, if the voice be either too low, or too high.

This makes it no difficult matter to conceive, why dif-
ferent perfons, infefted with this fort of venom, do require
a different fort of mufic, in order to their cure ; inafmuch
as the nerves and dillraftile membranes have different ten-
fions, and confequently arc not all alike to be afted upon by
the fame vibrations.

Tarantula, in Zoology, is alfo the name given by the
Italians to a peculiar fpecies of lizard, called by Aldrovand,
and Come others, lacertus facetanus.

It is of a grey colour ; its fl<in is extremely rough ; and
it is thicker and rounder bodied than the other lizards. It
IS found, like our common eft, under old walls, and among
the ruins of buildings, particularly in the neighbourhood of
Rome, in great plenty ; its colour looks dead and ghaftly,
and it is as odious to the fight among the Italians, as the toad
is with us, being never feen without a fort of natural
horror. It is efteemed alfo a poifonous creature, as the toad
is with us ; though it is not eafy to find well-attefted ftories
of any body's ever having been hurt either by the one or the
f ther of thefe creatures. Ray,

TAR

TARAPACA, in Geography, a town of Peru, in the
bifhopri: of Arequipa, on a nver which foon after runs inH>
the Pacific ocean, S. lat. 2cP lo'.

TARAPILLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Coimbetore ;
20 miles N.E. of Damicotta.

TARARE, a town of France, in the department of the
Rhone and Loire ; i8 miles W.N.W. of Lyons.

TARAS, in /Int'unl Geography, a fmall river of Italy,
which pafFcd to Tarentum, and probably gave it its tiame. —
Alfo, a river of Italy, in Japygia. — Alfo, a river of Epirus.
— Alfo, a town of Afia Minor — Alfo, a river of Scythia.

Tauas, iu Geography, a town of the duchy of Wurz-
burg ; 2 miles N.W. of Hasfurt.

TARASCO, in Am'fvt Geography, a town of Gallia
Naibonnenfis, on the left of the Rhone, and weft of Are-
late.

TAR A SCON, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Nevf
Caftile ; 22 milus S.W. of Huete. — Alfo, a town of France,
and principal place of a diftrift, in the department of the
Mo\iths of the Rhone, on the Rhone, with a caftle, fortified
in th^ ancient manner. It is fituated oppofite Beaucaire,
with which it communicates by means of a bridge of boats.
The number of inhabitants is about 7000 ; 3 polls E. of
Nifines. N. lat 43° 48'. E. long. 4'' 44' — Alfo, a city of
France, and capital of the department of the Arriege, on the
river Arriege. In it ai-e feveral manufactures of iron ; 48
miles S. of Toulo jfe. N. lat. 42'' 50'. E. long, i" 41'.

TARASOVA, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
IrkntiV, on the Lena; 12 miles 8. of Tutura.

TARATATO, a town on the eaft coaft of Fortaven-
tura, one of the Canary iflands.

TARAUMARA, a large province of North America,
in the north-eaft part of New Bifcay, bounded on the weft
by Sonora, on the eaft by New Mexico, its limit being the
Rio Bravo. On the fouth-weft it borders on Cinaloa.
Alcedo computes the extent at 100 Spanifh leagues from
eaft to weft, and as much from north to fouth. This pro-
vince was difcovered in 1 614, and derives its name from a
favage nation found there, of pacific difpofitions. This
province contains 48 pueblos, or villages, or ftations of
Francifcan miffionaries, exclufive of the capital of St. Fe-
lippe de Chiguaga. It is chiefly rich in mines, the minerals
being fmelted at the Real, or royal ftation of St. Eulalia, or
probably the Real Nueva in the maps, in N. lat. 29° 36'.

TARAXACUM, or Taraxacon, in Botany, a name
ufed by the Arabians, fuppofed by Ambrofini to have been
derived from the Greek r^toji/io?, eatable, becaufe the plant
to which it was applied, (our Dandelion, or fomething
nearly akin,) was ufed for food. De Theis derives it, with
more appearance of probability, from Ta^ao-o-w, to move, or
trouble, becaufe of the laxative and diuretic quality of the
plant in queftion, commemorated in its vulgar Englifli, as
well as French, appellation. See Leontodon ; at the end
of which botanical article, we muft obferve, genus of Leon-
todon is printed by miftake for gender.

TARAXIPPUS, formed of TXi^xa-a-ii; Ifrighten,3ni Itv;
horfe, a kind of evil genius, the ftatue of which was erefted
in tlie Grecian hippodromes, in order to alarm and frighten
the horfes in their courfe. The (hape and form of this
ftrange deity are not defcribed ; but he certainly anfwered
the end for which he was defigned : it frequently happening,
that the horfes were fo feared at his appearance, as to turn
away with the utmoft violence, and expofe the lives of their
riders or drivers to the moft imminent danger. Many con-
jectures have been formed concerning this ftrange deity, and
the means he ufed to frighten the hor(es : but the moft pro-

bablq

TAR

T A R

bable conclufion will be, perhaps, to fuppofc that fome
tricks and artifices were pradifed under the difguife of this
figure, either witli a defign to render the viftory more ho-
nourable in proportion to the difficulty of gaining it, or elfe
that this horfe-frightening deity was placed in the courfe as
a touch-ftone, to prove the refolution and temper of the
horfes ; and to oblige the candidates to bring none into the
field but fuch as by exercife and difcipline were fo affured
and ftcady, as not to let their obedience be fliaken upon the
moft trying occaiions. Berenger's Hiil. and Art of Horfe-
manftiip, vol. i. p. 54. See Stadium.

TARAXIS, from Tajacrirs., to (UJlurb, in Surgery, a
flight ophthalmy, or inflammation of the eye. Sec Oi'ii-

THALMY.

TARAZ, in Geography, a river of Independent Tar-
tary, which runs into the Sirr or Jaxartes at Otrur. Some
fuppofe this to be the fame with the river Tulas ; but others
reprefent it as a much more inconfiderable ftream.

Taraz, or Turkejlan, a city of Afia, and capital of the
country of Tu'-keftan, fituated on a fmall river which runs
into the Sirr, 2J0 miles N. of Samarcand. N. lat. 44° 45'.
E. long. 69° 42'.

TARAZONA, a town of Spain, in New Caftile ; ly
miles S. of Alarcon. — Alfo, a city of Spain, in Aragon,
the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Saragofla. This town is
ancient, and was deftroyed by the Moors in the year 724,
and by the fame people rebuilt in the beginning of the 12th
century ; 43 miles N.W. of Saragofla. N. lat. 42°. W.
long, i' 43'.

TARBA, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated on the
fouthern coall of the i(le of Crete.

TARBASON, a word ufed by fome chemical writers as
a name of antimony.

TARBASSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in Pifidia.

TARBAT, in Geography, a town of Scotland, in the
county of Cromarty. This parilh originally belonged to
the county of Rofs, but was feparated from it and annexed
to Cromarty, in 1693 ; 6 miles E. of Tam.

Tarbat Ncfs, a cape of Scotland, on the cafl coaft of
the county of Rofs, between the friths of Dornoch and
Murray. N. lat. 37^ 5^'. W. long. 3'° 40'.

TARBE, a city of France, and capital of the depart-
ment of the Upper Pyrenees, built on the ruins of the an-
cient Bigorre : before the revolution it was the fee of a
bifhop, and refidence of a governor. It confifts principally
of one flreet along the Adour, and is defended by a caftle ;
7i polls S. of Auch. N. lat. 43° 14'. E. long. 0° 8'.

TARBELLI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gaul,
in Aquitania, whofe territory extended along the Aquitanic
gulf.

TARBE RT, in Geography, a poll -town of the county
of Kerry, Ireland, on the river Shannon, where there is a
charter-fchool. It is 1 24 miles S.W. from Dublin. There
is alfo a fmall ifland of this name off the coaft of Galway.

TARBIDO, or Marazzo, a river of Naples, which
runs into the Mediterranean, 13 miles S.W. of Cofenza.

TARBOU, a town of Hungary, on the river Theyfe ;
14 miles N.N.E. of Kifwarda.

TARBURGH, or Tarborough, a town of North
Carolina, on the Tar ; 45 miles N.N.W. of Newbern.
N. lat. 35° 52'. W. long. 77° 44'.

TARBUT, a city of Perfia, in KhorafTan, eight furfungs
diftant from Turfhifh ; with a population of about 8000
perfons, defended by a llrong wall, and flanked with towers.
Froviiions are here plentiful and cheap ; it has 220 dependent

villages, nnd is poflefled by Ifa Khan, a powerful chief, who
can bring into the field an army of 10,000 men.

TARCHI, in Biography, a Neapolitan compofer, who
arrived in England in 1786, at the fame time as Rubinelli.
He was young at that time, but though he remained lierc
only one fcafon, lie difcovered confiderable abilities, and
feemed advancing rapidly into fame. He had tire, tafte,
and invention. If lie lliU lives, we make no doubt but that
he ranks high among the dramatic compofers of his country.

TARCHONANTHUS, \n Botany, fo called from /ar-
con, or taracon, the Arabic name of Artiniifm Dracunculus,
our Taragon, and &.v9o , a fower, becaufe its flowers re-
femble thofe of that plant. Vaillant contrived tliis name in
the Mem. de I'Acad. des Sciences, for 1719, but it is not
one of his happieft. — Linn. Gen. 416. Schreb. 547.
Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 1792. Mart. Mill. Dia. V. 4. Ait.
Hort. Kew. V. 4- Siy. JufT. 185. Lamarck Ilhiftr. t. 671.
Gajrtn. t. 166. — Clafs and order, Syngemjla Polygamia-irqua-
lis. Nat. Ord. Compojlta Nucamentacea, Linn. Corymbi'
ferg, .lufl-.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx turbinate, of one leaf, cut half
way down into (for the moft part) feven rather acute feg-
ments, coloured internally, fhortcr than the corolla, perma-
nent. Cor. compound, uniform, of about twenty florets,
all perfeft, equal, each of one petal, funr.el-lhaped, with
five teeth. Slam, in each floret. Filaments five, capillary,
very fliort ; anthers united into a cyhndrical tube, as long as
their own partial corolla, with a filamentous appendage at the
bafe. Pift. in eacii floret, Germen inferior, oblong ; ftyle
twice the length of the floret ; ftigmas two, divaricated.
Peric. none, except the permanent calyx. Seeds fohtary,
ovate -oblong, comprefTed. D jivn woolly, inveftnig every
part of the feed. Recept. minute, clothed with woolly hairs,
the length of the calyx.

Obf. The JeeJ-etown is very remarkable, as not crowning
but entirely mvefting tlie feed. Linnteus.

Eft^. Cii. Receptacle villous. Seeds inverted with hairs.
Common calyx of one leaf, turbinate, cut half way down
into feveral fegments. Anthers fpurred at the bafe.

1. T. camphoratus. Shrubby African Fleabane, or Aro-
matic Taragon-bloflom. Linn. Sp. PI. 1 179. Suppl. 361.
Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. (Elichryfo affinis africana arbo-
refcens, floribus purpuro-violaceis, fohis Salvia?, odore Rof-
marini ; Herm. Lugd.-Bat. 228. t. 229. Pluk. Phyt. t. 174.
f. I.) — Leaves elliptic-oblong, n-arly entire ; denfely downy
beneath. Native of the Cape of Good Hope, from whence
it was brought very early into the gardens of Europe. This
is a greenhoufe evergreen_yZ'rtti, or fmall tree, flowering from
June to Oftober. The branch s are angular, tuberculated,
denlely downy and hoary. Leaves fcattered, ftalked, two
or tluee inches long, more or lefs acute, fomewhat wavy,
entire or minutely toothed ; their upper fide of a dark dull
green, quite fmooth, reticulated with fine veins ; the under
white and cottony, with a prominent rib and veins. When
bruifed they fmell like rofemary, but lefs agree.ibly. Pani-
cles terminal, many-flowered, with numerous lanceolate
braHcas, all together hoary, like the branches. Segments
of the calyx from five to feven, or more. Florets dark dull
purple, with whitifli anthers. Seeds enveloped in copious
white wool, like thofe of an Eriocephai.U!j ; fee that
article.

2. T. ellipticus. Oval-leaved Taragon-blofTom. Thunb.
Prodr. 145. Willd. n. 2. — " Leaves elliptical, finely toothed ;
denfely woolly beneath." — Gathered by Thunberg at the
Cape. We have feen no authentic fpecimen from him, but
there aro fome in the Linnsan herbarium which anfwer to

the

TAR

the fpecific charafter, tliough they are obvioufly a mere va-
riety of the foregoing^

3. T. racemofus. CUifter-flowered Taragon-blotTom.

Thunb. Prodr. 145 " Leaves elliptical, pointed, finely

tootlied ; dcnfely woolly beneath." — From the fame country.
This is perhaps but another variety. The leavss of T. cam-
phoraluj vary in acutenefs. Willdenow feems accidentally to
have omitted this in tranfcribing. It fhould have been his
n. 3.

4. T. lanceolatus. Lanceolate Taragon-blofTom. Thunb.

Prodr. 1 4 J. Willd. n. 4 " Leaves elliptical, entire,

fmootli." — Gathered at the Cape by Thunberg. His fpe-
cific name is exceptionable, when compared with the cha-
rafters of this and the reft of the fpecics. We muft rely
on him for the fynonyms of the following, it being his own
difcovery ; or we (hould have prcfumed, without feeing
fpecimens, that the plant before us might be T. glaber of
Linnxus.

5. T. Jentatus. Toothed Taragon-bloflbm. Thunb.
Prodr. 145. Willd. n. 5. (T. glaber; Linn. Suppl. 360,
according to Thunberg. ) — i' Leaves oblong, Entire or
toothed ; (lightly downy beneath." — Gathered by Thun-
berg at the Cape. We have feen no fpecimen. Linnaeus
defcribes his plant as extremely like T. camphoratus, but
quite fmooth, and without any fmell. It varies with nar-
rower or broader leaves, fometimes entire, fometimes
toothed.

6. T. ericoiJes. Heath-like Taragon-bloffom. Lmn.
Suppl. 360. Willd. n. 6. — Leaves oblong, fmooth, im-
bricated in four rows. Calyx in four deep fegments

Native of the Cape of Good Hope. A n^id Jljrub, with
copious, round, irregulai- branches, whofe points fometimes
taper into a fpinous point. Leaves like thofe of many
Erica, minute, fcarcely a line in length, elliptic-oblong, ob-
tufe, entire, concave, fmooth on both fides, dotted, aro-
matic when rubbed, imbricated in four rows on the very
Ihort, oppofite, lateral fhoots. Floiuers folitary at the end
of thofe fhoots, each on a (hort filky ftalk. They are er-
roneoufly termed " conferti" in the Supplement, being no
otherwHfe crowded than becaufe the little branches which
bear them are fo^ Calyx in four very deep, elliptical,
fmooth, reddifh divifions, very aromatic. Florets few, mi-
nute, concealed in the copious woolly hair, which is twice
the length of the calyx.

Linnxus juftly obferves of this laft fpecies, that its ge-
nus is rather doubtful. We conceive it might as readily be
fuppofed an Eriocephalus, and if the leaves could by any
means be called filiform, we might guefs it to be E. glaber,
Thunb. Prodr. 168, a fpecies not adopted in our account of
that genus ; (where Lamarck Illuftr. t. 717, ought to have
been quoted after Juff. 186.) The above conjefture is
ftrengthened by Thunberg's having mentioned no Tarcho-
nanthus ericoides, nor, as far as we can difcover, has he de-
fcribed the (hrub in queftion under any other name. We
beg leave to remark that the fpecies of this whole genus,
except the original one, are involved in much uncertainty,
nor are the materials with which we are furnifhed fufBcient
to enable any botanift to form an opinion about them.

Tauchonanthus, in Gardening, contains a plant of the
flurubby evergreen exotic kind, of which the fpecies that is
moft commonly cultivated is the (hrubby African fleabane,
(T. camphoratus,) which has a ftrong woody ftem, that
rifet to the height of twelve or fourteen feet, fending out
many woody branches at the top, which may be trained to
? regular head.

Method of Culture. — This is a plant that may be increafed

TAR

by cuttings, which (hould be planted out in the fpring or
early fummer feafons, in pots filled with light mould, giving
them fhade and water occafionally. They foon ftrike root,
and in three or four months may be potted o(f into feparate
pots, aflFording them (hade and water as before, and placing
them under (belter. They alfo ftrike root in the fummer
feafon, when planted in a common border, and covered with
hand-glalFes, and may in thefe cafes be potted off in the
autumn.

Afterwards they require the management of other hardy
greenhoufe plants. The plants do not produce ripe feeds
in this climate.

They afford variety in thefe different fituations.

TARDA Avis, in Ornithology, a name given by many
to the buftard, more commonly known among authors by
the name otis.

TARDETS, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Lower Pyrenees ; 6 miles S. of Mau-
leon.

TARDIGRADUS, or Sloth, in Zoology. See Bra-

DYPUS.

TARDO, in the Italian Mufic, is ufed to denote a flow
movement, being much the fame as largo.

TARDOIRE, or Tardouere, in Geography, a river of
France, which runs into the Charente, near Rouchefou-
cault.

TARDOU, El, a town of Spain, in the province of
Cordova ; z8 miles W. of Cordova.

TARDSONG, a town of Thibet; 250 miles E. of
Laff"a. N. lat. 29° 54'. E. long. 95° 34'.

TARE, in Botany. See Vetch.

Tare, in Agriculture, a well-known plant of the vetch
kind, of which there are two forts ; the common purple-
flowered fpring or fummer tare, and the purple-flowered
wild or winter tare ; the latter of which fort is by much the
hardieft.

Numerous experiments in the culture of thefe different
kinds of tares, were made by the Rev. Mr. Laurents, in
order to afcertain their differences in hai'dinefs, for which we
refer to the Correfted Agricultural Siu-vey of the County of
Suffolk.

It is evident from the tall, clofe, hardy growth and fuccu-
lent quality of the winter tare, that it muft be a plant of
much value to the farmer, as affording an abundant produce
of green food for animals ; and by being alternated with
thofe of the grain kind, in amehorating or preventing the
exhauftion of the land that muft otherwife take place. It
has been fuggefted by the writer of the Agricultural Survey
of the County of Middlefex, that it may be the means of
enabling the arable farmer to fupport as much live-ftock as
the grazier, as while crops of this fort remain upon the
ground, they afford larger fupplies of the beft kind of green
food on the acre than the moll rich and fertile grafs lands ;
and they may be taken from the ground at fo early a period
in the fummer feafon, as on the friable loamy foils to admit of
a clean crop of turnips, &c. being obtained from the fame
land in the fame year ; and of thole of the more heavy kinds
being prepared and fown with wheat. And while they are
capable of being raifed with fuccefs on moft forts of foils and
fituations, they fupport and fatten cattle and flieep of dif-
ferent fizes and breeds in an expeditious manner. And
further, they afford a good preparation for other forts of
green crops, and in that way keep up the fucceflion of fuch
forts of food for the fattening of additional numbers of
animals, and in that manner afford abundance of manure in
fituations where it could not otherwife be pi-oeured. Qn

the

TARE.

the whole, he fuppofes, that by a judicious combination of
this plant with thofe of turnips, clover, and fainfoin, the
poor downs, (heep-walks, and other wafte lands may be
rendered from ten to thirty times more valuable than they
are in their prefent flate.

The tare in all its varieties is a plant which, in refpeft to
foil, according to the author of the Prefent State of Huf-
bandry, admits of confiderablc latitude, growing without
difficulty or trouble on all the varieties, from that of the thin
gravelly, to thofe of the deep and tliff clayey kinds, but
flourifhing in the moft vigorous and perfed manner on thofe
of the gravelly, loamy defcriptions, that are not too moill or
wet at particular feafons.

. With regard to the preparation of the land for this
fort of crop, there is lefs care neceffary than for many
other kinds of gralTy forts of crops, as it will fucceed
well where the foil has not been fo much broken down,
or reduced into fine mould ; but it always grows in the
moft perfeft and vigorous manner where a good degree
of pulverization and finenefs has been produced in the land
by proper tillage. But in common, two or three plough-
ings, with occafional good harrowings in the intermediate
times, may be fully fufficient for the purpofe, at whatever
feafon the crop is to be put into the ground.

As to the lowing of the feed of this crop, it has been
obferved, that as the feed of the fpring tare docs not fuc-
ceed well when fown for the winter crop, nor that of the
winter kind when put in for the fummer produft, care
fhould be taken to keep the feeds of the two forts as per-
feftly diftinft as poffible. And that as they are, from their
being both of nearly the fame colour and fize, as well as
their agreeing in other particulars, extremely liable to be
mixed in the feed-lhops, it may be the beft praftice for the
cultivator to preferve his own feed, as by that means he may
not only be certain of having the feed good in its quality,
but of the right forts, and, of courfe, may depend more fully
on his crops. And it has been fuggefted by the writer of
the Middlefex Report on Agriculture, that fteeping the
feed in dry feafons may be of utility in promoting the
quick vegetation of the crop in many fituations of land
and peculiarities of feafon. With regard to the quan-
tity of feed that ihould oe employed, it fhould, of courfe,
vary according to the nature of the foil, and the time as well
as manner of fowing. But from two bulhels to two and a
half are the proportions moft commonly recommended in the
broad-caft method of fowing. But on poor forts of lartd,
where the feed is fown late, and the climate is backward,
three bufhels may not be too much. And it has been alfo
obferved by a late writer, that where the crops are either
to be cut for foihng, or to be fed down by live-ilock, the
proportion of feed Ihould be confiderably increafed, as
not only a greater produce is thereby provided, but the
growth of the crops rendered more quick and full. In the
drill method of fowing, when at the diftance of fix inches,
two bulhels of feed will be quite fufficient ; and where the
diftances are larger, ftill fmaller proportions of feed will
anfwer the purpole.

In regard to the periods and manner of fowing thefe forts
of crops, it is evident that the former muft vary with the in-
tentions of the cultivator ; but the winter fowings (hould be
performed fome time between Auguft and Oftober ; and in
expofed fituations and poor foils, more early than in thofe of
the contrary defcription. As for the fpring fowings of
thefe crops, they may be executed from the beginning of
March to the end of April, or even earlier, with fuccefs. In
fome places, as on the down lands in Suffex, they find great
advantage from fowing fpring tares in June with a light mix-
VoL. XXXV.

ture of rape or cole feed, as about a quart to the acre, on
the fame land, as furnifliing a good and nutritious feed for
weaned lambs in the autumnal feafon.

With regard to the mode of fowing crops of this nature, it
is moftly that of the broad-caft, which fhould be performed
as evenly as polTible over the furface of the well-prepared
land ; the feeds being afterwards well covered in by proper
harrowing, in order to prevent their being picked up by
birds, and to enfure their perfeft vegetation and growth.
It has been fuggefted, however, that in rich clean foil, it is
probable the row method would fucceed well with this fort
of crop, as is the praftice in fome of the fouthern diftrids
of the ifland, according to a late praftical writer. And
with fome it has been the cuftom to fow a little rye with
their winter tare crops, and a fmall quantity of barley with
thofe of the fpring, on which, however, it has been well ob-
ferved, that as plants of different forts never fucceed well
together, it is probable that little advantage can be derived
from the praftice, cfpecially as the tare is not a plant that
ftands much in need of proteftion in the early flages of ita
growth, and may be injured by too much fhade and clofc-
ncfs. The former of thefe forts of feed, and fome others,
may, however, be occafionally blended with it, and fown at
a good green feed for fome forts of young animals, as
already noticed.

It has been fuggefted in the firft volume of the Farmer's
Magazine, that the moft produftive method of fowing this
crop, when intended for feed, is to mix them amongft beans
when drilled, at the rate of one firlot of tares to one boll of
beans.

It is further ftated, however, as obvious, that when tares
are intended for green food, there is no neceflity for mixing
them with beans. But that when fuch is the purpofe, they
require to be fown tolerably thick, fo as the furface may be
early covered ; and if the ground is good, and recently
dunged, an acre of them will afford as much keep for horfes
and cows, as can be gained from a full clover crop ; at leaft
the writer has found them fully as beneficial.

It has been found that crops of this fort are capable of
being grown well after wheat or barley, but that they may
be grown after almoft any fort of crop where the land is in
good heart, and properly prepared for the purpofe.

In regard to the after-management of thefe forts of crops,
from their covering the land in a very complete manner,
when they are fufliciently full, they do not require any great
attention during their growth.

And in the procefs of making tare-crops into hay, more
attention is found neceffary than in thofe of moft of the arti-
ficial graffes, as wet is more injurious to them, and they re-
quire more fun and air ; but in other refpcfts they demand
the fame cautious management, in order to prevent the
foliage from being loft.

The moft proper time for cutting for this purpofe is, ac-
cording to the author of the Synopfis of Hufbandry, when
the bloffbras have declined, and the crops begin to fall flat on
the ground. When well made, the hay is of the beft and
moft nutritious quality or properties, being extremely ufcful
in many intentions.

The writer of the Report of the State of Agriculture in
Middlefex, ftates the produce as the refult of experience, in
having frequently weighed greeo tares, to be ten or twelve
tons per acre, which is a large crop. And when made into
hay, at about three tons the acre, which ffiews the vaft difad-
vantage of making thefe crops into hay. The value of the
produce, eitimating it as if the whole were made into hay,
being in that diftrift from twelve to fifteen guineas the acre ;
and in fituations where other forts of hay fcU at fifty fhil-
P lingi

TARE.

lir.jrs or tlirri- pounds, at from about fcvon pounds ten
(IiiUings to nine pounds the acre. And it is found that the
fpring tan.-crops are lighter, and moll liable to be injured by
a dry fcafon.

The produce in feed is likewife found to be confidcrable,
bring by fome ftated at from three to fix facks ; but in other
inftances forty bufticls or more have been obtained from the
acre. It has been fuc;gefted, that this fort of feed is
greedily devoured by pigeons, and that it may probably be
ufrd for poultry with advantage and profit, as being a very
ftimulant fort of food in the produftion of eggs.

In refpcft to the application of taie-crops, it has been well
remarked by a late writer, that there can be little hefitation
in pronouncing that of foiling them with horfes or other
forts of live-ftock on the farm, as the moft advantageous and
beneficial method of any whi jh can be adopted for them.

It has, however, been adviied by the author of the Agri-
cultural Survey of the above diftrift of Middlefex, that the
farmer's ftock fhould be wholly fupported on them, from
the time they begin to blow till the bloiToms begin to fall
off, and the formation of pods to take place. And, on ac-
count of the rifk from wet, he advifes that all the Hock of
a farm ftiould be foiled on them green, as it will have the
good effeft of taking the ftock off the grafs land long
enough to allow of its being mown for hay ; and by this
means the meadow-hay be much increafed in quantity, and
there will not be fo much occafion for pafture, the tares
abundantly fupplying its place. And that befides, at the
time the cattle return from green tares, the grafs land in the
mean time having been mown, may be ready to receive them.
The fame able writer remarks, in addition, that as it would
be wafteful in the extreme to turn live-ftock into a field of
tares, as their treading and lying down would do great mif-
chief to the crop, even by feeding it in fmall patches hurdled
off ; the moft advifeable method would be to mow the tares
of tLe firft half acre, and to c^rry the produce into the
ftables, cow-houfes, and fold-yards, or on poor land, to
be confumed by ftock ; then to hurdle the growing tares
from fuch ckared ground, into which put the ftock, and feed
them all with the tares, given to them in racks, removing
tie hurdles and the racks forward daily to the edge of the
grjwing tares ; which wiU manure the land uniformly, and
depofit all the urine in the foil. But the writer of the Cor-
refted Gloucefter Report on Agriculture, has ftated another
method of proceeding, where iheep are the fort of ftock
employed, which feems by no means ineligible, 'uia. to
feed them through rack hiadles, which are made the fame
as the common hve-railed ones, only leaving the middle rail
out, and nailing upright pieces acrofs, at proper diftances, to
admit the (lieep to put iheir heads through. A fwathe of
vetches being mown in the diieftion you wifli to plough the
land, a fufficient number of thefe hurdles, allowing one to
five (heep, are fet up clofe to it : at noon, the fhepherd
mows the fwathe and throws it to the hurdles, and the fame
at night : next morning, a fwathe being firft mown, the
hurdles are again fet, thus moving them once in the twenty-
four hours. By this trifling additional trouble, the vetches
are, it is faid, eaten clean off, and the land equally benefited.

The writer of the Hertfordfhire Corrected Agricultural
Report remarks, that in the heavy land diftrifts, he has
found tares very generally cultivated for foiling the teams ;
a hufbandry, he thinks, that cannot be too much commended.
And he contends farther, that it appears by the writings of
Ellis, that this branch of agriculture was common in this
county above fixty years ago, before it was at all praftifed
in many other counties, and he was glad to find it holds its
place (leadily in the management of the prefent period. It

is noticed, that Mr. Leach, of the fame diftriil, manures foi'
tares, and that they are mown early, and then three earths
are given to the land, when he gets good turrjps after them.
And that they are univerfal about Rickmanf-.vorth and
Watford, many being fed off by fheep.

And the fame writer fays, in his Agricultural Survey of
Norfolk, that the culture of this plant has increafed very
coiifiderably in that diftriiSl : within his memor)- they are
multiplied at leaft tenfold. And that Mr. Overir.an there
bep-ins fowing winter tares about Michaelmas, once more
betore Chriftmas, and fometimes twice or thrice more, with
fpring tares for a fucceffion. That after moviring, he does
not plough the land, but runs fiieep over it till the whcat-
fowing. But that the cultivator who has made by far the
greateft exertions ia this hufoandry that he ever met with, is
Mr. Purdis, of Eggmorc, who has 300 acres every year,
feeding no more than is neceffary to Supply himfelf : they
are fed by his (heep ; ufed in foiling his numerous horfes ;
and immenfe quantities made into hay.

It is fuggefted, as the remark of Mr. Blithe, that the
fowing tares for fummer-feeding fheep, is an abfolutcly new
improvement in the hulbandry of Weft Norfolk, and that he
thinks it a very gieat and important one.

And in both the counties of Gloucefter and Worcefter, it
is the praftice to fow thefe crops as pafturage or feed for
horfes, and eat or get them off early enough to allow of
turnips being fown the fame feafon. But, as in the wet
feafons^ when the tare-crops are large, the ftems are apt to
become rotten upon the ground, and in this condition fuch
food often proves prejudicial to the horfes ; in all iuch cafes,
it will be imprudent to cut or eat them any longer for the
purpofe of foiling in thefe ways.

It is noticed in the twenty-fecond volume of the Annals of
Agriculture, that in the county of Suffex, thefe forts of
crops are of fuch ufe and importance, that not one-tenth of
the ftock could be maintained without them ; horfes, cows,
ftieep, and hogs, all feed upon them, the hogs are foiled upoit
them without any other food. Tlus plant maintains more
(lock than any other plant whatfoever. Upon one acre,
Mr. Davis, of this diftrift, can maintain foui- horfes in
much better condition than upon five acres of grafs. Upon
eight acres he has kept twelve horfes and five cows for tlu-ee
months without any other food. No ai-tificial food what-
ever is equal to this excellent plant in his opinion.

They here find this srcp to be a hearty and moft no^rith-
ing food for all forts of oattle. Cows give nioi-e butter
when fed with this plant than with any other food wliat-
foever. And by having one crop of vetches fuccecding
another, Mr. Halftead, in the fame county, infures a crop
the whole fummer of the beft food that can be given to cat-
tle ; after this, he fows turnips, and then wheat.

In many of the fouthern counties, as Cornwall, Devon,
Kent, and fome others, the culture of this fort of crop
might be greatly extended with vaft advantage, efpccially if
it were grown with the view of foiling different kinds of live-
ftock, to which purpofe it is by far the beft fuited. Alfo,
in many cafes, as a highly valuable early fort of green fpring
feed for many kinds of young animals ; the climates and
foils being mild, and particularly favourable for their very
early produftion and abundant growth, when fown at the
moft proper fe.-ifon.

It is remarked alfo, that they have on the South Downs
an admirable praftice in their courfe of crops, which cannot
be too much commended, that of fubftituting a double crop
of tares, inftead of a fallow for wheat. Let the improving
cultivator give his attention to this pra<Sice, for it is worth,
in the opinion of the writer, a journey of five hundred miles.

They

T A R

They fow forward wintw tares, which are fed off late in tlie
Ipriiig with ewes and lambs : they then plough and fow
Cummer tares and rape, two bufhcls and a half of tares, and
half a gallon of rape ; and this they feed off with their lambs
in time to plough once for wheat. A variation is for mow-
ing, that of foing tares only in fucceflion, even fo late as the
end of June for foiling. See Soiling.

Tare and Tret, in Comvurce, any defeft, wafte, or di-
minution in the weight, the quantity, or the quality of
goods.

The feller is ufually to account to the buyer for the tare
and tret.

Tai-e is more particularly ufed for an abatement, or de-
duftion in the price of a commodity, on account of the
weight of cherts, caiks, bags, &c. in which goods are put
lip, and whofe weight may be known feparately from that of
tlie goods : and which being fubtratled from the grofs
weight, or that of the cafk, ic. and goods together, gives
the weight of the goods alone, or the uett or neat weight.
But if the tare is not known feparately, and an allowance
made for it at fo much per hundred weight, or hundred
yards, &c. then the deduftion of the tare is by the rule of
three.

Before the tare is taken off, the allowance called the
draft or draught is fubtrafted from the original or grofs
weight of goods.

Tare is diftinguilhed by a variety of denominations ;
thus : Real tare, or open tare, is the adlual weight of the
package ; cujlomary tare is an eftablifhed allowance for the
weight of the package ; computed tare is an eftimated allow.
ance agreed upon at the time ; a'uerage tare is when a few
packages only among feveral are weighed, their mean or
average taken, and the reit tared accordingly ; fupn- tare is
aa additional allowance or fecond tai'e, when the commodity
or package exceeds a certain weight.

When tare is dedufted, the remainder is called the nett
weight ; but if tret be allowed, it is called the futth
weight.

Treth adeduiflion of 4lbs. from every 104 lbs. oithe/uttle
weight.

There was another allov^ance that was formerly made for
duft or fand, or for the wafte or wear of the commodity on
foreign articles paid by the pound avoirdupois ; but this is now
nearly difcontinued by merchants, or rather allowed in the
price. It is wholly aboliihed at the Eaft Indian warehoufes
in London, and neither tret nor draft is allowed at the
cuftom-houfe.

TJie allowance called tret is calculated in the fame way
with tare. Ex. 1 . — At 7 lbs. tare, or tret, to 1 1 2lbs. grofs,
wliat is the tare, and alfo the nett weight, when 746 lbs. grofs
was received ? fay, as 1 12 lbs. to 7 lbs. fo is 746 lbs. to the
tare fought, which fubtrafted from 746 lbs. the remainder is
the nett weight.

Ex. 2. — At 5 lbs. tret to 1 1 2 lbs. grofs, what grofs weight
muft be received, when 84 lbs. nett was paid for : and how
much is allowed ? fubtraft 5 from 1 12, then fay, as 107, the
remainder to 112, fo is 84 to the grofs weight fought ; the
difference of which and 84 is the allowance. Or thus : as
107 to 5, fo is 84 to the allowance fought, which, added to
84, gives the grofs weight fought. Thus from the grofs
weight, nett weight, and allowance, or any two of thefe in
one cafe given, with any one of them in another cafe, we
fmd the other two in that other cafe.

There are fometimes two allowances deduced out of
the fame quantity ; firft tare, and then tret : after the tare
is deducted, the remainder is called fziiicxxhily fubtle or

TAR

/u///?vveig!it, out of which the tret is deduced, and the lad
remainder is called nttt weight.

Ex. 3. — Tare being allowed at 4 to 112, and trot .it 5 to
112, what is'the nett weight in 87 lbs. grofs ? fay, as 1 1 2 to
10% I — 112 — 4|,fois 87 lbs. tothefubtle ; then as 112 to
107 ( = 1 1 2 — 5), fo is the fubtle to the nett. And if you
multiply 108, 107, and 87 continually, and alfo 1-12 by
1 1 2, and divide that produA by this, the quotient is the
nett weight fought. Malcolm's Ar. p. 564.

The tare is very different in different merchandizes : in
fome there is none at ail allowed. It is a thing much more
regarded in Holland than in England, or elfewhere : a
modern author, M. Ricard» treating of the commerce of
Amfterdam, obferves, that the tares are one of the moft. coh-
fiderable articles with which a merchant is to be acquainted,
if he would trade with fecurity.

Sometimes the tare is, as it were, regulated by cuftom ;
but generally, to avoid all difpute, the buyer and feller make
a particular agreement about it.

For a comprehenfive and accurate table of the cuRom-
houfe and commercial allowances for various kinds of goods,
we refer to the firft volume of Dr. Kelly's " Cambirt," our
hmits not allowing the infertion of it, though the liberahty
of the author would not objeft to our thus availing ourfclves
of his labours.

TAREEKAB, in Geography, a town of Candahar, on
the Cameh ; 23 miles E.S.E. of Cabul.

TAREF, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hedsjas ;
25 miles N.E. of Medina.

TAREIBOIA, in Zoology, the name of a fpecies of
ferpent found in America, and called alfo cacaboiei ; thougli,
according to fome authors, ^e tareiboia and cacaboia arc
two different fpecies.

They are both of the amphibious kind, and live in lakes
and waters, as well as on land ; but they are not very poi-
fonous. They are fmall fnakes, and all over black ; when
offended they will bite, but the wound is curable. Authors
have written differently of thofe fei-pents, fome making the
latter very different from the former, and of a yellow colour.
Ray.

TAREINSKA, in Geography, a harbour of Kamt-
fchatka, in Avatcha bay ; 10 miles S. of St. Peter and St.
Paul.

TAREIOU, a town of Brafil, in the government of St.
Francifco ; 160 miles S.W. of Fernambuco.

TAREIRA, in Ichthyology, the name of a fifh caught
in the American feas, and eaten, but of no fine flavour. It
is of an oblong and thick body, gradually tapering toward
the tail ; its head refembles that of a fnake, and is raifed
into two tubercles over the eyes ; its eyes are ycllo^v, with
a black pupil ; its nofe pointed, and its mouth large and
yellow within ; it has extremely fharp teeth in both its jaws,
and on its tongue ; it has eight fins, the tail being accounted
one, and this is forked ; but this, as well as the reft, is of
the confiftence of a poppy-leaf, tender, thin, and foft, and
fuftained by foft rays ; its fcales are fo nicely laid on one
another, that it fecms fmooth to the touch ; its belly i.'s
white, and its back and fides are variegated with longitudinal
green and yellow lines. Maycgravc.

TAREIRI, in Geography, a river of Brafil, which run.'
into the Atlantic, S. lat. 6". W. long. 34° 43'

TAREKA, in Hindoo Mythology, is the name of a fort
of demon (lain by Rama, in his warfare dcfcribcd in tlic
Ramayana.

TAREM, in Geography, a city of Perfia, in the province

of Lariftan, which is a meanly built place, fituated in a

P 2 plain

T A K

plain on the banks of a fait river. It conHils of a mud fort,
furroundeJ on all f.des by \rrctchod huts, formed of the
branches of a date-tree, which grows in great abundance
on the plain. It is the ref.dcnce of many refpeftable mer-
chants, who trade to Mafcat, Gombroon, ^"^ ^^irauz ; and
contains about 1 2,ooo inhabitants ; 30 miles N.N.t-.^ot l.ar,
which is fituatcd in N. lat. zf 30'. E. long. 52 45 .

TAREMDSONG, or Takknoasonc;, atownot im-
be<; 160 miles S.S.E. of Laffa. N. lat. 27° 40'- E.long.

^ t\rENT, a river of England, which runs into the
Stour, in the county of Dorfet, 3 miles S.E. of Blandford.
T\RF.NT, an idand of the Perfian gulf, clofe to the (here,
and immediately oppofite to Ketif ; although not fo large, is
a finer ifland than Bahrein. It is about feven miles long,
and about as much in breadth, well fupplied with good trelh
water, and embellinied with many delightful gardens, which
produce fruits of various kinds in abundance.

TARENTAISE, County of, a province of Savoy,
bounded north by the lordfhip of Faucigny, eaft by the
duchy of Aofta, fouth by the county of Maurienne, and
weft by the duchv of Savoy ; ercded into a bifhopnc about
the fifth century,' and an archbifhopric in the eighth. The
kings of Burgundy erefted it into a county ; and towards
the end of the eleventh century, Humbert II., earl of
Maurienne and Savoy, became mallei- of it, and his de-
Icendants held it afterwards. The foil is barren, and the
afpea of the country, abounding with mountains and pre-
cipices, unpleafant, with little good land. The Ifere crofles
it from eaft to weft. In its union with France, it formed
part of the department of Mont Blanc.

TARENTO, a city of Naples, and province of Otranto,
the fee of an archbilbop, fituated on a fmall peninfula, which
projefts into a bay of the Mediterranean, to which it gives
name. TareiUum (which fee) was anciently the capital of a
celebrated republic ; but after undergoing many revolutions,
it was dcftroyed by the Saracens or Hungarians : foon
afterwards it was rebuilt in a new fituation. After the total
expulfion of the Greeks, duke Robert, the Norman, created
his fon, Bohemund, prince of Tarento ; but his ifTue failing,
it was bcftowed on Henry, fon of king Roger, and after-
wards on William, a baftard of that family. It was wrefted
from him, on account of his illegitimacy, and conferred on
Manfred of Swabia, who long bore the title of prince of
Tarento. Its next transfer was made by Charles II. to
his fon Philip, titular emperor of Conftantinople, by whofe
daughter it was conveyed to the houfe of Baux. Upon the
failure of this family, it was obtained by Raymond Orfini, a
younger fon of the family of Nola. King Ladiilaus, by
marrying the widow of Raymond, became mafter of Ta-
rento. Queen Joan II. gave it to her hufband, the earl of
La Marche ; and he fold it to John Anthony Orfmo Balzo,
the right owner. When this prince died virithout iffue, Ta-
rento efcl.eated to the crown. The inhabitants, negleftiiig
the culture of the foil, direfted their whole attention to fifhing.
Their number is eftimated at 18,000. Its harbour, which
was once excellent, is now fo fhallow as to admit only fidiing
boats. It is defended by a fort. The bay of Tarento is
remarkable for fprings of frefh water at the bottom, \Yhich,
as it is faid, may be taken up in a calm from the furface ;
60 miles W.N.W. of Otranto. N. lat. 40° 45'. E. long.
17'' 10'.

TARENTUM, in Jncient Geography, a town of Italy,
in Magna Graccia, upon a fmall promontory of the MefTapia.
Tarentum was a very ancient city : fome have afcribed its
crigin to the Cretans, befere the Trojan war. In the 21ft

T A K

Olympiad, a powerful body of emigrants arrived under
Phalanthus from Laconia, that it feemed to be refounded.
Here they fettled upon an ariftocratical plan, enlarged the
fortifications of the city, and transformed it into a near re-
femblance of Sparta. Places were called by new names ;
and as moft of the nobles had periflied in a war with the
Japyges, democracy was introduced. The favourable fitua-
tion of this city, when it was firft: founded, contributed to
its rapid profperity. Placed in the centre of three feas, it
obtained the whole commerce of the Adriatic fea, of the
Grecian or Ionian fea, and of that portion of the Mediter-
ranean called the Tyrrhenian fea. The adjacent country
was fertile in grain and fruit ; the paftures were excellent ;
the flocks afforded a very fine wool. It is no wonder, then,
that the city (hould become rich, and that riches (hould be
fucceeded by luxury. Philofophy was not neglefted at Ta-
rentum ; and that of Pythagoras gained the preference.
The arts were alfo diligently cultivated. Strabo mentions
the gymnafium of this city with high commendation, and
the bronze colofTus of Jupiter, which was fcarcely inferior
to that of Rhodes. Fabius Maximus found here abundance
of piftures and ftatues, which ferved to adorn his triumph.
With the wealth of Tarentum, its power alfo rofe above
that of all the colonies of Magna Grecia : its land forces
were eftimated at 32,000 foot and 3000 horfe, in conftant
pay ; and thirteen confiderable cities acknowledged its do-
minion. At fea, their fleets rode triumphant and unrivalled.
The moft brilliant epoch of their hiftory was that of the
government of Archytas, whofe profound learning as a phi-
lofopher, and (kill as a mechanic, was no impediment to his
political talents and exertions. His virtues alfo commanded
refpeft. He frequently led the Tarentines to battle, and
always returned after fuccefs. With Archytas, however,
terminated the profperity of Tarentum. At length this
city partook of the horrors of thofe wars which defolated
the fouthcrn part of Italy. The inhabitants not only ex-
pofed themfelves to the Roman arms by fome outrages com-
mitted againft their ambaffadors, but in the year 541 of
Rome, Annibal having taken pofTeffion of Tarentum, the
Romans fent againft them a body of troops under Fabius
Maximus, who retook it, and gained pofleffion of its ample
ftores of wealth. In the year 664 or 665, it was made mu-
nicipal ; and in procefs of time, it became a very pleafant
city. Whilft Totila was ravaging Italv in the year of Chrift
546, the Greeks took pofleffion of Tarentum, but fuddenly
abandoned it at the approach of a detachment of troops be-
longing to the king of the Goths ; wliicli event occurred in
the year 548. In 552 the troops of Narfes retook it ; but
it was doomed to pafs under the dominion of Romwald I.,
duke of Beneventum, in the year 668. On the decline of
the Lombard power, the Grecian emperors regained pof-
fefliion of this country, and retained it till Robert Guifcard
drove them for ever out of Italy. For its fubfequent hif-
tory, &c. fee Tarento.

TAREYEN, in Geography, a town on the weft coaft of
the ifland of Celebes. N.lat. 1° 13'. E. long. 119'^ 12'.

TAREYRAS, a town of Brafil, in the government of
Goyas ; 75 miles E.N.E. of Villa Boa.

TAREZA, a river of Hungary, which runs into tlie
Samos, 20 miles S.W. of Tokay.

TARF, a river of Tunis, which runs into the Mediter-
ranean, 3 miles S. of Maharefs.

TARFE, a town of Egypt ; 7 miles W. of Cairo.
TARFOKIRAT, a town of the kingdom of Fez, on
the coaft of the Mediterranean ; 22 miles W. of Mehlla.
TARFOWA, a town of Africa, in Tunis, fuppofed to

be

T A K

TAR

be the ancient Taphrura or Tapanira ; 24 miles VV. of
Thainee.

TARFVALA, a town of Sweden, in tlie pro\ince of
Tavaftland ; 70 miles N.N.E. of Jamiio.

TARGA, a fea-port town of Fez, near which is an
oyi1;er filhery ; 90 miles S.E. of Tangiers,

Tai>.oa. See TiKGA.

TARGAR, a name given by fome of the tlieinical
writers to oil of juniper.

TARGET, ajh'uld; thus called from the Latin, tergum,
hack, becaufe originally made of leather, wrought out of the
back of an ox's hide.

Target is alfo the name of a mark for the artillery to hre
at in their praftice.

Target, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the AUier ; 2 miles S.E. of Montmarault.

TARGIONI, Tozzetti, Giovanni, in Biography, an
eminent Italian phyfician, was born at Florence in 1712, and
took his degree of M.D. at Pifa, where he had ftudied and
acquired fmgular reputation. Upon his return to Florence,
he applied to the iludy of botany under the celebrated
Micheli, who, at his death, bequeathed to him his library,
herbarium, and MSS., and alfo the fuccefTion to his direftor-
fhip of the botanical garden. He was likewife nominated
profefTor of botany in the Florentine college by the grand
duke ; and admitted to the two academies of the Apatilli
and Delia Crufca. In conjunftion with Cocchi, he engaged
in making a catalogue of the library of Magliabecchi, which
he had bequeathed to the public ; and in recompence of his
labour, the grand duke appointed him librarian. His va-
rious occupations, in conneftion with his praftice, rendered
it neceflary for him to refign the office of direiftor of the bo-
tanical garden in 1 749. The mind of Targioni, however,
was fo aftive, that not content with his literary and profef-
fional employments at home, he made feveral fcientific ex-
curfions, the refult of which he publifhed in his " Relazioni
d'alcuni Viaggi fatti in divcrfe parte della Tofcana per of-
fervar le Produzioni naturali, e gli antichi Monumcnti
d'effe," Firenz. t. i. 175 1, 8vo. As a phyfician, he alfo
publifhed feveral pieces, and among thefe were " Direftions
for the Recovery of drowned Perfons." He alfo promoted
inoculation for the fmall-pox ; and direfted his attention
to the treatment of epidemics, the draining of marfhes, the
prevention of the inundations of the Arno, and the examina-
tion of vegetables to be fiibftituted for bread in a time of
fcarcity. Having taken leave ot littrary labours by a work
on the progrefs of the phyfical faiences in Tufcany, compre-
hended in four volumes, he rcftrifted himfelf to medical
praftice from the year 1770 to 1780. At length, in Ja-
nuary 1782, being in his 71ft year, his life terminated by a
gradual decay. Haller. Gen. Biog.

TARGIONIA, in Botany, was fo named by Micheli,
in honour of his friend and fellow-labourer in the natural
hiftory of Italy and other parts of the world. Dr. Cyprian
Targioni, of Florence, whofe valuable mufeum he highly
celebrates. There have been feveral perfons of this name,
diftinguifhed at Florence, in medicine and natural hiftory.
John Targioni, who took the furname of Tozzetti for an
eftate, was profeflbr of botany there, and died in 1782, aged
70. He publilhed Travels in Tufcany, as well as feveral
other works relating to natural fcience, and purchafed the
mufeum and library of Micheli. (See that article.) —
Mich. Nov. Gen. 3. t. 3. Linn. Gen. 565. Schreb. 764.
Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Sprengel in Stockholm Tranf. for
1802. 85. t. 4: alfo in Bullet, des Sciences, 27. t. 2. f. 2.
JuiT. 8. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 877. — Clafs and order, Cryj)-
togamia Hepatic^. Nat. Ord. ^Iga, Linn. Hepatict, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cat.? Perianth a continued membrane, finely

reticulated, enveloping the piftil, at length burfting. Stam.f
Anthers numerous, rouJidilh, feffile, fcattercd over the in-
fide of the perianth. PiJ/. Germeii oval, nearly feflile, ac-
companied at the bafe by the rudiments of others, with
abortive lUKs ; (lyle terminal, awl-{liaped, tubular, deci-
duous ; iligma concave. Peric. Capfule fefTile, nearly glo-
bofe, ot two hemifpherical valves, burfting vertically, and
one cell. Seeds very numerous, minute, roundilh, connefted
by five threads into a denfe globular mafs.

Ell. Ch. Capfule globofe, of two concave valves, and
one cell. Seeds numerous, combined by fibres into a
globe.

I. T. hypophylla. Dotted Targionia. Linn. Sp. PI.
1603. Hudl. 519. Engl. Bot. t. 287. Dickf. Dr. PI.
20. (T. minima et vulgaris ; Mich. n. i. Lichen petrxub
minimus, fruftu orobi ; Dill. Mufc. 532. t. 78. f. 9. L.
alter acaulis LTTo-K^Xoxaaroi ; Column. Ecphr. part I. 333>
t. 331.) — Very common in heathy rather moill places,
among moffes, on old walls and rocks, in moft parts of
Italy. It is faid alfo to have been found in Dcvonfliire, and
in Scotland. We have had hving plants from a bank near
Nayland in Suffolk, where the Targionia was difcovered by
the Rev. Mr. Kirby. The fronds are oblong, inverfcly
heart-fhaped, three quarters of an inch in length, growing
nearly horizontally, in denfe imbricated patches, attached
by copious fine fibrous roots ; their upper furface dark
green, marked with a (light longitudinal furrow, and be-
fprinkled with pale prominent points ; the under fide black,
becoming vifible when, by drought, the margins arc curled
in. The parts of the Jlower we have not feen. The fruit
ftands at the back of the frond, a little below the end, and
looks like the feed of a vetch, being nearly globular, of a
very dark brown, almoft black ; feparating when ripe into
two hemifpherical valves, enclofing a globular mafs of black
powdery feeds, conncfted by fibres. The habit of the plant
is exaftiy like that of a Marchantia, (fee that article,)
but the generic charafter differs cfTentially, by the fruit
alone, from that genus, as well as from Jungermannia, of
which latter Hedwig fufpedled it to be a fpecies. We rely
on the obfervations of Sprengel for the ftrufture of the
flower, though without any fohd conviftion that the anthers
are what he defcribes. The female parts of fruftificatiou
refemble thofe of true Musf'l, (fee that article,) but the
capfule is totally different. This part is called calyx in the
JEnglifh Botany, from a fuppofed analogy to Sphttrocarpus,
which we now believe to have little foundation. Whether
there be any membrane extended from the bafe of the ftyle
over the germen, like the calyptra of moffes, does not appear
from Sprengel's defcription, but it is highly probable ;
though as he exprefsly fays the ftyle itfelf is deciduous, that
circumftance would ftill aftbrd a material diftinftion.

T ARGON, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Gironde ; 6 miles N.E. of Cadillac.

TARGOWISKA, a town of Poland, in Volhynia ;
9 miles S. of Lucko.

TARGUM, in the Sacred Literature, a name which the
Jews give to their Chaldee gloffes and paraphrafes on the
Scripture. See PAKAniUASK.

Thefe Chaldee paraphrafes, which were tranflations of
the fcriptures of the Old Teftament, from the Hebrew text
into the language of the Chaldxans, were called Targums :
for the word targum fignifies in Chaldee an iiiterprelation or
verfion of one language into another, and may properly be
applied to any fuch verfion or trandation ; but it is moft
commonly by the Jews appropriated to thefe Chaldee para-
phrafes by way of eminence.

A$

TAllGUAI.

As tlie Jews, during llicir long captivity in Babylon, had
forgot their ancient language, the Hebrew ; and now under-
llood nothing but the language of thoir maftcrs, the ChaJ-
deans; there was a nccclfity of explaining the prophets in
that language ; and to this nocclTity is o-.vi:!g the firft begin-
ning of the Chaldec paraphiafc.

To make the fenfe of the text underftood, each doftor
made a paraphrafc of feme pari of it in tlie vulgar tongue ;
and as thefc feveral interpretation-?, in time, became very
voluminous, certain rabbins undertook to coUeft them to-
gether ; and this colledion they called The Targum.

The Jewifli doftors do not agree about the antiquity of
tlie Targum ; for the more modern Jews having blended
tiieir own comments with thofe of the ancients, no certain
ao^e or era can be fixed for the whole work.

It is commonly believed, that R. Jonathan, who Uved
under the reign of Herod the Great, made the firft Chaldee
verfion of the prophets ; and with this verfion mixed the
interpretations borrowed from tradition. Onkelos, it is
certain, tranflatcd the Pentateuch almoft word for word ;
and without any paraphrafe ; and another verfion of the
Pentateuch is akribed to Jonathan, but that without much
certainty.

Dr. Prideaux thinks, that the verfion or Targum of
Onkelos is the moft ancient of all that are now extant : and
'the principal reafon of his adopting this opinion is, that
the ftyle in which it is written approaches nearer to the
ftyle of that part of Daniel and Ezra, which is written in
the Chaldee language, and which may be corifidered as a
ftandard of its punty, more than any other. This Tar-
gum has been held in higher efteem among the Jews than all
the other Targums, and being fet to the fame mufical notes
with the Hebrew text, it is thereby made capable of be-
ing read in the fame tone in their public affembhes. The
r.ext to this in the purity of its ftyle, is the Targum of
R. Jonathan Ben Uzziel on the prophets ; that is, on
Jofhua, Judges, the two books of Samuel, the two books
of Kings, ifaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve minor
prophets. The Targum of Onkelos is a ftrift verfion,
rendering the Hebrew word for word ; v/hereas Jonathan
takes the liberty of a paraphraft, by enlargements and addi-
tions to the text. The third Targum, or that on the law,
afcribed to Jonathan, is not his, bcca'^fe the ftyle of it is
wholly different from that of his true Targum on the pro-
phets, and feveral things are mentioned in it, which had no
being, or at leaft no name, till after Jonathan's time. The
fourth Targum is on the law, written by an unknown au-
thor, and at an unknown period. It is called the JerufaJem
Targum, probably becaufe it was written in the Jerufalem
dialeiS, which was fpoken by the Jews after their return
from Babylon, and which contains a mixture of Hebrew
v/ords vrith the Chaldee. This Jerufalem Targum is not a
continued paraphrafe, as all the reft are, but confined to
feleft palTages, as the author feems to have thought the text
moft wanted an explication. In many places it is taken
word for word from the Targum, faid to be Jonathan's on
the law : and contains feveral things, which are delivered in
the fame words in the New Teftament by Chrift and his
apoftles. Dr. Prideaux accounts for this circumftance, by
fuppofing that thefe were fayings and phrafcologies, which
had obtained among the Jews in the time of our Saviour,
and continued among them long after : and hence Chrift and
his apoftles, and afterward the author of this Targum, de-
rived them from the fame fource. The fifth Targum, which
is that on the Megilloth, «. <•. Ruth, Efthcr, Ecclefiaftes,
Solomon's Song, and Jeremiah's Lamentations ; the fixth,
which is the fcrond Targum on Efther ; and the fcventh,

which is that on Job, tJbe Pfahns, and the Proverbs, are all

written in the moft corrupt Chaldee of the Jerufalem diaieft.
Of the two former, no author is named ; but the author of the
third is faid to be Jofeph the one-eyed, but who he was, or
when he lived, we are not told : that on the Megilloth,
which mentions the Mifchna and the Talmud with the expli-
cation, muft have been written after the Babylonifti Talmud,
or the year of Chrift 500. The eighth and laft of thefe
Targums, is that on the two books of Chronicles ; pub-
lifhed by Beckius at Augft)urg in Germany, that on the
firft book in i68o, and that on the fecond in 1683. On
Ezra, Nehemiah, and Daniel, there is no targum.

That the Targum of Onkelias on the law, and that of
Jonathan on the prophets, are as ancient as our Saviour's
time, if not more ancient, is the general opinion of both
Jews and Chriftians. As to all the other Targums befides
thefe two, they are certainly of a much later date ; the ftyle
of every one of them is more baibarous and impure than
that of the Jerufalem Talmud, and they muft, therefore,
have been written after the compofure of that work, ;". e.
after the beginning of the fourth century after Chrift ; and
if the Talmudic fables, with which they abound, were
taken out of the Babylonifii Talmud, this will bring their
date ftill lower, and prove them to have been written after
that Talmud, or after the beginning of the fixth century
after Chrift. •

The Targums of Onkelos and Jonathan are in fuch great
efteem among the Jews, that they hold them to be ot tlie
fame authority with the original facred text, and for the fup-
port of this opinion, they feign them to be derived from
the fame fountain. The Chaldee paraphrafe of Onkelos,
they fay, was delivered in the fame manner with the real
law, when God gave the written law unto Mofes at Mount
Sinai ; and %vhen by his holy Spirit he diftated to the pro-
phets the prophetical books, he delivered feverally to them
upon each bock the Targum of Jonathan at the lame time.
Thefe were delivered by faithful hands, the firft Iroui
Mofes, and the other from the prophets, till they came
down to Onktlos and Jonathan, who only put them into
writing.

Agreeably to the high opinion that was entertained of
them, they were read every Sabbath-day in their fynagogues,
in the fame manner as the original facred word itfelf, of
which they were verfions ; and this ufe of them was con-
tinued to late times. Whether the Targums of Onkelos
and Jonathan were received for this ufe fo early as our
Saviour's time is not certain ; however, it feems that thefe,
or fome others, were ufed for the inftruftion of the peof>le,
and were read among them in private as well as in public.
Agreeably to this purpofe, they had fome of their bibles
written out in Hebrew and Chaldee together ; that is, each
verfe firft in Hebrew, and then in Chaldee ; and thus from
verfe to verfe through the whole volume. In thefe bibles,
the Targum of Onkelos was the Chaldee verfion for the
law ; and that of Jonathan for the prophets ; and for the
Hagiographa, the other Targums that were written on
them. One of thefe bibles, thus written, Buxtorf tells us
he had feen at Strafburg : and biftiop Walton acquaints us,
that he had the perufal of two others of the fame fort, one
in the public Hbrary of the church of Weftminfter, and the
ether in the private ftudy of Mr. Thomas Gataker. The
other Targums are all of a much later date than thofe of
Onkelos and Jonathan, and of far lefs authority : however,
biftiop Walton has introduced moft of them into his Poly-
glot. The Targums of Onkelos and Jonathan are of great
ufe for the better underftanding not only of the Old Tefta-
ment, on which they are written, but alfo of the New. As to

the

TAR

tJie Old Teilament, they fei-ve to vindicate the genuincnefs of
the prefent Hebrew text, by proving it to be the fame that
was in ufe when thefe Targums were made, contrary to the
cpinioa of thofe v/!io think the Jews corrupted it after our
.S;.viour's time. They help to explain many words and
phrafes in tlie Hebrew originul, and they hand down to us
rr.any of the ancient cuiloms of the Jews. And fome of
thefe, with the phrafeologies, idioms, and peculiar forme of
fpeech, which we find in . them, do in many iiiftances help
as much for the better illuftration and b<;tter underftanding
of the New Teftament as of the Old ; the Jerufalem Chal-
dee dialeft, in which they are written, being the vulgar lan-
guage of the Jews in our Saviour's time. They alfo very
mufh ferve the Chrillian caufe againft the Jews by inter-
preting many of the prophecies of the Mefliali in the Old
Teftament, in the fame manner as the Chriftians do. Many
inilances aj-e produced to this purpofe by Dr. Prideaux in
his Conned, of the I lift, of the Old and New Teft. vol. iv.
?• 777. &c. , _

Thefe Taigums are publilhed to the beft advantage in the
lecond edition of the great Hebrew bible fet forth at Bafil
by Buxtorf the father, anno 1610, for he has reftified the
Chaldee text, and reformed the vowel pointings in it : the
Targums having at firft been written without vowel points,
which were afterwards added very erroneoufly by fome
Jews.

TARHONA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Tri-
poh ; 25 miles S.W. of Lebida.

TARI, or Torn, a river of Africa, which runs through
the kingdom of Popo into the fea.
TARI, in Commerce. See TaRO.

TARICHI.iE, in Jncient Geogrsphy, iflands fituated on
the coaft of Africa, in the Mediterranean fea, between
Leptis and Thapfus, mentioned by Strabo.

TARIDEGO, in Geography, a town of Africa, on the
riuer St. Domingo. N. lat. 12° 10*. W. long. 13° 56'.

TARIENTO, a town of Italy, in Friuli ; 8 miles N.
of Udina.

TARIER of Buffbn, in Ornithology. See MoTACILLA
Rubetra.

TARI ERA, in Ichthyology, the name of a river-fifti
raught in many parts of America.

It is an oblong fifh, with a ftraight back, and a belly
fomewhat hanging down ; its under jaw is longer than its
upper, and its teeth are extremely fhai-p : among thefe are
two longer than the reft in the middle of the under jaw, and
four fuch in the upper ; its fcales are large, its back brown,
and its belly and fides whitifh. It is a well-tafted iiih, but
full of bones. Marcgrave.

TARIF, or Tariff, Book of Rates ; a table or cata-
logue, drawn ufually in alphabetical order, containing the
names of feveral kinds of merchandize, with the duties or
cuftoms to be paid for the fame, as fettled by authority, and
agreed on between the feveral princes and ftates, that hold
commerce together.

TARIFFA, in Geography, a fea-port town of Spain,
in the province of Seville, fituated on a bay to which it
gives name, on the north fide of the Straits of Gibraltar,
fortified with old walls and towers, with a caftle, in which
the governor refides. By the Romans it was called " Julia
Tradufta," and " Julia Joza." The prefent n.ame is from
the Moors ; 27 miles S.S.E. of Medina Sidonia. N. lat.
36° 3'. W. long. 5° 41'.

TARIFILON, in Botany, a name by which Avicenna,
and fome other authors, have called the trlfol'tum bitum'inofum,
or ftinking trefoil.

TARIJA, in Geography, a jurifdidlion of South Ame-

TAR

rica, in Peru, but placed under the viceroyalty of Buf no?
Ayres. This is reprcfentcd a charming and fertile country,
with a ferene (ky and a fine temperature of air, producing
wheat, maize, and all other things that are cftential to the
fupport of man ; togetlier with the tree, which produces
the herb of Paraguay, the cocoa, the vine, and flax, whicli
is cuhivated merely for the fake of its feed. In the abun-
dance of padures are fed a vaft number of cattle and fheep.
The annual tranfports of black cattle alone are computed
at little Icfs then 10,000 head, which are valued at from
eight to ten piaftres each. The hides tanned and prepa^-ed
form fole-leather for the inhabitants of La Plata, Potofi,
&c. The demands for Spanifn and colonial merciiandife an-
nually exceed 60,000 piaftres; the returns for which are
made in productions of the province. St. Bernardo de
Tarija is the chief town. Chicas and Tarija form one
government.

Tarija, a river of South America, which runs into the
Vermejo, in the province of Tucuman.

Tarija. See St. Bernardo de Tarija.

TARIN, in Ornithology, a name given by the French,
and from them by many others, to the citrinella ; a bird com-
mon in Italy, and kept in cages for its beauty and fine notes.
See Frincilla,

TARINGASONG, in Geography, a town of Thibet;
17 miles S.S.E. of Laffa. N. lat. 28° 6'. E. long. 93'.

TARINGTING, in Ornithology, a name given by the
people of the Philippine iflands, to a fpecies of lapwing,
which is common on the fea-fhores, and runs remarkably
fwift. •'

TARINURAK, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which
runs into the Lena, N. lat. 61°. E. long. 124° 14'.

TARISKERI, a town of the iiland of Metelin, on the
N, coaft ; 1 2 miles E. of Cape Sigri.

TARITH, one of the many names given by chemifts to
mercury.

TARITO, in Geography, a town of Thibet; 33 niiles
S.E. of Tchontori.

TARKA, a mountain of Tranfylvania; 28 miles N.N.E.
of Udvarhely.

TARKI, a town of Hungary; 15 miles N.N.W. of
Topoltzen.

Tarki, or Tarhu, a town of Afia, in Dagheftan, capi-
tal of the diftrift of Schamgul, feated in N. lat. 42° 50',
and fuppofed to contain 10,000 inhabitants, ftands on the
Cafpian {hore, in a narrow glen, through which run many
ftreams of falt-water.

TARKIRA-HOUTCHIN, a poft of Chinefe Tartary,
in the country of the Monguls. N. lat. 44° 34'. E. long.
113° 48'.

TARKO, a town of Hungary, 6 miles E.S.E. of
Szeben.

TARKSHA, a name of the fabulous bird Garuda, on
which, in the mythology of the Hindoos, their god Vifhnu
rides. This vehicle, or vahan, in the Sanfcrit tongue, is
reprefented as half man half eagle ; and offers an argument
for the identity of the Hindoo deity, and the Jupiter of the
Greeks. Another name of this bird is Superna; which
fee. See alfo Vahan.

TARMA, ill Geography, a jurifdiftion of South America,
in Peru, fituated to the north of Atun Xauxa, about 90
miles from Lima, to which dioccfe it belongs, and is one of
the moft extenfive in this part of Peru. The climate is
temperate, and the foil fertile, except towards the mountains,
xvhere it is cold, and the land is chiefly applied to feeding
of cattle ; and many mines of filvcr are found. Tarma, the

capital,

TAR

capital, U 85 miles E. of Lima. S. lat. 11°. VV. long.

75' 5°'-

TARMONBARRY Bridgk, a village of the county

of Rofcommon, Inland, at which there is a bridge over the

Shannon. The royal canal, if it (hould ever be completed,

is to join the Sliannon near this place. It is 4 miles N.W.

from Longford, ajid above 60 from Dublin.

TARMON-HILL, a mountain at the fouthern extre-
mity of the peninfula, called The Mullet, being a detached
part of the county of Mayo, Ireland.

TARN, a river of France, which rifes in the mountains
of Lo/.cre, pafTes by Florae, Ifpanhac, St. Enimie, Com-
peyre, Milhaii, St. Rome, Alby, L'lfle, Rabaftens, Ville-
mur, Montauban, &c. and joins the Garonne, near Moiffac,
in the department of the Lot.

Tarn, a department of France, being one of the nine
departments of the fouthern region, and formerly a portion
of Upper Languedoc, in N. lat. 43° 40', bounded on the N.
and N.E. by the department of tlic Aveiron, on the S.E.
by that of Herault, on the S. by that of the Aude, and on
the W. bv the departments of the Upper Garonne and
the Lot, and taking its name from the river Tarn, which
traverfes it from E. to W. Its territorial extent is 6080
kiliometres, and itspopulation comprehends 272,163 perfons.
It is divided into 4 circles, 35 cantons, and 356 communes.
The circles are Gaillac, including 59,501 inhabitants ; Alby,
63,064; Cadres, 106,918; and Lavaur, 42,680 inhabitants.
Its contributions in the iith year of the French era,
amounted to 2,693,820 francs ; and its expences to
252,749 fr. 18 cents. According to HafTenfratz, its ex-
tent in French leagues is 30 in length, and 20 in breadth :
it is divided into 5 circles and 48 cantons, and its population
comprehends 289,148 fouls. Its capital is Alby. This
department is diverfihed with hills and plains, and abounds
in a variety of produftions, t>/z. grain, flax, hemp, wine,
fruits, and paftures. It has confiderable forefts, with mines
of iron, copper, lead, coal, quarries of marble, &c.

TARNA, a town of Sweden, in the lapmark of Umea :
145 miles N.W. of Umea.

TARN AC, a town of France, in the department of
the Correze, on the Vienne ; 25 miles N. of Tulle.

TARNAVAY, a town of Hindooftan, in the county
of Calicut ; 20 miles N.E. of Paniany.

TARNISHING, a diminution of the natural luftre of
any thing, efpecially of a metal.

Gold and filver, when tarnifhed, refume their brightnefs,
by fetting them over the fire in certain leys. Copper,
pewter, &c. that are tarnilhed, recover their luftre with
tripoli and potalhes.

TARNOGROD, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the
palatinate of Belcz ; 52 miles W.S.W. of Belcz,

TARNOPOL, atown of Auftrian Poland, in Galicia;
72 miles E. of Lemberg. N. lat. 49° 30'. E. long. 25° 40'.

TARNOW, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Gahcia ; 52
miles S.W. of Sandomir. N. lat. 49° 56'. E. long. 20° 53'.

TARNOWITZ, a town of Silefia, in the principality
of Oppeln, near which is a filver mine ; 6 miles N. of
Ober Beuthen. N. lat. 50° 25'. E. long. 18° 47'.

TARO, a river which rifes in the fouthern part of the
duchy of Parma, and runs into the Po, 9 miles E. of
.Bufleto. The country through which it pafles is called
Val di Taro — Alfo, a late department of France, formed
by the duchies of Plaeentia and Parma.

Taro, in Commerce, a money of account and copper coin
ef Naples, Sicily, and Malta. For the accounts at Malta,
fee ScuDO. The banks at Naples keep their accounts in
diucati, tari, and grani. A ducat contains 5 tari, locarlini, or

T A R

40 cinquini : a taro, or tarino, is worth 2 carlini, or 20
grani. Among the filver coins aro tari, at 2 carlini. By
the coinage of 1804, the piece of 12 carlini (hould contain
350I Englilh grains of fine filver ; fo that it is worth
49(/. fterling ; and the ducat of 10 carlini is worth 41^.
fterling nearly, or l/. fterling = 5 ducats 88 grani. The
taro of Sicily is worth about 4^., or more accurately, 1/.
fterling — I ounce 28 tari 15 grani.

TAROATAIHETOOMO, is the name of one of the
two firft or fupreme deities at Otaheite : the other, who is fup-
pofed to have been a rock, is called Tepapa. Thefe produced
a fon called Tune, to whom their prayers are generally ad-
dreffed, and who is fuppofed to intereft himfelf in the aff'airs
of mankind ; and a daughter called Telloivmatatayo,- the
Tear, from whom proceed the months and days. From
the two firft beings they fuppofe alfo to have fprung an
inferior race of deities called Eatuas. Hawkefworth's Voy.
vol. ii. p. 238.

TARODUNUM, in AnclenI Geography, a town of Ger-
many, near the Danube, and in the vicinity of Arje Flavix.

TAROM, in Geography. See Tarum.

TARON, or TiROAN, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Adirbeitzan ; 120 miles S.E. of Tauris.

TARONA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Tauric
Cherfonefus, S.E. of Taplira, and E. of Satarcha.

TAROONCHI, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Myfore ; 15 miles SS.W. of Chinna Balabaram.

TAROUC Y.\MDSON, a lake of Thibet, about 53 miles
in circumference. N. lat. 31° 52'. E. long. 84° 38'.

TAROUCA, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira ; 9 miles S. of Lamego.

TAROULA, a town on the eaft coaft of the ifland of
Tidor. N. lat. 0° 42'. E. long. 127° 20'.

TAROURS, a town of Hindooftan, in Berar ; 30 miles
N.N.E. of Neermul.

TAROUT, a town of Arabia, in the province of Heds-
jas ; 32 miles S.E. of El Catif.

TARP, a town of Sweden, in the province of Dalland ;
12 miles N. of Uddevalla.

TARPANS, a kind of wild horfes in the Caucafian
defert, E. of the river Yaik. They are of a middling fize,
roundifti, ftiort, generally of a blueifti-grey coloOr, with big
heads, and ewe -necked. They are taken with a noofe, and
broken to the faddle by being coupled to a tame horfe.

TARPAULIN, or Tarpawling, is a piece of canvas,
well pitched and tarred over, to cover the hatchways of a
fliip at fea, in order to prevent the penetration of the rain
or fea-water, which may occafionally rufh over the decks.

The term is alfo ufed in derifion for a perfon bred at fea,
and educated in the mariner's art. We alfo, of late, ufe it
to exprefs a painted floor-cloth.

Tarpaulin Cove, in Geography, a bay on the S. of
Maflachufetts, near Falmouth.

TARPEIAN, Takpkiu.s, in Antiquity, an epithet given
to a rock in ancient Rome, of confiderable height ; whence,
by the law of the Twelve Tables, thofe guilty of certain
crimes were precipitated. It was on this rock that the
Capitol was built.

The Tarpeian rock might formerly be fteep enough on
one fide to break a man's neck ; but it could never have
been of that furprifing height mentioned by fome writers,
if any judgment can be formed from its appearance at pre-
fent. See Burnet's Letters, p. 238, and Miffon's N,
Voyage, p. 103.

It took its name from a veftal, called Tarpeia, who be-
trayed the Capitol, of which her father was governor, to
the Sabines ; on condition that they would give her all they

bore

T A R

TAR

bore on their left arms, meaning their bracelets. But, in-
ilead of bracelets, they threw their bucklers (which were
likewife borne on their left ;irm) upon her head, and
cm (Tied her to death.

Others afcribc the delivery of the Capitol to her father,
Spurius Tarpcius ; and add, that he was precipitated
down this rock by Ronuilus's order, and tliat this hence-
forward became the punifliment of all criminals of the like
kind.

Tarpeian Games, Ludt Tarpcii, were games inftitutcd
by Romulus in honour of Jupiter Feretrius ; and called
alfo Cnpitolini /utJi. Sec Capitoline.

TARPORLEY, in Geography, a fmall market-town in
the hundred of Ediibury, and county palatine of Chefter,
England, is fituated on the great road from London to
Cheller, at the diftance of 172 miles N.W. from the former,
and 1 1 miles E.S.E. from the latter. In ancient records,
Tarporley is called a borough, and the houfes burgages :
it had in former times a mayor, as appears by deeds of the
years 1348 and 1396: it is now governed by a conftable.
The market, which was originally on Tuefday, was granted
in 1 28 1 to Hugh de Tarporley, then lord of tlie manor : it
had been many years difufed, but was reilored in 1 705 by fir
John Crew, who alfo procured a grant of three annual fairs,
and built a market-houfe. The parifh of Tarporley, which
includes the townihips of Eaton, Rufhton, and Utkinton,
contained in the yeai- 1 8 1 1 , according to the population
report, 365 houfes, and 1852 inhabitants. An annual
fox-hunt, of great celebrity, is held at Tarporley, on the
firil week in November, during which week are horfe-races,
at a place called Crab-tree Green, on Delamere foreft.

About t«o miles fouthward of Tarporley rifes the great
infulated rock of Beefton. It is compofed of fand-ftone,
and is nearly perpendicular on one fide, which gives it a
tremendous appearance, but the other fide gradujilly flopes
to the level of the country. Its height is 366 feet. On
the creft of this rock are the ftately ruins of the far-famed
Beefton caftle, whofe almoil impregnable llrength was once
proverbial. This fortrefs was erefted in 1220 by Ranulph
de Blundeville, earl of Chefter. It confifted of an outer and
inner area. The outer was defended by a ftrong wall, for-
tified with round towers, which ran acrofs the flope from
one end of the precipice to the other. Some parts of this
wall, and fix of the towers, are ftill extant. The area in-
clofed is nearly five acres. The caftle was defended, on one
fide of the area, by a deep ditch cut out of the folid rock ;
on the other, by the abrupt precipice that overhangs the
vale of Chyfnire. The entrance is through a noble gateway,
guarded on each fide by a great round tower, with walls of
prodigious thicknvfs. During the civil wars of the 17th
century, this foreft was alternately befieged by the royal
and parhamentary forces; and in 1646 was difmantled by

order of the parliament Lyfons's Magna Britannia, vol. ii.

part 2. Chefhire. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ii.
Cheftiire, by J. Britton and E. W. Brayley.

TARPOU, a lake of Tliibet, about 60 miles in cir-
cumference. N. lat. 30° 32'. W. long. 81° 54'.

TARQUINIUS PRISCUS, Targuin the ^Indent, in
Biography, the fifth king of Rome, was the fonofan opulent
merchant of Corinth, wlio, efcaping from tyranny at home,
fettled at Tarquinii, in Etruria, where he married a female
of rank, by wliom he had two fons. One of them died, and
the other, named Lucumo, was urged by his wife Tanaquil,
a lady of rank and of ambition, to remove from Etruria to
Rome ; where he chancred his praenomen Lucumo into
Lucius, and his family name Damaratus into Tarquinius,
borrowed from his native city. Here be ingratiated liim-

VoL. XXXV.

felf by his manners with Ancus M.Trtius, tiie king, and
alfo with the people ; and by the liberal application of his
wealth to public purpofes, particularly to the fupport of
the wars in which Rome was engaged, as well as by his
flcill and valour in the field, he gained a reputation whicli
ferved to advance him to the rank of patrician and fenator.
Ancus alio appointed him to the confidential office of guar-
dian to his two fons. Upon the death of Ancus, B. C.
616, the ambition of Tarquin prompted him to take meafures
for fecuring the fuccefiion to iiimfelf. The crown being
eleftive, ho contrived, by bribes and folicitations, to obtain
the fuffrages of the people, who proclaimed him king ; and
in order to ftrcngtiien his intcreft in the feiiate, he intro-
duced from plebeian families 200 new members into this
body. In his wars with the Latins, he took feveral of
their towns, and obhged the Sabincs and Etrurians, whofe
confederacy he defeated, to feek an alliance with Rome on
humihating terms. Tarquin, in honour of his fuccefs, was
granted a triumph ; and the fpoils of war were devoted to
the ereftion of the Circus Maximus, for the exhibition of
the Roman or great games. The Etrurians, having after-
wards rebelled, obtained peace upon condition of their
recognizing Tai-quin as their fovereign. During an inter-
val of peace, after a nine years' war, Tarquin employed
himfelf in improving the city, by enclofing it with walls,
and by conftrufting thofe fewers, which were in fubfequeiit
times the objefts of admiration. On occafion of a new
war with the Sabincs, Tarquin, whofe army was deficient
in cavalry, augmented the ftrength of each divifion ; and
having defeated the Sabines, they fubmitted, and furrendered
all their fortrefTes to the Romans. At this time Tarquin
fulfilled his vow of erefting a temple to Jupiter, Juno, and
Minerva, on the Tarpeian rock ; and by this aft he acquired
the honour of founding the principal feat of the Roman
worfhip. Having attained to his 80th year, the fons of
Ancus took occafion to make an attempt for defeating his
plan of continuing the crown in his own family by the
marriage of his daughter to Servius TuUius, by confpiring
againft his life. They fo far fucceeded as to procure the
aflaffination of the king. His queen Tanaquil, however,
by keeping the event fecret, adopted meafiu"es for fecuring
the fucceffion of her fon-in-law : and the fons of Ancus,
whofe plot had been dctefted, went into voluntary banilh-
ment. Thus ended, in the year B. C. 570, the profperous
and fplendid reign of Tarquin the elder, one of the moft
illuftrious of the Roman kings, and equally diftinguiftied by
his conduft in peace and in war. Univ. Hift.

Tarquinius Superbus, or Tarquin the Proud, fuppofed
to have been a grandfon of the elder Tarquin, afcendcd the
throne in the year B. C. 534. His government was arbi-
trary and tyrannical, and it was fupported by a band of
foreign mercenaries, employed in the defence of himfelf
and his party, who had contributed to advance him to
the throne in contempt of the fuffrages of the people.
Many of the principal ienators dreading the fate of thofe
who were made the viftims of his fu^icion and avarice,
retired into a voluntary exile. Tlie plebeians, at firft
pleafed with the humiliation of the fenate, had fome reafon
to complain of the yoke impofed upon themfelvee. The
laws that had been made in their favour were abrogated ;
fpies and informers watched their words and aftions ; and all
public afiemblies for bufinefs or amufemcnt were prohibited.
Tarquin, confcious of the odium of the Roman citizens,
took meafures for ingratiating himfelf with the allies ; and
with this view, he eredlcd a temple near the ruins of Alba,
confecrated to Jupiter Latialis, at which the diets of the
confederate cantons were annually to aiTeinble ; the Romans,
Q as

T A II

as chief membcre of the confederation, prcfidmg at thr iacri-
ficcs and deliberations. This inftitution contributed to the
ftrength of the Roman ftatc, and the extcnfion of its domi-
nion throughout Italy. Having taken up arms againft the
Volfcians and Sabines, he returned, after a fuccefsful war,
to Rome, and twice triumphed ; and he took occafion to
6ni(h the great circus and the fewers, which hi: grandfather
had begun. But a war again commenced with fome dif-
contentfd patricians, who had taken refuge at Gabii, a
Latin city not far from Rome ; and this war lafted ieven
years. At length Gabii was conquered by the treachery
of Sextus, one of Tarquin's fons ; and the inhabitants, whom
he treated with lenity, were incorporated with the Romans.
During the reign of this Tarquin, the Sibylline books were
brought to Rome, as \te have related under that ai'ticle, and
fhff Capitolian temple finifhed. Ardea, the capital of the
Rutuli, was the next objeft of Tarquin's military enter-
prife ; and this circumftance was the remote caufe of the
rape of Lucretia by Sextus Tarquin, which at length occa-
fioned the expulfion of the Tarquiiiian family from Rome,
as well as the extinfliou of the kingly government. Brutus,
availing himfelf of the pafTions excited among the multitude
by the tragic fate of Lucretia, and expoling the tyrannical
government under which Rome groaned, obtained a public
decree for the banifhment of Tarquin and his fons, and the
army concurring in this refolution, the king was reduced
to the neceflity, at the age of 76, B. C. 509, to abandon
his capital, and take refuge at Caere, in Etruria. Many
attempts were made for his reftoration, but all proved in-
effeftual. Tarquin retired into Campania, and died there,
in the 90th year of his age, and 14th of his exile. PofTefT-
ing talents tit for command, he was neverthelefs violent,
Cruel, and wholly unprincipled. Univ. Hift. Gen. Biog.
TARRA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor,

in Lydia Alfo, a town and mountain of Crete.

TARRABERRY, in Geography, a town of Bengal;
30 miles N. of Dinagepour.

TARRABOGA, a town of Bengal; 45 miles S. of
Doefa.

TARRA.CE, Tarrass, Terraci, or Terrafs, a coarfe
fort of plafter, or mortar, durable in the wet, and chiefly
ilfed to line bafins, citterns, wells, and other refervoirs of
water. See Calcareous Cement.

That which is called the Dutch terrafs, is made of a foft
I'ock-ftone, found near CoUen, upon tlie lower part of the
Rhine ; it is burnt like lime, and afterwards reduced to pow-
der by means of mills : from thence it is brought to Hol-
land in great quantities, where it has acquired the name of
Dutch terrafs. It is of a greyifli colour when it is not
mixt, which is very feldom the cafe : becaufe it is very dear,
and the demand for it in aquatic works very great. It
is faid that in fome parts of England there is found a foft
ftonc, rcfembling that of Dutch terrafs, and which might
ferve as well in aquatic works.

An artificial terrafs, rcfembling the true, may be formed
of two parts of lime, and one of plaiiler of Paris, well
beaten together, and ufed immediately. There is another
fort of terrafs, ufed for coarfcr ufss, which is fometimes
called Weljh terrafs, formed of one part lime, and two parts
of well-fifted coal-alhes, thoroughly mixt bj^ being well
beaten together. Handm. to the Arts, vol. ii. p. 32.

TARRACO, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania
Citerior, belonging to the Cofetani. This was an ancient
town in the time of the Romans. Some Spanifh authors
have attributed its foundation to Tubal. Others, with
greater probability, afcribe it to the Phcenicians, who called it
Tarcon, which tlie Romans changed into Tarraco. Having
10

T A R

been deftroycd, it was re-eftabli(hed by the two Scipios.
At length it became thecapitalof that region, to which it gave
the name of Hifpania Tarragonenfis. Augultus vifited this
city on occafion of his war againft the Cantabri ; and it was
here that the firtt altar was erefted to his honour, Galba,
A.D. 68, was ])refentcd by the Tarraconians with a crown
of gold. It was in the year 121 or 122 that Adrian re-
cftablilhed the temple built in this city in honour of Auguf-
tus, under the reign of Tiberius. See Taukagona.

TARRAGON, in Botany, a name fometimes given to
fouthemiuood ; which fee. See alfo Artemisia.

TARRAGONA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in
the province of Catalonia, fituated on a riling ground on the
coaft of the Mediterranean, at the mouth of the river
Francoli, and one of the moft ancient cities in Spain, faid to
have been founded by the Phoenicians. Under the Romans
it was the capital of a province, called Tarragonenfis, and
was fortified by Scipio as a defence againft the Carthaginians.
In the year 467 it was taken by the Goths, and levelled
with the ground. In 516, a council was held here, in
which monks ai-e firft mentioned ; when it was ordained that
the fabbath ftiould commence on Saturday evening. It af-
terwards ftU into the hands of the Moors, from whom it was
recovered in the latter part of the iith century, and re-
built by the archbifhop of Toledo, who was by the pope
abfolved of the oath he had taken of going to the holy war,
on condition that he would lay out the fum defigned for that
expedition in rebuilding Tarragona. In the war of the fuc-
ceflion, the Englilh obtained pofreffion of this city, and in-
tended to keep and fortify it, by bringing the river Francoli
quite round it ; and for this purpofe threw up vaft out-
works and redoubts, the ruins of which are yet vifible.
On the pofleffion of Gibraltar, they gave up the defign. The
environs at Campus Tarragonenfis they efteem one of the
moft fertile fpots in Europe. Tarragona has but few re-
mains of its ancient grandeur ; infcriptions almoft deilroyed
by time, fome coins, and a few ruins, give but an imperfect
idea of what it formerly was. It is now depopulated, and
of little importance. The harbour is dangerous, and not
much frequented ; there are a few baftions in bad repair,
which were formerly built for its defence. Tarragona is,
however, the fee of an archbiibop, the metropobs of Cata-
lonia, and difputes with Toledo the primacy of Spain. The
eftabliftiment of the fee is faid to have been in the firft ages
of the church : the fucceflion of archbiftiops was inter-
rupted by the Moors, and remained fufpended until the
ilth century. The cathedral is worthy of attention for
its vaft dimenfions, the elegance of its Gothic architefture,
and a magnificent chapel, built with rich m.arble and jafper,
in honour of St. Thecla, tutelar faint of the church ; 08
miles E.S.E. of SaragoiTa. N. lat. 41° 8'. E. long.

TARRAGUNGE, a town of Bengal; 22 miles S.E.
of Moorfhedabad.

TARRAPOUR, a town of Hin-dooftan, in Bengal ;
17 miles S.W. of Boghpour. — Alfo, a town of Hindoo-
ftan, in Malwa, on the Nerbuddah ; 12 miles S. of
Mundu.

TARRAR, a circar of Hindooftan, in Allahabad,
bounded on the north by Allahabad Proper, on the E. by
Chunar, on the fouth-eaft by Boggilcund, and on the weft,
by Bundelcund ; about 35 miles long, and 12 broad.

TARRASA, a town of Spain, in Catalonia; 13 miles
N. of Barcelona.

TARRATZ Point, a cape on the north coaft of 3t
Vincent. N. lat. 13° 24'. W. long. 65° 15'.

TAR REG A, a town of Spain, in Cat.ilonia, on the

Cervera ;

T A K

T A 11

Ccrvora; 5 miles W. of Ccrvcr.i. N. lat. 41° 36'. E.
lonjT. 0° 19'.

TARRIE, in Commerce, a meaiurc at Algiers for corn
and dry goods, holding fomcwh.U lefs than 2\ pecks Eng-
liih meafure ; 16 tarries make a caffife.

TARROCK, in Ornithology, the name of a fea-fowl of
the larus or gull-kind, and diftinguidied by authors by tlic
name of the larus dnereus Bellonii ; and called by Linnncus
the Larus trtdaBylus ; which fee.

It is of the fize of the common pigeon, and is not mucli
unhke it in fhape, except that the head is larger and tliickcr.
The bill is black, (hort, thick, and ilrong ; the throat,
neck, and under fide are white ; near each ear, and under
the throat, is a black fpot ; on the hind part of the neck is a
black crcfcent, with the horns pointing to the throat.

Its gre.it diftinAion, however, from all the other birds
of the gull-kind, is, that it has no hinder toe, but in lieu of
it a fmall protuberance. It is very common on the coalls
of Cornwall, and fome other of the Englifli fhores. Ray
and Pennant.

TARRY-TOWN, in Geography, a town of New York,
where major Andre, of the Britilh army, was appreliended
as a fpy ; 24 miles N. of New York.

TARSAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Berar ; 18 miles
E. of Nagpour.

TARSI, in the Materia Medica, a name by which fome
authors have called the root of the cypenis efculeiitus, or fweet
cyperus of the (hops, and by which it is, in fome places,
ufually called by the druggifts. See Avellanda and
Habhazzis.

TARSO, in the Glafs Trade, a fort of white ftone found
in many rivers in Italy, and other places ; and ufed inftead
of fand for the fineft cryftal-glafs, being firft burnt, and cal-
cined with the fait of the polverine into frit. Neri's Art
ol Glafs, p. 7.

Neri calls this ftone a kind of white marble ; and adds a
general rule, that all ftones that will ftrike fire with fteel, are
fit to vitrify ; and thofe that will not ftrike fire with fteel,
ivill never vitrify.

The criteria or determinate characters of foffils were not
At all fixed in this author's time, otherwife he had not called
this ftone a kind of marble ; fince his own general rule of
trying ftones by fteel is, though liable to a few exceptions, a
very good one ; and, according to that, this tarfo could be
of no affinity to marble ; for marble will not ftrike fire with
fteel, nor ever be converted into glafs.

The tarfo, therefore, of this and other authors, could be
notliing of the marble kind ; but is truly a cryftalline mat-
ter debafed by an admixture of white earth, and found in
form of fmall pebbles, of a whitilh, yellowifti, or pale
reddini colour ; and this is common in all the gravel-pits of
England, and in the beds of fome of our rivers ; and might
be ufed with great advantage by our glafs-makers, if they
knew it was fo eafily to be had.

On comparing thefe ftones of ours, with the cuogoli, or
tarfo of the foreign glafs-makers, there is no diff'erence dil-
tinguiftiable to the eye, nor will the niceft experiments by the
fire, acid menftrua, &c. (hew the leaft diftinftion between
them. We are not to wonder, however, tliat the glafs-
makers did not hitherto diftinguifh this to be the true cuo-
goli, or tarfo, fince the charafters of folTils have been hi-
therto fo little afcertained, that the beft and lateft author on
thefe fubjetts. Dr. Woodward, fo far miftook the ftrufture
of this ftone, as to call it a fparry pebble. It is certain
that fpar could never have any thing to do with glafs-
making ; but this ftone has no fpar iii its conipofition.

TARSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town and country of
Afia, in Bithynia. Steph. Byz.

Tarsus, in Geography, a fua-port town of Afiatic Turkey,
in the government of Marafch, faidto have been founded b^
Sardanapalus. It was at one time the capital of Cilicia, and
traverfed by the river Cydnus. It is mentioned by Dionyfius
Periegctcs, Ptolemy, Mela, Pliny, and Strabo, the latter
of whom fays, that it was very powerful and populous ;
that its inhabitants excelled in the ftudy of philofophy, and
of all the fcicnces cultivated among the Greeks ; indeed in
this refpetl they furpaffed Athens, Alexandria, and all other
academies in the world. It is now inhabited by Turks,
Greeks, and Armenians, and is the fee of a Jacobite bifhop
and Neftorian archbifhop. It is large, and furrounded with
a double wall. St. Paul called himfelf a native of Tarfus ;
and here the emperor Julian was buried. It has been faid
that in the time of St. Paul, Tarfus was a Roman colony,
and that the apoftle was a citizen of Rome by virtue of hia
n^itivity at Taifus. (Afts, xxi. 37 — 39. ch. xxii. 3.) But
Dr. Lardner has particularly examined this ])oint, and al-
leged feveral arguments to prove, that Tarfus, though it
was no mean city, as St. Luke fays, was not a municipium,
or town of Roman citizens. (See Si. Paul.) Tarfus
was taken by the Saracens in 640 ; 25 miles W. of Adana.
N. lat. 37° I'. E. long. 34° 37'.

Tausus, in Anatomy, that part of the foot (confifting of
about its pofterior half ) to which the leg is articulated. Its
front portion correfponds to the inftep in common language.

Sea EXTREMITIFS.

The fame name is applied to the portion of cartilage con-
tained in each eyelid. See Eye.

TARTAGLIA, Nicholas, in Biography, a celebmted
mathematician, was born at Brefcia about the beginning of
the 1 6th century. Being left deftitute in his childhood by
the death of his father, he was no lefs unfortunate at the
fiege of Brefcia in 15 12, in receiving feveral wounds, and
particularly one which divided his lip, fo that he loft the
power of diftinil articulation ; and from this circumftance
he got the name of Tartaglia. The defefts of his early-
education were amply compenfatod by his genius and dili-
gence. Having reilded ten years at Verona, he afterwards,
viz. in 1534, became profeffor of the mathematics at Ve-
nice ; and here, except during an interval of eighteen monthis
at Brefcia, he remained till the time of his death, in 1557.
His works are numerous. Befides tranflations of Archi-
medes and Euclid, he wrote many original treatifes in ma-
thematics, one of the moft important of which, entitled
" Quefiti e' inventione diverfi," was publifticd at Venice in
1546, and dedicated to Henry VIII. of England. It is
comprehended in nine books, and contams anfwers to feve-
ral queftions that were propofed to him at different timee
concerning mechanics, hydroftatics, &c.; and more pai'ticu-
larly worthy of notice is the hiftory of the invention of the
rules for folving cubic equations, which he conununicatedto
Cardan, under an oath that he wovild keep the fecrct.
(See Algebra and Cardan.) Tartaglia's genius was wo
lefs confpicuoufly difplayed in other fciences than in algebra.
He treats of artillery and gunnery, and alfo of tlie different
methods of fortifying towns, befides various mechanical and
algebraical queftions. He alfo propofes many queftions with
regard to the motion of bodies, and the metiiod of mea-
furing diftances, in his " Nuovia Scienzia" and " De' Numeri
e Mefure."- To Tartaglia we owe the fu-ft difcovery of the
beft angle, ('. e. 45°, as it was then thought, for elevating a
piece fo as to throw a ball or fhell to die greatell diilance.
He iJfo annoiuiced a method of raifuig reffttls that were
Q 2 fimk,

TAR

funk, and other heavy bodies, from the bottom of the fea,
and the means by wlilcli a perfon may be enabled to remain a
confiderable time under water ; and to him we owe a treatife
on the figns which indicate changes in the atmofphere. He
has hkewifc furnilhed us with a large treatife on arithtnetic,
algebra, and geometry, piiblilhcd at Venice, in folio, in
1556. Tirabofchi remarks, that all Tartaglia's works ma-
nifeft great penetration and acutenufs, and that they would
claim tiigher commendation, if the author had paid more at-
tention to his ftylc, and if the editions were more corrcftiy
printed. But with all their imperfeftions and faults, and
after all the improvements to which they have led the way,
they were juftly eileemcd at the time when they were wT-itten,
and they have been ufeful to thofe who have in more modern
times purfued the fame courfe of lludy and inveftigation.
Tirabofchi. Montucla. Hutton.

Tartaglia is mentioned by Pietro della Valle among great
Roman muficians in 1640, and the compofer of " Clearco,"
the firll opera that was performed at a pubhc theatre in Rome.
For though feveral miiiical dramas had been exr.ibited in the
palaces of ambaffadors and other great perfonages in that
city, no theatre had been previoufly opened there for the
public at large.

TARTAGLINI, la Rosa, the daughter of Tibaldi,
an excellent tenor finger in the fervice of the emperor at
Vienna. She was extremely celebrated for her beauty and
agility of voice, and quitted the ftage in 1768.

TART A LA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Cahcut ; 21 miles E. of Paniany.

TARTAN, in Sea Language, a fmall coafting vefTel
navigated in the Mediterranean fea, and ha\-ing only one mall
and a bowfprit, the principal fail, which is extremely large,
being extended by a lateen-yard.

When tartans put up a fquare fail, it is called a fail of
fortune.

TARTAR, Tartarus, or Tartanim, in Chemiflry, an
acid concrete fait which rifes from wines, after complete
fermentation, and flicking to the top and fides of the callcs,
forms a cruft, which hardens to the confiftence of a Ilone.
It is in this ftate a hard, brittle, brown-red mafs, inter-
fperfed with imperfeclly cryftalli/.ed particles ; and called
crude or rough tartar, or argol, by way of diftindlion from
that which is purified.

Its goodnefs rather depends on the number of repeated
fermentations, which a fucceffion of new wines in the fame
calks for fcveral years makes, than on the foil or climate
where tlie wine is produced.

The fwcct wines afford always lefs tartar than the (harp
ones, and it is alfo lefs valuable. The tartar of Rhenifh
wine is better than that of any other ; and in general thofe
wines which have the moft acid in them, and which are the
moft coloured and flrongeft-bodied, afford the greateft quan-
tity of tartar, and tliat in the largefl cryflals.

The tallc of tartar is vinous, and flightly acid. It is not
entirely a product of fermentation, for it is contained in the
" muft," or grape juice, and affifls in the procefs of fer-
mentation, and the produftion of alcohol. This fait has
alfo been found native, under different combinations, in fome
other vegetable juices.

Befides the ufual way in which tartar is produced, there
is a very remarkable account in the Memoirs of tlie Aca-
demy of Sciences at Paris, an. 1737, of its having been
found in a more than ordinary beautiful ftate on a human
ikull : the difcovery was owing to accident, and it was found
that there had been lees of wine in the veflel in which the
ikull had been laid ten days in foak.

r A R

The formation of the cryftds of this tartar on the ikuii»
while the fides of the velFel had none created on them, (hews
that tlic (l<ull had a difpofition for receiving the cryftals more
than any other body ; and their pecuhar brightnefs proves,
that it had fome fhare in their formation.

Tartar confifts of a large quantity of extraftive matter,
fcarcely foluble in water, to which it owes its colour, and
of a fait, quite white when pure, compofed of acid of tartar
united to a fmall portion of potafh„ lefs than is required for
the faturation of the acid, but which, in this proportion,
forms a diflinft cryftallizable fait of confiderable importance
in feveral arts and manufadlures.

Tartar is either luhite, or red, according to the colour of
the wine from which it is produced. That brought from
Germany is the befl, as being taken out of thofe monftrous
tuns, fome of which hold a thoufand pipes of wine, fo that
the fait has time to come to its confillence, which is one of
the chief qualities to be regarded in tartar. That of Mont-
pellier is the next in order ; then that of Lyons, Paris, &c.

White tartar is preferred to red, and is really better, as
containing lefs of the drofTy or earthy part ; though both
kinds, when purified, are exadlly the fame. The marks of
good tartar of either kind are, its being thick, brittle, bril-
liant, and but little earthy.

Tartar, in its crude ilate, is much ufed as a ilux in the
affaying of ores. As it contains both alkali and carbonaceous
matter, it afts both in aflifting the fiifion of refraftory ores,
and in reducing metallic falts and oxyds. When heated
per fe to rednefs in clofe vefTels, the extraiElive matter and
the tartareous acid both become charred, and the refult is a
black alkahne cai-bonaceous mafs. In open vefTels the char-
coal burns off totally, and at lafl nothing remains but pure
white carbonate of potafh. But tartar is for the moil part
refined, in order to obtain the pure fait ; which is called
purified tartar, cream of tartar, cryjlals of tartar ; or more
accurately, according to the modern nomenclature, acidulous
tartrite of potajld, or fupertartrite of potajh, and fometimes
with lefs precifion, finiply tartar. This fait is purified in
large quantities at Venice, and in France near Montpellier,
by two different proceffes, which have been defcribed by
Defmaret (Joum. Phyf. torn. i. p. 67.) and by M. Fizes
(Mem. de I'Acad. for 1725), and which we (hall here ex-
traft from Aikin's diftionary. At Venice the method is as
follows : " The crude tartar is firft dried in an iron boiler,
with a very gentle heat and frequent ftirring, that the acid
may not be burnt, and is then pounded in iron mortars.
The ground tartar is then diflributed into wooden tubs, and
boihng water poured upon it, which diflblves the fait, and
leaves a fediment, which is thrown away. The clear folu-
tion is left three days at reft, during which time it depofits
brownifh cryftals of tartar. The mother-liquor from this
operation is referved, and is ufed hot in the fubfequent pro-
cefs in the firft lixiviation of the tartar. The brownifh cryf-
tals of tartai- are then put into a copper boiler, with the
mother-liquor of former proceffes, and (lowly brought to
boil, by which a faturated iolution of a deep yellow wine-
colour is produced. This is clai-ified in the following way :
a workman ftaiids by the fide of the copper with a bafltet
of eggs, and a bucket full of finely fiftcd wood-afhes. He
begins with breaking one of the eggs, and putting the white
of it only into a bowl ; he beats this up with fome of the
boiling liquor, and then pours the w-hole into the boiler : he
then inftantly throws in a ladleful of the wood-afties, and
ftirs up the hquor from the bottom. A brifk effervefcence
takes place, and the furface is covered with a red fcum,
wliich is carefully taken off with a perforated fl<imming-di(h,

and

TARTAR.

and put afide : a fecond portion of allies is then added, and
the efFervefcence and fcum are renewed and treated as before.
The whole of this operation is repeated fourteen or fifteen
times, after which the hquor b^xomes quite clear and colour-
lefs. TIic fire is then withdrawn, and the li([uor fullered to
remain perfeftly at rell for throe days. On the fourth, a
dirty white faline crull is removed from the fnrface, and two-
tliirds of the liquor laded out : the cryihds on the fides are
then colleAed by a ladle, and walhed in the remaining liquor ;
they are thus obtained perfectly clean, and require no fur-
ther preparation than drying on a wicker frame. Tlie
cryftals from the bottom are ftill fomewhat coloured, and
are either lold as an inferior fort, or are refined again with
fredi portions of the crude tartar. The liquor that remains
in the boiler, after the depofition of the cryitals, is a cold
faturated folutioii of tartai", and is employed in the firft lixi-
viation of the rough tartar."

The method iifed near Montpellier has been found fo
convenient and eflfeftual, that it has continued without any
material alteratioa for a century. It is as follows : " The
apparatus required for this purpofe is, ift, a large copper
boiler; 2d, a ilone ciftern, larger than the boiler; 3d, a
number of glazed earthen pots (generally t wenty-feven ) ,
which, together, hold fomewhat more than the boiler ;
4th, fome ftraiucrs of coarfe cloth llretched on wooden
frames ; 5th, four fmaller copper boilers, which, together,
hold as much as the larger boiler, and are ufed in the refining
part of the procefs ; and 6th, a mill to grind the tartar.

" The large copper is firll filled with two-thirds of
mother-liquor, remaining from the previous operations, and
one-third of fpring-water ; a quantity of rough tartar is then
thrown in, and, when the liquor is faturated and boihng, it
is ftrained into the earthen pots. In about half an hour the
liquor in thefe pots, though ftill very hot, begins to depofit
cryftals on the furface and fides of the pot ; during which
time, more liquor and tartar are thrown into the large cop-
per, as at firft.

" The liquor in the pots is then emptied into the ftone
ciftern, leaving the cryftallized crnft of tartar behind ; and
when the fecond boiling is faturated, the pots are again filled
as before, and the large copper again charged with the clear
liquor from the ciftern, and frelTi tartar. By thus five times
alternately preparing a hot faturated folution, and allowing
it partially to depofit its tartar in the pots, the latter become
lined to a confiderable thicknefs with a crnft of reddilh-white
tartar, much purer than at firft, and which obvioufly con-
fifts of an irregular cryftallized faline mals, and when walhed
with cold water, is fit for the fecond or proper refining pro-
cefs. For this purpofe the four fmall boilers are filled with
water, in which a imall quantity of clay is diffufed, which
renders it milky, rejetling the ftony and larger particles of
earth. The half-purified tartar is then added in fuch pro-
portion, that the water, when boiling, ftiall be fufficient to
diffolve all the foluble part, and the ebullition is continued
for a quarter of an hour ; the fire is then withdrawn, and the
liquor allowed to remain at reft till the next day. It is then
found covered on the furfaCe with a white hard faline cruft,
and a fimilar cruft, but more diftinCfly cryftallized, has con-
creted on the fides and bottom of the boiler. They are both
very pure tartar, the cruft on the furface, wliich is an amor-
phous mafs, is called cream of tartar ; and the other, cryjiah
of tartar ; but they are indifcriminately mixed.

" The cruft is then broken down, and falls to the bottom ;
and the liquor, which is a clear pale red, is poured off gently
into the ftone ciftern, till it begins to run white, owing to
the clay at bottom, which latter portion pafles into a fepa-
rate veffel. The whole mafs of folid tartar left in the boiler

is then walhed with cold watfr, till all the foulnefs (which
is merely fuperficial) is got out, and the water comes away
quite clear ; after which the purified tartar is taken out, and
dried on lloves or in the fun, and is jierfcctly pure and white.
The ordinary rough tartar yields about three-fifths of its
weight of the wliite pure fait. All the refiduary liquors
are employed in fubfequent operations, in the way already
mentioned."

Schanb fays ( Annal. de Chim. xlix. 61.), that tartar may
be purified by fimply boiling it with powdered recent char-
coal, and thus very wiiite cryftals are obtained.

Tartar, Burnt, a preparation ufed by glafs-manufac-
turers, and confifting of large lumps of red tartar, burnt or
calcined in earthen pans in an open fire, till they have done
fmoaking : it is of a blackifli purple colour. Neri's Art of
Glafs.

Tartar, Cream of, Cremor Tartnri. See Cream 0/
Tartar, Tartar, fupra. Super-tart rate of Potafh, under
Salts, and TaRtujtes.

Cream of tartar has a fenfibly acid tafte ; it reddens the
blue colours of vegetables ; it may be faturated by uniting
with any of thofe fubftances, which are capable of forming
witli acids neutral falls ; and it may be afterwards feparated
from tliofe fubftances, and recover its former appearance.

In the arts, and in the materia medica, this is a very
valuable fait. It is much ufed in dyeing, more efpecially
in giving the fcarlet and other modifications of the cochineal
colours. It is alfo often combined with alum, as a mordant
in fixing colours. (See Dyeing.) As an article of the
materia medica, cream of tartar, difliilved in water, forms
an agreeable and cheap acidulous drink ; and as a fweetcncr
of the blood, fome have taken it in whey or water-gruel, in
the fpring-time, to the quantity of half an ounce every morn-
ing, for three or four weeks. The folution in water, fwcet-
ened with fugar, is a pleafarrt beverage in febrile difeafes,
when its purgative quality is not likely to prove injurious.
See the next article.

The difficult folubility of cream of tartar being an objec-
tion to its medical ufe, fome experiments were made by Dr.
Peter Jonas Berg, for rendering it more foluble by certain
additions, without altering its medicinal qualities. Borax
was found to anfwer bell for this purpofe. To four parts
of cream of tartar one of borax was added. Thefe were dif-
folved in a fufficient quantity of water, and the liquor
ftrained : about a fixtecnth part of impurities was left be-
hind. The pure folution evaporated yielded an acid, and
extremely foluble white fait. Lemery has alfo recommended
borax. It has, however, been obfervcd, that as borax con-
tains an excefs of alkali, the acid of the tartar would be neu-
trahzed, and a very different fait would be produced, w'c. the
tartrite of potajl} and foda ; which fee. Nova Adt. Phyf
Med. Acad. Cref. Lcop. Cai-ol. Nat. Curiof. tom. iv.

Tartar, CryJlah of. See T Ant. \n, fupra, and Tar-

TRITES.

Thefe cryftals are fmall and irregular, but generally run
together into little niaffesof a wh.ite colour, femi-tranfparciit,
brittle, and eafily reduced into powder. Cryftals of tartar
are in common ufe as a laxative and mild cathartic ; they are
alfo efteemed for their cooling and diuretic qualities, and
have therefore been much emjiloyed in dropfies, .iiid in
other cafes requiring an antiphlogiftic treatment. Dr.
CuUen fays, that in large dofes they aft like a purgative,
in exciting the action of the abforbents in every part of the
fyftem, and m(,>re powerfully than the operation of any en-
tirely neutral falts. On this property is founded their utility
in the cafe of dropfy. They occafion a confiderable dif-
charge of ferous fluid into the bowels, which is thrown off

in

TARTAR.

■II the form of ferous ftools ; tlic difchargc by urine being
alio augmented. The water in the cavity of the abdomen is
thus rapidly caiTied oH" ; and the chances of a return of the
difeafe are fuppofed to be fewer than when other diuretics
are employed. It is remarked, that they do not readily
pafs off by the kidnies, unlefs they are taken with a large
quantity of water ; and, therefore, when intended as a diu-
retic, they ought to be given in a liquid form, as Dr.
Holme has dircded. It has been fuggefted, that, in cafes
complicated with hepatic obftruclions, the efFefts of this
remedy are very uncertain. It may be advantageoufly united
with fquills ; and, on account of the exhauilion which it
occafions, the ufe of it Ihould be followed by preparations
of iron, and other tonics. As a purgative and hydragogue,
the dofe is from jiv to 3vj, in the form of eleftuary ; and
for the latter purpofe, this dofe muft be repeated until the
kidnies are affefted ; diluting freely during its ufe. Thcfe
falls enter feveral officinal compofitions : fuch as " carbonas
potaffix puriffimus," Ed. Ph. ; " ferrum tartarizatum,"
L. D. ; " pulvis jalaps compoiitus," E. ; " pulvis fcam-
monii compoiitus," E. ; " pulvis fennas compofitus," E. ;
" potaffoe tartras," L.E.D. ; " autimonium tartarizatum,"
L.E.D. ; " foda tartarizata," L.E.D. Woodville. T.
Thomfon.

Tartar, Emetk. See Antimony.
A confiderable diverfity has occurred in the method of pre-
paring this tartar, probably from want of confidering, that the
emetic quality of this preparation proceeds from the metallic
earth being diflblved by the acid of tartar, and forming with
it a kind of foluble tartar, a true neutral fait, no lefs capable
of a very exa£t folution than the vegetable fait, the fait of
feignette, and all the otlier foluble tartars. By confidering
this faturation as a fixed point, tliere may be produced only
one kind of emetic tartar, always equally ftrong. See a
detail of M. Geoffroy's experiments on this uibjeft, in
Mem. Acad. Par. for 1734. M. Beaume direfts it to be
prepared by mixing together equal parts of cream of tartar,
and of porphyrifed glafs of antimony, or rather a larger
quantity of the latter ingredient. This mixture is to be
thrown gradually into boiling water ; and the boiling muft
be continued gently, till there is no efFervefcence, and till the
cream of tartar be entirely faturated. The liquor is to be
filtrated ; and when it is cooled, there will be formed in it
fine cryftals, in the form of pyramids with triangular bafcj,
which arc a foluble tartar perfectly faturated with glafs of
antimony. Thefe are tranfparent while moiil ; but by ex-
pofure to a dry air, they lofe a part of the water of their
cryftalhzation, and become opaque and white. Emetic
tartar thus prepared, very well produces an emetic effett
when taken from a grain to two and a half, or three, accord-
ing to the conftitution of the patient. The refult of
M. Beaume's experiments on the manner and duration of
boiling this preparation is, that veffels of iron and copper
ought to be avoided, and thofe of filver or glafs ufed,
hecaufe in thefe it may be boiled for any length of time,
without being decompofed ; and that as the intention of the
operation is to perfeftly faturate the cream of tartar, the
boiling muil be continued till this faturation be effetted,
which requires a long time, when the glafs of antimony is
grofsly pounded, but a much lliorter time when it is well
porphyrifed. Macquer, in the Chemical Dsftionary, ob-
ferves, that we are not certain that the emetic tartar, pre-
pared by faturating tartar with glafs of antimony, has
always an uniform and conftant emetic power. And there-
fore he recommends the powder of algaroth, or mercury of
Ufe, which, however dangerous in itfelf, may be rendered
fafe, by waflijng it with a little fixed alkali, which will

fcparate all that marine acid that communicates to it a cer-
tain degree of cauftic quality. The powder thus waflied,
he fays, is altogether foluble by cream of tartar, and con-
vertible into a foluble emetic tartar, perfcdlly neutral, by
boiling it, and faturating it with cream of tartar, and treat-
ing it iu the manner above direfted, for the preparation of
emetic tartar with glafs of antimony. The powder of
algaroth, tinis prepared, is a calx of antimony conftantly
of the fame degree of emetic ftrength. The total eva-
poration of the fluid appears to be the beft way of fecuring
uniformity of ilrength to the medicine ; and the folubility
of the compound affords one of the bell means for eftimat-
ing its ftrength, or the degree of its impregnation with the
antimony.

Dr. Saunders relates, that an ounce of cold water, about
the middle temperature of the air, diffolved, of fome of the
common emetic tartars of the fhop, not thirty-two grains.
or one-fifteenth of its own weight ; whereas of a well fatu-
rated fort, which he had himfelf prepared by long boiling, ^
the fame quantity of water diffolved fifty-two grains, or near T
one -ninth of its own weight.

The beft way, probably, of obtaining a faturated and
uniform preparation of this kind, would be to digeft the
common emetic tartar in eight times its weight, or lefs, of
cold water, and evaporate the filtered yellow folution to
drynefs ; or to continue the boDing of the glafs of anti-
mony and tartar for twelve hours, or longer, adding water
occafionally to keep the tartar always diffolved, and at
length to let the water wafte fo far, as not to exceed eight
times the quantity of the tartai- employed, after which the
hquor is to be fuffered to cool, and then filtered and evapo-
rated. The dofe of this preparation, as an emetic, is from
two or three to fix or eight grains. It may be given alfo
as an alterative, or diaphoretic, in dofes of a quarter of a
grain, or half a grain, or more, and added, in the quantity
of a grain or two, as a ftimulus to the milder vegetable
cathartics. Lewis's Mat. Med. by Aikin.

Tartar, Foliated, is a preparation of tartar withdiftilled
vinegar, which reduces it into white leaves. See Acetas
PoTASs.'E, and Terra Foliata.

Tartar of Iron. See Tartrite of Potafs and Iron.
Tartar, OU of, is the fait of tartar expofed to the air
for fome days in an open veffel, in a moift place, till it dif-
folvc into a fluid ; though it is improperly called an oil,
being no more than a diffolved fait.

Oil of tartar per deliquutm is held the beft counter-poifon
to corrofive fubhmate.

Tartar, Regenerated. When cream of tartar has been
made foluble by any alkaline fubftance whatever, it may
be revived, or regenerated, into cream of tartar again ; its
acid in this ftate has diffol-ved the alkaline matter prefented
to it, and that has been itfelf attenuated in fuch a manner as
to render it capable of infinuating itfelf between the mole-
cules or integrant parts of the conftituent matter of the
cream of tartar ; on this only depends the folubility of this
preparation : and to render the whole of its primitive nature
again, there requires no more than the addition of a new
acid, which fliall free the tartar from this alkali ; but this
muft neceffarily be ftronger than that naturally in the tartar.
Thus fpirit of nitre, or oil of vitriol, regenerate the foluble
tartar in a moment, as being more powerful acids than that
in the cream of tartar, and therefore taking from it all its
alkali. The acid of dillilled vinegar, which is not only a
vegetable acid, but the fame with that of tartar, is alfo able
to regenerate the foluble tartars. It might feem wonderful
that this fhould be able to effeft this change without any
fuperiority of force : but it is to be obferved, that in the

cream

TARTAR.

cream of tartar the acid has a tcrrcftrial and alkaline bafis,
which is natunJ to it in that form ; bnt in the ilate of folu-
ble tartar it takes a new alkaline biifis, which is not natural
to it : and when we view the proccfs in this light, it does
not appear wonderful, that an acid of its own kind (hould
be able to take away from it this artificial alkaline bafis,
though it was not able to take from it the natural one.
Mem. Acad. Par. 1733.

This fecond or artificial bafis is diflerent, according to
the different alkalies which have been employed to reudei
the tartar foluble, and confequently the fame acid may
attach itfelf more to one than to iuiotlier of thofe alkalies, or
quit them the more or lefs eafily. There is one kind of
foluble tartar, however, which is not to be regenerated at
all; this is that which is made with borax.

Dr. Huxham fays, he has often experienced the good
effetts of regenerated tartar in the cure of obllnidlions of
the bowels, and for (luggilli humours. See Acclale of Potajlj
under Salts, and Terka Foliata.

TAFiTAR, Salt of, is made of tartar waflied, ground,
purified, or cream of tartar, and calcined either per fc
or with nitre, by a reverberatory fire ; or it is made by
pulveriKing what remains in the retort after the diilillation
of tartar, and calcining it as above by a reverberatory fire.
On the one or the other of thefe preparations, they pour a
great quantity of hot water, to make a ley of it ; this they
filtrate, and evaporate the liquor by a fand-heat, till the
fixed lalt be found at the bottom of the veffel. This is the
pure alkali, or fixed fait of tartar. See Carbonate of
Potajh under Salts, and Salt of Tartar.

Tartar, Soluble, (fee Tartrate of Potajh under
Salts, and Tartrite of Potajlj,) may be made by the
following procefs : Take of an alkaline fixed fait, a pound ;
of water, a gallon ; and having ditfolved the fait in this
water boiling, throw cryftals of tartar in powder as long as
any fermentation is raifed, which ufually ceafes before
thrice the weight of the alkali is thrown in. Then ftrain
the liquor through paper, and after due evaporation fet it
by for the fait to cryftallize, or elfe evaporate the liquor
whoUy away, that the fait may be left dry.

This fait, by the aftion of the alkali on the acid of tartar,
being freed from thofe grofs terreftrious parts, with which
the cryttals of tartar, how pure foever, remain ftill charged,
diflolves readily, and keeps fufpended in cold water.

The feveral alkaline falts, that of tartar itfelf, the common
pot-afhes, borax, &c. all make a very good foluble tartar ;
and not only thefe, but the common terreftrial alkalies, whe-
ther of the mineral kingdom, as chalk or lime ; or of the
vegetable, as the alhes of plants after ehxiviation ; or of the
animal, as oyfter-fhells calcined or not calcined, and hartf-
horn : all thefe give a better or worfe foluble tartar ; but of
thefe, none fucceeds fo well as the oyfter-fhell, after it has
been calcmed ; the foluble tartar, prepared with this, colls
alfo greatly lefs than when prepared with fait of tartar.

In wood-afhes there is always a part, which when mixed
with water fwinis, and is fufpended in it a long time, and
at length fubfides into a kind of foft and impalpable matter ;
and another part, which fubfides readily to the bottom, and
feels rough and harfh. It is the firil of thefe fubftances
alone, which being mixed with cream of tartar, renders it
foluble : the other part will not mix with the cream of
tartar, or produce any fuch effeft, unlefs reduced to the
nature of the firft, by repeated and violent calcinations, and
then only a part becomes fo altered, the whole never is fo.
It appears that the firft portion has been wholly diverted of
its acid by the fire, and thence is become fufceptible of the
imprelfion of the weakeft acid, fuch as is that of the cream

of tartar, but in the fecond, or coarfcr part, the acid it natu-
rally contained rem.iins fixed and concentrated, fo that it is
not fufceptible of any imprefiion from the weak acid of the
cream of tartar. Mem. Acad. Par. 1733.

The different kinds of foluble tartar have alfo their dif-
ferent degrees of folubility, or different rcadinefs to run
\i\to a \\c\\\oT per deliquium. The mod eafily foluble of all
arc thole made with chalk, with lime, and with wood-afhes ;
and that which is moll difficultly fo, is the kind made with
borax ; it will at length run however, and is truly foluble
tartar.

For the chemical and medical properties of this fait, fee
Tartrate of PotaJI' under Salt.s, and Tartrite of PotaJJ}.

Tartar, Vitrlolatett, which iowK ci\\\ magljlery of tartar,
is a neutral fait, compoled of a vitriolic acid, faturated with
the fixed alkali of tartar, or with any other pure vegetable
fixed alkah.

Vitriolated tartar may be decompofcd by nitrous acid in
the following manner, according to M. Baume. Equal
parts of both are put into a matrals, and heated till the fait
be diffolved. From the liquor when eolJ, true crvllals of
nitre may be obtained. And according to M. Margraaf,
vitriolated tartar may, in the fame ntethod of treatment, be
decompofed by marine acid.

This fait is not of any ufe in the arts, and little ufed in
chemiilry. It is chiefly employed in medicine. Like the
other neutral falts, with bales of fixed alkali, ii is aperitive
in fmall dofes, as a grofs, or 59igi"s., and it is laxative,
when taken from 6 to 1 2 grofs. See Sulphate of Potajh under
Salts.

The chemifts have fometimes boafled of great virtues, in
what they call the magiftery of this fait ; this is the earth
precipitated in the making of it. It is the opinion of fome
ingenious authors, that all fixed falts are produced by a
blending together of the acid and alkaHne falts, which the
plants they are obtained from originally contained, with
fome earth. The making of this preparation of tartar and
vitriol, gives great ftrength to this opniion by means of this
magillery ; which (hews, that an earth neceffary to the
cementing a mixture of an acid and an alkali into a neutral
fait, may exiil even in one of the principles themfelves,
though unfeen by us ; and that, as in the prelent inftance,
in fo large a quantity, as not only to be fufficient for the
combining the two volatile fubftances into a fixed one, but
even to leave a remainder of it, that was not neceffary.

While the acid of vitriol is poured upon the diffolved fait
of tartar, or its oil per deliguium, for the making of this
fait, during the great effervefcence between the acid and
the alkali, there is a precipitation made of an earth, for the
feparation of all which great care is to be had to the degree
of faturation of the alkali with the acid. This earth after-
wards may be fevered by filtration. This earth is precipi-
tated, not out of the fpirit of vitriol, but out of the fait
of tartar ; and this experiment fhews, that this fixed fait
did originally contain that earth, which, according to the
fyftem of the formation of fixed falts out of volatile ones,
origin;dly refiding in plants, muft necelfarily be mixed with
them, and which, not being able to mix with the acid, is
feparated and thrown off in the conflidl, in which the acid
mixes itfelf with the reft.

This earth is what is pompoufly called the magijlery
of -vitriolated tartar; but it is very wrong to give that name
to an earth which has none of the properties of that or any
other fait ; and they greatly deceive themfelves and their
patients, who prelcribe it inftead of the fait itfelf. Its
faline tafte, probably, has induced them to think that it
poffefled great virtues ; but tliis ib not innate but adventi-

tious.

T A K

tious, and the effect only of the fluid in which it was pre-
cipitated : it cannot but have feme of the falts of that fluid
hanging about it, when firil made ; but tliefc may, by re-
peated wartings, be carried wluilly ofl', and tlie magiftery
will then remain a pure iimple earth, and (hew itfelt to be
no other than that earth, which may be properly called the
earth of all fixed falts ; and which, though neceffary to give
the fait of tartar its form as a lixivial fait, yet being not
neceffary to it in its new form of a neutral fait, is depofited
ill the making it into that form. It yet remains to be
proved by more numerous experiments, that the fixed falts
of plants owe that form only to a fixing earth, combining
their two original volatile principles into a fixed mafs ; for
if this be truly the cafe, there then needs no more to the
volatilizing thorn again, but the divelling them of this earth.
Phil. Tranf. N= 90.

TARTAREOUS or Tartaric -^«</, was firft fepa-
rated from cream of tartar, and obtained in a folid cryftal-
iine fonn, by a nutiiod which was difcovered by Scheele,
and whicii, with little variation, is as follows : it very
much refimbles the mode ufed by the fame ingenious
chemift in obtaining the citj-ic acid : Having analyfed cream
of tartar (fee Swedifh Tranfaftions, part iii. for 1770.), he
found that this is not a pure acid, but a compound fait,
containing the fixed vegetable alkali, united with a fuper-
abundance of the tartareous acid, and therefore, that it
differs from foluble tartar only in the proportion of acid
which it contains. For obtaining this acid, he diflblved any
given quantity of the cream of tartai- in boiling water, and
whilft boiling, added gradually fome clean powdered chalk.
Upon this a copious effervcfcence will arife, and the addition of
chalk niufl be continued till this ceafes, when the mixture may
be fet by to cool. It then contains a white denfe fediment,
which confifts of the lime of the chalk, united with the ex-
cefs only of the acid of the cream of tartar ; and the fuper-
natant liquor is, therefore, a folution of the cream of tar-
tar deprived of its excefs of acid, or neutral tartrite of
potajh, or foluble tartar, as it is alfo called, and which may
be obtained cryftallized by fubfequent evaporation. Wafh
the precipitated tartrite of lime repeatedly with cold water,
then put it into a glafs veffel, and add to it a diluted ful-
phuric acid, compofed of as much concentrated acid, as is
equal to the weight of chalk employed in faturating the cream
of tartar, mixed with four or five times its weight of water.

The fulphuric acid having a ftronger affinity for the
lime than the tartareous acid has, totally decompofes the
tartrite of Lme, during a digeftion of two or three days (or
in a fliorter time if aflifled by a gentle heat,) and the white
fediment, though it does not alter its appearance, is changed
to fulphate of lime, whilft the fupernatant liquor contains
naked acid of tartar. Then pour off the clear liquor, wafti
the fulphate of lime to extraft all the adhering acid, and add
the wafliings to the former liquor, and evaporate the whole,
(at firft with a boihng heat, and as it concentrates, with a
much gentler warmth, ) till it is of a thick fyrupy confift-
cnce, and then fet it by for fome hours, that all the fele-
nite, which it may hold in folution, may be depofited.
Then again dilute the mixture with cold water fufiicient to
rediifolve every thing but the felenite, and flowly evaporate
the folution to a f)Tupy confiftence, and after fome hours it
will depofit the pure tartareous acid in cryftals, which are
generally pretty large irregular hexahedrons. Cream of
tartar decompofed in this way by chalk (and therefore only
partially) will yield about a third of its weight of the cryf-
taUized acid. This quantity however muft not be taken as
the proportion of the acid in cream of tartar, for much of
the weight of the cryftallized acid is water of cryftalli-

T A R

zation, whereas the cream of tartar contains very little
water.

In the above detailed method of obtaining tartareous acid,
chalk, or carbonate of lime, is ufed to decompofe the cream
of tartar, which it docs merely by engaging the excefs of
acid, and leaving the remainder of the fait in the ftate of
tartrite of potafh. But if quick-lime be fubftituted to the
chalk, the whole of the cream of tartai- is decompofed, a
much larger quantity of tartrite of lime, and confcquently
of tartareous acid, is obtained, and the fupernatant liquor
is a folution of cauftic potafh. It has been found however
by Vauquehn, that the potafh retains a fmall quantity of
tartrite of lime in folution, fo that when the alkiiline liquor
is evaporated nearly to drynefs it gelatinizes by cooling,
owing to the feparation of this calcareous fait. It may be
decompofed by carbonate of potafii or foda, which pro-
duces carbonate of hme and tartrite of the alkali employed :
or the tartareous acid may be deilroyed by calcination, and
the lime, carbonated in the procefs, will remain.

Calculating from the obferved proportions of acid in the
tartar, and of chalk required in the firft-mentioned procefs,
and of pure lime in chalk, we may eftimate that all tlie acid
in 100 parts of cream of tartar (which Thenard reckons
sX. ^"j per cent.) will require full 42 parts of pure lime for
its faturation, and fomewhat more lime fliould perhaps be
added to enfure the complete decompofition of the tartar.
The hme fliould be previoufly flaked and mixed with fuf-
ficient water to bring it to the confiftence of pafte.

Lowitz has propofed another method, which is perhaps
preferable in every refpeft, except that it is fomewhat more
expenfive, and that no cauftic alkaU is obtained. It con«
fifts firft in decompofing the cream of tartar by chalk in the
ufual way, added as long as any effervcfcence takes place ;
and then pouring into the filtered fupernatant liquor muriate
of lime, as long as any precipitate falls down. By this
means the tartrite of potafh in liquor is totally decom-
pofed, muriate of potafh remains in folution, and the
precipitated tartrite of lime is added to that produced by
the chalk ; and both are afterwards decompofed by fulphuric
acid in the ufual way. The fame chemift alfo advifes to
add to the folution of tartareous acid in the laft part of the
procefs a quantity of charcoal powder, (the depurating
power of which has been mentioned under Carbon.)
This, however, is certainly not effential to the obtaining a
perfeftly fine colourlefs cryftallized acid, and, we beheve,
is feldom, if ever, ufed.

The tartareous acid has a ftrong acid tafte, and is foluble
in five or fix parts of water, and in a much lefs quantity of
boihng water. The cryftals are permanent in the air.

When heated per fe in a retort with a receiver, this acid
melts, boils up, and exhales a four pungent vapour, which
condenfes in the receiver into a red acid empyreumatic
liquor, equal to about a quarter of the weight of the tar-
tareous acid.

This liquor has a pungent, acid, and empyreumatic tafle,
ftrongly reddens litmus, and effervefces with the alkaline
carbonates. It is called the Pyrotartareous acid, which has
not been much examined. The other produfts from the
diftillation of tartareous acid, are a large quantity of car-
buretted hydrogen and carbonic acid gas, and a foft fpongy
coal is left in the retort, which, heated in the open air,
burns with fcarcely any refidue.

The tartareous acid, befides being found native in fome
vegetable juices, and in the depofit from wine during and
after fermentation, is alfo produced by the aftion of nitric
acid on alcohol. A further digeilion of tartareous with
nitric acid converts the former into oxalic acid, and a ftill
3 further

T A R

T A 11

further digeftion changes the whole of the vegetable acid
into vinegar. Thefe curious experiments, which were at
firft noticed by Scheele, have been fully examined by Hermb-
ftaedt, and other chemifts.

Tartareous acid is compofcd, according to Fourcroy and
Vauquehn, of 70.5 of oxygen, 19 of carbon, and 10.5 of
hydrogen, and differs from the oxalic acid in containing
more carbon and lofs oxygen. The order of affinity of this
acid for the fevcral bafes is, according to Thenard, lime,
barytes, ftrontian, potafli, foda, ammonia, magnefia, and
alumine. Aikin's Did.

For the combinations of the tartareous acid with the feveral
bafes, we refer to the article Tartratks or Taktrites.

TARTARHAN, a word ufed by fome authors to ex-
prefs fpirit of tartar.

TARTARI, in Geography, a mountain of Dalmatia ;
8 miles N. of Trau.

TARTARIAN Oat, in Agriculture. See Oat.
TARTARIZATUS Chalybs. See Iron, in the
Materia Medica, and Tartrite of Potnfs and Iron.

TARTARIZING, a term ufed by fome writers for
the adl of refining or purifying, by means of fait of tartar.

TARTARO, in Geography, a river of Italy, which riles
in the Veronefe, and running eafterly, traverfes the Polefe de
Rovigo, partes by Adria, and foon after feparatcs into two
branches, one of which runs into the Adige, and the other
into the Po.

TARTARON, a fort of fine cloth or filk, mentioJied in
the ftat. 4 Hen. VIII. c. 6. Blount, Cowel.

TARTARUGA, in Zoology, a name by which the Por-
tuguefe in America call a fpecies of tortoife, known among
authors by its Brazilian n?ime jurucua.

TARTARUM Tartarisatum, tartarifed tartar, in
Chemijlry, the name of a preparation of tartar ; the mannar
of doing which is given by Boerhaave, and is as follows :
Reduce fome of the pureil white tartar to powder, and boil
this powder in ten times its weight of water in a large
copper vefiel, till it appears perfeftly dilTolved : let it after
this continue boiling till the liquor becomes tolerably tranf-
parent, and of an acid talte ; then drop into it from on
high oil of tartar per deliquium, the liquor being ftill kept
boiling : upon the falling in of each drop there arifes a great
ebullition, occafioned by the meeting of the acid and alkali.
Large bubbles appear on this, and in thefe the chemifts have
imagined they found the figures of clufters of grapes.

The operation is to be patiently continued till there is no
more effervefcence made by the falling in of the drops of the
oil. The acidity of the tartar will be then fo perfeftly
faturated with its own alkali, that it will appear neither acid
nor alkaline, but a third fait ; great caution however muft be
ufed in obferving the true point of faturation,- otherwife the
fait will be when finifhed either a little acid, or a little alka-
line, as the one or the other exceeds. The liquor is to be
then ftrained feveral times through a flannel, till perfeftly
clear : it is of a deep brownifh colour, and brackifh faline
tafte, but has no fcent. If this be evaporated to a pellicle,
and fet to cryftallize, it forms a fait which is a tartar, eafily
foluble in water, even when cold ; and very properly to be
called foluble tartar. Boerhaave Chem. part ii. p. 161.

TARTARUS, in Ancient Mythology, is one of the gene-
ral divlfions of the fubterraneous world, or the place of tor-
ments. The origin of the fable of Tartarus is traced in
Hefiod's account of the war of Jupiter againil his father
Saturn and the Titans, who, after he had gained a viftory
over them, was driven from Olympus, and condemned to
the bottom of Tartarus, in the extremities of the earth.
Typhon alfo, threatening to deprive Jupiter of his empire,
Vol,. XXXV,

was plunged into the fame abyfs. The abbe Banier ha<
given the following explication of this fable. The Greeks,
he fays, regarded the places fituated to the cafl. of them as
higher than thofe that lay weftward ; and hence they took
the former for heaven, and the latter for hell. According
to this notion, they placed their hell either in Spain, the refi-
dence of Pluto, or in Italy, and laftly in Epirus, or rather in
Thefprotia, all v.hich countries were fituated to the weft of
Greece. Now as thr Titans, in the feveral confpiracies they
formed, were obliged to enter into Italy and Spain, tlie poets
fabled that they were precipitated into the gulf of Tartarus ;
but as their notion of Tartarus was taken from TartefTus, a
river of Spain, on the banks of which Pluto refided, it is no
wonder that the Titans, having been defeated near that river,
w^re fabuloufly faid to be plunged headlong into the Tar-
tarian gulf.

The other two divifionsof Adcs, according to Virgil, are
Erebus and Elyfium. The prince or judge who prefides
over Tartarus, is Rhadamanthus. The miferable inhabitants
of this horrid region are of two forts, w%. the louls of fuch
as are tormented, and the infernal deities, called the Furies,
wlio attend there either to inflift or aggravate their torments.

Virgil dirtinguiftied thofe that are tormented in Tartarus,
into two general clafti^s ; the firft, of fuch as have been un-
grateful or impious towards the gods ; and the fecond, of
luch as have been mifchievous and hurtful among men :
thofe of the latter, more particularly, who hated their bre-
thren, ufed their parents ill, or cheated their dependents ;
who made no ufe of their riches ; who committed inceft, or
difturbed the marriage union of others ; thofe who were re-
bellious fubjecls, or knavifti fervants ; who were defpifers of
juftice, and betrayers of their country ; and who made and
unmade laws, not for the good of the public, but only to
get money for themfelves. All thefe, and the defpifers of
the gods, of whom the rebel giants occupied the chief clafs,
Virgil places in Tartarus, and in that vaft abyfs, which was
the moil terrible part of this infernal region. The great
road that pafTes through Erebus, is reprelented as divided
into two ; of which the right-hand road leads to Elyfium,
or the place of the bleft ; and the left-hand road to Tar-
tarus, or the place of the tormented. Virgil jEn. vi. v.
540 — 549. 566 — 580. 607 — 624. Spence's Polymetis,
p. 259, &c.

TARTARS, or Tatars, in Geography, a comprehenfive
denomination, including all tribes beyond Perfia and India,
as far as the Eaftern ocean, however differing from each
other in regard to their origin, language, manners, cuft:oms,
and religion. It is now known, however, that the Tartars
compofe a diftintt nation, which originally belonged to the
grand Turkilh ftock. The name, it is faid, may originate
either from a Turkiftl horde, which bore this denomination ;
and accordingly it is alleged, that the Yakutes have among
their deities, a Tatar, who probably enjoys that honour as
the patriarch of the nation ; or from the Chinefe, who call
all their neighbours, without diftinClion, Tata or Ta-dfe, in
proof of which derivation it is intimated, that the Perfian*
and Arabians know nothing of the Tartars under that appel-
lation. It was firft brought into general ufe in Europe after
Baaty's incurfion into Hungary, under king Frederic II.
Whatever be the origin of the name, it fcems to be clear,
that the Tartars are of Turkiftt origin, and that their proper
name was Turk or Turkman, and not Tatar. In this
opinion, the learned men of their own nation concur: ta
which circumftance it may be added, that the Tartarian
language is merely the old Turkilh ; and the modern Otto-
man Turks fpeak the Tartarian tongue only in another
dialeft. And the Tartars pretend to derive their dcfcent

R from

TARTARS.

from Turk, the oldea fon of Japhet : and althou^ from
hich .londiis Khan fubducd all Tartary

the time m whicli

njr,

and a great part of Alia, and made irruptions even into
Europe, tliey have been known by tlie name of Tartars, to
which that of Monguls or Moguls, of whom he was pro-
perly the prince, appeared inferior ; neverthelefs the Tartars
prcferve among themfelves the name of Turks. See Mon-
ocles. ,. , m , rr>

The firft knowni mother-countrj- of the Turks or 1 artare
lies fomewhcrc in the countries on the eallern and northern
fides of the Cafpiar., where their defcendants arc ftill fituated.
In ancient times they were fpread from the Oxus or Gihon
into the Mongoley and the Orenburp; territory ; that is, in
regions wliere they had conftantly ambitious and domineer-
ing nations for their neighbours and enemies : on the E.
the Chinefe ; on the S.W. the Perfians, Macedonians,
Romans, Partho-Perfians, and Arabians ; and towards the
N.E. the Mongoles. Here they ferved from time imme-
morial as a mound againll the inciirfions of the nations which
could penetrate from the E. to the W., or contrariwife, till
at length the Mongoles, like a ruthing ftream that has burft
its banks, fwept away all oppofition.

The Tartars, fays baron de Tott, in his "Memoirs,"
(vol. i.) have the beil title to the higheft antiquity. To
this purpofe h" obferves, that the flat high land of Tartary,
which extends to the north, and the chain of the mountains
of Caucafus and Thibet, continued almoft as far as the penin-
fula of Cona, (if we may judge by the courfe of the water,
which, from the centre of Afia, fpreads to the S. and to the
N. of that part of the globe,) prefent the higheft portion of
land which feparates the Indian feas from thofe of Kamt-
fchatka. This obfervation, it is alleged, feems to prove,
that the country at prefent occupied by the Tartars, muft
have been the firft land difcovered in Afia, the firft in-
habited, the firft fource of population, and the origin of
thofe emigrations, which, conftantly repelled by the Chinefe
wall, and the defiles of Thibet and Caucafus, have paffed
from the north of Afia into Europe. (See Huns.) How-
ever, the annals of the Tartars are involved in confiderable
uncertainly before the time of Jenghis Khan, who was elefted
grand cham (khan) by the chams of the different tribes, and
was only chofen to be the king of kings, becaufe he was the
moft powerful among them. It is well known, that Jenghis
Khan conceived and executed projefts of ufurpation, by
which he formed the moft extenfive empire known in hiftory.
The Tartars began to acquire fome importance in hiftory,
after the time of their fubjugation by the Mongoles ; but
from the moment that their hiftory excites attention, it ceafes
to be the hiftory of a pecuhar nation. Diftributed under
the banners and commanders of the Mongoles, thefe enjoy
with pofterity the glory of their conquefts, while the
Tartars are conftrained to lend their name to the devaft-
ations with which both nations every where marked the
bloody progrefs of their armies. ( See Mongoles. ) Subju-
gated in their conquered countries, and even forced from a
great part of their old habitations, fome few of the Tartar
hordes (few in reference to the whole Tartarian tribes,)
have preferved their independence : ;'. e. thofe who inhabit the
fouth-weftem part of the former Great Tartary, towards the
Perfian, Indian, and Soongarian borders. Here we find the
great Kirghifian horde, the Bukharians, the Khivans or
Khivlnfcs, the Karakalpalis, Truchmenes, Tafchkantians,
Turkeftans, Arabians, and fome other races, which ftill
form diftinft ftates, and retain a kind of national liberty ;
but they exift in fo feeble a ftate, that they are obliged to
feek protcftion fometimes from one power, and fometimes
ifrom another. The whole remnant of this nation, once fo

great, fubfifts under foreign fovereignty. Many hordesbefong,
either as fubjefts or as dependent wards of the RulTian em-
pire ; others are, in like manner, appanages to the Ottoman
Turks, or fubjeft to the Great Mogul, to China, and ta
Perfia.

Mr. Strahlenburg, a Swedifti officer, who refided fome
years in Siberia, places them in fix clafles : the firft, con-
taining feven diff^erent nations, all in the dominions of Ruffia,
viz. the Mordvines, who dwell in the government of Nize-
gorod ; the Tfcheremifies, or CzeremifTes, in the govern-
ment of Kazan ; the Permians, in the government of Perm ;
the Votiaks, in the government of Viatka ; the Vogouls, vvho
dwell on both fides of the mountains, which formed a fepa-
ration between Ruffia and Siberia ; the Oftiaks, who dwell
on the coafts of the river Oby ; and the Barabintzi, who
inhabit the country between Tara and Tomflc. The fecond
clafs of people, called Tartars, includes the Budziaks,
which dwell on the coafts of the Black fea ; the Crim
Tartars, who inhabit the province of Taurida ; the Kuban
Tartars, on the borders of the Kuban river ; and the Tartars
of Dagheftan ; the Nogais, or Tartars of Aftrachan, of
Kazan, and Upha ; the Bafchkirs and the Tartars about the
towns of Tiumen, Tara, Tobolfl<, and Tomfk ; the Ulbeck
Tartars, the Turcomans, the Kurguis, the Karakalpas, the
Sayantzi, who dwell near the head of the Yenifley ; the Kir-
ghifes, who occupy the mountains fouth of lake Baikal ; the
Burats ; the Ariiitzi, who alfo inhabit near the fame moun-
tain ; and the Yaktai, more to the north, on the fides of the
Lena. The third clafs includes the Samoiedes, on the coaft
of the Frozen fea, from Archangel to the Lena. The
fourth clafs includes the Kalmucks and Monguls, who were
formerly but one people. The fifth clafs includes the Mant-
cheux and the Tungufes. The fixth clafs contains the
favage nations on the north-eaft coaft of Afia, as the
Tfchutki, &c. with the inhabitants of Kamtfchatka, and the
Kurile idands. Of thefe, the firft, third, and fixth clafs
are fubjeft to Ruffia, except that a fmall part of the fecond
is independent. The fourth is partly independent, and
partly fubjeft to China. The fifth clafs is wholly fubjeft to
China.

Abulgafi, in his account of the Turkifli ftems, mentions
among them the Tartarian as one of the moft ancient and
famous, and derives its origin from a khan of the name of
Tatar. This ftem, which in procefs of time increafed to
70,000 families, was at firft governed by its own commander,
and afterwards divided into various branches, difperfed into
feveral and very diftant regions, by which difperfion their
power was weakened. The moft confiderable branch fet-
tled on the borders of Kitay (China), and fell under the
fovereignty of that empire, againft which it frequently re-
belled, and thereby gave occafion to ruinous wars. At the
time of Jenghis Khan, fome Tartars dwelt on the Oxus or
Amur, who were tributary to the emperor of Kin, reigning
in Kitay.

The Tartars who belong to the Ruffian empire inhabit
the northern coafts of the Euxine and the Cafpian, the
north fide of the mountains of Caucafus, the exte.nfive fteppes
from the river Ural to the Soongarey, the fouthern Ural, in
Siberia the fouthern frontier mountains and fteppes from the
Tobol quite over the Yenifley, and the deferts in the middle
region of the Lena ; and fome few Tartar colonies are dif-
perfed among the Ruffian habitations, particularly in the
governments of Upha, Kazan, and Tobolfk. Frequent me-
morials are found in various regions of their ancient gran-
deur, magnificence, and culture, fome of which are demon-
ftrably of 1000 years' antiquity. The branches of this na-
tion which belong to Ruffia are the proper Tartars, or the

8 dekendautt

TAR

deicendants of thofe two great Rates, which the fucceflbrs
of Jenghis crefted on the Volga and in Siberia (fee Kapt-
SCHAK, and the fequel of the article) ; the Nogayans, the
Mefchtfcheryaks, the Bafchkirs, the Kirghifes, the Bucha-
nans, the Yakutes, the Teleutes, and in part the tribes of
Caucafus. The Kaptfchak Tartars are reduced to a fmall
rcfiduc, intermixed among the Bafchkirs and Kirghifes. The
Kazan Tartars are alfo a feeble remnant of what they for-
merly were, and are difperfed in the governments of Kazan,
Simbirdc, Riefen, Viatka, Penii, and Upha. The Ailra-
chan Tartars are for the moft part Nogayans : they are dif-
tinguifhcd into town, village, and tent Tailars. The firft
dwell in Aftrachan, the fecond in fix villages near Altrachan,
and the third wander about the Cafpian. In 1772, thofe
of the two fonner clafles were only 1 200, and of the tent
Tartars fcarcely 2000 kettles, or families. For the ftate of
the Krim Tartars, fee Crimea. The ftems of the Siberian
Tartars, who are numerous, are the Turalinzes, one of the firft
colonies that became permanent in Siberia, when the Tai-tars
fubjugated the country in the 13th century ; the Tobol-
flvian Tartars, who dwell on the river Tobol ; the Tomfliian
Tartars, who inhabit both fides of the river Tom, above and
below the city of Tomfk ; the Krafnoyarflcian and Kufnetz-
kian Tartars ; the Tartars of the Oby ; the Tfchulymfliian
Tartars, inhabiting the territory along the river Tfchulym ;
the Barabinzes, between the Oby and Irtilh ; the Kat-
fchinzes, on the left (hore of the Yenifl'ey ; the Kiftim and
Tulibert Tartars, on the left bank of the Tom ; the Biriuffes ;
the Abintzes ; the Sayane Tai-tars ; the Beltirs, the Vercho-
tomfkian Tartars, and fome other infignificant ftems. For
the other branches of the Tartars who inhabit Ruflia, we
refer to the feveral articles, Nogayans, &c. &c.

The Tartars who are Mahometans bordering on Ruflia,
but independent of that crovrn, take every opportunity of
robbing their neighbours : tlie Kalmucks and Monguls are
▼ery different in their behaviour, living quietly on the produce
of their foil, without doing injury to others. The Tartars
of Afiatic Ruflia are likewife reprefented as a quiet, inof-
fenfive people, living chiefly by the chafe and fifliing. See
the following articles. See alfo Mandshurs, Mongoles,

TUNGUSES, &c.

TARTARY, or Tatary, a vague name, as it relates to
AfiaticRuflia, whichcannot be ufed with precifionas defcrip-
tive of any particular country : inftead of it might therefore be
fubftituted names derived from the feats of the chief nations,
as TungufiaorMandlhuriain theeaft, Mongolia in the centre,
and Tataria in the weft. In a general fenle, however, whilft
the name remains, it may include three diftinft countries,
miz. Chinefe Tartary, Independent Tartary, and Ruflian
Tartary.

Tartary, Cb'mefe, according to the abbe Grofier's de-
fcription, is bounded on the north by Siberia, on the eaft by
the gulf of Kamtfchatka and the Eaftern fea, on the fouth
by China, and on tlie weft by the country of the Kalmucks,
who are eftabliftied between the Cafpian fea and Kafligar.
The different tribes which at prefent inhabit it, were formerly
comprehended under the general name of Mongul or Mogul
Tartars, a warlike and formidable nation, who, on the one
hand, conquered Hindooftan, under the famous Jenghis
Khan, and on the other, fubdued China. It was in the
1 3th century that the Monguls took polfcflion of the latter
empire ; but after having reigned there for 100 years, they
were expelled by the Chinefe, in the year 1368. The fugi-
tives took different routes ; fome went towards the Eaftern
fea, and eftabhftied themfelves between China and the river
Saghalien ; the reft returned weftward to their former coun-
:ry, where, intermixing with the Monguls that remained.

TAR

they foon refumed their ancient manner of living ; thofe who
fettled towards the eSft, having found the country almoft j
deferl, and without inhabitants, retained tlie fame cuftom*
whicli they had brought from China : hence thcfe two Mon-
gul nations differ at prefent in language, government, reli-
gion, and cuftoms. Thofe of the eaft retain their ancient
name of Mongul, or Mogul Tartars ; the reft are known by
the name of Mantchew, or Eaftern Tartars. Chinefe Tartary
is therefore divided into two parts, the Eaftern and Weftcrn.
Eaftern Chinefe Tartary extends, north and fouth, from the
41ft to tlie 55th degree of north latitude ; and eaft and weft,
from about the i2otii degree of longitude, as far as the
Eaftern lea. It is bounded on the north by Siberia, on the
fouth by the gulf of Leao-tong and Corca, on the call by the
Eaftern fea, and on the weft by the country of the Monguls.
The Tartars who retired liithcr, after their expulfion from
China, in the year 1368, immediately began to build cities,
towns, and villages, and to cultivate the earth, after the
manner of the Chinefe, among whom they had lived : iience
the greater part of them have remained fixed, and are much
more civilized than the reft of the Mongul nation. They
were at firft governed by particular khans, each independent
of the other ; but fince that of Ningouta (who was the moft
powerful among them) took pofleffion of China, about the
middle of the 1 7th century ; the emperor, who is ftill one of
his defcendants, has reduced under his dominion all the other
khans of this part of Tartary : this prince governs it imme-
diately by himfelf, and fends thither governors and oflficcrs,
as into all the other provinces of the empire. The country
of the Mantchew Tartars is divided into three grand depart-
ments : Chen-yang, Kirin, and Tcitcicar ; which fee refpec-
tively.

Ningouta, already mentioned, which is confidered as the
cradle of the prefent imperial family, is furrounded by a
wooden wall, confifting of ftakes, touching each other and
twenty feet high, and alfo another pahfado without this, a
league in circumference, and having four gates, correfponding
to the four cardinal points. The Mantchew Tartar, who re-
fides in it as lieutenant-general, extends his jurifdi£lion over the
adjacent country, and all the villages of Yupi-tafe, and fome
other petty nations that inhabit the banks of the rivers Oufouri
and Saghalien, and along the fea-coaft. The Tartars of
Yupi-tafe 'are peaceful in their difpofition, but ftupid and
clownifti, without letters, and without any rehgious worfliip.
They fow neither wheat nor rice, nor any thing elfe except
tobacco, which they cultivate in fome of the fields furround-
ing their villages. They are fupplied with fifti from the
river Oufouri, and this is their only food : nor have they any
clothes befides thofe which they make of their flcins, drelfed,
dyed of three or four colours, and artfully fewn together
with a thread cut from an exceedingly fine fliin. The wo-
men fufpend from the bottoms of their long cloaks pieces of
money and little bells ; and the trefles of their hair, which
hang over their flioulders, are loaded with fmall mirrors,
rings, and other toys. Of one part of their fifh, which they
employ the fummer in taking with harpoons and fmall
nets, they make oil for their lamps ; another fupphes tliem
with food ; and a third part is referved for winter, when the
ice prevents them from filhing. Beyond the Yupi-tafe Tar-
tars arc the Ketchcng-tafe Tartars, who inhabit both banks
of the r'wQT Saghal'ifii-oula (which foe), and extend as far
as the Eaftern fea. Thcfe Tartars arc Icfs clownifti than
the preceding, and employ much of their time in hunting
fables.

Tlie Mantchews, difperfed throughout Eaftern Chinefe
Tartary, have neitlier temples nor idols ; they adore (as they
exprofs it) only the " emperor of heaven," to whom they

R 2 offer

TARTAKY.

nffcr facrifices : but fiiico tliey havi- entered China, fome of
thera worftiip the ^'od " Fo," and other idols reverenced in
the empire. When they became mafters of China, they
pretended to a celeftial extraftion, and placed a god at the
head of their race. Since the Tartars have had pofTefrion of
the tlirone of China (fee Cms a), their language has become
familiar at the court of Pe-king. This language they are
very careful in prcfcrving, and it is faid that it may be much
more eafily acquired than that of China. Although the
Tartars have only one kind of charafters, they write them in
four dift'erent ways, which they write with a pencil, or a kind
of pen, formed of the bamboo reed, and which they can read
with equal eafe when reverfed.

Tartaiiv, Weftern Chincfi, is called alfo the country of
the Mongoles, or Moguls ; for an accoimt of which, fee the
article Mongoles. See alfo Kalkas, Kalmucks, and Ko-
KO.voR. We fball here add that the country of the Ortous,
who inhabit N. of the great wall, and W. of the Moguls pro-
perly lo called, is i lo leagues in extent from E. to W., and
70 from N. to S. Thefe people are divided into fix ftand-
ards, which comprehend 166 companies, each compofed of
150 heads of families. The Ortous are of a free difpofition,
very lively, and never fubjeft to melancholy, and may be
juftly called the " French of Tartary."

Wild animals of various kinds are innumerable in the
plains and forefts of Tartary. The country abounds with
game, and all the animals that are hunted in Europe, with
large flocks of yellow goats, wild mules, wild camels, and
horfes ; an animal refembling the elk, a fpecies of lynx,
whofe fkin is highly valued, tygers of prodigious fize and
agility, whofe (l<ins are ufed for ornament ; a fpecies of
leopard, and (lags. Some of their rivers waOi down gold
mixed with their fands ; and they are acquainted with the
method of applying it to nfe, and of forming it into vafes
and imall ftatues, of which they often make offerings to their
idols. It appears that the ufe of gold is very ancient among
them.

The vulgar name of Tartary, or Tatary, fays Mr. Pinker-
ton, was originally extended over the vaft regions lying be-
tween Thibet, China, and the Arftic ocean ; and from the
Black fea in the weft to the utmoft bounds of north-eaftern
difcovery in Afia. But as geographical knowledge has im-
proved, the northern part has acquired the name of Siberia,
while the fouthern is diftinguifhed by the appellation of
Weftern and Eaftern Tartary. But in this part, which
might more properly be named Central Afia, the Tartars,
properly fo denominated, are few, the moft numerous tribes
being Monguls in the wifft and Mandftiurs in the eaft. See
Mongoles and Mandshuks.

The wide and interefting portion of Afia, formerly known
by the appellation of Eaftern and Weftern Tartary, but now
properly ftyled Centr.-.l Afia, and comprehending the Middle
Mongolia and the Eaftern Mandftiuria, which has repeatedly
fent forth its fwarms to deluge the arts and civihzation of
Europe, fays the geographer above cited, extends from E.
long. -J 2° to 145-', a fpace of not lefs than 73° of longitude,
which, at the medial latitude of 45'"', will yield about 3100
geographical miles. The breadth from the northern frontier
ef Thibet to the Ruffian confines, is about 18°, or 1080
geographical miles. The limit between RufTia and Chinefe
Tartary is partly an ideal line, and partly the river Argoon,
which joined with the Onon, conftitute the great river Amur.
From the treaty publiftied by Du Halde it appears, that the
river Kerbatchi, the neareft to the river Chorna or Ou-
rouon, and which difcharges itfclf into the great river
Saghalien-oula, was the Chinefe definition of the boundary
between the two empires, to which was added the long

chain of mountains above the fource of the river Kerbatchi
and the river Argoon. The eaftern boundary is the fea,
while the fouthern extends along the great Chinefe wall,
and the northern limits of Thibet. The weftern boundary
is fupplied by the celebrated mountains of Belur-Tag, or
the Cloudy Mountains, which divide the Chinefe empire
from Balk, and the greater Bucharia ; while the range on the
W. of the lake Paltati feparates the Kalmucks, fubjeft to
China, from the Kirgufes of Independent Tartary.

The original population of Central Afia appears to have been
indigenous. The weft was partly held by the ancient Scy-
the, fecmingly a Gothic race, who were fubdued or expelled
by the Tatars, or Huns, from the eaft, prefled on the other
fide by the Monguls, beyond whom were the Mantchews,
who, in the 17th certury, conquered China. Pinkerton's
Geography, vol. ii. See Mongoles and Mandshurs.

Tartary, Indepetidenl, an extenfive, celebrated, and inte-
refting region, confidered as diftinft from Mongolia and
Mandiliuria, or as thefe countries have been lefs properly
called, Chinefe Tartary, and independent of the great neigh-
bouring powers, China, Ruftla, and Pcrfia : this country
was probably the feat of the moft ancient Perfian kingdom,
the pofleflion of the Greek monarchs of Batlriana, and after
many revolutions, diftinguiftied by the wide empire of Jen-
ghis or Zingis, and Timur. Its extent may be meafured from
the Cafpian fea to the mountains of Belur, a fpace of about
870 Britifti miles. From the mountains of Gaur in the S.,
to the Ruflian boundaries in the N. of the defert of Iffim, it
may be near 1 500 Britifti miles, of which a great part is defert.
The chief di vifions are the wide fteppes, or barren plains in the
N., held by three hordes of Kirgufes or Kirghifes, the Great,
Middle, and Lefter, befides fome fniall Tataric tribes near
the fea of Aral. This portion was anciently called Turkef-
tan, and its capital was Taraz. (See both thefe articles.)
Southwards of the mountains of Argun, the land begins to
become fertile along the river Sirr or Jaxartes, called alfo
the river of Shufti from the chief territory, and alfo on the
banks of its tributary ftreams. Ilak and Shufh, the moft
northern provinces on the Sihon, are followed by Fergana,
and a diftrift called Ozrufiina, round a town of the fame
name. Divided from thefe provinces by deferts and moun-
tains is the kingdom of Kharifm, or Kharaim, which fee.
South of the range of the Ak Tarn is the fertile region of
Sogd, or Sogdiana, with its capital Samarcand. On the S.,
the provinces of Balk, Kilan, Tokareftan, and Gaur, ter-
minate the bounds of Independent Tartary, here fepa-
rated by defarts on the W. from the Perfian province of
Chorafan or Khoraflan. See thefe articles refpeftively.
See alfo Beluu-tag, Bl'charia, Imaus, Kirghises,
Massaget.'i:, ScYTHiA, and Uzbecks.
Tartary, Crim. See Crimea.
Tartary, Ruffian. See Russia and Tartars.
Tartary, Little, a name that has been given by fome
writers to the country containing the peninfula of the
Crimea, the Kuban, a part of Circaffia, and all the lands
which feparate the empire of Ruffia from the Black fea.
This circuit, continued from Moldavia almoft to Taganrog,
between the 44th and 46th degrees of latitude, is from 30
to 40 leagues wide, and nearly 200 long. From E. to W.
it includes Yedtchehoolai, Dgamboylaik, Yedefan, and
BefTarabia. The latter province, at prefent called Boodjak,
is inhabited by Tartars, who, as well as thofe of the penin.
fula, have fixed habitations in their villages ; but the inha-
bitants of the three other provinces have only felt-tents,
which they carry wherever they pleafe. Thofe people,
called Noguais, and fuppofed to be Nomades, are fettled,
however, in the vallies that traverfe their plains from N. to S.,
9 and

TAR

and their tents, ranged in a fingle line, torni thus a kind of
villages of 30 and 35 leagues in length, which diftinguifh
the different hordes. Tott's Memoirs, vol. i. See Ckimea
and Russia.

TARTAS, a town of France, in the department of the
Landes, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of Saint-
Sever, divided into two pai'ts, the firft containing 1556, and
its canton 6154 inhabitants, and 8 communes ; and the
fecond part containing 1656, and its canton 7952 inha-
bitajits, and 12 communes : its whole territorial extent being
540 kiliometres ; 15 miles W.S.W. of Mont-de-Marfan.

N. lat. 43° 50'. W. long, o'' 44' Alio, a river of Ruffia,

which runs into the Om, near Tartafl'Coi.

TARTASKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the govennneiit of
Tobollk, at the union of the Om and the Tartas ; 40 miles
W.S.W. of Kaindc.

TARTESSUvS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain,
in the part called Boetica, lituated between the two arms
by which the river Boctis difcharged itfelf into the fea.
One of tliefe arms has difappearcd, and the other ftill fub-
fifts and paffes into the fea at San Lucan de Barrameda.
Some geographers have fuggelted that Gades was the ancient
Tarteflus. Str.abo intimates that anciently the river Boetis
was called TartelTus, and that the town of this name was
afterwards called Cartheia. M. d'Anville gives the name
of TartefTus to the ifland formed by the two branches of the
BcEtis at its mouth. — Alfo, a mountain of Spain, in Bcctica.
Tartessvs, JJle of, was iituated near Gades, and is
fuppofed to have been the Tarlhilh of the Phoenicians, to
whom it was known about 1000 years B. C.

TARTI Lapls, a ftone mentioned by Ludovicus Dulcis,
and fome other authors, and faid to be very beautiful, having
all the colours of the tail of a peacock, and to have many
medicinal virtues. It was probably fome fpecies of agate ;
but the fliort account given of it will not enable us to guefs
what particular kmd.

TARTINI, Giuseppe, of Padua, in Biography, the
grcateil performer on the violin and compofer for that in-
ftrument of the lall century. We (hall here only confider
him as a practical mufician, though he has diftinguiihed
himfelf as a theorift in a way fuperior to all other contem-
porary profeffors. See System, and Stillingfleet.

This admirable mufician and worthy man was born at
Pirano, in Utria, in 1692- His father, having been a great
benefaAor to the cathedral church at Parenzo, had been
ennobled in reward for his piety. Giufeppe was intended
for the law, but mixing mufic with his other (ludies during
the courfe of his education, it foon grew too powerful for
the reft, and tyrannized over the whole circle of lifter
fciences. This is not fo furprifmg as another ftrong pro-
penfity, which during his youth occupied his attention very
much, which wIlS fencing, an art that was not likely to become
neceflary to the fafety or honour of a man of to pious and
pacific a difpofition, in a civil employment ; and yet he is
faid to have equalled in this art even the mafter from whom
he received inftruftions. In 17 10 he was fent to the uni-
verfity of Padua to purfue his ftudies as a civilian ; but
before he was twenty, having married without the confent
of his parents, they wholly abandoned him, and obliged
him to wander about in fearch of an afyluin ; which, after
many hardftiips, he found in a convent at Affifi, where he
was received by a monk his relation, who, commiferating
liis misfortunes, let him remain there till fomething better
could be done for him. Here he pradifed the violin, to
keep off melancholy refleftions ; but being difcovered on
a great feftival in the orchcftra of the church of the convent
by the accident of a remarkable high wind, which forcing

T A R

open the doors of the church, blew afide the curtain of the
orcheftra, and expofed all the performers to the fight of the
congregation ; when, being recognized by a Paduan ac-
quaintance, differences were accommodated, and he fettled
with his wife at Venice for fome time. This lady, indeed,
was of the Xantippe kind, and being himfelf very Socratic
in wifdom, virtue, and patience, her reign was iininolefted
by any domeftic war, or oppofition to her fupremacy.

While he was at Venice, the celebrated Vcracini arrived
lu that city, whofe performance awakened an extmordinary
emulation in Tartini, who, iluniirj, he had been thought to
have a powerful hand, liad never heard a great player before,
or conceived it poffible for the bow to have fuch varied'
powers of energy and expreffioii. He, therefore, quitted
Venice the next day, and went to Ancona, in order to ftudy
the ufe of the bow in more tranquillity, and with more con-
venience than at Venice, as he had a place affigned him in
the opera orchcftra of that city.

Tiiis happened iu the year 1714, the year in which he
difcovered the phenomenon of the third found. It was at
Ancona, and in the carnival of the fame year, that he heard
and perceived the extraordinary effefts of a piece of Ample
recitative, which he mentions in his " Trattato di Mufica."
(See Recitative.) It was likewife during his rofidence
at Ancona, that, by diligent ftudy and practice, he acquired
fufficient abilities and reputation to be invited, in 172 i, to
the place of firft violin, and mafter of the band in the cele-
brated church of St. Anthony of Padua.

By this time his fame was fo extended, that he had re-
peated invitations from Paris and London to vifit thofe
capitals ; but by a lingular devotion and attachment to his
patron faint, to whom he confecrated himfelf and his inftru-
ment, he declined entering into any other fcrvice.

Before the year 1728, he had made many excellent fcholars,
and formed a fchool, or method of praftice, for the ftudents
on the viohn, that was celebrated all over Europe, and
which increafcd in fame to the end of his life.

The author of the compendium of his life informs us that
his firft book of folos was engraved at Amfterdam, 1734;
the fecond at Rome, 1745 ! ^"'' ^^^^^ he produced above
two hundred of thefe compofitions, which were handed about
in manufcript by the curious ; but does not feem to know
that nine or ten books of Tartini's folos were printed at
Paris, of which wc are in poffeflion of opera third, fixth,
feventh, and ninth, bcfides the two books printed in Eng-
land, amounting to upwards of fifty folos, exclufive of
manufcripts.

Of his concertos, which hkewife amount to two hundred,
this author gives a very unfatisfaclory account ; he fays, that
a iurreptitious copy of two fets having firft appeared in
Holland, he would never own them. The firft fix feem to
have been compofcd in his firft manner before he changed
his ftyle. But Walther tells us, in 1732, that eighteen of
his concertos for five inftruments, principal violin, two ri-
pieno violins, tenor, and violoncello, were publiilied at Am-
fterdam. But Le Cene, the publiftier, confeffed, that he
collefted them from different people who liad obt.iined
copies from the author, and there leems not the Ie.ift doubt
of their being genuine.

Though Tartiiii's compofitions always afforded us great
pleafure, and were never obliterated from onr memory ; yet
as they are now as much laid afide as thofe of Baffani or
Locatelli, we thought it right to give them a revifion before
we ventured our fentunents concerning their merit.

Tartini, on a recent examination of his works, feems, to
our conception and feelings, to have had a larger portion of
genius and knowledge of compofition as a mere inftrumental

compofer.

TAR

compofer, than any 'other author who flonrifhed during the
firft fifty or fixty years of the laft century. Though he
made CorelU his model in the purity of his harmony, and
fimplicity of his modulation, lie greatly furpafTed that com-
pofer in the fertility and originality of his invention ; not
only ill the fubieas of his melodies, but in the truly canta-
bile manner oi treating them. Many of his adagios want
nothing but words to be excellent pathetic opera fongs.
His allegros are fometimes difficult ; but the paffages fairly
belong to the inftrumeiit for which they were compofed,
and were fuggclled by his confummate knowledge of the
finger-board, and powers of the bow. He certainly repeats
his paffages, and adheres to his original mollvo, or theme,
too much, for the favountc defultory ilyle of the prefent
times ; but it niuft be allowed that by his delicate feleftion
and arrangement of notes, his patTages are always good ;
play them quick, or play them flow, they never feem un-
mc-ining or fortuitous.

Indeed, as aharmonill, he was perhaps more truly fcientific
than any other compofer of his time, in the clear.nefs, charafter,
and precifion of his bafes ; which were never cafual, or the
cffeA of habit or auricular prejudice and expeftation, but
learned, judicious, and certain. Yet, with all our partiality
for his ftyle, talents, and abihties, as well as veneration for
his principles and chara<Eler, we muft, in juftice to others,
own, that though the adagio and folo playing in general
of Ws fcholars were exquifitely polifhed and expreffive, yet
it feems as if that energy, fire, and freedom of bow, which
modern fymphonifts and orcheftra-playing require, were
wanting. Perhaps the refinement of a Nardini and force of
a Viotti are incompatible.

Since the time of Tartini, the produftions of Boccherini,
Haydn, Vanhal, Mozart, Pleyel, and others, have occa-
fioned fuch a revolution in violin-mufic and playing, by the
fertility and boldnefs of their invention, that compofitions
which were then generally thought full of fpirit and fire,
appear now totally tame and infipid.

This admirable mufician and worthy man died the 26th
of February, 1770, to the great regret of the inhabitants
of the city of Padua, where he had refided nearly fifty years,
and where he was not only regarded as its chief and moft
attraftive ornament, but philolopher, faint, and fage. He
had no children.

M. de Lalande fays, he had from his own mouth the fol-
lowing Angular anecdote, which ihews to what degree his
imagination was inflamed by the genius of compofition.
" He dreamed one night, in 1713, that he had made a
compaft writh the devil, vi-ho promifed to be at his fervice
on all occafions ; and during this vifion every thing fuc-
ceeded according to his mind ; his wifhes were prevented,
and his defires always furpafTed by the affiftance of his new
fervant. In fhort, he imagined he gave the devil his violin,
in order to difcover what kind of a mufician he was ; when,
to his great aftonifhment, he heard him play a folo fo Angu-
larly beautiful, and executed with fuch fuperior tafte and
precifion, that it furpaffed all he had ever heard or conceived
in his life. So great was his furprife, and fo exquifite his
delight upon this occafion, that it deprived him of the
power of breathing. He awoke with the violence of this
fenfation, and inftantly feized his fiddle, in hopes of ex-
preffing what he had juft heard, but in vain ; he, however,
then compofed a piece, which is perhaps the beft of all his
works, (he called it the Devil's Sonata,) but it was fo in-
ferior to what his fleep had produced, that he declared he
fhould have broken his inftrument and abandoned mufic for
ever, if he could have fubfifted by any other means."
He was one of the few compofers of his time, who con-

TAR

ftantly drew from his own fource ; his melody was full of
fire and fancy, and his harmony, though k-arned, yet fimple
and pure ; and as a performer, iiis (low movements evince
his tafte and expreffion, and his hvely ones his great hand.
He was the firft who knew and taught the power of the
bow ; and his knowledge of the finger-board is proved by
a thoufand beautiful pafiages, to which that alone could
give birth. His fcholar, Nardini, who played to us many
of his beft folos, as we thought, very well, with refpeft to
correftnefs and expreffion, affured us that his dear and
honoured matter, as he conftantly called him, was as much
fuperior to himfelf in the performance of the fame folos,
both in the pathetic and brilliant parts, as he was to any
one of his fcholars.

Of his theoretical writings, we have had occafion to fpeak
frequently and freely in former articles, particularly in our
analyfis of his System, and Stillingfleet's Commentary. See
Stillingfleet.

His praftical works or compofitions, always for his own
inftrument, the violin, confift of twelve folos on Corelli's
model, fix with double ftops and fugues, with fix of a lighter
kind, in fingle ftops, op. 1*, fix folos, op. 2', publiftied by
WaKh, about the year 1 746, in a more free and original ftyle.
The firft of this fet, in E*, which was Brown's " Cheval de
Battaille," appeared more than ten years at every concert at
which he performed a folo in London. Two fets of concertos, in
a very florid and difficult ftyle, collefted in MS. by travellers,
and publiftied in Holland by Le Cene and Witvogel with-
out the author's permiffion, he called in, and cancelled the
plates. However, we procured a copy from Holland, that
was printed after the plates were fcratched. We fcored
feveral of them, and found more beautiful paffages, more
difficulties and knowledge of the finger-board, than in any
other violin folo concertos which w^ had ever feen. Many
feta of beautiful folos were printed at Paris of his compofi-
tion, which are wholly unknown in England. More than
200 of his violin concertos and folos were difperfed over the
continent in MS. ; many of his unedited folos we procured
from his favourite difciple Nardini, at Florence, after his de-
ceafe. If the concertos which he compofed for his own per-
formance in the church of St. Antonio de Padua could be pro-
cured, they would probably be in a grave and ecclefiaftical
ftyle, peculiarly fuitable to the place and piety of the author.

TARTON Raire, in Botany, a name ufed by fome
authors for the heath-fpurge, or that fpecies of the thymelsa
which is called yannaman^a in the catalogues of the Materia
Medica.

TARTOOR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Cicacole ; 9 miles S. of Vifianagram.

TARTRATES, or Tartrites, in Chemlflry, falts
formed by the combination of any bafe with the tartareous
acid. Thefe falts are numerous ; as with fome the acid
forms two falts, differing in the proportions of the acid and
bafe, and alfo as it is liable to form triple falts in which two
bafes are united with their refpeftive portion of acid into one
uniform compound. All the foluble alkaline and earthy tar-
trites, the latter being lefs foluble than the former, are de-
compofed by the falts of lead, and the acid of all is deftroyed
by calcination, leaving the bafe in the ftate of carbonate.

Tartrate, Super, of Potajlj, is a combination of potafli
and tartareous acid in excefs (whence its name), and to which
it is owing that it has an acid tafte, and that it reddens blue
vegetable colours. This is the cream of tartar; or tartarum
actdulum, the nature and manufafture of which have been
defcribed under the article Tartar. (See alfo Super-tar^
trate of potajh under Salts.) This fait is not foluble with-
out great difficulty, requiring about 30 part* of boiling

water.

T A K

TAR

walff, and at leaft 120, or as others fay 60 parts of cold
water ; and hence a hot fatiirated folution begins to depofit
cryftals almofl: immediately after it begins to cool. So great
is the affinity between the tartareous acid and that propor-
tion of potadi which conftitutcs the fiipcr-t;irtrate, tliat the
acid of tartar will, partially or wholly, decompofe all the
neutral falts of potafh, even the fulphate. Neverthelefs, the
affinity between the fuper-tartrate and the additional quan-
tity of potaili neceflary for the complete faturatioii of this
acid is much weaker than that of moft other acids for pot-
alh ; and hence aiHfes a great number of dccompofitions,
when tartareous acid, potafti, and any other acid are mixed
in different ways. The property, which the tartareous acid
poffeiTes, of decompofmg the neutral falts with the bafis of
potafh, is very ufeful in analyfis, as it ferves to diftinguilTi
them at once from the correfponding falts of foda and am-
monia, which are not decompofable in the fame manner.
By faturating the excefs of acid in cream of tartar with the
feveral bafes (potafh excepted) various triple falts are pro-
duced. Although fome inconvenience attends the ufe of
borax in adding the folution of Cream o/"Taktar in water
(fee that article) ; yet fimple boracic acid has the power of
rendering foluble four times its weight of cream of tartar in
only five or fix parts of hot water, and, as it is fuggefted,
without decompofmg the tartar, fince the affinity of the
boracic acid for the leveral bales is remarkably weak.

If a folution of cream of tartar in water is expofed to
the air for a length of time, it gradually becomes turbid, a
number of mucous flocculi are depofited, and in the courfe
of fome months it ceafes to be acidulous, after which it be-
comes fenfibly alkaline to the tafle and to chemical lefts,
and it is finally converted into a weak folution of carbonate
of potafh, the tartareous acid totally difappearing, and car-
bonic acid takir.g its place. Fire operates a more rapid
deftruftion of the tartareous acid, for if cream of tartar is
calcined in an open fire with a red heat, it firll foftens,
blackens, becomes of a pafty confiftence, the acid burns off
with flame and fmoke, and finally a white carbonate of pot-
afh is left. The alkali procured in this way is very pure,
and is often obtained for the laboratory by moiflening crude
tartar or cream of tartar to the confiftence of ftiff pafte,
wrapping up fmall parcels of it in brown paper, and arrang-
ing them in a grate or furnace of any kind with charcoal,
and kindling it. After the charcoal has burnt out, the
tartar is converted into lumps of carbonate of potafli, which
llill cohere, and may be readily picked out of the afhes of
the charcoal. A very pure carbonate of potafh may alfo
be made by deflagrating in a red-hot crucible equal parts of
nitre and cream of tartar.

This fait is compofed, according to Thenard, of 57 /fr
ient. of tartareous acid, and 33 of potafti, the remaining 10
parts being chiefly water of cryftallization. Of thefe 57
parts of acid, 20 are in excefs, fo that the compofition of
the fait may be ftated, in a different manner, to be 70 per
cent, of tartrite of potafh, and 20 of tartareous acid.

Cream of tartar is decompofed by lime and barytes, and
probably by ftrontian, and cauftic potafh is left in the folu-
tion.

Tartrite of Potajh. See Solulle Tartar, and Tartrate
of Potajh under Salts. This fait, confifting of tartareous
acid and potafh in mutual faturation, is moft conveniently
prepared by adding cream of tartar to a hot folution of car-
bonate of potafh. During the effervefcence, the addition of
cream of tartar fhould be continued ; when this ceafes, the
folution fhould be boiled down till a pellicle appears on the
furface, and then left to cryftallize by cooling. The tar-
trite of potafh then feparates, generally in the form of pa-

rallclopipeds, with dihedral fummits. When the fait is pre-
pared in a large way for medicinal purpofes, the evaporation
is continued nearly to drynefs, with frequent ftirring, by
which the fait is obtained in a fhapelefs granular mafs. This
fait is partially decompofed by the ftronger acids. Tar-
tareous acid dropped into a moderately (Irong folution of
tartrite of potafh caufes an immediate depofit of cream of
tartar. For other particulars, fee the articles above cited.

Tartrite of Potajh and Soda, a triple cryftallizablc fait,
prepared by throwing into boiling water about a fifth of its
weight of cream of tartar, and adding gradually a quantity
of carbonate of foda, whilft any effervefcence is excited ;
then evaporating the whole to the confiftence of fyrup. As
it cools, the triple fait will be obtained in large beautiful
tranfparent cryftals, generally of the form of eight-fided
prifms, and often divided longitudinally through the axis.
This fait, which is perfectly neutral, dilfolves in about five
parts of water, and fomewhat efflorefces by being expofed
to the air. Barytes and lime totally decompofc it, and the
fupernatant liquor contains a mixture of potafh and foda.
According to Vauquehn, it is compofed of about 54 per
cent, of tartrite of potafh and 46 of tartrite of foda. It is
decompofed by the flronger acids, and yields cream of tar-
tar. See RuPELLENsis Sal, and Soda.

Tartrite of Potajh and Ammonia, a triple fait prepared,
in the fame general manner as the preceding, by faturat-
ing cream of tartar with carbonate of ammonia, evaporating
and coohng. Expofed to the air it efllorefces, lofes its am-
monia, and returns to the ftate of fimple cream of tartar.

Tartrite of Potajli and Lime, Barytes, &c. Between
tartrite of potafh and lime there exifts a certain affinity,
which tends to the formation of a triple fait, though hme
will completely decompofe any alkaline tartrite. Thus though
fimple tai-trite of lime is infoluble in cold water, no precipi-
tate is produced by the affufion of a fmall quantity of lime-
water into a cold folution of tartrite of potafli, which muft
therefore be owing to the tartrite of lime, then formed,
being rendered foluble by the remaining tartrite or rather
fubtartrite of potafh. Even when cream of tartar is as
completely as poffible decompofed by lime in fubftancc, in
the proceis of obtaining the acid, the cauftic alkaline hquor,
fupernatant over the precipitated tartrite of lime, ftill holds
a fmall quantity of the latter in folution, as has been re-
marked by Vauquelin, which may be confidered as a triple
fait of tartareous acid, lime, and potafli, the latter being in
very large excefs.

The fame appHes to barj'tes and ftrontian, the folutions
of which do not immediately give a precipitate with tartrite
of potafli ; and even if tartrite of barytes or of ftrontian
recently formed and ftill wet be put into a folution of tar-
trite of potafh, it is foon diffolved ; though the mere quan-
tity of hquid prefent would be entirely unable to effeft a fo-
lution. There is therefore fuch a ilrong affinity between
tartrite of potafh and thefe earthy tartrites, as may perhaps
entitle us to confider thefe compound folutions as triple falts,
though they have not been obtained in a cryftallizcd form
like the triple tartrite of potafh and foda.

Alumine unites with ftill greater cafe with tartrite of pot-
afh : for when this earth, recently precipitated from alum
by a cauftic or carbonated alkali, and ftill wet, is transferred
to a folution of tartrite of potafh, it readily diffolves therein,
and forms an uncryftalli/.able compound, which is not ren-
dered turbid by any addition of potafh or its carbonate. The
Rochelle fait has the fame habitude with alumine as the
fimple tartrite of potafh, which therefore forms a quadruple
compound of tartareous acid, potafh, foda and alumine.
See Alumu^e.

Tar-

T A 11

TAR

Tartrite of Soda, a fait produced in fmall needled cryf-
tals from a due cvaporatii)n of tartareous acid faturatcd with
foda. This fait, formerly confounded with the Rochelle
fait, OT fill Riip.'IL'iifts, is not very foluble in water ; however,
when tartrite of potalh is added to this fait, each in faturated
folution, large cryftals of the triple tartrite, or Rochelle
fait, are immediately depolited.

k. fuper-lartrite of foda is formed by partially faturating
tartareous acid with foda, and alfo by adding a ftrong acid
to the faturated tartrite, which, being lefs foluble tlian the
faturatcd compound, precipitates. It is obferved, however,
that tartareous acid will not form (vifibly) an acidulous tar-
trite, when added to the fulphate and other falts of foda, as
it will do wit!i the falts of potafli.

TARrRlTE o/'y^mmOHW, a fait formed by faturating the
tartareous acid with ammonia or its carbonate. This fait
cr)-ftallizes readily, and is decompofed by the fixed alkahes
and alkaline earths.

h. fuper-larlnle of ammoma is formed in a fimilar manner
to the luper-tartrite of foda, and with the fame exception
of the acid not vifibly decompofmg the other ammoniacal
falts. See Ammonia, and Tartrate of Ammoma under Salts.

Tarthites, Earthy. See Earthy Salts. See alfo Tar-
trate of I.'ime under Lime.

The tartrite of lime is produced in a white precipitate, by
adding tartareous acid to any foluble fait of lime, or lime
to a foluble tartareous fait. Although this fait is infoluble
in mere water in a common temperature, it diffolves readily
in an excefs of its own, or of any other acid that does not
decompofe it, fuch as the acetous or muriatic. It is alfo
rendered foluble in water by the addition of potafh. When
it is heated flrongly in an open fire the whole acid is con-
fumed, and carbonate of hme remains.

Tartrites of Barytes and Strontiam, are formed in the
fame manner as tartrite of lime ; but they are not fo infolu-
ble in water as this fait ; and the tartrite of ftrontian will
even cryftaUize from its hot-faturated folution by cooUng.
With magnefia and alumme this acid forms very foluble com-
pounds, which do not cryftaUize by evaporation, but dry
up into a gummy mafs. Aikin's Dift.

TARTSCHIN, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Warfaw ; 20 miles S.W. of Warfaw.

TARTURA, a town of Paleftine, near the coaft ; 10
miles S. of Acre.

TARVA, a diftrid of Arabia, on the banks of the
Julfa.

TARUD, a town of Arabia, in the province of Hedf-
jas ; JO miles from El Catif.

Tarud Efherif, a town of Egypt, on the left bank of
the Nile ; 6 miles S. of Melaui.

TARUI^A, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in
Mauritania Csfarienfis, near ^gea. Ptol.

TARUDANT, or Tarodant, in Geography, a town
of Africa, and capital of the province, formerly kingdom,
of Sufe, fituated at the extremity of Morocco. The town
js ancient and estenfive, and is faid to contain 25,000 inha-
bitants. It has a noble palace, to which belong gardens
abounding with the moft delicious fruits. Its population
has lately decreafed ; and it is now famous only for falt-
petre of a fupcrior quality, for the manufafture of leather
and faddles, and for dyeing. The town is watered by the
river Sufe, which pafTes through it ; and it is reported that
/hips formerly took in their cargoes at this place. It has
fuftained feveral fieges, and in the laft, the inhabitants were
/educed to the neceffity of eating rats and burning their
dqprs for fuel ; 1 10 miles S-S-W. of Morocco. N. lat. 30°
?9*, W. long. 8° 35'.

TARVES, a village in the diftria of Ellon, and fhire of
Aberdeen, Scotland, is fituated on the banks of the river
Ythan ; 15 miles N. from Aberdeen, and 139 miles N.by E.
from Edinburgh. The parifli is about nine miles in length and
fix in breadth. The general appearance is flat, interfperfed
with fome fmall hills ; the foil is in fome parts deep, and in
others (hallow ; but mollly fertile. About a hundred acres
are covered with thriving plantations. A general poft-office
is eftablidicd here ; and two fairs are holden annually. The
public roads are in good repair. The parilh church is an-
cient and ruinous. Here is a refpeftable parochial fchool,
of which the falary is 300 marks, with fchool-fees and per-
quifites, and a rood of land. In the population return of
the year 181 1, Tarves was flated to contain 454 houfes,
occupied by 1804 perfons. — Carlifle's Topographical Dic-
tionary of Scotland, vol. ii. Gazetteer of Scotland, 8vo.

TARVIDUM, Takuedum, or Orcas, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a promontory on the fouthern coaft of the ifle of
Albion, near the mouth of the river Nabaus.

TARVIN, or Tarven, in Geography, a townfliip and
parilh in the hundred of Edilhury, and county palatine of
Chefter, England, is fituated on the London road, five miles
N. by E. from Chefter. It had for fome time a weekly
market, procured by fir John Savage, in the reign of queen
Ehzabeth ; but this has been long difcontinued. An annual
fair was alfo held here till within the laft thirty years, but was
then abolilhed. Tarvin was one of the parliamentary gar-
rifons during the civil wars : in Auguft 1644, it was a Ihort
time in the pofleflion of the royahfts ; but in the following
month it was retaken for the parhament, and fortified with
ftrong works. This and Nantwich were the only garrifons
in Cheftiire not abandoned on the reported approach of the
king, in May 1645 ; and the parhament retained it till the
end of the war. A grainmar-fchool was founded here in
the year 1600. John Thomafen, a celebrated penman, was
mafter of this fchool thirty-fix years in the early part of the
laft century. On the outfide of the parilh church is an in-
fcription to his memory, ftating that he " highly excelled in
all the varieties of writing, and wonderfully fo in the Greek
charafter. Specimens of his ingenuity are treafured up in
the cabinets of the curious and in the pubhc hbraries through-
out the kingdom." The townfhip of Tarvin was ftated in
the population return of the year 181 1, to contain 180
houfes, occupied by 921 perfons. The parifli is very ex-
tenfive, and includes 1 1 townfhips, containing in the whole
2877 inhabitants, the number of houfes being 525. — Ly-
fons' Magna Britannia, vol. ii. part 2, Chefliire. Beauties
of England and Wales, vol. ii. Chefhire, by J. Britton and
E. W. Brayley.

TARVISIUM, or Tarviso, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Italy, towards the N.W. of Venetia.

TARUM, in Botany, a name given by Phny to the ctgal-
lochum fylvefire, a fpecies of aromatic plants.

TARURAW, in Geography, a town of the ftate of
Georgia ; 14 miles N. of Tugeloo.

TARUS, or Taro, in Ancient Geography, a river of
GaUia Cifpadana, which ran towards the N.E., and E. of
Trebia.

TARUSA, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, in the go-
vernment of Kaluga, on the Oka. N. lat. 54° 52'. E.
long. 36° 34'.

TARUS ATES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gal-
lia Aquitanica, mentioned by Casfar in the 3d book of his
Commentaries, who were compelled to fubmit by CrafTus,
Caefar's lieutenant. Their city was named Vicus Julii and
alfo Aturas.

TARUSCO,

T A S

T A S

TARUSCO, a town of Gallia Narbonnenfis, near
Cleiium,

TARUSCONIENSES, a people of Gallia Narbon-
nenfis, mentioned by Pliny, who occupied part of the tcr-
ritoi-y of Tarafcon on the Rhone.

TARWAS, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 28 miles
E. of Nattore.

TASAGORA, in ylncicnt Geography, a town of Africa,
in Mauritania Ca;farieniis, on the route from Cula to Ruiu-
curum. Anton. Itin.

TASAPAN, in Geography, a fniall ifland in tlie Eaft
Indian fea, near Juukfeilon. N. lat. 3° 20'. E. long.
98^ 14'.

TASCA, LiJiGi, in Biography, an opera finger with a
powerful bafe, or rather baritono voice, who arrived in
England in 1 782, was a good mufician, and not only a ufe-
ful performer at the opera, but at the oratorio, and in the
performances at Weftminiler Abbey in commemoration of
Handel. His voice, however, wanted mellownefs and flexi-
bility : for like an oaken plant, though ftrong, it was llifF.
TASCHENMUL, in Ornithology, a name given by au-
thors to the anas clypeata, a fpecies of duck, remarkable for
the breadth of the end of its beak, and called in Enghlh the
Jhoveller. See B road-beaked \ivciS..

TASCHIEN, in Geography, a river of Bavaria, which
runs into the Regen, 2 miles W. of Cliam.

TASCHOW, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Leit-
meritz ; J miles N. of Leitmerit/..

TASCIO, or Tascia, in Coinage, is a term, which
either wholly or in part, appears on majiy ancient Britifh
coins, and which has puzzltid our antiquaries, who have
formed feveral different opinions concerning it. Mr. Cam-
den, Mr. Baxter, Dr. Pettingal, and others, have tliought
that this word is derived from Tajl or Tafcu, fignifying in the
original language of Britain any land-burthen or tribute im-
poled by the Tag, or prince, and that all the money whicii
had Tafcia or any of its abbreviations upon it, had been
coined for no other purpofe but to pay the tribute which
had been impofed on the Britons by Julius Ca^far, and the
portaria or duties upon merchandize, which had been exafted
by Auguftus and his fuccefTors. Againll this opinion,
however, others have urged ftrong objeftions. The deriva-
tion of Tafcio from Tag, a prince, by the intervention of
Tafcu, a burthen or taflc, it has been faid, is far from being
clear. Money coined for the fole purpofe of paying tri-
bute, is a tiiing, fay the objeftors, unknown in the hillory
of mankind ; nor is it probable that Cunobeline, who was a
free and independent prince, the friend but not the fubjeft
of the Roman emperors, would have admitted a word of
fuch ignominious import ^s Tafcio is in this fenfe of it, upon
bis corns.

A nvodern author (fee Wife Differt. in Numm. Bodl.
CataU p. 227.), diffatisfied with the above interpretation of
the word Tafcio, has propofed another. He fuppofes that
Tafcio is an abbreviation of fome nation or people to whom
this money belonged, and of which Cunobeline was king ; and
finding in Pliny (lib. iii. c. 4. ) a people of Gallia Narbon-
nenfis, called " Tafcodunitari Conorienfes," in the MSS.
" Tafcoduni Taruconienfes," he conjeftures, that Cunobelin
Tafcio may mean Cunobelin Tafcodunonun. But this mean-
ing is far-fetched, and depends upon improbable conjefture.
Another modern writer (fee Pegge's Efl". on Cunobeline's
Coins, p. 55.) has conjefturcd, that Tafcio waa the name of
Cunobeline's mint-mailer, who ilruc,k all thefe coins. Al-
though this opinion is more probable than the former, it is
iieverthelefs ftrangic, that this word, if it was a proper name,
Vol. XXXV.

fliould have been fpelled by tlie perfon to whom it belonged
in fo many different ways, as Tafcio, Tafcia, and Tafcic.

TASCO, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the pro-
vince of Meciioacan ; yo miles .S.E. of Mechoacan. N.
lat. \<f j'. W. long. 101036'.

TASCONI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gallia
Narbonnenfis, mentioned by Pliny, who occupied part of
the diocefe of Montauban. Their city bore the fame name,
and was fituated N. of Tolofe..

TASGOM, ill Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Vifia-
pour ; I o miles N. of Merritcli.

TASHAM Daoiii, a mountain of Afiatic Turkey, be-
tween Amafreii and Samfoun.

TASHKUND, Tasliikumd, or Al Shajh, 3. town of
Turkeftan, on the Sir. This town has been often dellroycd
and rebuilt; 210 miles N. of Samarcand. N. lat. 42'' 40'.
E. long. 64" 48'.

TASHKUPRI, a town of Natolia ; 14 mile* S.E. of
Caftamena.

TASIEVA, a river of Ruflia, which runs into the
Tchiuma, about 20 miles N.W. of Tafievfkoi.

TASIEVSKOt, a town of RufTia, in the government
of Tobolil<, on the Tafieva; 820 miles E. of Tobollk.
N. lat. 57^ E. long. 94° 14'.

TASIO, a river of Sweden, which joins the Angermann
at Liden.

TASIS, Tsttric, in Rhetoric, is ufed for the continuation
of a period longer than the breath can bear. VolT. Rhet.
lib. iv. p. 66.

TAS-KUJE, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Lariftan ; 84 miles N.E. of Lar.

TASLUI, a town of Moldavia ; 20 miles S. of Nic-
mecz. — Alfo, a river of Moldavia, which runs into the
Siret, near Adzud.

TASMAN's Head, a cape on the coaft of Van
Diemen's Land. N. lat. 43° 33'. E. long. 147'' 28'.
TASMANIA. See Van Diemen'j Land.
TASOPIUM, in Ancient Geography, a to.vn of India,
on this fide of the Ganges, near Caricardama, affigned by
Ptolemy to the Sabarx.

TAS-POULSASON, in Geography, a iovrn of Chinefe
Tartary, in the country of HamL N. lat. 40° 22'. E.
long. 95° 54'.

TASPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 27 miles
E, of Hajypour. N. lat. 25° 52'. E. long. 85° 51.

TASSA Point, a cape on the coaft of Guinea. N.
lat. 8°. W. long. 12° 10'.

TASSA-CORTA, or Tassa-Croda, a town on the
W. coail of Palma, one of the Canary illands, wiiich is an
inconlidcrable loading-place for veficls. N. lat. 28"^ 37'.
W. long. 1 7° 58'.

TASSASUDON, Tassisudo.v, or Tafey-Seddein,a town
of Afia, aiid capital of the Bootan country, fituated in a
valley, computed to be about three miles in length, and one
in breadth, lying N. and S., through which runs the river
Tehintchieu. This valley is in a high ftate of cidtivation,
bearing various kinds of grain, and diverfificd by clufters of
houfes. The callle, or palace of Taffifudon, ftands r.ear
the centre of the valley, and is a building of ftone, of a
quadrangular form ; the walls are upwards of 30 feet high,
lloped a little from the foundation to the top ; above the
middle fpace is a row of projcdling balconies, to each of
which are curtains made of black hair ; which arc always
drawn at night : the walls are pierced below withfmall win-
dows, for the admiffion of air rather than light ; and there
are two entrances to the palace : the one facing the fouth by
S a fliglit

r A s

T A S

a (light of woodiTi fteps, edged with plates of iron, and tlie
other, which is tfie grand entrance on the ea(t front, afcended
by a flight of (lone Heps. Even with thefo is a fpacious
gateway, witli two malTy doors, fortified with knobs of iron,
and fecnred when (hut by a large bar of timber that Hides
within the mafonry. Witliin is the central fquare building,
•which may be denominated the citadel, and which is the refi-
dence of the fupreme Lama. It contains alfo the chief of
their idols, Maliomoonie, amidft a multitude of otlicrs of in-
ferior note. To the right and the left are avenues that lead
to fpacious fquares, paved witli flat ftones, and to the apart-
ments of the Lama. The citadel is feven ftories high, each
from fifteen to eighteen feet, and covered with ;. roof of low
pitch, compofed of fir timber ; from the centre arifes a
fquare piece of mafonry, fupporting a canopy of copper,
riclily gilt, which is fuppofed to be direftly over the great
idol, Mahomoonie. The raja lives upon the fourth floor from
the ground ; above that are two other ftories ; and the fe-
venth ladder reaches to the temple of Mahomoonie. The eaft,
weft, and fouth angles of the building correfpond with each
other, and have apartments on the ground floor appropriated
for depofiting all kinds of ftores. A covered gallery runs
all round them, beneath which are fubterraneous places ferv-
ing for kitchens. A range of good rooms, with boarded
floors, on the firft ftory, accommodates all the officers of
ftate attendant on the raja, and thofe towards tlie fquare
are fkirted by a varande, Supported by a row of handfome
pillars, whofe capitals are ornamented with carved work and
gilding, and their fides painted with vermilion. Over this
ftory is a fort of terrace of cement, with rooms more
roughly finifhed for the inferior officers, called Zeenkerbs.
For further pai-ticulars we refer to Turner's Embaffy, in
which is an engraving of the palace, and of the refidence of
Lama Glafletoo in its vicinity. The road from Bengal to
Taflafudon lies chiefly over the fummits of flupendous moun-
tains, or along the borders of craggy precipices : and be-
tween this city and Peridroog is a chain of mountains ftill
higher than the other. Thefe are vifible from the plains of
Bengal, at the diftance of 1 50 miles, and are commonly co-
vered with fnow. They are a continuation of the mountains
Emodus and Paropamifus of the ancients ; 206 miles S.W.
of Laffa. N. lat. 27° 48'. E. long. 89^ 12'.

TASSEL, a fort of pendent ornament, at the corners of
a cufliion, or tlie like thing. — Alfo, a fmall ribband of filk
fev/ed to a book, to be put between the leaves.

Tassels, in a Building, thofe pieces of board that lie
under the ends of the mantle-trees.

Tassel, or Tiercelet, is alfo ufed in Falconry for a male
hawk.

Tassels are alfo a kind of hard burrs ufed by cloth-workers
in dreffing of cloth ; they are the heads of the manured
teafel.

TASSES, or Tassets, in yincient Armoury, appendages
to the corfelet, confifting of flcirts of iron that covered the
thighs, and that were fattened to the cuirafs with hooks.

TASSI, Agostino, in 5io^ra/)4j),the cognomen of an artift
whofe real name was Buonamici. He was born at Perugia in
1566, and ftudiedat Rome under Paul Brill, and received fome
affiftance in the fchool of the Carracci. His loofe and irre-
gular conduft procured a feat for him on the bench of a gal-
ley at Leghorn ; and there, though under confinement and
difgrace, he occupied his leifure in painting views of the ob-
efts with which he was furroundcd ; and when he obtained
his liberty, fuch fubjefts became the favourite occupation of
bis pencil. His fea-ports, calms, and ftorms, were faithful
tranfcripts of nature, and touched with great fpirit and effi-

cacy. His views of architeftural fubjetSs thrown into per-
fpetlivc, which are in the pontifical palace of Monte Ca-
vallo, and in that of the Lancellotti family, are admirable in
their kind. His greateft honour, liowever, is having beei!
the inftruftor of Claude de Lorraine. He died in 1642,
aged 76.

TASSING, in Geography. See Taasince.
TASSO, V>v.v.^AnV)0,\n Biography, an eminent poet, bom
at Bergamo of an ancient and noble family in the year 1493,
became an early proficient in tlie Greek and Latin claffic^.
His uncle, the bithop of Recanati, who was his initruftor
and patron, and fupphed the place of a parent when he loft
his father, having been aflafllnated by robbers in 1520, Ber-
nardo was under a necefllty of quitting his native city,- and
in 1525 became feci'Ctary to count Guido Rangoni, genera!
of the papaliarmy. Having been for a (hort time occupied
in a fimilar fituation under the duchefs of Ferrara, he after-
wards purfued his ftudies at Padua and Venice. la 15-; I he
publiflied at Venice a volume of poems, which induced Fer»
rante Sanfeverino, prince of Salerno, to invite him to his
court. Having accepted this invitation, he recommended
himfelf to the prince, and obtained annual flipends, amount-
ing to 900 ducats. He accompanied his patron in feveral
expeditions, and accompanying iiim to Naples, he there-
married Porzia de' Roffi, a lady of noble family. At Sor-
rento, whither he removed, he for fome time led a tranqui'
and ftudious life ; until his patron, m 1547, incurred the dif-
pleafure of the imperial court by concurring in prefenting a
petition againll the eftabhfliment of the inquifition at Naples.
On this occafion the prince joined the French party, fo that
he was declared a rebel, and his property was confifcated. In-
fluenced by refpeft for his patron, Bernardo accompanied him
to France, where at firft he obtained encouragement, but
being in procefs of time deprived of all fupport, and having
loft his wife, lie requefted the prince's permiffion to leave
him ; and complying with an invitation to the court of Gui-
dubaldo H., dulie of Urbino, a diftinguifhed patron of
literary perfons, he was liberally compenfated for his paft
fufferings, and made a member of the celebrated Venetian
academy. In 1563 he became fecretary at the court of
Mantua, and in the fervice of this court he died in 1569,
being then governor of Oftiglia. Tiie duke of Mantua
caufed his remains to be honourably interred in that city, and
a marble monument to be erefted over his tomb, bearing the
fimple infcription, " Ofla Bernardi Taffi." Of his poems,
belonging to the clafs of " Romanefque," there were
two ; Ilia. " Amadigi," confifl;ing of roo cantos, and " II
Floridante," left unfiniflied, but correfted and publifiicdby
his fon Torquato, at Bologna, in 1587. His other works
are five books of " Rime," with various kinds of poems,
fuch as eclogues, elegies, hymns, odes, &c. He was alfo
the author of " A Difcourfe concerning Pocti-y," and " Let-
ters," of which an edition has been given in three volumes.

Tasso, Torquato, pre-eminent as an Italian' poet, was
the fon of Bernardo and Porzia de Rofli, born at Sorrento
March II, 1544, and fent at the age of five years to the
Jefuits' fchool at Naples. Here his proficiency was fo rapid,
that in two years he recited, publicly, verfes and orations of
his own compofition. At Bergamo, whither the circum-
ftances of his family conftrained him to remove, he profe-
cuted the ftudy of Latin and Greek with fuch fuccefs, that
at the age of twelve years, he was admitted into the univer-
fity of Padua. Here his proficiency in vaiious branches of
literature was fo fignal, that in his feventeenth year he was
honoured with degrees in the four branches of canon and
civil law, theology, and philofophy. For law he had no

predi-

T A S

predileftion ; but all the powers and affeftions of his mind
were devoted to poetry. Thus dillinguifhcd, he was invited
by tlie cdebrated Cefi to Bologna, in the fchools and aca-
demies of which city his talents were eminently difplayed.
During his refidence in Bologna, he was charged with having
written fome defamatory verles, and deprived of his books ;
and tliough he avowed his innocence, he thought proper to
withdraw from the city to a place called Caftlevetro, where
he was protefted by the count Rangoni. Some time after
this event he fettled at Padua, and acquired diftinftion among
the academicians denominated " Eterci." At the age of
eighteen yeai-s he liad publifhed at Venice his poem of the
Romanefque clafs, entitled " II Rinaldo," which he dedi-
cated to cardinal Luigi d'Efte, in confequcnce of which he
was invited, in 1566, to the court of Fei-rara, where he was
liberally accommodated, and where, it is faid, he profecutcd
the execution of his plan of the " Gerufalemme Liberata ;"
fix cantos of which were compofed in the 17th year of his
life. In IJ71 he accompanied the cardinal d'Efte into
France, where he was honourably received by Charles IX.
and his court, and alfo by all the learned men of Paris. In
the following year he returned to Italy, and caufed to be re-
prefented his dramatic paftoral of " Aminta." Several
cantos of his " Gerufalemme" were at this time difperfed in
Ms. throughout Italy, and in 1579 the fourth canto was
printed in a coUeftion of poems at Genoa. In the following
year, fragments of i6 cantos were pubhChed at Venice, and
we may naturally imagine that this mode of introducing to
public notice a work on which he had beftowed much atten-
tion and labour, excited his difpleafure. In 1581 three edi-
tions were printed, and of thefe, the third at Ferrara has been
confidered as that which lirft exhibited this celebrated work
in its genuine form. It has occafioned fome degree of fur-
prife, that TafTo himfelf did not guard againft thefe incoiTeft
publications, by committing his work to the prefs in a more
perfeft ftate. His negligence in this refpeft has been attri-
buted to fome mental malady under which he laboured. Of
the caufe of this malady different accounts have been given.
Tirabofchi has narrated a variety of circumllances, which
operating on a mind like that of Taflb, might have contri-
buted to produce, or at leaft to aggravate the mental dif-
order under which he laboured. His narration is recited in
the General Biography ; but within our limits we cannot do
it full juftice. His firft provocation feems to have been ex-
cited by a courtier, who divulged the fecret of his amours,
in the prefence-chamber of Alfonfo, duke of Ferrara, and
whom he publicly infulted, fo that he was under a necefllty
of defending liimfelf with his fword againft the aggreffbr and
his tlu-ee brothers. The brothers were banifned, and TafTo
was confined to his apartment. Difturbed in his mind, and
dreading worfe confequences, he made his efcape, wan-
dered to Turiji, Rome and Sorrento, and at length obtained
permifTion to return to Ferrara. Sufpefting fome hoftile de-
iign, he withdrew to the court of Urbino, and again re-
turned to Ferrara. Here his diforder was fo manifeft, that
Alfonfo ordered him to be (hut up in a hofpital appropriated
to lunatics. The evidence of his diforder is faid by fome to
have been an indecorous hberty which he took in faluting the
princefs Leonora, the duke's fifter ; but others have thought
this circumftance very improbable, and indeed it is hardly ne-
cefTary to make an attempt for juilifying the duke's condudt
in the confinement of Taifo, after he had given fo many in-
conteftible proofs of mental derangement. At length, how-
ever, TafTo was reftored to entire liberty. But his difpofition
to wander ftill continued ; and it is lamentable to refletl, that,
as one of his biograpers obferves, " the admired author of
' Jerufalem delivered,' the favourite of princes and the boail

'J' A S

of Italy, (Iiould have harboured in his mind fomctliing which
defeated every plan to render his circumftances profptrous."
His laft retreat was with cardinal Cinzio Aldobrandini, at
Rome, wlio obtained for him a pcnfion from pope Cle-
ment VIII., and had intended, as a compcnfation for his
fufferings, to procure for him the honour of a folemn poeti-
cal coronation in the Capitol ; but the ceremony was delayed
on account of the cardinal's illnrfs, and TafTo manifefled
fymptoms of approaching diffolution. As foon as he was
apprized of his danger, he was removed to tlie convent of
St. Onofrio, where, deriving every pofTible confolation from
the kindnefs of the cardinal, and exliibiting every evidence
of fmcere piety, he clofed his days in April 1595, at the
age of 51. His remains were honourably interred, and
after fome time a monument was eredted to his memory by
cardinal Bonifacio Bevilacque, in the church of St. Onofrio.
TafTo, " in perfon, was tall, aftive, and well-proportioned,
naturally of a firm temperament, and fit for all bodily ex-
ercifes. He was fparing of words, fedate and grave in
manner, and in converfation difplayed little of the fire tiiat
animates his works. He was kind and affeftionate in all his
focial relations, and condufted himfelf with great propriety
in company."

His works are very numerous. Thofe in profe confift of
a great number of treatifes, dialogues, and letters, on mo-
ral, literary, and familiar topics. In poetry, his " Geru-
falemme Liberata" is pre-eminent. " Its fubjeft is fmgu-
larly happy, its charafters well-drawn and fupported, its
fiiftions ftrongly imagined, its ftyle dignified, and its verfifi-
cation harmonious." His " Gerufalemme Conquifata," pub-
hfhed in 1593, was a kind of rccompofition of the former
work, but lefs fatisfadlory to its readers. His " Aminta"
has been already mentioned ; his " Rime" confifted of occa-
fional and mifceUaneous pieces ; his " Sella Giornata," or
Works of the Seven Days, pieces on facred topics, bear the
imprefTion of the gloomy flate of his mind. Tirabofchi.
Gen. Biog.

Tasso, in Geography, a fmall idand on the W. coaft of
Afi-ica, at the mouth of the river Sierra Leona.

Tasso, or Thafo, an ifland of the Grecian Archipelago,
"fituatcd in the gulf of Contefa, tov.ards the W. extreinity
of Macedonia, and two leagues from the continent. The
channel which feparates that ifland from the main land is
alfo divided by a fterile inlet called " Little TafTo," and in
Greek " Tafl'o-poulo," the veftige of an ancient continuity
of lands, at prefent feparatcd. A fpacious road, where the
ground is good for holding, hes between the two iflands.
TalTo is the moft northern of the iflands of the Archipelago,
and its high mountains, covered with forefts, are feen at a
diftance. This ifland was formerly one of the moft famous
for its rich gold mines. Herodotus fpeaks of them, and
they were under the dircftion of Thucydides. Theic mines
led the Greeks to denominate it Chryie, fignifying gold or
gilt ; its riches had become proverbial, and tlic expreflioii
was a " Thafos of wealth." Its natural troafuies alfo were
opals, amethyfts, and other precious ftones ; but though
thefe are loft, TafTo ftill furniflies the beautiful marble, that
forms the greater part of the mountains, which was anciently-
held in fuch eflimation by the Romans ; the whitenefj of
which vies with fuow, and the fiuencfs of its grain with that
of Parian marble. TJie inhabitants of Pai'os ai-e faid to
have peopled tUe ifland of TafTo, and to have there built the
town of Thafos, which was its capital, and the vefliges of
which are ftill to be feen. The ifland is ueai- 30 leagues
in circumference ; it produces abundance of corn, oil,
wax, &c.; but the fertility, extolled by the ancients, is
turned to no account for want of encouragement and cul-
S 2 ture.

T A S

ture. Its wines, famous even in the time of the Lower em-
pire, as Chryfollom exclaimed againft the cxceffes to which
they gave rife at Conllaiitinople, have no longer the excellent
qualities which eaufed them to fetch a high price. Its popu-
lation has experienced the fame fate as the produftions of its
foil ; it is confulerably diminiOied. TafTo, however, has
Hill remaining a kind of wealth very important to a maritime
and trading nation ; this is capital wood for ihip-buildmg.
N. lat. 40'' 34'. E. long. 24'' 46'.

TASSONI, AlessandRO, in Biography, an Italian
poet and man of letters, was born of an ancient and noble
familv, at Modcna, in the year 1565. Notwithllanding va-
rious difadvantages in early life, fuch as the lofs of his pa-
rents, a feeble difeafed frame, and the pcrfecution of ene-
mies, he fuccefsfuUy cultivated Greek and Latin hterature,
poetry, and eloquence. At the age of twenty he fought
further improvement in the univerfity of Bologna, and here,
as well as at Fen-ara, he directed his particular attention to
jurifprudence. Being under a necedlty of feeking employ-
ment, he went to Rome, where, being known by his writings,
he was admitted into the fervice of cardinal Colonne, as fecre-
tary, and accompanied him to Spain in the year 1 600.
Being afterwards domefticated with cardinal Cefi, he be-
came a member of the academics degli Umorifti and de'
Lincei, and was held in high eftimation among the lite-
rati of Rome. A fpecimen of his " Penfieri diverfi"
(Thoughts on various Subjeds) was publifhed in 1608, un-
der the title of " Queiiti," and the whole in 1612. His"Con-
fiderations on Petrarch" were firft printed in 1 609, and were
intended to reftrain the prevalent idolatry of this author.
In 1613 he entered into the fervice of Charles Emanuel,
duke of Savoy, in which fituation he was regarded as an
enemy to the Spanifli monarchy ; and he was confidercd as
the author of " Philippics" againlt the Spaniards, and of
a book entitled " EfTequie della Monarchia di Spagna."
In 1623 he quitted the family of Savoy ; and about this
time he finiflied " A Compendium of the Annals of Baro-
nius." In 1626 he was taken into the fervice of cardinal
Lodonfio, nephew of Gregory XV.; and upon Iris death,
in 1632, he was invited to the court of Francis I., duke of
Modena, who gave him a penfion and fome honorary titles.
Of this fituation death deprived him in 1635, at the age of
70. One of his biographers fays of him, that " he had a
prepolTefiing countenance, with a cheerful expreffion, was
open in convcrfation, a good fpeaker, ferious or pleafant,
according to the occafion, of a hvely imagination, and found
judgment." The work by which the memory of Tafloni is
chiefly preferved is his mock heroic poem " La Secchia Re-
pita." Tirabofchi. Gen. Biog.

This penetrating and learned writer, in the tenth book of
his " Penfieri diverfi," treats of mufic, ancient and modern,
but not with hisufual acumen or feverity. He only retails the
old {lories of its miraculous powers among the ancients, and
tries to match them by wonders pretended to be performed
by its inferior perfeftions in modern times, without any re-
marks or refleftions which difcover a knowledge of the art,
or doubts of the authenticity of thcfe relations.

After fpeaking of extraordinary dilettante compofers of
mufic in modern times, he fays, " among thefe we may
enumerate James I., king of Scotland, who not only com-
pofed facred mufic, but invented a new fpecies of plaintive
melody, different from all others ; in which he has been
imitated by the prince of Venofa, who, in our times, has
embeUiftied mufic with many admirable inventions."

This pafTage has given birth to two capital miftakes, into
which the readers and writers of mufical hiilory have been
led, particularly in Scotland. Li the firft place, it in-

6

T A S

finuates that James I. was the inventor of the national melo'
dies of that country ; and fecondly, that tiiefe melodies had
been imitated in Italy by the prince of Venofa, a voluminous
and celebrateddilettantecompofer of madrigals in the fixteentli
century.

Unluckily for the favourers of thefe opinions, the Scots'
national melodies can be proved of much higher antiquity,
not only than David Rizzio, but the time of James I. See
Rizzio, Ja.mes I. of Scotltiitd, and Ossian.

And the prince of Venofa, who was not the great mufi-
cian he was reported to be by learned men w ho were ignorant
of mufic, has not in all his works, which we have carefully-
examined, a fingle paffage of melody which reminds us of
the national tunes of Scotland ; the melodies of which re-
femble thofe of no other country with which we are ac-
quainted, except thofe of China. See Venosa, and Chinese
Mufic.

Another Aleffandro Tafloni of Modena, born in 1488,
made a compilation of the different annals of that city, pub-
lifhed in Muratori's Colleftion of Italian hiflorians.

TASSOW, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in the
circle of Iglau ; 30 miles S.E. of Iglau.

TAS8U, a town of Perfia, in the province of Adir-
beitzan ; 60 miles W. of Tauris.

TASTATURA, Ital., the whole range or fet of keys,
in an organ, harpfichord, virginal, fpinet, clavichord, or
piano-forte. The term is naturally formed from tajlo, a
touch, or key. The Italians, we believe, call tl«; finger-
board of the lute, guitai", viols, and all ftringed inftrumcnts
with a neck that is fretted, the tajlatura.

TASTE, Savour, a fenfation excited in the foul by-
means of the organ of tafte, m-x.. the papillae of the tongue,
&c.

Dr. Grew, in a lefture on the diverfity of taftes, befbre
the Royal Society, diftinguiflies them into ftmple and com-
pound. By ftmple taftes he underftands fuch as are fimple
modes of tafte, although mingled with others in the fame
thing : thus, the tafte of a pippin is aci-dulcis ; of rhubarb,
amar-aftringent, and therefore compounded, in both ; but
yet in the pippin the acid is one fimple tafte, and the fvveet
another, as diftinft as the bitter and aftringent are in the
rhubarb.

Two faults, he obferves, have here been committed :
the firlt, a defeftive enumeration of fimple taftes ; the fecond,
a reckoning of them indiftintlly among fuch as are com-
pounded.

Simple taftes, of which we ufually only reckon fix or fcveji
forts, are at leaft fixteen : i. Bitter, as in v^formwood ;
whofe contrary is, 2. Sweet, as in fugar. 3. Sour, as in
vinegar ; whofe contrary is, 4. Salt. 5. Hot, as in cloves ;
to which is oppofed, 6. Cold, as in fal prunellas ; for we
may as properly fay a cold tafte as an hot one, fince there
are fome bodies which do manifeftly imprefs the fenfe of cold
upon the tongue, though not to the touch. 7. Aromatic ;
to which is contrary, 8. Naufeous, or malignant. 9. Scft,
which are either vapid, as in water, ftarch, whites of eggs,
&c. or unftuous, as in oils, fat, &c. 10. Hard, of which
he reckons four kinds. 1 1 . Penetrant, which worketh itielf
into the tongue without any pungency ; as is found in the
root and leaves of the wild cucumber. 12. Stupefacient, as
in the root of black hellebore, which, being chewed, and
for fome time retained upon the tongue, affefts that organ
with a numbnefs, or paralytic ftupor. 13. Aflringent, as in
galls. And, 14. Pungent, as in fpirit of fal armoniac ;
which two laft taftes he makes contrary to the unftuous,
as penetrant and ftupefacient ai-e contrary to the vapid
one.

The

TASTE.

The compound taftcs are very numerous ; but we have
Xvords to exprefs but fix of them: i. Aujlcre, which is
ailringent and bitter, as in the green and foft ftones of
grapes. 2. Acerb, properly fo called, which is ailringent
and acid, as in the juice of unripe grapes. 3. Acrid, which
is pungent and hot. 4. Muriatic, which is fait and pun-
gent, as in common fait. Lixivious, which is faltnefs joined
with fome pungency and heat. 6. Nitrous, which is falt-
nefs joined with pungency and cold.

Tail ■ conftitutes one of the moft obvious characters of
bodies, and much is to be judged from it of the nature of
many things. Dr. Abercromby, in a treatife partly written
on this fubjedl, has carried his obfervations fo far, as to lay
down a fet of rules for the judging of any plant, or other
body, without knowing what it is, merely from its tafte, in
regard 10 its virtues in medicine.

In order to judge of what he exprefsly means by the
names of the feveral taftes, it is proper to add the liil: of
them, with fome of the things to which they are applied.

Plants, fruits, &c. are eitiier four as the common forrcl,
harlh as the medlar, auftere or rough as the quince, fweet as
the fre(h juice of ripe grapes, fat and oily as the fefamum,
bitter as gentian or the wild cucumber, fait as common fea-
falt, tart as garlic, or, laftly, infipid as the gourd, or of
lome mixed talles, made of two or more of thefe.

The har{h or acerb things are cold, repelling, and bind-
ing, hardly concofted, and they may all be known upon the
tongue by their contradling or drying it. The auftere or
rough things differ from thefe only in degree, as being fome-
what milder in tafte, and weaker in virtues.

The four or acid things are always cooling ; but this
never to excefs, by reafon of their penetrating parts : this
tafte is known by a biting on the tongue, but without any
heat. Sweet things are all nutritive ; and taking the word
in its proper fenfe, they only have this quality. Their
fweetnefs arifes from their neither being too hot nor too cold
upon the tongue.

Fat things are moderately hot, and, on this account they
all, in fome degree, moiften and relax ; but they alfo ob-
ftruft : they are known from the fweet things by filling,
and, as it were, anointing the tongue, without giving that
fenfe of pleafure that the others do.

Salt things are aftringent and deterfive ; the one quality
they have from their earthy part, the other from their
watery.

Bitter things may be very beneficial to the ftomach ; but,
in improper cafes, they may alfo do hurt. The pungent
bitters, fuch as the elaterium, or wild cucumber, are all
hurtful, unlefs rendered fafe by other means.

Tart things are hot, and often bad for the head, but good
in heavy and phlegmatic conftitutions : they are known by
their heat in the mouth.

Laftly : infipid things in general have no peculiar quahty,
but are cold and watery ; they are generally hurtful to the
ftomach, unlefs mixed with hotter and fpicy things. Aber-
cromb. Nov. Medic. Clavls.

It is obferved by fir John Floyer, that the tafte is fo good
a judge for us, that all the chemical principles in plants may
be difcovered by it, before their diftillation. All watery
plants (hew their phlegm, as well to the tafte as by diftilling ;
and in all dry woods, the tafte difcovers the earth they con-
tain, as well as a chemical analyfis ; by the mucilaginous
and gummy tafte, and by the manifeft oilinefs in fome plants,
we diftinguiih their abounding in oil as well as by the retort.
The fmell alfo helps us greatly in an extemporary judging
of plants, and we ai'e able to declare upon the fpot, that all
the aromatic plants, and all the fetid ones, contain a large

quantity of a volatile oil and hJt. By the acrimony and
pungency, we are <vell alfured that there is a volatile fait in
plants ; and by the burning tafte of others, we find that
there is a corrofive fait in them. By a crude rough acidity,
we diftinguiih the tartar or eftential fait of plants to be in
large quantity ; but if the acidity be of a vinous fmell, we
oblerve that it is of a middle ftate of digeftion, and may be
called a vinous tartar, and diftinguilhed from the firil ; but
if the tartar have a pungent fmell, then it is evidently a vola-
tile tartar, or an acid acrid tartar.

The fweet taftes are more numerous in plants, and more
varied among themfclves than any other kind. Thefe, in
general, (hew their oil by thin (limy fmoothnefs, and their
tartar is evident in their extratls, as is very plain in the com-
mon liquorice-juice.

Tile grals-fweets, as the common dogs-grafs, and the like,
have much eftential lalt, and a moderate portion of oil ; and
the ru(h, reed, horfe-lail, and cats-tail, are all fweet and
rough ; fome of thefe have more oil, and others more acid ;
and the moft crude among them have more oil than tartar.
The corn-fweets, as barley, rye, wheat, oats, millet, and
rice, have much oil and eflential fait, and a little volatile ; fo
bread, prepared of any of thefe, yields, on analyfis, oil and
eftential and volatile fait.

It is to be obferved here, that fermentation and fire fe-
verally produce a volatile fait, where it was not before, by
fubtilizing and volatihzing the eflential fait ; and the (limy
mcalinefs in corn fupplies the oil. The goats-beard and
fcorzonera-kind have the fame principles as the gralfes, much
oil and effential fait. The fub-acrid fwects, as rampions,
campanulas, trachelia, and the like, contain mucii oil and
eifential fait ; but the acrimony in thefe plants (liews that
they have alfo a volatile fait, and that in no fmall quantity ;
though Lemery, and the other chemical writers, have not
obferved this.

The ferns, polypodies, and all that clafs of plants, con-
tain much oil and eifential fait ; but the chemills in general
have omitted to mention an acrid principle in all thefe, which
befpeaks a volatile ialt ; and fragrancy is obferved in fome
of the harts-tongues, which befpeaks a volatile fait alfo, and
volatile oil, though hitherto unobferved.

All the legumuious (limy fweets have more oil than tar-
tar ; but all of them have a large quantity of both. Beans,
peas, and lentils, have alfo a volatile fait, as has alfo that
ftrange fruit, eaten in RufTia, and fome other places, and
called hnticula aqunlica by fome ; but by the botanical
writers, Irihulus aquaticus ; the other name bclongnng to the
common duck-weed. The aromatic legumens, fuch as me-
lilot, have an exalted oil, and volatile fait. The honcy-
fuckle is faid by Lemery, and the other chemifts, only to
have an effential fait and oil ; but as there is a highly aro-
matic flavour, and great acrimony, there muft be alfo a
volatile fait.

Thefe are fome few inftanccs, out of a vaft number re-
cited by the author, for the reft of which we refer to the
paper itfelf in N"^ 280 of the TranfaAions. Philof. Tranf.
N" 299, p. 1 160. See Tasiini;.

Taste is alfo ufed, in a figurative fenfe, for the judg-
ment and difceniment of the mind.

We talk, and we hear every day of tafte, of good tafte,
and of bad tafte, and yet without well underftanding what
we mean by the word : in effeft, a good tafte fecms to be
little elfe but right reafon, which we otherwife exprefs by
the word judgment.

To have a tafte, is to give things their real value, to be
touched with the good, to be (hocked with the ill ; not to
be dazzled with faJfe appearances ; but, in fpite of all co-
lours.

TASTE.

lonrs, and of every thing that might deceive or amufe, to
judge foundly.

Tafte and judgment then (hould be tlie fame thing ; and
yet it is eafy to difcern a diffcrt-nce : the judgment forms its
opinions from rcfleftion ; the reafoii, on this occafion, takes
a kind of circuit to arrive at its end ; it fuppofes principles,
it draws confequences, and it judges ; but not without a
thorough knowledge of the cafe : fo that after it has pro-
nounced, it is ready to render a reafon of its decrees.
Taile obferves none of thefe formahties ; before it has time
to confult, it has taken its refolution : as foon as ever an
objeft is prefented to it, the imprelTion is made, and the
fentiment formed ; and we aflc no more of it. As the ear is
wounded with an harfh found, as the fmell is foothed with
an agreeable odour, before ever the reafon has meddled witli
thofe objefts, to judge of them ; fo the tafte is ftruck at
once, and prevents all refledtion.

Refleftions may come afterwards to confirm this tafte,
and difcover the fecret reafonings of its conduft ; but it was
not in its power to wait for them. Frequently, it happens
not to know them at all ; and what pains foever we ufe, we
cannot difcover what it was that determined it to think as
it did.

Tliis conduft is very different from that which the judg-
ment obferves in its decifions ; unlefs we choofe to fay, that
good tafte is, as it were, a firft motion, or a kind of inftinft
of right reafon, which hurries us on with rapidity, and con-
dufts us more fecurely than all the reafonings we could ufe.
It is a fu-ft glance of thought, which difcovers to us the na-
ture and relation of things, as it were, by intuition.

In effeft, tafte and judgment are one and the fame thing,
one and the fame difpoiition and habitude of the foul, wlilch
we call by different names, according to the different manners
in which it afts : when it afts by fenfation, by the firft im-
predion of objeds, we call it tafte ; and when by reafoning,
after having examined the thing by all the rules of art, S:c.
we call it judgment : fo that one may fay, tafte is the judg-
ment of nature, and judgment is the tafte of reafon.

Good tafte, as defined by Madem. Scudery aiid Madem.
Dacier, in an exprcfs treatife " Of the Corruption of Tafte,"
is an harmony between the mind and reafon ; and a pcrfon
has more or lefs of this tafte, as that harmony is more or
lefs juft.

One might, perhaps, improve on this hint, and fay, that
good tafte is nothing elfe but a certain ratio or relation be-
tween the mind, and the objefts prefented to it; Right
reafon cannot but be moved and aftefted with things con-
formably to it, and wounded by thofe contrary : there is,
then, a kind of fympathy, which unites them as foon as ever
they meet ; and at their union, their good underftandings
difcover each other — Make a fine difcourfe ; ufe only the
richeft and nobleft expreffions ; if they contain an unhappy
thought, or an incoherent reafoning, that thought, this
reafoning, will immediately be felt by a perfon of tafte : and
the antipathy will ftiew itfelf by a movement of averfion, as
fudden, as lively, and as natural, as that which nature in-
fpircs us withal for toads or fpiders.

The term tajle, ufed generally, is equivocal, and is ufed in
at leaft three diftinft acceptations. It fometimes means that
peculiar mode of fenfation, which refides in the tongue and
palate ; fometimes, the power of difcriraination in the fine
arts, or the feeling aftbciated with it ; fometimes, in a fenfe
derived from the latter, it means hking or opinion in
general.

It has been a fubjeft of much controverfy, whether tafte,
in the fecond fenfe, as we ufe the term in this article, be a
diftinft faculty, or merely a mode of judgment. The fad

feems to be, fays an anonymous writer, that pleafurable
emotions are excited by certain objefts or conceptions, and
that, when we embody our feelings in words, we ufe ex-
prelTions of comparifon, and reference to a ttandard, as in
other propofitions. Feehng andjudgment therefore concur ;
but to which the word tajle fliould be peculiarly applied, it is
not eafy to determine. The primary feufe of the word, and
of its equivalents in modern languages, feems to imply the
former, as the word criticifm manifeftly refers to the latter
meaning.

Dr. Gerard, in his ingenious and elaborate " Effay on
Tafte," obferves, that a fine tafte is neither wholly the gift
of nature, nor wholly the effeft of art. It derives its origin
from certain powers natural to the human mind, but thefe
muft be allifted by culture, in order to attain their full per-
feftion. Tafte, according to this writer, confifts chiefly in
the improvement of thofe principles, which arc commonly
called the powers of imagination, and are confidered by
modern philofophers as internal or reflex fenfes, fupplying
us with finer and more delicate perceptions, than any which
cnn be properly referred to our external organs. The
fimple principles of tafte are the fenfes of novelty, of fub-
limity, of beauty, of imitation, of harmony, of ridicule, and
of virtue. Any one of the internal lenfes, exifting in vitrour
and perfedion, forms a particular branch of tafte, and
enables a man to judge in fome one fubjed of art or genius ;
but all of them muft at once be vigorous, in order to con-
ftitute tafte in its juft extent. Tafte will alfo deri%'e con-
fiderable affiftance from another principle, diftind from all
the internal fenfes ; and this is fuch a fenfibility of heart or
deUcacy of paflion, as fits a man for being eafily moved, and
for readily catching, as by infedion, any paffion that a work
ii fitted to excite, to which we might add the influence of
cafual aflbciations on tafte. Moreover, the moft complete
union of the internal fenfes is not of itfelf fuf&cient to fonn
good tafte, even though they be attended with the greateft
delicacy of paflion. They muft be aided with judgment,
the faculty which diftinguifties things different, feparates
trutli from falfehood, and compares together objeds and
their qualities. — Good fenfe is an indifpenfible ingredient in
true tafte, which always implies a quick and accurate
perception of things as they really are ; and, as the poet
obferves,

" Is, though no fcience, fairly worth the feven."

Tafte, like every other human excellence, is progreffive
and improveable : and goodnefs of tafte lies in its maturity
and pcrfedion ; confifting, as Dr. Gerard fays, in certain
excellencies of our original powers of judgment and ima-
gination combined. Thefe may be reduced to four, ■viz.
fenfibilitv, refinement, corrednefs, and the proportion or
comparative adjuftment of its feparate principles. All thefe
muft be in a confiderable degree imited, in order to form
true taftck And this excellence of tafte fuppofes not only
culture, but culture judicioufly applied. Want of tafte un-
avoidably fprings from negligence ; falfe tafte from injudi-
cious cultivation. Scnfibility of tafte, we are told, depends
very much on the original conftrudion of the mind, and is
lefs improveable by ufe than any other of the qualities of
good tafte. Refinement or elegance of tafte is chiefly owing
to the acquifition of knowledge, and the improvement of
judgment. Refinement of tafte exifts only, where to an
original delicacy of imagination, and natural acutenefs of
judgment, is fuperadded a long and intimate acquaintance
with the beft performances of every kind. And as fenfibility
of tafte difpofes us to be ftrcngly affeded with whatever
beauties or faults we perceive ; and refinement of tafte

makes

TASTE.

makes us capable of difcovcring both, even when they are
not obvious ; fo correftnefs of. tafte prevents our being
impofcd upon by falfe appearances, and cither approving
lliining faults, or condemning challe virtues, and enables us
to affign to every quality its due proportion of merit or
demerit : thus diftinguilhing the various kinds, and meafuring
the different degrees of excellence and faultinefs. The lafl
finifhing and complete improvement of tafte, refult from the
due proportion of its foveral principles, and the regular
adjuftment of all its fentiments, according to their genuine
value, fo that none of them may engrofs our minds, and
render us infenfible to the reft. This due proportion of the
principles of tafte pre-fuppofes the correftnefs of each, and
includes, befides, an enlargement and comprehenfion of
mind. Dr. Gerard has alfo confidered, how far tafte de-
pends on the imagination, evincod the conneftion of tafte
with genius, and the influence of tafte on criticifm, illuf-
trated the objefts and the pleafures of tafte, and traced the
effe<Ss of tafte on the charafter and paffions.

" Ingenuas didicifle fideliter artes,
EmoUit mores, nee finit effe feros."

Nothing is fo improving, fays Hume on the fubjeft of
delicacy of tafte, to the temper, as the ftudy of the beauties
<?ither of poetry, eloquence, mufic, or painting. They give
a certain elegance of fentiment to which the reft of mankind
are utter ftrangers. The emotions which they ejJcite are
toft and teiader. They draw off the mind from the hurry of
hufinefs and intereft ; cherifh refleftion ; difpofe to tran-
quillity ; and produce an agreeable melancholy, which, of all
difpofitions of the mind, is the beil fuited to love and friend-
ship. Befides, a delicacy of tafte is favourable to love and
friendfhip, by confining our choice to few people, and
■Tiaking us indifferent to the company and converfation of
the greater part of mankind.

Tafte, fays Gerard, may be conceived as employing
■jttelf about nature, art, and fcience. With regard to nature,
which is the common fubjeft of the other two, tafte and
reafon are employed in conjunftion : as reafon inveftigates
the laws of nature, tafte alone difcovers its beauties. In
art, tafte is the ultimate judge, and reafon but its rainifter.
Scarcely any art is fo mean, or fo entirely mechanical, as not
:o afford fubjefts of tafte. But the finer arts, which imitate
the excellencies of nature, fupply it with more proper mate-
rials ; and thence derive their merit. Mufic, painting,
(latuary, architefture, poetry, and eloquence, (to which
may be added gardening, including the art of improving
jrrounds, and the ftage,) conftitute its peculiar and domeftic
territory, in which its authority is abfolutely fupreme.
In fcience, reafon is fupreme, but may fometimes reap
advantage from ufing tafte as an auxiliary which ferves
to judge, not only of the manner in which fcience is
■ •ommunicated, but alfo of the fubjeft-matter itfelf.

To this effay of Dr. Gerard are annexed three difTerta-
;ions on the fame fubjeft ; one by Voltaire ; another by
M. D'Alembert, read before the French academy in
1757, and intended to (hew the great advantages of philo-
fophy in its application to matters of tafte, and to juftify
it from the accufations that have been brought againft
it by ignorance and envy ; and the third is a fragment of
Montefquieu.

We obferve, that the arts above enumerated, are diftin-
guifhed from thofe that are merely mechanical, as well as
from the fpeculative fciences, by this circumftance ; that
their main end is neither utility, in the common fenfe of the
woi J, nor inftruftion ; but to minifter to the pleafures of the
imagination, by means of words, or of fenfible images, or of

both of thefc combined. But their moft eminent charac-
tfriftic, perhaps, which runs through all of them, is, that
many of their principles, though in one fi nfe founded upon
nature, fince their only objetl is to delight the imagination
of men, are not derivd fi Jm ori'i.iary nature ; but require
a good deal of attention, and the formation of habits, before
they can be rehftied or undenlood. When we fay, that thefe
eight arts are the proper objefts of tafte, we do not intimate
that their principles are altogether in common ; or that he
who is thoroughly acquainted, t: g. with the theory of
painting, will be neceffarily a good judge of poetry or
architefture ; fince all of tliem have many rules originally
arbitrary, the accurate knowledge of which has bi-come in-
difpenfible to the man of talle ; and which, in many cafes,
fuggeil pleafures to the imagination, not inferior to thofe
which appear more direftly natural. Neverthclefs, a man
who has applied the accuracy of difcrimination, delicacy of
feeling, and habitual reference to an original ftandard, in
which the exercife of tafte confifts, to any one of thofe arts,
can hardly fail, by fuflicient attention and experience, to
become a judge of all the reft. This obfervation, however,
is liable to lome exceptions, particularly in reference to
mufic, which no one whofe car is naturally imperfeA, will
ever be able to underftand. After all it muft be allowed by
thofe who maintain the neceffity of admitting principles and
a ftandard of tafte, that a prodigious difference will be found
to remain in the fentiments of mankind, with regard to
matters of tafte; and this diverfity of fentiment in judging
concerning the produftions of art, may be afcribcd to three
caules ; viz. want of feeling, or inability to enjoy, in any
great degree, the pleafures of the imagination, as in the in-
ftance to which we have above alluded ; want of knowledge,
becaufe, as the principles of the fine arts are founded partly
on general nature, and partly on arbitrary rules, no juft
judgment can be formed of their general nature without
much attention and experience ; and the arbitrary rules per-
taining to all the arts are numerous and complicated, and
eafily confounded by unil^ilful judges ; and further, haflinefs
or precipitance of decifion, by which men are often mided.
Having already remarked, that .the laws of tafte are partly
natural, and pai-tly arbitrary, we here fuggeft, that under
the former fall, in poetry and eloquence, whatever fuggefts
affociations generally delightful and interefting, or awakens
fympathies, which the conftitution of mankind leads thenj
to feel ; in painting, truth of imitation, and forciblenefs of
expreffion ; in mufic, gratification of the ear and power over
the afteftions. Under the latter may be reckoned, what
is called, ftyle in writing, and the obfervance of thofe rules
with which critics are converfant, in the other arts.
Befides, independently of principles of approbation and dif-
approbation which exift in the objefts of tafte, all men are
more or lefs influenced by circumftances pccuhar to them-
felves ; and to this clals belongs a variety of accidental
affociations.

A late excellent writer has defined tafte to be the power of
receiving pleafure from the beauties of nature and of art.
Though tafte, fays tliis writer, be ultimately founded on a
certain natural and inftinftive fenfibility to beauty, yet reafon
affirts tafte in many of its operations, and ferves to enlarge its
power. In this fenfe, it is a faculty common in fome degree
to all men. Quindlilian, however, { Inftit. lib. \-i, c. 3. ) feems
to include tafte under what he calls judicium. The cha-
raAers of tafte, when brought to its moft perfeft ftate, are
all reducible to two, delicacy, which principally rcfpeds the
pcrfeftion of that natural fenfibility on which tafte is
founded ; and correftnefs, which chiefly refpefts the im-
provement that faculty receives through its connetlion with

the

TASTE.

tlie unJoidanding : the former of tliefe qualities is more the
gift of nature ; tlie latter more the produft of culture and art.
Among the ancient critics, Longinus poficficd mod deh-
cacy ; Arillotle moft corrcftnefs. Among the moderns,
Mr. Addifon is a higli example of delicate talk ; and dean
Swift, if he had written on the fubjedl of criticifm, would
perhaps have afforded the example of a corrcft one. In
determining the ftandard of taflc, thofe wiio fay that nature
is tliis llandard, lay down a principle very true ar.d juft, as
far ai it can he apphed : neverlhelefs, conformity to nature
is an exprefiion very often ufed, without any dillinft or
determinate meaning : in a more clear and precife fenfe,
nothing can be conlidered as the ftandard of tafte, but the
talle, as far as it can be known, of human nature. That
which men concur the mod in admiriiig, mud be held to be
beautiful. His tafte muft be efteemed juft and true, which
coincides with the general fentimcntsof men. In this ftand-
ard we muft reft. To the fenfe of mankind the ultimate ap-
peal muft ever lie, in all works of tafte. But this fenfe is
founded on thofe principles of reafon and found judgment,
which arc applicable to matters of tafte : and yet the ulti-
mate conclufions to which our reafonings lead, refer at laft
to fenfe and perception. Accordingly it is obferved, that
the difference between the authors who found the ftandard
of tafte upon the common feehngs of human nature, afcer-
taincd bv general approbation, and thofe who found it upon
eftabhftied principles, which can be afcertained by reafon, is
more an apparent than a real difference. For they who lay
tiie greateft ftrefs on fentiment and feeUng, mak» no fcruple
of applying argument and reafon to matters of tafte ; they
appeal to cftabliftied principles, and plainly ftiew that the
general approbation to which they ultimately recur, is an
approbation refulting from difcuffion as well as from fenti-
ment. And they, on the other hand, who, in order to vin-
dicate tafte from any fufpicion of being arbitrary, maintain
that it is afcertainable by the ftandard of reafon, admit,
neverthelcfs, that what pleafes univerfally, muft on that ac-
count be held to be truly beautiful : and that no rules or
conclufions concerning objedls of tafte, can have any juft
authority, if they be found to contradift the general fenti-
ments of men.

However, it is not pretended, that there is any ftandard of
tafte, to which, in every particular inftance, we can refort
for clear and immediate determination. But it is fufficient
to conclude, that tafte is far from being an arbitrary prin-
ciple, which is fubjeft to the fancy of every individual, and
which admits of no criterion for determining whether it be
falfe or true. Its foundation is the fame in all human minds.
It is built upon fentiments and perceptions, which belong to
our nature ; and which, in general, operate with the fame
uniformity as our other intelleftual principles. When they
are perverted by ignorance or prejudice, they are capable of
being rectified by reafon. Their found and natural ftate is
ultimately determined by comparing them with the general
tafte of mankind.

The ingenious writer to whom we are indebted for the
preceding obfervations, has diftinguiftied between tafte and
genius. See Genius.

Mr. Alifon has treated the fubjeft of this article with fo
much ingenuity and elegance, in his " Effay on the Nature
and Principles of Tafte," that it would be ahnoft fufficient,
without further enlargement, to refer to his exeellent per-
formance.

According to this much approved writer, the perception of
the qualities that are denominated beautiful and Jubl'me in the
works of nature and art, is attended with an emotion of
^leafure, very diftinguiftiable from every other pleafurc of

our nature, and to which is appropriated tlie name of the
" emotion of t.ifte." Accordingly, the diftinftion of the
objefts of tafte into x\\c fullime and beautiful, has produced a
limilar divifion of this emotion into the " emotion of fub-
limity" and the " emotion of beauty." The qualities that
produce thefe emotions occur amid every variety of extertml
fancry, and among many diverfities of difpofition and affec-
tion in the mind of man. The moft pleafmg arts of human
invention are altogether direfted to their pnrfuit, and even
the neceffary arts are exalted into dignity by the genius that
can unite beauty with ufe.

Our author, in his profecution of this fubjeft, firft invefti-
gates the nature of thofe qualities that produce the emotions
of tafte, and then the nature of the faculty by which thefe
emotions are received. He obferves, that the theories which
have been formed in relation to this fubjeft have uniformly-
taken for granted thejimp/icity of this emotion, and have re-
ferred it to fonie one principle or law of the human mind ;
and have therefore concluded, that the difcovery of that one
principle was the effential key by which all the pleafures of
tafte were to be refolved. Thefe theories are arranged,
in confequence of the alTumption of this fundamental prin-
ciple, into two clafTes of fuppofition : one, which reduces the
" emotion of tafte" dlre&ly into an original law of our
nature, which fuppofet a fcnie, or fenfes, by which the qua-
hties of beauty and fublimity are perceived and felt, as their
appropriate objefts ; and hence concludes, that the genuine
objeft of the arts of tafte is to difcover and to imitate thofe
qualities in every fubjeft, which the prefcription of nature has
thus made elTentially either beautiful or fublime. To this
firft clafs of hypothefes belong almoft all the theories of
mufic, architefture, and fculpture, the theory of Mr.
Hogarth, of the abbe Winkelman, and, perhaps, in its
laft refort, alfo the theory of fir Joftiua Reynolds ; and
of all thofe who attend more to the caufcs of thefe emo-
tions, than to tiieir nature. The fecond clafs of hypothefes
refifts the idea of any new or peculiar fenfe, diftindl from
the common principles of our nature ; which fuppofes fome
one known and acknowledged principle or affedion of mind
to be the foundation of all the emotions we receive from
the objeAs of tafte ; and, therefore, refolves all the va-
rious phenomena into fome more general law of our intel-
leftual or moral conftitution. Of this kind are the hvpo-
thefes of M. Diderot, who attributes all our emotions of
this kind to the perception of relation ; of Mr. Hume, who
refolves them into our fenfe of utility ; of the venerable St.
Auftin, who, with nobler views, one thoufand years ago,
refolved them into the pleafure which belongs to the per-
ception of order and defign, &c. This hypothefis has been,
adopted by rational and philofophic minds : by thofe who
have been led by their habits to attend more to the nature of
the emotions they felt than to the caufes which produced
them. Mr. Alifon, purfuing an analyfis of the effeft which
is produced upon the mind, when the emotions of beauty or
fubhmity are felt, concludes that it is very different from the
determination of a " fenfe ;" that it is not a fimple but a
complex emotion ; that it involves, in all cafes, the produc-
tion of fome fimple emotion, or the exercife of fome moral
affeftion, and the confequent excitement of a peculiar
exercife of the imagination ; that thefe concomitant effefts
are diftinguiftiable, and very often diftinguiilied in our expe-
rience ; and that tlie peculiar pleafure of the beautiful ar.d
fublime is only felt when thefe two effcfts are conjoined, and
the complex emotion produced.

Our author having inveftigated the caufes which produce
this effeft, or, in other words, "the fqurccs of the beautiful and
fublime in nature and art, and having ftiewn that there is

no

TASTE.

no fiTigk emotion into which thcfe varied cffeds can be re-
folved ; hut, on the contrary, that every finiple emotion, and
therefore every object capable of producing any fimple
emotion, may be tlie foundation of the complex emotion of
beauty or fublimity ; and that this complex emotion is never
produced, unlefs, befides the excitement of fome fmiple
emotion, the imagination alfo is excited, and the exercife of
tlic two faculties combined in the general cfFeA ; — proceeds
to fliew what is that " law of mind," according to which,
ill actual life, this exercife of imagination is excited, and what
are the means by which, in the different fine arts, the aftift
is able to awaken this important exercife of imagination, and
to exalt objefts of fimple and common pleafure into objcdls
of beauty and fimphcity. In the laft place, he invelligates
the nature of that faculty by which the emotions defcribed
by him are perceived and felt. This he (liews has no re-
iemblance to a fenfe ; wherever it is employed, two diftinft
and independent powers of mind are engaged, fo that it is not
to be confidcred as a feparate and pecuhar faculty, but to
be finally refolved into fome general principles of our confti-
tution. Thefe fpeculations further K'ad to the important
enquiry, whether there is any llandard by whicii our fenti-
ments on thefe fubjefts may be determined ; to an explan-
ation of the means by which tafle may be corrected or im-
proved ; and to an illuftration of the purpofes which this
peculiar conftitution of our nature ferves ; in the increafe of
human happinefs, and the exaltation of human charafter.
Our limits will not allow any further abllraft or abridg-
ment of this valuable work ; and we muft refer thofe
readers who with to purfue difquifitions of this kind to the
work itfelf, in 2 vols. edit. 4, 18 15.

' We cannot forbear citing fome pertinent remarks, that
are prefented to our notice by a living writer of dillin-
guifhed celebrity, profeffor Dugald Stewart. Taile, fays
this author, is not a fimple and original faculty, but a power
gradually formed by experience and obfervation. It implies,
as its ground-work, a certain degree of natural fenfibility ;
but it implies alfo the exercife of the judgment, and is the
flow refult of an attentive examination and comparifon of
the agreeable and difagreeable effeAs produced on the mind
by external objefts. In tracing the progrefs of talle from
rudenefs to refinement, we find an analogy to the progrefs
of phyfical knowledge from the fuperftitions of a favage tribe
to the inveftigation of the laws of nature, founded on the
fuppofition, that, as in the material world there are general
fadts beyond which philofophy is unable to proceed, fo, in
the conftitution of man, there is an inexphcable adaptation
of the mind to the objefts with vvliich his faculties are con-
verfant, in confequence of which, thefe objetts are fitted to
produce agreeable or difagreeable emotions. In both cafes,
reafoning may be employed with propriety to refer parti-
cular phenomena to general principles ; but in both cafes,
we mull at laft arrive at principles of which no account
can be given, but that fuch is the will of our Maker. In
matters of tafle it fhould be confidered, that the tendency to
cafual alfociation is much flronger than it commonly is,
with refpeiEl to phyfical events ; and when fuch alfociations
are formed, they are not fo hkely to be corrected by mere ex-
perience, unaffifted by ftudy. Hence fome have errore-
oufly fuppofed, that affociation is fufficient to account for
the origin of the notions we form concerning matte^-s of
tafle ; and that there is no fuch thing as a flandard of talle
founded on the principles of the human conftitution. V/hen-
ever, fays our author, affociation produces a change in our
judgments on matters of tafte, it does fo by co-operating
with fome natural principle of the mind, and implies the
exifience of certain original fcnirces of pleafure and uoeafi-
VoL. XXXV.

nefs. The circumllances which pleafc, in the objefts of
tafte, are of two kinds: ill. Thofe which are fitted to
pleafe by nature, or by aflbciations, which all mankind are
led to form by their common condition ; and, zdly. Thofe
whicii pleafe in confequence of alfociations arifing from
local and accidental circumllances. Hence we derive two
kinds of talle ; the one enabling us to judge of thofe beau-
ties which have a foundation in the human conftitution ; the
other, of fucii objedls as owe their princi])al recommend-
ation to the influence of faftiion. Thefe two kinds of tafte
are not always, indeed rarely, united in the fame perfon.
The perfeftion of the one depends upon the degree in which
we are able to free the mind from the influence of cafual
affociations : that of the other, on the contrary, depends on
a facility of affociation, which enables us to fall in, at once,
with all the turns of the fafliion, and (as Shakfpeare cx-
piefles it) " to catch the tune of the times." For the
author's application of his principles and remarks to the
fubjeft of language, which affords numberlefs i.iilances to
exemplify the influence which the affociation of ideas has on
our judgments in matters of tafte, we muft refer to his own
valuable work. See Dr. Blair's Leftures on Rhetoric, and
Belles Lcttrcs, vol. i.left. ii. and iii. See alfo Hume's Effay
of the ftandard of tafte, in his Effays, &c. vol. i. eff. xxiii.
p. 253, edit. 1764. Stewart's Elements of the Pliilofophy
of the Human Mind, partii. ch. v. ^ 2. Knight's Analyt.
Enq. into the Principles of Tafte, 8vo. 1805. Alifon on
Tafte, 2 vols. 8vo. 1815. Edin. Rev. N° XIV.

Taste, in Mufic, is often confounded with graces, or
change of paffages ; but a movement compofed in good
tafte, is often injured by what are called graces. We rather
fuppofe tafte to depend on feeling and exprelTion, than in
flourifhes, or, as the Italians call them, riffioramenli ; in for-
row, pathos ; in joy, briUiancy and fire. Yet when cliangcs
and embellifhments are neceffaiy, good tafte is likcwife re-
quifite in their choice and apphcation. The compofer dif-
covers his tafte by his melodies, as much as the performer
by expreffing his thoughts.

Tafle, fays Rouffeau, is of all Nature's gifts the moft
eafily felt, and the moft difficult to explain ; it would not
be what it is, if it could be defined : for it judges of ob-
jedls beyond the reach of judgment, and ferves, in a man-
ner, as a magnifying glafs to reafoii.

There are fome melodies more agreeable than others,
though equally well phrafcd and modulated ; there are com-
binations in harmony of great effedl, and others that excite
no attention, all equally regular as to compofition ; there is
ill the texture of the parts, an cxquifite art of arranging
and fetting off one paffage by another, whicii depends on
fomething more fubtle than the laws of contraft.

Genius creates, but tafte felefts. Genius is often lavifli
and redundant, and in want of a fevere critic to prevent liim
from the abufe of his riches. Many great things may be
achieved without tafte ; but it is tafte that renders them in-
terefting. It is tafte which enables a vocal compofer to
feize and cxprefs the ideas of the poet ; it is tafte which
guides the performer to the true exprcffion of the compofcr's
ideas ; it is tafte vvliich fnniiflies both with whatever can em-
bellifh and enrich the fubjeiSt ; aiid it is tafte which enables
the hearer to feel all thefe perfcilions. Tafte is, however,
not mere- fenfibility. A cold heart may have much tafte ;
and a man tranfported with things truly fpirited and im-
paffioned, i? little touched by grace and elegance. It fccms
as if tafte attached itfelf to minute refinements, and fenfi-
bility to grand and fublime effafta.

Taste injinging and playing ; Gout du Chaiil, Fr. Ac-
cording to Rouffeau, tnere was, in his lime, in France, a

T perfon

T A S

perfon diltind from tlif mufic -mailer, to tf-acli the ncceffary
agremens or graces thought necciTary to cover, in feme de-

free, the infipidity of French melotly. Moft of the young
udents in n\ulic ufed therefore to liavc two mafters, one
for miilic and one for tafle, called Matlie ile Gout-de-chanl.

Goul-^ie-ihanl likewife confifted m imitating or lak'm^-off
the voice and manner of a particular linger ; which is al-
ways done by exaggeration. The face of a man with a
mole or wart upon it, is of great ufe to a portrait painter
in fixing a iikenefs : fo a finger, with a little tendency to
nafality, to coarfenefs, to linging through the throat, or of
quivering upon one note in attempting to (hake, which the
Italians have well denominated tojfe di capra, a goat's cough,
are eafilv taken off.

TASTINA, in Ancicnt Geography, a town of Afia, in
the Greater Armenia, between Surta and Cozala. Ptol.

TASTING, the fenfc by which we diftinguidi favours ;
or the percepLion which the ioul has of external objefts, by
means of the organs of tafte.

Authors differ much as to the organ of tailing. Bauhin,
Bartholin, Veftingius, &c. place it in the laxer flefiiy parts
of the tongue ; Dr. Wharton, in the glands at the root of
the tongue ; Laurentius, in the thin tunic covering the
tongue ; others in the palate, &c. But the great Malpighi,
and after him all the lateft writers, place it in the papilla;
chiefly lying about the tip and fides of the tongue. See
Tongue.

Thefe papilla; arife from the corpus nervofum, which
covers the mufcular flefh of the tongue ; wlience, palling
through the corpus reticulare, they ftand up under the ex-
ternal membrane of the tongue, ereft, and covered with
vaginje, or flieaths of the faid membrane, to defend them
from objefts too violent. Thefe vaginje are porous, and
ftick out fo far, that when the aliment is fqueezed, they
enter with the fame to receive the objeft, or the matter of
tafte.

Thefe papillae Boerhaave conjeftures to arife from the
ninth pair of nerves ; and thefe, he afferts, are the only
organ of tafte : the others, whether of the tongue, palate,
or jaws, &c. he obferves, contribute nothing to them ;
though probably thofe of the cheeks next the dentes mo-
larej may.

The objeS of tafting, is any thing, either in animals,
•vegetables, or minerals, from which fait or oils may be
extrafted.

Tafting, then, is performed by the objefts being attenu-
ated and mixed with faliva, warmed in the mouth, and ap-
phed to the tongue ; where, infinuating into the pores of
the membranous vaginae of the nervous papillae, and pene-
trating to the furface of the papilla; thcmfelves, it affefts
and moves them : by which means a motion is communi-
cated along the capiilaments of the nerve to the common
fenfory, and an idea excited in the mind, of fait, acid,
fwcet, bitter, hot, aromatic, auftere, or the like ; accord-
ing to the figure of the particles that ftrike the papillae, or
the difpofition of the papillae to receive the impulfe.

The tafte, confidered in a medical view, may be dimi-
nifhed by crufts, filth, mucus, aphtlias, pelUcles, warts, &c.
covering the tongue : it may be depraved by a fault of the
faliva, which, being difcharged into the mouth, gives the
fame fenfation as if the food which the perfon takes had
really a bad tafte ; or it may be entirely deftroyed by in-
juries done to the nerves of the tongue and palate. Few
things prove more hurtful, either to the fenfe of tafting or
fmeffing, than obftinate colds, cfpecially thofe which affeft
the head. When the tafte is diminiftied by filth, mucus,
fcc. the tongue ought to be fcraped, and frequently walhed

T A T

with a mixture of water, vinegar, and honey, or fome
otiier detergent. When the faliva is vitiated, which feldom
happens, unlefs in fevers or other difeafes, the curing of the
diforder is the cure of this fymptom. To relieve it, how-
ever, in the mean time, the following things may be of ufe :
if there be a bitter tafte, it may be taken away by vomits,
purges, and other things, which evacuate bile : what is
called a nidorous tafte, arifing from putrid humours, is cor-
rected by the juice of citrons, oranges, and other acids :
a fait tafte is cured by plentiful dilution with watery liquors :
an acid tafte is deftroyed by abforbents, and alkahne falts,
as powder of oyfter-fliells, lalt of wormwood, &c. When
the fenfibility of the nerves, which fupply the organs of
tafte, is diminifhed, the chewing of horfe-radilh, or other
ftimulating fubftances, will help to recover it.

TASTNESS, in Geography, a cape on the N. of the ifland
of Sanday. N. lat. 59° 10'. W.long. 2° 20'.

TASTO, in Italian Miific, the touch or part of any inftru-
ment, whereon, or by means of which its notes are made to
found, be it on the neck, as lutes, viols, &c. which are
called fixed and immoveable ; or the front of organs, fpinets,
or harpfichords, where the keys are difpofed to raife the jacks,
called moveable touches ; and is properly no more than the
finger-board of each.

Tasto Solo. Thefe two Italian words, written over or
under a bafe to folos that are figured, generally at a paufe,
or preceding a clofe, imply that the accompanier on a keyed-
inftrument ought to play no chords with the right hand ;
but only to ftrike the bale note with the left hand, which is
implied by the word tajio folo, a fingle key ; or at moft to
double that found with the right hand in the oftave : as it
is hardly poffible to divine or figure the harmony of an ad
libitum or cadence, either written or played extempore, which
the compofer or the performer is allowed to write or play on
thefe occafions. Solos are now no longer in faftiion ; but
the violin folos of the early part of the laft century, by
Corelli, Geminiani, Somis, and Tartini, have all clofes of
this kind, to which the bafe is confined to a fingle note, or
tajlo folo.

TATA, or Dotis, in Geography, a town of Hungary,
built in the midft of water and fwamps, with a caftle ; 20
miles W. of Gran.

Tata Touba, in Botany, a name ufed by fome for the tree
which yields what the dyers call the fuftic, or yellow wood
ufed in dyeing.

TATACUL, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Myfore ; 1 1 miles N. of Vencatighery.

TATALISGA, a town of Africa, in Galam, on the
Senegal ; 60 miles W. of Galam.

TATAPARY, a town of Hindooftan, in the province of
Tinevelly ; 15 miles N.E. of Palamcotta.

TATAPATNAM, a town of Hindooftan, in Bara-
maul ; 22 miles S.S.E. of Darempoury.

TATAR BAssAKDDSCiHi,a town of European Turkey,
in Romania, on the Mariza ; 16 miles N.N.W. of Filip-
popoli.

Tatar Bunar, a town of European Turkey, in Befla-
rabia ; 32 miles S.W. of Akerman.

TATARSKOI, a fort of Ruffia, in the government of
Kolivan, on the E. fide of the Irtifch. N. lat. 53° 44'.
E. long. 85° 34'.

TATENAGUR, a town of Hindooftan, inthe Car-
natic ; 6 miles S.W. of Devicotta.

TATENA Y, die chief town of the ifland Gilolo ; which
fee.

TATH, in Old Laws, a privilege which fome lords of

manors enjoyed, of having their tenants' (heep folded at

9 night

TAT

TAT

night on their demefne lands, for the improvement of the
ground.

Tath, in jigriculture, a term applied by llock-farmers,
in feme fituations, to all fuch grafles as are particularly rank
and luxuriant, and which have a tendency to induce the rot
in fheep.

They commonly diftinguifli two kinds of it ; namely, the
•water-tath, which arifes and proceeds from an cxcefs of
raoifture ; and the nolt-tath, which is the produce of dung.
The latter, it is faid, is darker coloured than the former ; but
that their foftnefs, luxuriancy, and tendency to produce the
rot in the animals, are nearly the fame. The water-tath is
noticed to be the produce of either lands naturally too moid,
of wet feafons, of accidental or artificial floodings of them,
or of fome other fuch caufes. Nothing is fo apt, it is fup-
pofed, to produce the rot in thefe animals, as the grafs which
grows in low marfliy grounds, in what is called aicald lands,
and that around the heads of fprings, efpecially on the north
fide of hills, infomuch fo, indeed, that fuch paftures were
formerly confidered as naturally rotten, and of courfe re-
jefted by all intelhgent (heep-farmers.

In fhort, wherever a very foft and tender tath fuddenly
rufhes up in Iheep-pafture lands, there is always much danger
of its effefts ; and as dung greatly promotes the growth of
very rank tath, the pernicious confequences of uich nolt-
tath are to be remedied, by not allowing horfes or neat cattle
to pafture among the (heep.

TATHAA, in Geography, a river of Africa, which runs
into the Indian fea, S. lat. 28° 20'.

TATHILBA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India,
on this fide of the Ganges, which belonged to the Bidam^i.
Ptolemy.

TATIAMBETTY, in Geography, a town of Hindoo-
ftan, in Myfore ; 5 miles N. of Wombinellore.

TATIAN, in Biography, a native of Aflyria, from which
circumftance he is fometimes called " the Aflyrian," and an
ecclefiaftical writer, who, according to Cave, flourifhed about
the year 172. He was originally a heathen, and by pro-
feffion a fophift, and teacher of rhetoric. His reading ap-
pears to have been extenfive, and he is allowed to have been
well acquainted with Grecian literature and philofophy.
After his converfion to Chriftianity, he became a difciple of
Juftin Martyr, to whom he was attached, and of whom he
fpeaks with great refpe£l. He accompanied this father to
Rome, and travelled through different countries with a view
to his improvement. But fome time after Juftin's death,
which happened about the year 1 65, he adopted a number of
abfurd opinions. Accordingly he is charged, and probably
not without reafon, with being the founder of the feft of the
Encratites ; he condemned the ufe of wine, and denied the law-
fulnefs of marriage, the reality of Chrift's fufferings, and the
falvation of Adam. He alfo embraced the jEons of Valen-
tinus, and afferted with Marcion, that there are two gods.
Eufebius dates his herefy about the twelfth year of the em-
peror Marcus Antoninus, or the year 172. But however
erroneous were his principles in the latter part of his life, his
works afford us fatisfaftoy evidence of the antiquity and high
efteem of the gofpels in his time. After propagating his doc-
trines for fome time at Rome, he opened a fchool in Mefopo-
tamia, about the year 172 : and he is faid to have preached
at Antioch, and in fome other places. The place and time
of his death are not known. He appears to have written a
conliderable niunber of books, one of which, ftiU extant in
Greek, and entitled " Oratio ad Grscos," or Oration againft
the Gentiles, was either an apology for Chriftianity, or an
attack on Heathenifm. Tliis was firfl printed at Zurich in
J 546, with the Latin verfion of Conrad Gefner, It is an-

nexed to the edition of Juftin Martyr's worki, and thofe
of other 'fathers : but the beft edition is tiiat of Worth,
Greek and Latin, Oxon. 1700, 8vo. His defign in this
work, which difplays great learning, was to prove that the
Greeks were not the inventors of any of the fciences, but
that they were indebted for their acquaintance with them to
tliofe whom nevertheleis they denominated Barbarians. Thit
work, according to Brucker, every where breathes the fpirit
of the Oriental philofophy, the leading tenets of which he
details ; and he feems to have adopted feveral of the opinions
of Plato, and of the Alexandrian Platonifts, concerning the
creation of the world by tlic Logos, and its animation by a
fubordinate fpirit ; concerning the exiftence of demons in
material vehicles, who occupy the aerial regions, and that of
a;ons, who refide above the liars. He alfo held with Plato
the imperfeflion of matter as the caufe of evil, and thence he
inferred the meritorioufnefs of rifing above corporeal appe-
tites and palTions. Another work of Tatian, cited by
St. Clement, was entitled " Pcrfeftion according to the Sa-
viour," in which he argued againft marriage. Eufebius cites
another work compofed by Tatian, which was a " Book of
difficult qucilions, for the explication of feveral obfcure
places of Scripture." We have alfo in Latin a work
afcribed to Tatian, called " Harmony" or " Dia-Teffaron"
of the Four. But fome approved writers have doubted whe-
ther we have one copy of Tatian's Harmony now extant.
Dr. Lardner hasinveftigated this fubjeft with his ufual judg»
ment and impartiahty : and he inclines to the opinion, that
we are in pofTefTion of this work : and he thinks that the
commentaries written upon it by Ephrem, the Syrian, afford
reafon for concluding that it was not fo contemptible or fo
heretical as fome have thought. This Harmony is (horter
than that attributed to Ammonius, and contains a compen-
dious hiftory of our Lord and Saviour Jefus Clirift, taken
out of the four Gofpels. It confifts of four parts ; the firft
is a kind of introduftion, containing the hiftory of our Lord's
nativity, and tlie former part of his hfe ; the other three parts
are the three years of our Lord's miniftry. Brucker by
Enfield. Lardner's Works, vol. ii.

TATIANITES, Tatianit^e, in Ecchfwjllcal Hiftory, a
feft of ancient heretics ; thus called from Tatian, a difciple
of Juftin Martyr.

This Tatian, who has the charafter of one of the mofl
learned men of all antiquity, was pcrfeftly orthodox during
the hfe of his mailer. He was, hkc him, a Samaritan, by
nation, not by religion, as Epiphanius feems to infinuate.
They both belonged to the Greek colonies which were
fpread throughout the country of the Samaritans.

Juftin being dead, Tatian is faid by fome to have inchned
to many of the errors of the Valentinians ; but Mofheim fays,
that his doftrine approached nearer to that of the oriental
philofophy concerning the two principles. He adds, that
it appears from the teilimony of credible writers, that Tatian
looked upon matter as tlie foundation of all evil, and there-
fore recommended, in a particular manner, the mortification
of the body ; that lie diftinguiflicd the creator of the world
from the Supreme Being : denied the reality of Chrift's body ;
and corrupted the Clirillian religion witli feveral other tenets
of the oriental pliilofopliy. ( See the preceding article. ) He
had a great numbL-r of followers, who were, after him, called
TatianiJL ; but were neverthclefs more frequeitly diftinguifhed
from other fefts, by names relative to the auft;Tity of their
manners. For as they rejeftcd, with a fort of horror, all the
comforts and convenieiicies of life, and abftaincd from wine with
fuch a rigorous obttinacy, as to ufe nothing but water, even
at the celebration of the Lord's flipper ; as they macerated
their bodies by continual fafting, and lived a feverc life of
T 2 celibacy

T A T

TAT

celibacy and ablkiiicnce ; fo tliey were called Encratitas, or
temperate ; Hydroparallata-, or drinkers of water ; and
ApotaftitEe, or rcnounccrs. MoOi. Eccl. Hift. vol. i.

TATIANSKAIA, in G.ography, a fort of Ruffia, in
the government of Saratov, on tlie Volga ; 1 2 miles S.E. of

Tzaritzin. •, xt t'

TATIEN, a town of Chinefe Tartai-y ; 55 miles N.L.

of Tam-fan. r a r •

TATILLUM, in yinment Gcogrnphy, a town ot Atrica,
in Mauritania Cxfarienfis, on the route from Cartilage to
Cifarea, between Aix and Aufa. Anton. Itin.

TATISCHEVA, in Geography, a fortrefs of Ruffia, m
tlie government of Uplia, on the Ural ; 28 miles W. of
Orenburg.

TATISM KoH, a mountain of Perfia, in the province
of Irak ; 12 miles N. of Com.

TATIUS, Achilles, in Biography, a Greek writer of
Alexai-.dria, is fuppofed to havi: lived in the latter part of
the third centur)-. He is known to us as the autlior of a
work on the Sphere, of which there remains a fragment,
being an introduftion to a commentary on the Phenomena
of Aratus. A copy of this from a MS. in the Florentine
libraiy, by Peter Viclorius, was printed. It was afterwards
tranflated'into Latin by Petau, under the title of " Ifagoga
in Phsenomena Arati." We learn from Suidas, that Tatius
alfo wrote " Erotics," in which he includes " the Loves of
Leucippe and Clitophon." This work is preferved, and
affords one of the examples of Greek romance. The Latin
verfionof it was made by Annibal Cruceius, and pubhihed at
Bafil in 1554. The laleR edition of this piece is that of
Bodem, Greek and Latin, Lipf. 1776, 8vo. It is ele-
gantly written, but of a licentious caft ; and hence it has
been inferred that the author was a heathen, when he com-
pofed it ; but Suidas affirms, that he afterwards became a
Chriftian, and attained to epifcopacy.

TATNALL, in Geography, a county of the ftate of
Georgia.

TATOBIT, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Bolef-
lau ; 5 miles E. of Turnau.

TA-TOU-CHE, a town on the W. coail of the ifland
of Formofa. N. lat. 24= 8'. E. long. 119^ 58'.

TA-TSIN, a river of China, which runs into the fea, N.
lat. 37° 46'. E. long. 118° 19'.

TATTA, fuppofed to be at or near the ancient Pattr.la,
a town of Afia, which, before the building of Hydrabad, was
confidered as the chief city of Scind, was founded, according
to the tradition of the natives, in the 906th year of the Hegira,
and ftands on a rifing ground, four miles W. of the Indus.
It has ftill a population of 1 8,000 fouls, and is about four
miles and a half in circumference. Its wall, conftrufted for
its defence, is now in ruins. Tha houfes of the higher rank
are built of bricks, but thofe of the lower clafs of wood,
plaftered with mud. The remains of the mofques, and
other handfome edifices of this city, are evidences of its
former profperity ; and although on the decline, it enjoys a
confiderable trade. Its trade is much diminifhed, on account
of the bad government of Scind or Sindy, and the hoftile or
rapacious difpofition of the Seiks, the prefent poflefTors of the
countries of Moultan and Lahore. The country in the vicinity
is a fine rich foil, being watered by canals drawn from the
river. Agriculture, however, is much iieglefted, and the
inhabitants of Tatta indicate extreme poverty and wretched-
nefs. To the north of the city is a range of hills, extending
fcveral miles in a northerly direciion ; and to the fouth is alfo
a range of Table land, reaching almofl to the banks of the
Indus. Boats trading to Tatta come no farther than Be-
gemab, a village at the diftance of about five miles. The

tour r.i-
-' E.

river at this place is about a mile in breadth, and
tlioms in depth in the deepeil parts. N. lat. 24° 44'.
long. 68° 1 7', as ftated in Kinneir's account of Perfia ;
but according to major Rennell, N. lat. 24° 50'. E. long.
67° 37'.

TATTAH, a town of Africa, on the frontiers of Drah
and Morocco, in the route from Morocco and Sufe to Tona-
buftoo ; J 70 miles S. S.E. from Morocco. N. lat. 28° 25'-
W. long. 6^ 15'. Tattah and its territory contain 10,000
inhabitants. Jackfon's Morocco.

TATTAHAR, a town of Bengal; 13 miles N. of
Toree.

TATTAMUNGALUM, a town of Hindooftan, in Ca-
licut ; 5 miles S. of Palicaudery.
TATTA R. See Yool.

TATTA RAN, a fmall ifland in the Sooloo Archipelago.
N. lat. e'' 10'. E. long. 121° 58'.

TATTERSHALL, a fmall market -town in the wapen-
take of Gartree, Liadfey divifion of the county of Lincoln,
England, is fituated on the river Bain, near its junftion with
the Witham, 9 miles S.S.W. from Horncaftle, and 130
miles N. from London. The manor was granted by Willian>
the Conqueror to Eudo, one of his Norman followers, whofe
defcendants affumed the name of TAtterfhall, from this place.
Robert Fitz-Eudo obtained a grant from king John, for
the inhahitants of the town to hold a weekly market : and
another of the family, in the time of Edward III., received
the royal licence to ereft a caftle within his manor of Tatter-
fhall. But the prefent fortrefs was built by fir Ralph, after-
wards lord Cromwell, treafurer of the Exchequer to Henry V I .
The caftle and manor were granted by Henry VII. to
Margai-et, countefs of Richmond, and entailed on the duke
of Richmond ; who dying without iflue, they were granted
by Henry VIII. to the duke of Suffolk ; and in the *
next reign pafTed to Edward, lord Clinton, afterwards I
eail of Lincoln. By marriage with an heirefs oi the CUn-
tons, they are now in the pofleffion of lord Fortefcue. The
caftle ftands on a level moor, and is furroundtd by two great
foffes, the outer one formed of earth, and the inner faced
with brick, ten feet deep. It was originally intended as a
place of defence, and was progreffively raifed to great height
and extent. In the civil wars it was, however, dilapidated. TiU
vei-y lately the principal gateway was remaining : the part
at prefent left ftanding, is a fquare tower of brick, flanked
by four oflangular embattled turrets, which are crowned
with fpires covered with lead. It was divided into four ftories.
The main walls were carried to the top of the fourth ftory,
where a capacious machicolation furrounded the tower,
on which there is a parapet wall of great thicknefs. This
was to proteft the perfons employed at the machicolations.
The tower is conftrufted upon ponderous groined arches,
which fupport the ground-floor. Near the outer moat ftands
the parifh church, a beautiful and fpacious edifice, built in
form of a crofs. Few churches, perhaps, have fuffered more
dilapidations than this. It confifted of a nave, having five
large arches on a fide, and eight clereftory windows, placed in
pairs ; on each fide is a tranfept, and a magnificent choir. , The
windows of the latter were glazed with ftained glafs, which
was removed, by a late earl of Exeter, to the chapel of Bur-
leigh, on condition that he replaced it with plain glafs, which
could have been done for the fum of forty pounds ; but this
being neglefted, the infide has fuffered greatly from the
weather ; although the walls, roof, and pavement remain almoil
entire. The ruined fcreen and ftalls of wood, richly carved,
are ;iImoft rotten : behind it is a ftone fcreen, in the arches
of which are painted figures. The body of the church and
tranfepts had their vrindows richly adorned with the legendary

hiflories

TAT

liiftories of Romift faints. Before the altar lay two rich
fcrafs figures of Ralph, lord Cromwell, who died in 1455, and
ci' Marg.iret his wife, wlio died in 1453. This nobleman,
in the feventeenth yen.r of Henry VI., obtained a licence to
make the church of Tatterflinll collegiate, for a matter or
warden, fix priefts, fix fccular clerks, and fix choriflers.
He alfo founded, near the church-yard, .an hofpital or alms-
houfe, for thirteen poor men and women. At the dilfoliition,
the collegiate revenues were granted to Charles, duke of
Suffolk. The hofpital Hill remains, with a fmall endow-
ment. The population report of the year 1811, Hated that
Tatterfliall contained 506 inhabitants, occupjnng 105 houfes.
The market is held on Tuefdays, and there are three fairs
annually, — Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ix., Lineoln,-
ihire.byJ.Britton, F.S.A. Hiftory, &c. of Tatterfhall, with
plates, 8vo. 1801.

TATTICOMBA, a town of Hindooflan, in Myfore ;
4 miles N. of Dindigul.

TATTO, Ital. from Tamils, Lat. in Aliific, implies a
meafure, or bar, the period when the hand or foot is beaten
down in marking the time. See Tactus, and Battuta.

TAT-TOO, q. d. Tap-to, a beat of a drum, at night, to
advertife the foldiers to retreat, or repair to their quarters in
a garrifon, or to their tents in a camp. See Retreat.

TATTOOING, in Modem Hiflory, a name given at
Otaheite, and other iflands of the South fea, to the operation
of ftaining die body. For this purpofe they prick the fliin,
fo 2S juft not to fetch blood, with a fmall inftrument, fome-
what in the form of a hoe, or blade of a faw : that part which
anfwers to the blade is made of a bone or fliell fcraped very
thin, and from a quarter of an inch to an inch and a half
Avide : the edge is cut into Iharp teeth or points, from the
number of three to twenty, according to its fize. When this
.is to be ufed, they dip the teeth into a mixture of a kind of
lamp-lack, formed of the fmoke that riles from an oily nut
which they burn inllead of candles, and water, or charcoal-
dull diluted with water ; the teeth, thus prcp.ircd, are placed
upon the fkin, and the handle to which they are laftened,
being ftruck by quick fmart blows, with a (lick fitted for
the purpofe, they pierce it, and at the fame time carry into
the punfture the black compofition, which leaves an indelible
llain. This operation is performed upon the youth of both
fexes, when they are about twelve or fourteen years of age,
in fever.il parts of the body, and in various figures, according
to the fancy of the parent, or perhaps the rank of the party.
The women are generally marked with this ftain in the form
of a Z, in every joint of their fingers and toes, and fre-
quently on the outfide of their feet : the men are alfo marked
with the fame figure ; and both men and women have fquares,
circles, crefcents, and ill-defigned reprefentations of men,
birds, or dogs, and various other unintelhgible devices, im-
preffed upon their legs and arms. But the part on which
thefe ornaments are lavifhed with the greateft profufion
ta the breech ; this, in both fexes, is covered with a deep
black ; above which, arches are drawn over one another, as
high as the ftiort ribs. Thefe are often a quarter of an inch
broad, and the edges are indented. Thefe arches are exhi-
bited, both by the men and the women, with fingular often-
tation. The face in general is left unmarked. Some old
men had the greateft part of their bodies covered with large
patches of black, deeply indented at the edges, like a rude
imitation of flame. It is only at New Zealand, and in the
. Sandwich iflands, that they tattoo the face. There is alfo
this difference between the two laft, that, in the former, it is
done in elegant fpiral volutes, and in the latter, in ftraight
lines, crofling each other at right angles. The hands and
£j"ms of the women are very neatly marked, and they have
6

T A T

among them a fingular cuftom, tlic meaning of which could
not be learned, th,at of tattooing the tip of the tongms of
the females. This cuAom of t.attooing, it is apprehended,
is fn qnently defigned as a fign of mourning on the death
of a chiif, or any other calamitous event. Pc rfons of the
loweft clafs are often tattooed with a mark, that diftinguilhet
them as the property of the feveral chiefs to whom they be-
long. Hawkefworth's Voyages, vol. ii. p. 189. Mar-
chand's Voyage, vol. i. p. 99. Cook's Third Voyage,
vol. iii. p. 155.

TATTUBT, anciently Taditti, in Geography, a town
of Algiers, formerly a confiderahle city, now almoft com-
pletely in ruins : fome beautiful granite pillars were dug up
ionie years ago, and placed in a niofque at Conftantina ; 25
miles S. of Conftantina.

TATU, in Ancient Geography, an ifland fituated in the
Nile, in the vicinity of the town of Meroe. Pliny.

Tatl', in Zoology, the Brafilian name for the armadillo,
or niell-lu dge-hog, or dajypus of Linnieus. See Dasvi'I's.

T :\Ti:-j-Ipar(i, the name of a creature of the armadillo
kind, being the three-banded or triciniliis dafypus of Lin-
njeus. See Da.syi'US.

This animal burrows under ground, keeps its hole in the
day, and rambles out at night : when it would fleep, or
when it is afraid of being taken up, it contrafts its cruft
into a round figure ; and hiding its whole body within, it
might fooner be taken for a fea-(hell than a land-animal. It
is hunted with little dogs, .feeds on potatoes, &c. drinks
much, grows very fat, and is reckoned dehcious eating when
young, but when old, has a mufky difagreeable tafte ; breeds
every month, and brings four at a time. Ray and Pennant.

TATV-MnJellims, the IVeafel-headcd ylrmadUlo, the name
of a Imall animal of the armadillo kind. This is the dafypus
iwkhUliis of Linnoeus, and banded armadillo of Pennant : it
has a very flender head, fmall ereft ears, the cruft on the
Ihouldcrs and rump confifting of fquare pieces ; eighteen
bands on the fides ; five toes on each foot ; length from nofe
to tail about fifteen inches ; the tail five and a half. It in-
habits South America. Ray, Pennant, and Grew's Muf.
Reg. Soc. p. 19.

"VATV-Paba of Brafil, is the fix-banded dafypus of Lin-
na;us, having the cruft of the head, flioulders, and rump,
formed of angular pieces, and between the bands, and alio
on the neck and belly, a few fcattered hairs ; the tail thick
at the bafe, tapering to a point, and not fo long as the body,
and five toes on each foot. It inhabits Brafil and Guiana.
Pennant.

TA'VV-Porcinus, the name of the pig-headed armadillo,
or nine-banded dafypus of Linnveus, with long ears, cruft
on the head, flioulders, and rump, marked with hexangular
figures ; the nine bands on tlie fides diftinguiflied by tranf-
verfe cuneiform marks ; breaft and belly covered with long
hairs ; four toes on the fore -feet, and five on the hind ; the
tail taper, and a little longer than the body ; and length of
the whole animal three feet. This animal inhabits South
America : and one, that was brought into England a few
years ago from the Mofquito (hore, was fed with raw beef
and milk, but refufed our grains and fruit. Pennant.

TATUETE, the name of a fpecies of tatu, or arma-
dillo, being the nine-b;uided dafypus of Linnxus, though
BufFon and Pennant afcribe to it only eight bands ; it has
upright ears, two inches long ; fmall black e)Ts ; four toes
on the fore -feet, and five on the hinder ones ; the length
from nofc to tail about ten inches, the tail nme : it is of an
iron colour on the back, and whitifh at the fides ; its belly
alfo is whitifh and naked, except for a few hairs. It inha-
bits Brafil.

The

T A V

The flefh of this is accounted more delicious than that of
«uy other creature of this kind, though they may all be
eaten. Ray and Pennant.

TATULA, in Botany, a name ufcd by Clufius, and
fome other authors, for the ftramonium, or thorn-apple.

TATZO, in Geography, a town of Hungary ; 40 miles
E. of Munkacz.

TAU, in our Jncient Cujloms, fignifies a crofs.

" Tradendo difto comiti Thau eboreum." So Mr. Seldcn,
in his notes upon Eadmcrus, p. 1 59. " Ego Eadgifa prse-
difti regis ava lioc opus cgregium crucis Taumate confoli-
davi." See Mon. tom. iii. p. 121.

Tau, in Entomology, a fpecies of beetle. See ScARA-
B.*:us. — Alfo, a fpecies of Phahna bombyx. — Alfo, a fpecies
of Mufca.

Tau, or Taw, in Heraldry, an ordinary, in figure of a
T, fuppofed to reprefcnt St. Andrew's crofs, or a crofs
potence, the top part cut off.

It is thus called from the name of the Greek T, tau.

Tau, \n Ichthyology, a fpecies of Ga^w ; which fee.

TAUA, ill Jncient Geography, a town of Egypt, and
the metropolis of the nomc Phthemphthus. Ptol. and

Steph. Byz Alfo, a town of Afia, between Namaris and

Augara. Ptol. — Alfo, a gulf of the ifle of Albion, on
the fouth-eallcrn coaft. This eftuary is the firth of Tay.

Taua, in Geography, a town of Egypt; 12 miles S. of
Denutar.

TAVACCAR.S, in the Materia Med'ica, the name by
which many authors call the coccus Maldimt, or Maldive
nut.

TAUAG, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in Farfiftan ;
39 miles S.E. of Bender-Rigk.

TAVAI, an ifland in the Indian fea, near the coaft of
Siam, about 20 miles long and 3 broad. N. lat. 1 3'^. E.
long. 97° 52'.

Tavai, a town of Afia, in Lower Siam ; 148 miles
S. of Martaban. N. lat. 14° 10'. E. long. 98° 12'.

Tavai Point, the extreme point of a traft of land on
the coaft of Lower Siam. N. lat. 13° 40'. E. long. 98°.

Tavai or Tovy Poenammoo, the fouthernmoft of the
two idands into which New Zealand is divided by Cook's
ftrait, which is for the moft part mountainous and apparently
barren, and in this refpeft of a lefs favourable afpeft than
the other ifland, or Eaheinomautue ; which fee. The ftraits,
which are about four or five leagues broad, were difcovered
by Capt. Cook at the clofe of the year 1769. The iflands
are fituated between the latitudes of 34° and 48° S., and be-
tween the longitudes of 181" and 194° W. Tavai- Poenam-
moo is faid to be 500 miles long from S.W. to N.E., and
from 55 to 140 broad. See Ne-w Zealand.

TAVANAGUROY, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ;
13 miles W. of Colar.

TAVARADO, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira; 7 miles W.S.W. of Montemor o Velho.

TAVARES, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira ; 1 3 miles E. of Vifeu.

TAVASTLAND, a province of Sweden, bounded on
the N. by Eaft Bothnia, on the E. by Savolax or the go-
vernment of Kuopio, and the Ruffian government of Vi-
borg, on the S. by Nyland, and on the W. by the govern-
ment of Abo, or Finland Proper ; about 150 miles in
length from N. to S., and from 35 to 100 in breadth from
E. to W. The country is very fertile, and confifts of fine
plains, watered by a great number of rivers and lakes,
which abound in firti. It is divtrfified with arable and mea-
dow lands ; fo that with refpeft to ihefe natural advantages,
it may not only be looked upon as the beft part of Finland,

TAU

but is indeed fcarcely furpafled in thofe particulars by any
province in Sweden. It is likewife ftored with cattle, fifti,
and all forts of game. But notwithftanding this country is
fo fertile, it is far from being well cultivated ; and, confe-
qucntly, the peafaut* are generally very poor. Sometimes,
indeed, the corn is much damaged by keen and unexpefted
fr,ofty nights. The northern part of Tavaftland is more
mountainous and woody than the fouthern. In the morafles
and uncultivated fandy wilds, a ferruginous earth is dug up,
from whicli the Eifenfand ertz, or iron fandy ore, as it is
called, is prepared. The inhabitants lubfift" by agriculture,
grazing, and breeding of cattle, and fome of them are em-
ployed in the fiflieries. They alfo traffic in corn, peas,
beans, flax, hemp, dried fifh, cattle, leather, tallow, but-
ter, lime, the bark of trees, &c.

TAVASTHUS, or Kroneborg, a town of Sweden,
and principal place in the province of Tavaftland, built in
the year 1650, on a pleafant fpot, by count Pehr Brahe,
and endowed with confiderable privileges. In 1713, this
town was taken by the Ruffians ; and in the laft war between
them and the Swedes, it was laid in afhes. The caftle,
which, exclufive of the town, is properly called " Tavaf-
thehus," or " Tavafteborg," is well fortified, and ferves for
an arfenal and royal magazine ; 80 miles N.N.E. of Abo.
N. lat. 6i°l'. E. long. 24° 15'.

TAVAVIS, or Thaouaouis, a town of Afia, in Grand
Bucharia ; 15 miles N.E. of Bucharia.

TAUBATE', a town of Brafil ; 130 miles W. of Rio
Janeiro.

TAUBE, Frederick William Von, LL.D., in Bio-
graphy, was the fon of Dr. Taube, phyfician to queen Ca-
roline, confort of George II., and born in London in the
year 1728. After the queen's death, the father fettled at
Zelle, where he died in 1 742 ; and in the following year
his fon was entered at the univerfity of Gottingen. Here
he affiduoufly applied to the ftudy of jurifprudence ; and
before he left the univerfity, being in his 19th year, he
publiftied a diflertation " De Differentiis Juris civilis a jure
Naturae," intended to prove that the principles of the Ro-
man, Canon, and German law were contrary to the law of
nature, and inconfiftent with the rights of man. When he
quitted the univerfity, in the year 1747, he travelled into fo-
reign countries, and particularly through fome parts of
Africa and America. On his return he praftifed the law
at Gottingen, but finding, in confeqiience of fome dif-
pleafure which he had excited by the freedom with which he
cenfured the tedioufnefs of law-fuits, that he had no profpeft
of advancement, he removed to Vienna in 1756, where he
obtained fome preferment in the army. Soon after an en-
gagement in which he was wounded during the feven years'
war, he abandoned Lutheranifm, and embraced the tenets of
the church of Rome, hoping thus to rife in the Imperial
fervice. Having given proof of his talents and fidelity in
an honourable office, which he occupied, and being ac-
quainted with the Englifli language, he was appointed fecre»
taiy to the Imperial ambaffador at the court of London,
and repaired hither in Oftober, 1763. Here he married a
niece of the celebrated Dean Tucker, with whom he lived
in habits of intimacy and friendlhip. In 1766 he returned
to Vienna, and was appointed fecretary to the council of
trade, which was an office of great fatigue, on account of
the journies which it obliged him to take to diftant places.
When this college was diffolved, in 1776, he retired to Bruf-
fels. Having fulfilled another confidential commifTion with
which lie wasentrufted, he returned from Belgrade to Vienna
in 1777, and was ennobled by the emperor, and appointed
a member of the government of Lower Auftria. His iiealth

being

T A U

T A V

being much impaired, required an attention which it did not
fuit his inclination or occupation to give it : liis diforder,
which was an inflammation of the lungs, incrcafed, and ter-
minated his hfe in June, 1778, in the 50th year of his age.
He was juilly honoured for his integrity, his zeal to ferve
Jus friends, and his liberality. His Utcrary labours evince
the extent of his learning and refcarches. His principal
works are the traft already mentioned ; " Thoughts on the
prefent State of our Colonies in America, on their Behaviour
to the Mother-Country, and on the true Intereft of the Na-
tion in regard of the Colonies," London, 1766 ; " Hiftori-
cal and Pohtical Sketch of the prefent State of the Englifh
Manufailures, Trade, Navigation, and Colonies, &c." 1774,
8vo. ; " Hiilory of the Englifh Trade, &c. from the ear-
lieft Periods till the Year 1776, with an authentic Account
of the true Caufes of the prefent War \vith North Ame-
rica," 1776, 8vo. ; " J. J. Schetzen's Elements of Geo-
graphy, improved and enlarged," 1786, Bvo. ; " Hiilorical
and Geographical Defcription of the Kingdom of Sclavonia
and Duchy of Syrmia, Sec. in three parts," 1777, 1778;
" An Account of various New Difcoveries, made in 1776
and 1777, in Sclavonia, &c. &c." Leipfic, 1777, 410. He
contributed alfo, between the years 1773 and 1778, to Buf-
ching's periodical publications. He alfo communicated to
the Royal Society of London " A fliort Account of a par-
ticular Kind of Torpedo found in the River Danube, with
feveral Experiments on that Fifh," publifhed in the Phil.
Tranf. for 1775. Gen. Biog.

Taube, in Geography, a river of Weftphalia, which runs
into the Aland, near Seehaufen.

TAUBER, a river of Germany, which rifes about eight
miles S. of Rotenburg, in Franconia, and runs into the
Maine at Wertheim.

Taubek See, a lake of Bavaria ; 6 miles W. of Berch-
tefgaden.

TAUCAEL, or Tuchel, a town of Pruffian Pome-
relia. This town was taken and burned, in the year 1320,
by the Teutonic knights, and afterwards rebuilt ; 44 miles
S.S.W. of Dantzic.

TAUCHA, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Leipfic.
This town was built in the year 1221, by Albert, arch-
bifhop of Magdeburg, afterwards rebuilt, and in the year
1 43 1 deftroyed by the Bohemians and Huflites, when moll
of the inhabitants removed to Leipfic ; 6 miles N.E. of
Leipfic. N. lat. 51° 22'. E. long. 12'^ 30'.

TAUCHIRiE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa,
in Libya, belonging to the territory of Barce, according to
Herodotus, afterwards called Arfinoe. M. D'Anville lup-
pofes that it is the prefent Teukera.

TAVDA, in Geography, a river of Ruffia, which rifes
in Pelim lake, and runs into the Tobol, 40 miles S. of
Tobolflc.

TAUDECOND A, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda ;
25 miles S.W. of Warangole. — Alfo, a town of Hindoo-
ftan, in Dindigul ; 7 miles N. of Dindigul.

TaUDENNY, or TuDENNY, a Moorifh and Negro
town or village, on the borders of the Defart in Africa ; at
which place are large ponds or beds of fait, which both the
Moors and Negroes purchafe, as well as dates and fig-trees
of a large fize. The falt-beds are about 5 or 6 feet deep,
and from 20 to 30 yards in circumference. The fait comes
up in red lumps mixed with earth, and part of it is red ;
270 miles N.N.W. of Tombuftoo. N. lat, 21" 15'. W.
long. 1° 25'.

TAUDOON, a town of Hindooftan, in Lahore ; 34
miles S.S.E. of Nagercote.

TAVE, a river of France, which runs into the Rhone,
about 6 miles below Loudon.

Tave, or Taj", a river of Wales, which runs into the
fea, near Llaugharn. — Alfo, a river, which rifes in two
ftreams in the fouthern part of Brecknockfhire, and runs
into the Severn below Cardiff.

TAVERA, a town of Corfica, 18 miles N.N.E. ot
Ajazzo.

Tavera di Orta, a town of Naples, in Capitanata ; 14
miles S.S.W. of Afcoli.

TAVERNA, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra,
formerly the fee of a hifhop, transferred to Catanzaro ; 15
miles N. of Squillace.

TAVERNER, John, in Biography, an eminent mu-
Ccian, who flourifhed in the early part of the i6th century.
He is often mentioned by Morley among our early contra-
puntiils, and by Anthony Wood, as having begun his career
by being organift of Bofton, in Lincohithire. At tiie efta-
blifhment of Cardinal college, now Chrift-church, Oxford,
by cardinal Wolfey, he was appointed organift there ; but
narrowly efcaped martyrdom for herefy, having held fre-
quent converfations with fome Lutherans on the abufes of
religion. They were all imprifoned in a deep cave under
the college, ufed for tiie keeping of falt-fi(h, of which the
ftench occafioned the death of fome of them, and fome were
burnt in Smithfield.

Taverner had not gone fuch lengths as many of the fra-
ternity ; the fufpicions againft him were founded merely on
his having hidden fome heretical books under the boards of
the fchool where he taught, for which reafon, and on accoua*
of his profeffional eminence, the cardinal excufed him, fay-
ing " he was but a mufician," and fo he efcaped.

A fet of books containing mafies and motets to Latin
words, fome of which were compofcd in the time of
Henry Vn., and all before the Reformation, is prefcrved in
the mufic-fchool at Oxford. Thefe volumes contain com-
pofitions by John Taverner, Dr. Fayrfax, Avery Burton,
John Marbec, Wilham Kafar, Hugh Afhton, John Nor-
man, John Sheppard, and Dr. Tye. The pieces by the
three or four latt are entered in a more modern hand, with
different charafters, and paler ink. The chief parts of the
compofitions are tranfcribed in a large, diftinft, and fine
hand and charafter ; but bars not having been yet intro-
duced, and being all ad longam, alia breve, or in tempo di Ca-
petla, the ligatures, prolations, and moods, render thefe
books extremely difficult to read, or tranfcribc in fcore.
However, by dint of meditation and perfeverance, we ar-
ranged the parts under each other, of feveral movements by
all thefe founders of our church mufic, particularly John
Taverner, Dr. Fayrfax, and Dr. Tye ; having fcored an
entire mafs by each of them : as they are the moft ancieat
and eminent of thefe old mafters, in whofe compofitions the
ftyle is grave, and harmony, in general, unexceptionable,
if tried by fuch rules as were eftablifhed during tlieir time ;
but with refpcft to invention, air, and accent, the two firft
are totally deficient.

The compofitions, however, of thefe early Englifh maf-
ters, have an appearance of national orig-.na'ity, frej from
all imitation of the choral produftions of the continent.
Few of the arts of canon, ir.verfion, aagin'.ntation, or di-
minution, were as yet praftifed by tH. m : Ihort pi.ints of
imitation are fomclimes difjoverable, bi.t chi.y Ur-ni more
the effefts of chance th.m dcfign : and to char.xte'"ifo the
chief of thefe compofers in the order they liav^ been named ;
Taverner and Fayrfax have but lictk J fipii ai.J i o m locly
in their compofitions ; and it fecms as it they (liould not

have

T A V

have been ranked, as they are by Morley, with thofe of a
much higher clafs, at a later period.

We can venture to give a charader of Taverner, from an
adual fur\'ey of his principal \v«rks which have been pro-
ferved, and which we have taken the pains to fcore. Thus
author is in general very fond of flow notes, fo that all his
pieces which we have fecn, are nd longam, or, at quickeft,
alia irtrvc. Long notes in vocal miific, unlefs they are to
difplay a very fine voice, have httle meaning, and are wholly
dellruAive of poetr)- and accent ; but our old compofers
have no fcruples of that kind ; and being as great enemies
to Jhort fyllables, as U>Jhort notes, exerciled the lungs of a
linger as frequently upon one as the other.

As the firil eflays at harmony were made in extemporary
difcant, upon a plain-fong, fo in written counterpoint, it
was long a favourite and ufcful excrcife, to build the feveral
parts of a movement upon fome favourite chant, making it
tlic ground-work of the compofition. And this cuftom an-
fwered feveral purpofes : it excited ingenuity in the con-
tlruAion of the parts ; it regulated and retrained the mo-
dulation within the ecclefiaftical limits ; and as the plain-
fong had been long ufed in the church, by the priefts and
people, it was ftill eafy for the mufical members of the
congregation, to join the chorus in finging this fimple and
effential part, while the chorifters and choirmen by profeffion,
performed the new and more difficult melodies, v.liich had
been fuperadded to it by the compofer. The firil reformers,
or at leaft their followers, who were perhaps no great mu-
ficians, wilhed to bani/h every fpecies of art from the
church ; and either retaining fmall portions of ancient
chants, or making melodies, in the fame plain and fimple
ftyle, for their hymns and pfalms, threw afide all figurative
harmony and florid counterpoint ; and fung in notes of equal
duration, and generally in mere unifon, thofe tunes which
are ftill retained by the Calvinifts, and in moft of the re-
formed churches of Chriftendom. At the latter end of the
fifteenth, and during the whole of the fixteenth century, as
fome chant or tune was the foundation upon which the har-
mony of almoll every movement of a mafs or motet was
built, the additional parts were the fuperior, medius, counter-
tenor, tenor, to which was given the plain-fong in fquare
black notes, of equal lengths to femibreves in alia breve
time, and bafles. The clofe or final movement of one of
thefe mafies is inferted in Burney's General Hiftory of Mu-
fic, vol. ii. p. 557.

TAVERNES, in Geography, a town ef France, and
chief place of a canton, in the department of the Var, and
dift.rift of BrignoUes. The place contains 1536, and the
canton 4529 inhabitants, on a territory of 280 kiUometres,
and 9 communes ; 3 miles N. of Barjols.

TAVERNIER, John Baptist, in Biography, 3 dif-
tinguifhed traveller, was the fon of a native of Antwerp, and
born at Paris in the year 1605. The frequent infpcftion
of the maps and charts fold by his father, infpired him with
a paffion for travelling ; fo that at the age of twenty-two he
had made tours through France, England, the Low
Countries, Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Hungary, and
Italy. In his bufinefs as a jeweller he was eminently (l<ilful ;
and he employed 40 years in fix journies in Turkey, Perfia,
and the Eaft Indies, by all the prafticable routes. Having
acquired great wealth, on his return from his fixth journey
in 1668, he determined as a Proteftant to live under a free
government ; and, with this view, purchafed the barony of
Aubonne, near the lake of Geneva. But having fuffered
very confiderable lofs of property by the mifconduft of a
fiephew, he fold his barony in 1687, and commenced a fe-

T A V

ver.th journey, wliich terminated his life at Mafcow in 16817,
at the age of 84. Deftitute of talents for writing, he cm-
ployed Sam. Chappuzeau of Geneva to arrange his memoirs,
which is faid to have been no eafy talk. The fruit of this
labour was given to the public in two volumes, defcribing
liis fix journies, in 1679; and another was added in 168 1,
by La Chapelle, containing an account of Japan and Ton-
quin, with a hiflory of the colony of the Dutch in the Eaft
Indies. Thefe memoirs of Tavcrnier, notwithftanding re-
fleftions on his veracity, and charges of plagiarifm, have
been often cited as authority by later wTiters. Gibbon re-
prefents him as " the jewelbr who faw fo much and fo well."
Bayle. Morei-i. Ger.. Biog.

Tavernier Key, in Geography, a fmall iHand on the north
coaft of Cuba, near Tortuga.

TAVERNY, a town of France, in the department of
the Seine and Oife ; 6 miles E. of Pontoife.

TAVETCH, a community which, with that of Di-
fentis, forms one of the high jurifdiftions of the Grey
League in Switzerland. Tliefe two communities occupy
the weftern extremity of the valley of Sopra Selva, ftretch-
ing as far as the confines of Uri. Tavetch is a pleafant
valley, lying at the foot of the Alps, which feparate the
Grifons from the canton of Uri. The vnllages are numerous,
confiiling of fcattered cottages chiefly conftrufted of wood.
This valley produces palUire, hemp, and flax,, and a fmall
quantity of rye and barley. The trees are chiefly firs and
pines, and their number gradually dim.inilhes towards the
extremity of the vale.

TAVETSCHE, a town of the country of the Grifons ;
13 m.iles from Ilantz, the capital. — Alfo, a mountain of
the fame country ; 5 miles S.W. of Ilantz.

TAUFFERS, a town of the county of Tyrol ; 6 miles
S.S.W. of Glurentz.

TAUGHT, or Tau't, Tight, in the Sea Language, de-
notes the ftate of being extended or ttretched out. Thus
they fay, fet taught the flirouds, the flays, or any other
ropes, when they are too flack and loofe.

TAVI, in Geography, a town of Sicily, in the valley of
Noto ; 7 miles N.E. of Cailro Giovanni.

TAVIANO, a town of Naples, in the province of
Otranto ; 1 1 miles W.N.W. of Alefano.

TAUJEPOUR, a town of Bengal; 60 miles S.S.W.

of Calcutta. N. lat. 21° 52'. E. long. 87° 45' Alfo, a

town of Bengal ; 32 miles E. of Purneah. N. lat. 25° 48'.
E. long. 88'^ 11'. — Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ;
15 miles N. of Chuprah. N. lat. 26= 2'. E. long. 84° 50'.

TAVIGNANO, a river of Corfica, which runs into the
fea, 1 5 miles S. of Cervione.

TAUILA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Yemen j
24 miles W. of Tana.

TAUILE, a town of Egypt, on the Nile ; 2 miles N.
of Manfora.

TAVIRA, or Tavila, a fea-port town of Portugal,
in the province of Algarve, furrounded with walls, and de-
fended by a callle ; the harbour is protected by two forts.
It contains two churches, an hofpital, five convents, and
about 5000 inhabitants ; in miles S.S.E. of Lifbon. N.
lat. 37° 7'. W. long. 7° 35'.

TAVISTOCK, an ancient borough and market-town,
in a hundred of the fame name, in the county of Devon,
England, is fituated on the banks of the river Tavy, 34
miles W.S.W. from Exeter, and 206 miles in the fame
bearing from London. Its origin and growth feem to have
arifen from the foundation and eiiabliflimcnt of a magnificent
abbey in the tenth century, by Ordgar, earl of Devon, and

his

T A V

T A U

liis fon Ordulpli. Within thirty years after its foundation,
tliis abbey was burnt by the Danes, but was foon afterwards
rebuilt, and became more flourifhing than before. By a
charter granted by Henry I., it appears that he beftowed
" the jurifdiftion, and the whole hundred of Taviftock,"
upon the abbey, together with the privilege of a weekly
market, arid a tliree-days' fair. Tliis charter is locited and
confirmed by one granted 21 Edw. III. The riches of the
abbey progreffively increaied ; and Richard Barham, the
ihirty-fifth abbot, obtained from Henry VHI. the privilege
of fitting in the houfe of peers, or, in other words, was
mitred. His patent was dated January 23d, 1513 ; but the
honour continued only till the year 1 539, when John Peryn,
the thirty-fixth abbot, furrendered the abbey to the crown,
and had a penfion of lool. per annum. The pofTefTions of
the abbey, with the borough and town of Taviftock, were
given by tiie king to John, lord Ruffel, whofe deicendant,
the prefent duke of Bedford, is now proprietor. Various
fragments of the abbey ftill remain, but are, for the moft
part, incorporated with other buildings. The abbey church
is defcribed by Leland as 1 26 yards m length ; the cloillers
as extenfive ; and the chapter -houfe as a moft magnificent
ftrufture ; but all thefe have long fmce been completely de-
moUfhed. Several buildings, that feem to have belonged to
the abbey, are now ufed tor warehojfes ; and adjoining to
the principal inn is a large, handfome, arched gateway, or-
namented with lofty pinnacles, apparently of the time of
Henry VI. The town of Taviftock is large and populous ;
but the ftreets are narrow, and indifferently paved ; and
many of the houfes have an appearance of age. The river
is here crofFed by two bridges, and after ftorms of rain, by
flowing over various ledges and mafles of rock, prefents a
very tumultuous fpe£lacle. The church is a fpacious edi-
fice, confifting of four aifies, a chancel, and a tower at the
weft end, raifed on arches. Within the church are pre-
ferved fome human bones of a gigantic fize, which were
found in a ftone coffin, dug out of the ruins of the abbey,
and are faid by tradition to be thofe of Ordulph, whom
William of Malmfbury reprefents of fuch immenfe ftature,
that he could ftride over rivers ten feet wide ! Taviftock is
a borough by prefcription, and has fcnt two members to
parliament from the 23d year of Edward I. The right of
eleftion is in the freeholders refident in the borough. The
town is one of the ftannaries of Devonfhire, but does not
appear to have been incorporated. It is governed by a
portreve, who is elected annually at the court of the lord
of the manor. The population of the pai'ifh, according to
the return of the year 181 1, amounted to 4723 ; the number
of houfes to 514. Many of the inhabitants are employed
in the manufafture of ferges for the Eaft India Company.
Five fairs are held annually, and a weekly market on Satur-
days. An inftitution for the ftudy of Saxon literature ex-
ifted in Taviftock at a very early period, and leftures were
read in that language in a building purpofely appropriated,
and called the Saxon fchool. Thefe leftures were difcon-
tinued about the time of the reformation. Several of the
abbots were learned men ; and the encouragement they gave
to literature is evident, by the eftablirtiment of a printing-
prefs in the abbey within a few years of the time when the
art was brought into England. Among the books that
jftued from this prefs was Walton's tranflation of " Boethius
de Confolatione," " emprented in the exempte Monaftery
of Taveftoke in Denfhyre, by me Dan Thomas Rychard,
monke of the faid Monaftery," 1525, 4to. ; and the " Con-
firmation of the Tynners Charter," 26th of Henry VIII.,
16 leaves, 4to. Bifhop GibfoQ alfo mentions a Saxon
Grammar as having been printed here about the commence-
Vot. XXXV.

ment of the civil wars; but tlii| aiTcrtion is fuppofed dy
other antiquaries to be unfounded.

Among the more eminent natives of Taviftock was lii
Francis Drake, one of the moft diftinguiflicd feamen Uiai
Britain ever p.-oduced, and tlie firft Engliihman that circum-
navigated tile globe.

Morv.ell-houfe, about three miles from Taviftock, was
the hunting-feat of the abbots of Taviftock ; and from its
fituation ne;u- Morvel-down, and the woods on the banks of
the Tamar, was well adapted for this purpofe. Its form is
quadrangular, with a large arched gatewa)' in front, orna-
mented in a fimihir manner to thofe of the abbey. The
vaulted ceiling ot this entrance has feveral coats of arms
fculptured in moor-ftone. At a little diftance is Morwell-
rock, which rifes almoft perpendicularly to an immenfe
height from the bed of the Tamar.

About four miles north of Taviftock is Bren-Tor, a vail
mafs of craggy rock, which fttoots up from the road between
Taviftock and Lydford, and becomes a very confpicuous
fea-mark to mariners in the Britifti Channel, though more
than 20 miles diftant. The fummit is frequently enveloped
in clouds, but in fair weather comm.ands an extenfive prof-
peft, and the fhips in Plymouth harbour may be diftinftly
feen from its fummit. Near the top is the parifh church of
the little village of Brent, which, like moft of the churches
in fimilar fituatlons, is dedicated to St. Michael. On Dart-
moor, about three miles eaft of Taviftock, are feveral maftes
of rock, and alfo the remains of Druidical circles and
avenues. — Beauties of England and Wales, vol. iv. Devon-
fiiire, by J. Britton and E. W^. Brayley.

TAVIUM, or Tavia, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Afia, in Galatia, and capital of the Trocmi, according to
Ptolemy, Strabo, and Pliny.

TAULACUM, in Natural Hiftory, a name given by
the people of the Eaft Indies to a fpecies of orpiment, which
is very common with them.

It is of a dirty yellow colour, and is compofed partly of
an irregular mals, partly of fine flakes, like fcales of fifties.
Thefe are of the beft colour. The whole mafs, on being
expofed to the fire, biurns, and emits copious fumes ; but it
does not melt readily. After it has been feveral times cal-
cined, the Indians give it internally in intermittent fevers,
with fafety and fuccefs. Woodw. Catal. Foff. vol. i.
p. 24.

TAULE', in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Finifterre ; 3 miles N.W. of Morlaix.

Taule, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 47 miles E.
of Seringapatam.

TAULIGNAN, a town of France, in the department
of the Drome ; 12 miles S.E. of Montelimart.

TAUMACO, a town of Greece, in the province of
Theffaly ; 18 miles N.W. of Zeiton.

TAUMAGO, an illand in the Pacific ocean, difcovered
by Quires, in 1606; about 24 or 25 miles in circumference.
The idand abounded with bananas, cocoa-trees, and palms :
it produces alfo fugai'-canes, and many kinds of nutritious
roots. The fleet here obt.iined, without difficulty, refrefti-
ments, water, and wood, of which it ftood in great need.
The Spaniards lived on good terms with the natives, who
were eager to procure them all the afiiftance that their ifland
afforded ; nor was peace infringed till the very moment of
their departure. Thinking that it would be of fervice in
the rcmainaer of their voyage, to have fome Indians on
board, who might aft as guides or interpreters, the
Spaniards feizcd four whom they carried on board by force.
Their chief was foon informed of it, and came" to demand
them in the moft earncft manner ; but they were refufed,
U Mid

T A U

and war was inftanlly decl»rcd. A fleet of canoes came out
to attack the Spaiiidi (hips, which tlieir iire-anns quickly
difperfed, and would totally iiavc dellioyed, had not thclc
brave inanders, with all their courage, been fenfible of their
inferiority. S. lat. io°. E. long. 169° 25'.

TAUME, a river of England, which riles in the county
of York, and runs into the Merfey, in Lancafhire, oppolite
Stockport.

TAUNA, a town of Egypt, on the Bahir .Tofeph, or
Canal of Jofepli, whicli forms a communication between the
Nile and tiie Birkct el Kcrum ; 5 miles S.W. of A(h-
munein.

TAUNDA, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 50 miles
S.E. of Fyzabad. N. lat. 26° 32'. E. long. 82° 53'.

TAUNNA, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 30 miles
W. of Lucknow.

TAUNT, a fea-term, fignifying high or tall. When
the mafts of a (hip are too tall for her, the failors fay, (he is
taunt-majled.

TAUNTON, in Geography, a confiderable market-town
and borough, in the hundred of Taunton-Dean, county of
Somerfet, England, is fitiiated on the high road between
Bath and Exeter, 52 miles S.W. from the former city,
32 miles N.E. from the latter, and 144 W. by S. from
London. It was anciently called Thonodunum, or the
Town of the Tone, by which river it is watered. Taunton
is unqueftioiiably a place of remote antiquity : from the dif-
covery of coins and other relics, there is reafon to fuppofe
it was not unknown to the Romans ; but it is certain it was
of great note in the time of the Saxons. For Ina, a Weft-
Saxon monarch, built a caftle here for his refidence in the
year 700, which was deftroyed in 722 by his queen Ethel-
burga, who prevailed on him to refign the crown, and retire
to a monaftery. A new caftle, on the fcite of the former,
was erefted by William Giff'ard, bifhop of Winchefter in the
time of Henry I. By various documents of the bidiops of
that fee, dated Taunton caftle, it feems to have been a place
of their frequent refidence. In 1495 the whole building
was repaired, and an embattled gateway built by bi(hop
Thomas Langton. Though the building has been much
modernized, this gateway ftill remains. Confiderable im-
provements were made in 1577, by bifliop Robert Horn,
who likewife built the great hall as it now ftands, in which
the aflizes, county felTions, and biftiop's courts are held : it
is 119 feet in length, 30 in width, and 20 in height. The
other apartments are applied to various public ufes. The
<vhole caftle occupied a front of 195 feet, with a circular
tower at each end, of which only one is now remaining.
Taunton had a diftinguilhed (hare in the various civil com-
motions of this kingdom : in the contefts of the Saxon
kings ; in the civil wars between the houfes of York and
I^ancailer ; and in the infurreftion in favour of Perkin
Warbeck, in Henry VII. 's reign. In the civil wars of
Charles I., it became an objeft of vigorous ftruggle between
the royal and parliamentary forces which (hould polTefs its
fortrefs, it being confidered as the key to the weft of Eng-
land. It was alfo deeply involved in the rebellion of the
duke of Monmouth, who here affumed the title of king,
and was publicly proclaimed.

The town of Taunton, in point of fize, buildings, and
refpeftabihty of inhabitants, may vie with moft cities. It
contains two parilhes, extends nearly a mile from eaft; to
weft, and confifts of four principal ftreets, which are well
built, and of commodious width. Though ancient and
populous, it was not incorporated till the reign of Charles I.,
1627. It did not long enjoy this privilege ; for Charles II.,
on his refloration, out of refentment for the town's adherence

I

T A U

to the parliament againft his father, deprived it of its charter-
It continued disfranchifed 17 years, when the king granted-
it a new charter. The corporation confiils of a mayor, re
corder, a juftice of the peace, two aldermen, ten capital,.
and ten inferior burgelTes. The juftice is always the lait
mavor, who, with the t«o aldermen, are annually elefted-
out of the capital burgelfes ; and the vacancies occafioned
by this eleftion are tilled up from the inferior members of
the corporation. The officers are a town-clerk, two fer-
jeants at mace, a bell-man, and a beadle. There are afting;
under the mayor, and fworn in by him, two conftables and
fix tything-men or petty conftables, who, with two port-
reves and two bailiffs, are annually chofen by a jury, and
are, properly fpeaking, the officers of the bilhop of Win-
chefter, in whofe court they are eleftcd. The mayor's
officers cannot arreft within the borough ; and there being
no prifon, except a kind of to\^•ll-bridewell called tlie Nook,
debtors are fent to the county gaol at llchefter. Though
the town has for ages been flouriiliing, and of great import-
ance in the county, yet the corporation has neither land,
houfes, nor joint rtock in money ; their charter excluding
them from fuch pofleflions.

Taunton is an ancient borough by prefcrlption, and has
returned two members to parliament from the year 1294,
23 Edward I. The right of election is veiled in a deferip-
tion of people called pot-wablers, or pot-wabloners. Thele
are all fuch inhabitants as refide within the borough, and
boil their own pots, provided they are not paupers, and
have not received relief from the fund of any chai-ity withiis
a year. The number of voters is eftimated at about 500.
The bounds of the borough, to which the right of eieftioii
is hmited, are fmall in proportion to -the town, compre-
hending only a part of the pari{h of St. Mary Magdalen.
The principal article of trade in Taunton is the woollen
manufatlure, which has flouriflied to a great extent almoft
ever fince its introduftion into England by the famous John
Kempe, the firft manufaftory being eftablifhed fo early as
the year 1336. Upwards of one thoufand looms are faid to
have been employed at one time ; but the trade is now
greatly reduced, and the population decreafed : houfes in
the fuburbs have fallen to ruin, and have been deftroyed. A
large filk manufaftory was eftablilhed in the year 1780.
Two large markets are held on Wednefday and Saturday,
and here are two annual fairs. By the population report of
the year 18 11, Taunton was ftated to contain 1371 houfes,
and 6997 inhabitants.

The edifices for leligious worfhip in this town are two
pari{h churches, and five diflTenting meeting-houfes. The
church of St. Mary Magdalen is a fpacious beautiful ftruc-
ture, with a lofty and ftrong tower of excellent workman,
ftiip, of the florid ftyle, having four ilately pinnacles thirty-
two feet high, making the whole height 153 feet. This tower
has thirteen handfome windows, with a variety of curious
prominent ornaments, that give the whole an air of magnifi-
cence, united to a delicate elegance, not to be equalled in
the county, nor perhaps in tlie kingdom. It jvas probably
erefted by Henry VII., who, when he came to the crown,
rebuilt many of the churches in Somerfetlhire, as a reward of
the attachment of the county to the Lancaftrian party. The
infide of the church is anfwerable to the exterior, and makes
a grand appearance. Its curious roof is fupported by twenty-
four pillars, in four rows, dividing it into five aifles and a
chancel. There are forty-four windows, fome of which
have painted glafs. The other church, St. James's, though
every way inferior to the former, is a ftrong, plain, ancient
ftrufture, fuppofed to have been built in the 13th cen-
tury. The meeting-houfes are St. Paul's, and the new meet:-

Jng.

T A U

T A U

&r.g, fov Protcftaiit difTeiiters ; one for Baptifls, one for
■Quakers, and one for Wedeyan Metliodifts. Tlie buildings
for charitable purpoics are, a free grammar-fchool, founded
by Richard Fox, bilhop of Winciieitcr, about the year
1 500 ; two large and well endowed alms-houfes, founded
in the 1 7th century, by Mr. Robert Graye and Mr. Richard
Huifh ; two other alms-houfes, on a fmaller fcalc ; two
work-houfes ; and an hofpital, the mod capital of its kind
in the county : it is a fquarc ftrufture, 90 feet on a fide ; con-
trived to admit througii every part a free circulation of frelh
air ; and forming on the whole a commodious receptacle for
■the diieafed. The firll corner-ftone was laid by lord North
in 1772, and the building was completed in 1774. In the
centre of the town is a fpacious building, erefted in 1772,
uader the fantlion of an aft of parliament ; the lower
part is the market-houfe, over wliich is the town-hall, where
the borough leilions are held.

On the ealt part of the town was a priory for Black
canons, founded in 1 127, by bifhop Giffard : at the diflo-
hition, it was granted to Matthew Colchurft. A leper-
houfe was alfo founded about the year .1280, by Thomas
.Lambritz ; and a houfe of White or Carmelite friars, in
1322, by Walter de Mcryet. Both thefe houfes arc fup-
pofedto have been priv.ate property previous to the diflblution.
— Colhnfon's Hiftory of Somerfetfliire, vol. iii. Toulmin's
Hiftory of the Town of Taunton ; 4to. 1 79 1. Maton's
£)bfervations on the Weftern Counties of England, vol. ii.
8vo. 1797.

Tauntox, a river of Maflachufetts, which runs into tlie

feaat Rhode ifland, N. lat. 41^ 24'. W. long. 71° lo'

Alfo, a town of Maffiichufetts ; 29 miles S. of Boilon.
N. lat. 41° 48'. W. long. 71° 2'.— Alfo, a river of Ame-
rica, in the province of Maine, which runs into the fea near
New Briftol.

TAUNTON-DEAN, a valley of England, extending
. jout thirty miles in length, in the county of Somerfet, of
jertiHty and produce equal to almoft any in the kingdom. It
takes its name from Taunton, the principal town.

TAVOLADOTO, a fmall ifland near the eaft coaft of
Sardinia. N. lat. 40° 54'. E. long. 9"^ 5'.

TAVOLARA, a fmall idand near the eaft coaft of Sar-
dinia. N. lat, 40° 52'. E. long. 10° 5'.

TAVORA, a river of Portugal, which runs into the
Duero, 5 miles N.E. of Lamego Alfo, a town of Por-
tugal, in the province of Beira ; 6 miles E. of Lamego.

TAVOYVOVEL, a fmall idand near the eail coall of
Lewis. N. lat. 58° 6'. W. long. G'' 29'.

TAURAGUR, a town of Hindoollan, in Lahore; 24
miles W.N.W. of Nogarcot.

TAURASI, a town of Naples, in Principato Ultra ;
22 miles S.E. of Benevento.

TAURASIA, m /Indent Geugraphy, a town of Italy, in
Gallia Tranlpadana.

TAURAT, in Geography., a town of the idand of Cuba ;
38 miles N.N.E. of St. ,Tago.

TAUREA, among the Romans, a punidiment inflicted
by whipping with fcourges made of bulls' hides.

TAUREAU, in Geography, aa idand on the French
coaft, with a fort to defend the harbour of Morlaix.

TAUREE, a town of Bengal ; 35 miles S.S.E. of
Ghidore.

TAURESIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Eu-
ropean Dardania, on the other fide of the territory of Du-
ras ; the birth-place of Juftinian, who founded here a magni-
iicent town, called after his own name.

TAURI liberl Iibertas — nlu fome ancient charters, taunts
liber figniiies a common bull kept for all tenants witliin fuch

.1 manor, or liberty — " Cum libcrtate faldiae, liberi taurl
et liberi apri, &c." See Free Bull. '

Tauui, ill yfnrieni Geography, a people of Sarmatia, in
the vicinity of Scythia. According to Herodotus, thefe peo-
ple had a cudom of facrificing to Iphigenia, tiic daughter
of Agamemnon, the llrangers whom chance threw on their
coalls, and alfo the Greeks who fell into their hands.

TAURIA, r-Mf!M, in Antiquity, a fciUval in honour of
Neptune. Pot. Archseol. torn. i. p. 432.

Tauria, in Ancient Geography, an idand of the Medi-
terranean fea, between New Carthage and Cxfarea of Mau-
ritania. Anton. Itin.

TAURIANA, a town of Italy, in Brutium.

TAURICA Chersonesus. See Chehsosesvs Taurica

and Crimea.

TAURIDA, Tauriciieskaia, or province of Tauris,
in Geography, a province of Ruffia, being part of the go-
vernment of Catlierinendaf or Ecaterrinendaf or Ekateri-
nodav, bounded on the N. by the rivers Dnieper and the
Konflcija, on the W. and S. by the Black fea, and on the
E. by the fea of Azoph. This fertile peninfula, whidi is
the great mart of commerce in the Black fea, was colonized
for the purpofes of trade by the Greeks, Romans, Genoefe,
occupied by the Turks under Mahomet II., and governed
by the khan of the Tartars, a vaffal to the Porte. On tiie
peace of Kninardi, in 1774, it was declared an independent
fovereignty, taken poifeffion of by Catharine II. on the ab-
dication of the khan Sahin Gerai, in 1783, and confirmed
to Rudia by the Porte in the fame year by the treaty of
Conflantinople. The emprefs revived feveral of the ancient
Greek names. M. Pallas has exhibited an animated and de-
lightful pifture of this province in his account of a journey
made in 1794, for which we refer to Tooke's Rudia, vol. i.
For a farther account of it, fee Crimea. See alfo Russia.
Taurida, Mountains of, are extended and lofty, forming
the fouthern fide of tile province, and the diore of the
Euxine fea. The range extends from Theodofia in a (Iraight
line weftwards, quite up to Balbeck. At Karafobafar two
towering pinnacles dioot up, and at Akmclchat a very cle-
vated one, called Aktau. The fmaller mountains ftand diilinct.
and fcattered. It is very probable that this range is partly
a continuation of the Caucafian, and p;ully of the Carpa-
thian mountains ; and that thefe two principal chains arc
connefted by it : which alfo feems apparent from the nature
and qualities of the mountains oppofite to thofe of Taurida,
which extend beyond the Danube, tlirough Bulgaria, and
are called Pulkanian. The greater part of thefe mountains
of Taurida confifts of chalk-mafles with petrifactions, and
many beds of fand and marie, and chalk-hills with flints.
Hence it is prefumed that they are not to be claded with
the original, but only with the alluvial or depofited moun-
tains. A part of them is thought to owe its origni even to
the fubterranean fires. Whether this be the cafe or not, it
is faid that lead, copper, and iron ores are found in them, as
well asjafper, agate, and mountain cryllal. They are very
rich in lime-ftone, marble, date, fand-ftone, coals, napkha,
and common fait. The ide of Taman confifts merely of
beds of fand and marie, without lime-llone. The height of
the Taurida mountains is moderat-e ; and they are in a great
degree deflitute of foreils. The trees that grow upon theiu
are thofe of the richeft. foliage, fuch as oak, beLc!i, chcfnut,
&c. But what they want in wood is made up very amply
by the rich .ind beautiful herbs of the vallies. The rivers
that take their rife from thefe mountains ai'e the Alma,
Katlha, Kabarda, Salgyr, Karuflu, and many leflerftreaniA,
that form pleafing natural cafcades.

V z TAURI-

T A U

TAURILIA, among tVie Romans, games in honour of
thf infernal gods. They were otherwife caUed ludt taunt.

TAURINIA, in /Incieni Geography, a town ot Eu-
ropean Sarmatia, in the pcninfula called « Curfus Achillis.

Steph. Byz.

rKVK\S,mGfography. See TabRem.

TAURISCI, in jincient Gngraphy, a Celtic people, who
were eftabUfhcd along the Danube. They jvere ieparated
from the Scordifci by a mountain caUed by PUny Mons

Claudius. . ■ t

TAURO, a town of European Sarmatia, in the penm-
fula of " Curfus Achillis." Suidas.

TAUROBOLIUM, or Taurobolion, among the
Jncknls, facrificcs of bulls, which were offered to Cybele,
the mother of the gods, to render thar.ks to the goddels ot
the earth, for her teaching men the art to tame thofe ani-
fljals, and fit them for labour. .

The Taurobolium was a kind of facrifice of expiation and
purification ; of which no trace occurs before the reign of
Antonine, and which feems to have terminated under Hono-
rius and Thcodofius the younger. It was principally em-
ployed in the confccration of the priefts of Cybele.

TAVRO-C ASTRO, in Geography, a town of Greece,
in Livadia ; 20 miles N.N.E. of Athens.

TAUROCINIUM, in Ancient Geography, a river of
Italy, in Magna Grjecia ; and the people who lived upon its
banks in the vicinity of the town of Rhegium, were called

Taurocini. , r ,

TAUROCOLLA, Bull-Glue, a fort of glue much ufed
among the ancients in works that required Urength, being
accounted far ftronger than any other kind. It was made
by boiling down the ears and genital parts of a bull in water.
TAUROENTUM, in Ancient Geography, a colony
founded by the ancient Marfeilloife on the fea-fliore, to the
right of the entrance into the bay of Ciotat.

TAUROGEN, in Geography, a town of S?.mogitia ; 30
miles S.W. of Rofienne.

TAUROMENIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Sicily. See Taor.mina.

TAUROPOLIA, in Antiquity, feafls celebrated in
honour of Diana and Apollo, in the Icarian ifles, inz. thofe
of the Archipelago and of the Jigean fea.

TAUROPOLIAN, in Ancient Geography, the name of
a temple fituated in the ifle of Samos ; dedicated to Artemis,
or Diana. — Alfo, a temple dedicated to Diana, in the ifle
of Icaria. Strabo.

TAUROPOLIS, a town of Afia Minor, in Caria.
TAURUS, in AJlronomy, the Bull, one of the twelve
figns of the zodiac, and the fecond in order.

The ftars in the conftellation Taurus, in Ptolemy's cata-
logue are 44 ; in Tycho's catalogue, 43 ; in Hevelius's cata-
logue, 51 ; in the Britannic catalogue, 141. See Constel-
lation

T A U

name of one of the three canals by which the town of
Alexandria, in Egypt, communicates with the fea — Alfo, .i
place of Sicily, 60 ftadia from the town of Syracufe —
Alfo, a marth of Gallia Narbonnenfis.

Taurus, in Geography, was a general name given by
the ancients to any thing of a gigantic nature, and hence it
has_been applied to a celebrated range of mountains, which
is (aid to extend from the Grecian Archipelago to the extre-
mities of Afia. By Strabo it is thouglit to originate in
Caria and Pamphylia ; and by fome modern geographers, on
the coaft of Cilicia, not far from Scarderoon. Howeve;-
this be, it interfefts Afia Minor from E. to W., and ad-
vancing in n N.E. direftion, intercepts the courfe of the
Euphrates, and fpreads itfelf over the kingdom of Arme-
nia, where it unites with mount Caucafus. It then detaches
a variety of branches into Perfia, of which the moft con-
fpicuous is that named Mont Zagros by the ancients. This
long and lofty range formerly divided Media from Affyria,
and now forms the boundary of the Perfian and Turkifh em-
pires. It runs parallel with the river Tigris and Perfiaj-;
gulf, and almoft difappearing in the vicinity of Gombroon,
feems once more to rife in the northern diftrifts of Kerman,
and following an eafte]-ly courfe through the centre ot
Meckraun and Balouchiftan, is entirely loft in the deferts of
Sinde.

Taurus, in fome Ancient Cujloms, fignifies a huftjand.
Leg. H. I. cap. 7. " Videtur autem matris ejus, cujuf-
cunque taurus alluferit."

Taurus, in Entomology, a fpecies of Scarabaus. — Alfo, a
fpecies of Cicada, found in Coromandel. — Alfo, a fpecies of
Cimex.

Taurus, in Ornithology, a name given by the ancients to
the bittern or butter-bump, from its imitating the roaring of
a bull in its noife.

Taurus, m Zoology. See Bos and Bull.
Taurus Mthiopicus, the Ethiopian Bull, an animal de-
fcribed in a very remarkable manner by Pliny ; but fo con-
trary to the courfe of nature, that we may very juftly rank
it among the other extraoidinary animals, fuch as the man-
tichora and the vermis cseruleus, of fixty or feventy feet
in length.

TAUSA, in Geography, a town of Saxoay, in tlie cjrcle
of Neuftadt ; 2 miles N. of Ziegenbruck.

TAUSCHELIN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Schlan ; 10 miles W.N.W. of Schlan.

TAUSCHIN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Kaurzim ; 7 miles S.E. of Kofteletz.

TAUSEN, John, in Biogreipky, called the " DanilTi
Luther," becaufe he was one of the firft promoters of the
reformation in Denmark, was born of parents who were
peafantsin the ifle of Fyen, in the year 1499. Having finifh-
edhis courfe of education, he became a monk in the conventof
the order of St. John of Jerufalem, at Antoorfkow, and here

Taurus, in Ancient Geography, a name given by the an- he ingratiated himfelf fo much with the prior, that he ob'

cients to a chain of mountains, which commenced in Afia
Minor, occupied the northern part of Cilicia, and proceeded
to join, towards the north of Syria, mount Amanus ; but
afterwards the name has comprehended the mountains which
reach from the Taurus of the ancients to the fouth of the

Cafpian fea Alfo, the name of a promontory on the eaftern

coaft of Sicily. Ptolemy. — Alfo, a mountain of Scythia.
It is a branch of mount Taurus that extends to the environs
of the Palus Msotidcs and the Cafpian fea. Jornandes. —
Alfo, a mountain of Germany, and a mountain of ^Ethiopia.
— Alfo, a place of Palcftine, at the entrance of the town of Je-
richo.— Alfo, a river of Greece, in the^Peloponnefus — Alfo,
a river of Afia, in the vicinity of Pamphyha.— Alfo, the

tained a penfion for travelling into toreign countries, on
condition that he fhould avoid Wittenberg, which was at
that time the focus of herefy. In his progrefs he vifited
Louvain and Cologne, where he had an opportunity of pe-
rufing fome of the works of Luther, with which he was fo
captivated, that he could not refift the inclination of pro-
ceeding to Wittenberg, notwithftanding the prior's inter-
dift. In this place he pur*";ed his ftudies under the inftruc-
tion or Melanfthon with fuch fuccefs, that he was ap-
pointed to give public leftures on theology in the univerfity
of Copenhagen. In his convent, to which he was foon re-
called, he frequently preached ; and at length, -vix. in 1524,
publicly avowed lymfelf a difciple of Luther. The confe-

quence

T A U

quence was his expulfion from the convent at Antoor/kow,
aiid his retirement to another at Wiborg. As he here pro-
pagated his doftrine, he was iniprifoned by the prior ; but
by this aft of feverity he was emboldened to proceed, and
preached to tlie populace from a window. Being liberated
in 1 526, he was in the fame year appointed chaplain to the
king, and permitted to preach openly at Wiborg. He foon
acquired a number of followers, who went to church armed,
in order to protect him from the violence of the Papills. In
1529 he was invited to officiate in the church of St. Nicho-
las, at Copenhagen ; and in the following year he attended,
as direftor, at a conference which took place in that city be-
tween the Lutherans and the Roman Catholics. On the
death ©f Frederic I. he was baniflied fromZealand, but being
after a few days invited to return, he was appointed clergy-
man and lefturer in theology at Roichkild. In 1542 he was
advanced to the epifcopal chair of Ribe, and died in the
year 1561. Taufen, befides an improved Dani(h tranflation
of the Pfalms, printed in 1544, and at Copenhagen in 1557,
was the author of feveral works, confifting of Danilh
hymns, and treatifes on the doftrine of Luther. A full
account of his meritorious fervices may be found in Profeflbr
Munter's Hiftory of the Reformation in Denmark, &c.
Gen. Biog.

TAUSS, or DoMAznTZ, in Geography, a town of Bo-
hemia, in the circle of Pilfen ; 26 miles S.S.W. of Pilfen.
N. lat. 49° 25'. E. long. 12° 52'.

TAUSTE, a town ot Spain, in Aragon ; 25 miles N-W.
of Sai-agofla.

TAUTENBURG, a town and citadel of Saxony, in
Tliuringia ; 3 miles S. of Camburg.

'i^UTICA, in jinclent Geography, a town of Afia, in
Media.

TAUTOLOGICAL Echoes, are fuch echoes as re-
peat the fame found or fyllable many times. See Echo.

TAUTOLOGY, in Grammar, a needlefs repetition of
the fame fenfe in different words ; or, a reprefentation of
any thing as the caufe, condition, or Lor.fequence of itfelf.
•Of the firft kind is that of Virgil :

" Si fata virum fervant, fi vefcitur aura

jEtherea, neque adhuc crudelibua oc:ubat umbris."

Such alfo is this of Addifon :

" The dawn is overcaft : — the morning lours ;

And heavily in clouds brings on the day." Cato.

Here the fame thought is repeated thrice in different
words.

It is alfo confidered as of the nature of tautology, to
lengthen a fentence by coupling words altogether or nearly
fynonimous, whether they be fubflantives or adjeftives,
verbs or adverbs. This is a very common fault, and to be
found even in our beft writers. It fhould ever be remem-
bered, as an invariable maxim, that words which add nothing
to the fenfe or to the clearnefs, muft diminifh the force of the
expreffion. There are two occaiions, however, on which
fynonimous words may be properly ufed. One is, when an
obfcurer term, which we cannot avoid employing, on ac-
count of fome conneiflion with what either precedes or fol-
lows, needs to be explained by one that is clearer : the other
is, when the language of the paffions is exhibited. Paflioa
dwells on its objeft ; the impallioned fpeaker always at-
tempts to rife in expreffion ; but when that is imprafticable,
he recurs to repetition and fynonymy, and thus produces in
a degree the fame eJeft. An adjeflive and its fubftantive
vill fomctimes include a tautology.. Moreover, in fome
fingle words, there is h much the appearance of tauto-

TAW

logy, that they ought, in profe at leaft, to be avoided ; futh
are worfer for worlc, lefTcr for left, chiefcft for chief, ix-
tremeft for extreme ; Moft Higheft, as in the liturgy, for
Mod High. Campbell's Philofophy of Rhetoric, vol. ii.

TAUVES, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Puy de D6me ; 15 miles W. of Beffe.

TAUVO, a fmall ifland on the E. fide of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 64" 50'. E. long. 24° 31'.

TAVY, a river of England, which rife8,in Dcvonfhire,
paffi;s by Taviftock, &c. and joins the Xa»ar, two miles
below Saltafli.

TAUZIM. SeeTEUsiNG.

TAW, a river of England, which rifes about three miles
S.E. from Oakhampton, and runs into the Briftol channel
below Appledore, forming a large bay at its mouth, called
Barnftaple bay.

Taw, a town of Pruffia ; 23 miles W.S.W. of Tilfit.

TAWALLY, one of the Molucca iflands, 25 miles
long from north to fouth, and from 5 to 9 broad. S. lat.
0° 21'. E. long. 127° 14'.

TAWANDEE Creek, a river of Pennfylvania, which
runs into the E. branch of the Sufquchanna, N. lat. 41° 45'.
W. long. 76° -^d.

TAWARRAN, a town on the N.W. coaft of the
i/l.-md of Borneo. N. lat. 6° 9'. E. long. 116- 15'.

TAWAS, Indians in the Ohio, on the river Miami of
the Lake.

TAWEE-TAWEE, an ifland in the Sooloo Archipe-
lago, 30 miles long, and from 3 to 10 broad. N. lat.
5° 15'. E. long. 120°.

TAWING, Skinning, the art or manner of preparing
or dreffing fkins in white, to fit them for ufc in divers
manufaflures, particularly for gloves, &c.

All kinds of flvins may be tawed ; but it is chiefly thofe
of (hcep, lambs, kids, and goats, that are ufed to be drefled
this way, as being thole fitteil for gloves.

Method of taTfing or drejfin^ Sliiis in IFh'tle. — The wool
or hair being well got off the ilcins by means of lime, &c.
(as defcribed under the article Shammv,) they are laid in
a large vat of wood or ftone, fet in the ground, full cf
water, in which quick-lime has been flaked ; in this they
continue a month or fix weeks, as the weather is more or
lefs hot, or as the llcins are required to be more or lefs fqft
and phant.

While in the vat, the water and lime are changed twice,
and they are taken out and put in again every day. When
taken out for the lall time, they are laid all night to foak
in a running water, to get out the greateil part of the lime;
and in the morning they are laid fix together on the woode-i
leg, to get off the flerti by fcraping them ftoutly, one after
another, on the fleffi-fide with a cutting two-handed in-
ilrument, called a knife ; and while this is in hand, they
cut off the legs, and other fujKrlluous parts about the
extremes.

This done, they are laid in a vat or pit with a little water ;
where, being well fulled with wooden peftles for a quarter
of an hour, the vat is filled up with water, and the lk!-,s
are rinfed in it. They are next thrown on a clean pavement
to drain ; which done, they are caft into a frelh pit cf
water, where being well rinfed they are taken out, and laid
on the wooden leg fix at once, with the hair-fide outcrmoil,
over which they rub a kind of whetftone very brifltly, to
foftcn and fit them to receive four or five more prepar-iticns
given them on the leg, both on the flefti-fide and the hair-
fide, with the knife, after the manner above-mentioned.

They are then put into a pit with '.vatcr and iwheat -bran,
and ilirrcd about in it with wooden poleg, till the bran is

jicrccivcd

TAW

perceived to ftick to them, and then arc left. After this,
as they rife of themfelvcs to the top of the water by a kind
of fermentation, they arc phingcd down again to the bot-
tom, and, at the fame time, fire is fet to the liquor, which
takes as eafily as if it were brandy, but goes out the mo-
ment the (kins are all covered.

This operation is repeated as often as the (kins rife above
water ; and when they rife no more, they are taken out,
laid on the wooden leg, the fle(h-fide outermoft, and the
knife is paflTed over it to fcmpe o(F the bran. The bran
thus cleared, the (l<ins arc laid in a large badcet, where they
are loaded with huge ftones to promote their draining ; and
when fufficiently drained their feeding is given them, which
is performed after the following manner : For too large
fheep-lkins, and for fmaller in proportion, they take eight
pounds of alum and three of fea-falt, melt the whole with
water in a vefl'el over the fire, poviring the folution out,
while yet lukewarm, into a kind of trough, in which are
20 pounds of the fineft wheat-flour, with eight dozen
yolks of eggs ; of all this together is formed a kind of
parte, a little thicker than children's pap, which, when
done, is put into another veffel, to be ufed in manner
following.

A quantity of hot water being poured into the trough in
which the paile was j)repared, two fpoonfuls of the pafte are
niixed with it ; in order to which tlu-y ufe a wooden fpoon,
which contains ju(l what is required for a dozen fliins ; and
when the whole is well diluted, two dozen of the (Icins are
plunged into it, care being taken by the way, that the water
be not too hot, which would fpoil both the pafte and hurt the
fldns. Having (laid foine time in the trough, they are taken
out one after another with the hand, and (Iretched out ; this
is repeated twice ; when they have all had their pafte, they are
put into tubs, where they are fulled afreih with wooden
peftles.

Then they are put into a vat, where they remain five or
fix days or more, and are at laft taken out in fair weather,
and hung out to dry on cords or racks ; the quicker tiiey
dry the better, for if they be too long in drying, the fait
and alum within them are apt to make them rife in a grain,
which is an eifential fault in this kind of drefRng.

When the fliins are dry, they are put up into bundles,
and juft dipt in fair water; from which being taken out and
drained, they are thrown into an empty tub, and, after
fome time, are taken out, and well trampled under foot.

They are then drawn over a flat iron inftrnment, the top
of which is round, like a battledore, and the bottom fixed
into a wooden block, to ft retch and open them : when
opened, they are hung in the air upon cords to dry ; and
when dry they are opened a fecond time, repaffmg them
over the fame inftrnment.

Laftly, they are laid 011^ table, pulled out and laid
fmooth, and are thus in a condition for fale and ufe.

After the fame manner are drefled horfcs', cows', calves'
ft<ins, &c. for the fadlers, harnefs-makers. Sec, as alfo dogs',
wolves', bears' flcins, &c. excepting that in thefe the ufe of
pafte is omitted, fait and alum-vvater being fuflicient. See
Tamxin'g.

By ilat. 9 Ann. c. 11. and 10 Ann. c. 26. the follow-
ing duties are impofed on hides or fl^ins tawed or drelfed in
Great Britain. For horfe-hides dreft'ed in alum and fait, or
meal, or otherwife tawed, u. (,d. a hide ; hides of fteers,
cows, and all other (except horfe-hides) drelfed in alum and
fait or meal, or otherwife tawed, 3^. a hide ; calve.(l<ins and
kips, dreffed in aluni and fait or meal, or otherwife tawed,
I^f/. apound; (kins fo drelfed or tawed with the hair on,
3^. ■ a dozen, and without hair, lu a dozen 5 dog-fliins fo

TAX

dreflfed or tawed, \s. a dozen ; buck and doe-flclns (except
what paid the duty on importation) dreffed in alura and fait
or meal, or otlierwife tawed, 6d. a pound ; kid-fliins fo
dreffed or tawed, except as before, is. a dozen ; goat-(kins
fo dreffed or tawed, 2s. a dozen ; beaver-flcins fo tawed,
2s. a dozen ; niecp-n<ihs and lamb-ftcins fo dreffed or tawed,
I i^. a pound ; and all other tawed flvins, not before charged,
^o/. for every 100/. value. All thefe duties are to be paid
by the tawers or makers.

For hides and flvins dreffed in oil, 6d. a pound; deer,
goat, and beaver-flcins dreffed in oil, 6d. a pound ; calve-
(kins dreffed in oil, id. a pound ; flieep and lamb-fldivs
dreffed in oil, 3 J. a pound ; all flvins dreffed in oil, not be-
fore charged, 15/. in the 100/. according to the real value ;
all wliich are to be paid by tlie oil leather-dreffers.

For other regulations, fee Leather and Tanner.

TAWIXIWI, in Geography, a town of America, on
the Miami. N. hit. 40'^ 35'. W. long. 84° 4'.

TAWNY, in Heraldry. See Tenne.

TAWY, in Geography, a river of South Wales, which
rifes in Brecknockfliire, and runs into the fea at Swanfea.

TAX, formed from ry.^L-, order, denotes a certain aid,
fubfidy, or fupply, granted by the commons of Great Bri-
tain in parliament affembled, conftituting the king's extra-
ordinary revenue ; and paid yearly towards the expences
of the govermuent. See Money -5/7/j-, Parliament, and
Supply.

Anciently, the tax feems to have been impofed by the
king at his pleafure ; but Edward I. bound himfelf, and
his fucceffors, from that time forward, not to levy it, but
by confent of the realm.

To this purpofe the celebrated Mr. Locke, in his " l^ffay
on Government," (ch. xi. J 140.) lays down the following
propofition as fundamental. " 'Tis true, government can-
not be fupported without great charge ; and 'tis fit every
one who enjoys his (hare of proteftion, (hould pay out of
his eftate his proportion for the maintenance of it. But
ftill it muft be with his own confent, i. e. the confent of
the majority, giving it either by themfelves, or their repre-
fentatives chofen by them : for if any one (hall claim a
power to lay and levy taxes on the people by his own au-
thority, and without fuch confent of the people, he thereby
invades the fundamental law of property, and fubverts the
end of government. For what property have I in that,
which another may by right take when he pleafes to
himfelf?"

Dr. Adam Smith, the ingenious author of "An En-
quiry into the Nature and Caufes of the Wealth of Na-
tions," to'whofe work we have had occafion to refer, lays
down (vol. ii. p. 2.) the four following ma:iims with regard
to taxes in general. " i. The fubjefts of every ftate ought
to contribute towards the fnpport of the government, as
nearly as poffible, in proportion to their refpeftive abilities,
that is, in proportion to the revenue which they refpeftively
enjoy under the proteftion of the ftate. 2. The tax, which
each individual is bound to pay, ought to be certain, and
not arbitrary. The time of payment, the manner of pay-
ment, the quantity to be paid, ought all to be clear and
plain to the contributor, and to every other perfon. When
it is otherwife, every perfon fubjeft to the tax is put more
or lefs in the power of the tax-gatherer, v.'ho can either
aggravate the tax upoij any obnoxious contributor, or ex-
tort, by the licence of fuch aggravation, fome prefent or
perquifite to himfelf. 3. Every tax ought to be levied at
the time, or in the manner, in which it is moft hkely to be
convenient for the contributor to pay it. 4. Every tax ought
to be fo contrived, as both to take out and to keep out of the

pockets

TAX.

pockets of 'the people as littk- as pofiible, over and above
what it brings into the pubhc trcafury of the ftatc." This
maxim may be couiiteraftod by requiring for the levying of
the tax a great number of officers, whofe falaries may con-
Funie the greater part of the produce of the tax, and whofe
ncrquiiites may impofe another tax upon the people ; — by
-■ibftrufting their induilry, and difcouraging them from ap-
plying to certain branches of bufincfs, whicli might give
; maintenance and employment to great multitudes ; — by the
i iorfeiturcs and other penalties which thofe unfortunate indivi-
' duals incur, who attempt unfuccefsfully to evade the tax,
which may ruin them, and thus put an end to the benefit the
community might have received from the employment of their
I capitals ; tlie penalties of Imugghng being fo ordered as to
rife in proportion to the temptation ; and by fubjefting the
people to the frequent vifits and the odious examination of
the tax-gatherers, which occalion much trouble, vexation,
and opprefTion.
I As the private revenue of individuals arifes ultimately

! from the three different fources of rent, profit, and wages,
every tax mud finally be paid from one or other of thefe three
different forts of revenue, or from all of them indifferently.
The firll kind of taxes comprelieuds thofe upon the rent of
kind. (See Land-tax.) Taxes upon the produce of the
land are in reality taxes upon the rent. (See Tithes.)
Taxes upon tlie rent of houfes include that which may be
called the Building rent, and that which is commonly called
the Ground rent ; and fo far as thefe fall upon the inhabit-
ants, they muff be drawn from tlie fame fource as the rent
itfelf, and muff be paid from their revenue, whether derived
from the wages of labour, the profits of ttock, or the rent
<if land ; and it is in every refpeft of the fame nature as a
tax upon any other fort of confumable commodities. Houfes
EOt inhabited ought to pay no tax ; houfes inhabited by the
proprietor ought to be rated, not according to the expence
which they might have coif in building, but according to
the rent which an equitable arbitration might judge them
likely to bring, if leafed to a tenant. Ground rents are
Hill a more proper fubjeft of taxation than the rent of
houfes, or even the rent of laud. The principal objeftion to
all ta,xes upon houfes and windows is their inequality, and
therefore they are direftly contrary to the firft of Dr.
Smith's maxims above ftated. Their natural tendency is to
lower rents.

Taxes upon profit, or upon the revenue arifing from ftock,
comprehend the tax upon ftock, fuch as is impofed by the
land-tax in England, by which it was intended that the ftock
/liould be taxed in the fame proportion as the land, and taxes
upon the profit of particular employments. Taxes upon
the wages of labour muff finally fall upon the confumer.
Befides the taxes already enumerated, there are others, fuch
as capitation taxes, and taxes upon confumable com-
modities, which muft be paid indifferently from whatever
revenue the contributors may poffefs ; from the rent of their
land, from the profits of their flock, or from the wages of
their labour. Tlie impoffibility of taxing the people, in pro-
portion to their revenue, by any capitation, feems to have
_given occafion to the invention of taxes upon confumable
commodities ; and thefe are either ncceff;u-ies or luxuries.
A tax upon the neceffaries of life operates exaftly in the
fame manner as a direft tax upon the wages of labour, and
will fall, if the labourer be employed by a manufafturcr, on
the confumer ; or if he be employed by a farmer, it will fall
upon the rent of the landlord. But it is othcrwife with
refpeft to taxes upon luxuries. The rife in the price of
the taxed commodities, will not neceffarily occafion any
j-jfe in the wages of labour. Any rife in the average

price of neceffaries, unlefs it is Compenfatcd by s pro*
portionable rife in the wages of labour, muff neceffarily
diminifli more or lefs the ability of tlie poor to bring up
numerous families, and confequently to fupply the demand
for ufeful labour ; whatever may be the flate of that demand,
whether inereafing, ftationary, or declining ; or fuch as re-
quires an inereafing, ftationary, or declining population.

Taxes upon luxuries have no tendency to raife the price
of any other commodities except that of the commodities
taxed. Taxes upon neceffaries, by raifing the wages of
labour, neceffarily tend to raiTe the price of all manufac-
tures, and confequently to diminifli the extent of their fale
and confumption. Taxes upon luxuries are finally paid by
the confumers of the commodities taxed, without any retri-
bution. They fall indifferently upon every fpecies of
revenue, the wages of labour, the profits of ftock, and the
rent of land. Taxes upon neceffaries, fo far as they affeft
the labouring poor, are finally paid, partly by landlords in
the diminlflied rent of their lands, and partly by rich con-
funiLTs, whether landlords or others, in the advanced price
of manufaftured goods ; and always with a confiderable
over-charge.

In Great Britain, the principal taxes upon the neceffaries
of life are thofe upon fait, leather, foap, and candles. Heavy
taxes upon thefe commodities muft fomewhat increafe the
expence of the fober and induilrious poor, and muft, confe-
quently, more or lefs raife the wages of their labour. Such
taxes, iiotwithftanding their immediate cffeft, afford a con-
fiderable revenue to government, and accordingly they are
continued and multiplied.

Confumable commodities, whether neceffaries or luxuries)
may be taxed in two different ways. The confumer may
either pay an annual fum on account of his ufing or con-
fuming goods of a certain kind ; or the goods may be taxed
wliile they remain in the hands of the dealer, and before they
are delivered to the confumer. Tlie confumable goods
which lail a confiderable time before they arc confumed al-
together, are moft properly taxed in the one way. Thofe
of which the confumption is either immediate or more
fpeedy, in the other.

Of the latter kind is the greater part of the duties of
excife and cuftoms. Thofe of excife are impofed chiefly
upon goods of home produce deftined for home confump-
tion ; and they are impofed only upon a few forts of goods
of the moft general ufe. The duties of cuftoijis are much
more ancient than thofe of excife. (See Customs and
Excise.) It is obferved that high taxes, fometimes by di-
minifliing the confumption of the taxed commodities, and
fometimes by encouraging fmuggling, frequently afford a
fmaller revenue to government than what might be drawn
from more moderate taxes.

When the diminution of revenue is the effeft of the dimi-
nution of confumption, there can be but one remedy, and
that is the lowering of the tax.

When the diminution of the revenue is the effeft of the
encouragement given to fmuggling, it may perhaps be reme-
died in two ways ; either by diminiihing the temptation to
fmuggle, or by inereafing the difficulty of fmuggling. The
temptation to fmuggle can be diminifhed only by the lower-
ing of the tax ; and the difficuhy of fmuggling can be in-
creafed only by cftablifhing that fyftein of .adminiftration
which is moft proper for preventing it.

The duties upon foreign luxuries imported for home Con-
fumption, though they iomctimes fall upon the poor, fall
principally upon people of middling or more than middling
fortune. Such are, for example, tlie duties upon foreign
wines, upon coffee, chocolate, tea, fugar, &c.

The

TAX.

The duties \ipon the cheaper I'.ixuri-'s of home produce
deftincd for home confumption, fall pretty equally upon
people of all ranks in proportion to tlicir refpeftive expence.
The poor pay the duties upon milt, liops, beer, and ale,
upon their own confumption : the rich, upon both their own
confumption and that of their fervants.

The whole confumption of the inferior ranks of people, or
of thofe beloVv the middling rank, it 'hiuft be obferved, is in
every country much greater, not only in quantity, but in
value, tlian that of the middling and of thofe above the mid-
dhng rank. The whole expence of the inf.'rior is much
greater than that of the fuperior ranks. Although the ex-
pe.Tce of people of inferior ranks, taking them individually,
is very fmaU, yet the whole mafs of it, taking them collec-
tively, amounts always to by much the lurgcfl portion of the
whole expence of the fociety ; what rurnains, of the annual
produce of the land and labour of the country for the con-
fumption of the fuperior ranks, being always much Icfs, not
only in quantity but in value. The taxes upon expence,
therefore, which fall chiefly upon that of the fuperior ranks
of people, upon the fmaller portion of the anr.ual produce,
are likely to be much lefs produftive than either tliofe which
fall indifferently upon the expence of all ranks, or even thofe
which fall chiefly upon that of the inferior ranks ; than
either thofe which fall indifferently upon the whole annual
produce, or thofe which fall chiefly upon the larger portion
of it.

The bell taxes, fays Mr. Hume, (vol. i. Eff. 8.) are fuch
as are levied upon confumptions, efpecially thofe of luxury ;
becaufe fuch taxes are leaft felt by the people. They feem,
in fome meafure, voluntary : fince a man may chufe how
far he will ufe the commodity which is taxed. They are
paid gradually and infenfibly ; they naturally produce fo-
briety and frugality, if judicioufly impofed ; and being com-
pounded with the natural price of the commodity, they are
fcarcely perceived by the confumers. Their only difad-
vantage is, that they are expenfive in levying. Taxes upon
pofieffions are levied without expence ; but they have every
other difadvantage. Moft. ftates, however, are obhged to
have recourfe to them, in order to fupply the deficiencies of
the other. When a tax is laid upon commodities which are
confumed by the common people, the neceflary confequence
may feem to be, either that the poor mull retrench fome-
thmgfrom their way of hving, or raife their wages, fo as to
make the burden of the tax fall upon the rich ; but there is
a third confequence, which often follows upon taxes, namely,
that the poor increafe their induftry, perform more work,
and live as well as before, without demanding more for their
labour. Where taxes are moderate, are laid on gradually,
and do not afFeft the neceflaries of life, this confequence
naturally follows ; and it is certain, that fuch difficulties
often ferve to excite the induftry of a people, and render
them more opulent and laborious than others, who enjoy the
greateft. advantages. The moft pernicious of all taxes are
the arbitrary : they are commonly converted, by their ma-
nageinent, into punifliments on induftry ; and, alfo, by their
unavoidable inequality, are more grievous than the real
burden which they impofe. Poll-taxes are commonly arbi-
trary. A duty upon commodities checks itfelf; and a
prince will find, that an increafe of the impoft is no increafe of
his revenue.

After all the proper fubjefts of taxation have been ex-
haufted, if the exigencies of the ftate ftill continue to require
new taxes, they muft be impofed upon improper ones. It
has been well obferved, "that opprefGve taxation is a
morriler, which, after devouring every other thing, devours
Itfelf at laft." "

The taxes wliich are raifed on the Britifh fubjedl are cither
annual or perpetual. The ufual annual taxes are thofe upon
land and malt.

The firft of thefe is the land-tax, for an account of which
fee Laxd-/<7.v.

See alfo Hidage, Scutage, Talliagk, Te;. th. Fif-
teenth, and SucsiDY.

The other annual tax is the malt-tax, which is a fum
raifed every year by parliament ever fince 1697. See
Malt.

The perpetual taxes are the cuftoms, which are a tax im-
mediately paid by the merchant, although ultimately by the
confumer (ft- Customs) ; the excife-duty, which is an in-
land inipof:Lio;i, paid fometimes upon the confumption of the
commodity, or frequently upon the retail fale, which is th?
laft ftage befcre the confumption (fee Excise) ; the duty
upon fait : that for the carriage of letters or pojl ; t\\ej?iimf>-
dutifs ; the duty upon houfes and tu'witoius ; the duty
arifing from licences to h^ickxicy -coaches and chairs in
Loudon, and tl.e parts adjacent ; and the duty upon offices
and penfions. See Land-/ijx, &c. &c.

The alTefled taxes comprehend thofe on windows, houfes,
fervants, carriages, horfes and mules, dogs, horfe-dealers,
hair-powder, armorial bearings, and game licences. Fot
thofe on windows, fee the following fchedule.

Schedule (A.) 48 G. III. c. 55.

Number of windows accordin;; 10 which the duties Ihall
he charged .

Not more than 6 windows or lights (except in
fuch houfes which fhall be worth the rent
of 5/. by the year, and fhall be charged to
the duty mentioned in Schedule (B.), ac-
cording to the rent thereof)

Not more than 6 windows or lights, if of the
value before-mentioned, and charged to the
faid duty accordingly - - - .
7 windows or lights - , -

Dulles.
i' s. d.

066

8 -

.

Jo.

9 -

_

do.

10

.

do.

1 1

.

do.

12

-

do.

13 -

-

do.

14 -

.

do.

'5 -

.

do.

16 -

.

do.

17

.

do.

18

.

do.

J9 -

-

do.

20

.

do.

21

_

do.

22

.

do.

23 -

.

do.

24 -

25 -

26 -

;

do.
do.
do.

27 -

-

do.

28 -

-

do.

29 -

30 -

31 -

■

do.
do.
do.

32 -

.

do.

33 -

34 -

35 -

36 _

-

do.
do.
do.

do.

0

8

0

I

0

0

I

13

0

£

2

0

2

16

0

3

12

6

4

9

6

5

6

6

6

3

6

7

0

0

7

17

0

8

14

0

9

10

6

10

7

6

II

4

6

12

I

0

12

18

0

13

J5

0

14

1 1

6

15

8

6

16

5

6

17

2

0

17

19

0

18

16

0

19

12

6

20

9

6

21

6

6

22

3

0

23

0

0

n

16

6

24

13

6

TAX.

Not more than

37 windo

\vs or

lights

38

-

-

do.

39

-

-

do.

40

to

44

do.

45

-

49

do.

50

-

54

do.

5}

-

59

do.

60

-

64

do.

6s

-

69

do.

70

-

74

do.

75

-

79

do.

80

-

84

do.

85

-

89

do.

90

-

94

do.

95

-

99,

do.

100

-

109

do.

IIO

-

119

do.

120

-

129

do.

130

-

139

do.

140

-

149

do.

150

-

159

do.

160

-

169

do.

170

-

179

do.

180 and upwards do.

And for every fiich dwelling-houfe wliicli (hall
contain more than 180 windows or lights,
for every window or light exceeding the
number of 180

See Windows.

£

s.

rl.

25

lO

6

26

7

0

27

4

0

28

17

6

3'

J 3

6

34

10

0

37

6

0

39

•5

6

42

0

6

44

5

0

46

10

0

48

•5

0

5«

0

0

53

4

6

55

9

6

58

17

0

63

6

6

67

16

6

72

6

0

76

16

0

81

5

6

85

15

6

90

5

0

93

2

6

Schedule (C.) N'^ 2. Duties payable annually for maK-
fcrvants retained or employed in the feveral capacities
herein mentioned.

For every gardener or pcrfon employed to work £ j. J.
in any garden under any perfoii chargeable to
the duties mentioned in Sch.'dnle (C), N^ i ;
and for every gardener employed in any
garden wherein the conftanl labour of one
perfon (liall not be ncceflary, the fum of - 060

To be paid by each perfon in whofe garden fuch
perfon fhall be employed.

Exemptions from the Duties as fit forth in Schedule (C. )
N° I. and 2.

Any perfon employed by the day or week to work as a
day labouier, at tlie ufual rate of wages for day labourers
in agriculture, in any garden belonging to a dwelling-houfe,
being a farm-houfe, and exempted as fucli from the duties
mentioned in Schedule (B.), or in any garden belonging to
a dwelling-houfe not chai'geable to the duties mentioned
in the faid fchedule, fucli garden not requiring the conftanl
labour of one fuch labourer.

Schedule (C.) N° 3. Duties payable annually for every
male perfon or fervant retained or employed in the
feveral capacities herein mentioned.

O 3

Schedule (B.) 48 Geo. III. c. 55. Duties on inhabited
dwelling-houfes.

For every fuch inhabited lioufe with the houfe-
hold and other offices, yards, and gardens,
therewith occupied and charged, as are or fhall
be worth the rent herein -after mentioned by
the year, there (hall be charged the yearly
fums following ; viz.

^l. and under 20/. rent, by the year
20/. and under 40/. rent, by the year
40/. rent by the year, and upwards

The duties payable by 48 Geo. III. c. 55. annually for
male fervants are as below.

Schedule (C.) N°i.
Number of Servants.

For

Value in the
Pound.

£ s. d.
6
3

o

o
o

1 fuch fervant

2

do.

3

4
5

do.
do.
do.

6 -

do.

7 -

8 -

do.
do.

9 -

10

do.
do.

ri

do. a

and upwards - - r

For every fuch fervant retained or employed by

any male perfons, never having been married,

over and above the before -mentioned duties,

the further fum of - - - - -

Vol. XXXV.

Amount

of

Duty for

each Servant.

£

J-.

d.

2

4

0

2

16

0

3

7

0

3

18

0

4

9

0

4

14

0

4

16

0

5

3

0

5

12

0

6

3

0

7

I

0

1 14 o

For every male perfon employed by any mer-
chant or trader as a traveller or rider, the
duties following ; viz.
Where one fuch traveller or rider and no more
fhall be fo employed, the fum of - -

And where more than one fuch traveller or rider

fhall be fo employed, for each the fum of
For every male perfon employed by any perfon
in trade, or exercifing any profeffion whatever,
as a clerk or book-keeper, or office-keeper,
except apprentices, where no premivim, or a
premium lefs in value than the fum of 20/. has
been paid or contrafted for with fuch appren-
tice, the duties following ; -viz.
Where one fuch clerk, book-keeper, or office-
keeper, and no more fhall be fo employed,

the fum of

And where more than one fuch clerk, book-
keeper, or office-keeper fhall be fo employed,
for each the fum of ....

For every male perfon employed by any perfon
in trade as a fhopman, for the purpofe of ex-
pofing to fale or felling goods, w-ares, or mer-
chandife, in fuch fhop or warehoufe, whether
by wholefale or retail ; and every male perfon
employed as a warehoufcman, porter, or cellar-
man, in fuch fhop or warehoufe, except ap-
prentices as aforefaid, the fum of - -
The faid duties to be paid by the employer
or employers of fuch perfons, and to ex-
tend to every body politic or corporate,
■whether aggregate or fole, and to every
fociety, fraternity, or partnerlhip, al-
though not corporate ; and to every
manufadlure or concern (except huf-
bandry) whereby the employer ihall
feek a profit.

£

10

F.V

TAX.

l-"or every male fcrvant employed as a waiter £ i. d.
(except occafional waiters, over and above
the ordinary nimiber ufiially kept) in any
taverns, coffee -houfes, inns, ale-lioufes, or other
Ucenfed lioufes, or in eating or viftualling
houfes, or in hotels or lodging-houfes, being
eating or viftualling houfes, the fum of -250

For every male fervant retained by any ftable-
keeper to take care of any horfe, mare, or
•Tclding, of any otiier perfon or perfons, kept
for the purpofc of racing or running for any
plate, prize, fum of money, or other thing,
or any horfe, mare, or gelding, in training for
any of the faid purpofes, whereby fuch ilable-
keeper (hall gain a livelihood or profit, the
fum of 140

For every male fervant bond fide retained for the
purpofes of hufbandry, manufafture, or trade,
by which the mailer or millrefs (hall gain a
livelihood or profit, and at any time employed
in any domeftic employment in any of the
capacities in Schedule (C), N°i, and not
chargeable to the duties in the faid fchedule,
the fum of 060

For every male fervant bond fide retained for the
purpofes of hufbandry, or any manufacture
or trade, by which the mafter or miftrefs (hall
gain a livelihood or profit, and at any time
employed in the capacity of a groom, (lable-
boy, or helper in the ftables, where the mafter
or miftrefs fhall be chargeable for one horfe,
and no more, to the duty on horfes kept for
the purpofes of riding, or drawing a taxed
cart, or to the duty on fuch taxed cart, and
not on any other carriage chargeable with
duty by this aft, the fum of - - -060

The faid laft -mentioned duties to be paid
by the employer, or mafter or miftrefs
of fuch perfons or fervants.

SchedVile (C.) N° 4. Duties payable on fervants let to
hire.

For every coachman, groom, poftilion, or helper, i! s. d.
kept for the purpofe of being let to hire for
any period of time lefs than one year, and in
fuch manner that the ftamp-office duty pay-
able by law on horfes let to hire fhall not be
payable on every fuch letting by any poft-
mafter, inn-keeper, or other perfon, duly
licenfed to let poft-horfes by the commilTioners
for managing the duties on ftamped vellam,
parchment, and paper, or by any coach-
maker or maker of fuch carriages, or other
perfon, the annual fum of- - - -240

The faid duty to be paid by the perfon or
perfons letting the fame to hire.

Thefe feveral duties are fubjeft to certain exemptions.
The provifions of 43 Geo. III. c. 161. relating to the
affeffments of fervants, are as follow. Perfons hable to
thefe duties are to return lifts of their fervants, and are
chargeable accordingly from the year commencing from the
days ftated in their returns ; and they are fubjeft to the powers
of furcharge. Perfons beginning or ceafing to keep fer-
vants are to give notice in writing to the aflelTor of the
diftrift in which they refide.

Schedule (D.) N" i. Duties pivyable on all carriages of
any of the defcriptions mentioned herein.

Amount of
Nu;nbei- of Carriages. Duty lor

each Carriage.

For carriages with four wheels : £' s. d.

For 1 fuch carriage, the annual (um of -1150

2 - do. 1270

3 - do. - - - - -13100

4 - do. - - - - -1400

5 - do. - - - - -14120
6- do. - - - - -'530

7 - do. - - - - - 15 14 o

8 - do. - - - - -1650

9 - do. and upwards - - - 16 l6 o
And for every additional bvdy fucceffively ufed

on the fame carriage or number of v\heels,

the further fum of- - - - -5120

Schedule (D.) N° 2.
For carriages with lefs than four wheels :

For every fuch carriage ( except taxed carts, con-
ftrufted, kept, and ufed, under the regulations
of this aft) drawn by one horfe, mare, or geld-
ing, and no more - - - - -5180

And for every fuch carriage, drawn by two or

more horfes, mares, or geldings - - -850

And for every additional body of the defcription
herein-after mentioned, fuccefllvely ufed on
the fame carriage or number of wheels, the
further fum of - - - - -2160

Schedule (D.) N°3. '

For carriages hired for any period of time lefs
than one year, or kept to be let to hire, or to
carry paflengers :
For every fuch carriage kept for the purpofe of
being let to hire, with horfes to be ufed
therewith, for any period of time not exceed-
ing twenty-eight days, fo that the ftamp-
office duty, payable by law on horfes let
to hire (hall be duly paid and fatisfied on
every fuch letting by any poft-mafter, inn-
keeper, or other perfon duly licenfed to let
poft-horfes, by the commiffioners for manag-
ing the duties on ftamped vellum, parchment,
and paper, and whereon the name or names
and place of abode of the perfon or perfons
fo licenfed (hall be marked or painted, accord-
ing to the direftlons of the aft in that cafe
made and provided ; if fuch carriage fhall have
four wheels, the fum of - - - ■ 9 9 O

And if fuch carriage (hall have lefs than
four wheels, the refpeftive fums men-
tioned in Schedule (D.) N° 2, accord-
ing to the nimiber of horfes ufed there-
with, as therein mentioned.
And for every coach, diligence, caravan, or
chaife with four wheels or more, or other
carriage with four whee\s or more, by what-
ever name the fame (hall be called or known,
which (liall be kept and employed as a public
ftage -coach or carriage for the purpofe of con-
veying paffengers for hire to and from dif-
ferent places, and which fhall be duly entered
as fuch with the faid commilTioners of ftamp
duties, the like fum of - - - -99°

AU

TAX.

All -vvhich lail-mentii)ne(l diilios (hall re- JU s. J.
fpeftively bo paid by tlic pcrfon or per-
foiis keeping the fame, for the purpofes
aforefaid.
For every carriage kept for the purpofe of
being let to hire for any period of time lefs
than one year, and in fueh manner that the
faid ilamp-office duty (hall not by law be
payable on fucli letting by any perfon fo
licenfed as aforefaid, or by any coach-maker
or maker of fuch carriages, or otlier perion,
if fuch carriage (hall have four wheels, the
annual fum of - - - - -1150

The laid laft-mentioned duty to be paid
by tlic perfon or perfons keeping the
fame for the purpofes aforefaid.
, Provided, if a due return thereof (hall not \)C made by
the hirer or hirers according to the diredlions of the afts
herein mentioned, the progrefTive duty, as fet forth in
Schedule (D.) N^ i, (hall be chargeable in refpeft of
every fuch carriage on the perfon or perfons hiring the
fame, and making fuch default as aforefaid, fubjeft to the
provifions contained in the faid acts concerning the fame.

And if fuch carriage (hall have lefs than four wheels, the
refpeftive furas mentioned in Schedule (D.) N° 2, accord-
ing to the number of horfes to be ufed therewith, to be
paid by the perfon or perfons keeping the fame for the
purpofe aforefaid, fubjeft to the proviiions herein-after
contained concerning the fame. See Coach and Taxed
Cart.

By 50 Geo. III. c. 104. certain new duties are impofed.

A Schedule of the Duties payglile on Carriages caUed
Taxed Carts.

N° I.
For every carriage called a taxed cart, built and € s. d.
conftrufted according to the regulations of
the faid aft, in every refpeft the original price
of which (hall not have exceeded, or the
value whereof (hall not at any time exceed
the fum of 15/. rterling, and which (hall
not at any time be ufed with a covered or
fluffed feat, or with a covered foot-board or
apron thereto fixed or not fixed, there (hall
be charged the annual fum of t - - I 6 6

N°II.
For every fuch carriage called a taxed cart,
built and conllrufted with a fpring or fprings
of any materials whatever, (except of iron,
fteel, or any other metallic fubilance, or any
compofition of iron, (feel, or other metallic
fubftance, either wholly or in part,) the ori-
ginal price of which carriage (hall not have
exceeded, or the value whereof fliall not at any
time exceed the fum of 20/. fterliiig, or which
(hall be ufed with a ftu{fcd feat or cufhion,
or with a covered foot-board or apron thereto
fixed or not fixed, there (hall be charged the
annual fum of 2100

A Schedule of the Duties payable on Carriages with lefs than
Four Wheels.

N°III.
For every carriage with lefs than four wheels
chargeable by the faid adl of the forty -eighth

of his prefent majefty's reign with the duty of <J j. d.
5/. 1 %i. if drawn by one horfe, mare, or geld-
ing, and no more, there (hall be charged the
like amount of duty for every fuch carriage
drawn by one horfe, mare, gelding or inuli.',
and no more, tk'z. the annual fum of . . j iS ^

For every fuch carriage chargeable by the faid
aft with the duty of 8/. 5/. if drawn by two
or more horfes, mares, or geldings, there (hall
be charged the like amount of duty for every
fuch carriage drawn by more than one horfe,
marc, gelding or mule, viz. the annual fum of Si 5 o

And for any additional body fuccelTivelyufed on
the fame carriage or number of whwls ch-irge-
able by the faid ati with the further duty of
2/. l6s. there (liaU be charged tiie like amount
of further duty, for every additional body fuc-
ceffivcly ufed on the fame carriage or number
of wheels, if drawn in the manner herein
mentioaed, viz. the further annual fum of - 2160

Schedule (E.) N° I. Duties payable for all horfes, marcs
and geldings, kept and ufed for the purpofe of riding, or
of drawing any carriage chargeable witii duty by
Schedule (D.)

Amount if Dutv

Number thereof. for each llirfe.

Mare, or Gt-liltn^.

£ s. J.
For I fuch horfe, mare, or gelding - -2136

2 fuch horfes, mares, or geldings - - 4 9 6

3 - do. - - - 4 iti 6

4 . - do. - - -520

5 - do. ---530

6 - do. .... J 7 6

7 - do. - - - 5 10 o

8 - do. ---5100

9 - do. ---5120
io - do. - - - 5 17 6

11 - do. - - - 5 17 6

12 - do. - - - 5 17 6

13 - do. - - - 5 18 o

14 - do. . - - 5 18 o

15 - do. - - - 5 18 o

16 - do. - - - 5 18 o

17 - do. - - - 5 18 6

18 - do. - - -5196

19 - do. - - -600

20 and upwards - - - - -610

Rules. — The faid duties to be payable artnually for
every horfe, mare, or gelding, ufed on aiiy occafion for
the purpofe of riding, or of drawing any carriage for
which any duty is payable by this aft, or hired by the
year, or any longer period, and to be paid by the
perfon or perfons ufing the fame. Thefe duties are fub-
jeft to certain exemptions in favour of hulbaodry, under
certain circumftances.

Schedule (E.) N° 2. Duties payable on horfes let to
hire.

For every horfe, mare, or gelding, let to hire for £ /. d,
the purpofe of riding, or of drawing any fuch
carriage as aforefaid, for any period of time
lefs than one year, in any manner fo that the
ftamp-office duty payable by law on horfes
let to hire (hall not be payable, the fum of - 2136
X 2 To

TAX.

To hi- charged annually on the pcrfon or
perfons letting the fame ; provided, if a
due return thereof Ihall not be made by
the hirer or liirers, according to this aft,
the progreflive duty, as fet forth in
Sehcdule(E.) N° I, ftall be chargeable
ill refped of every fuch liorfe, mare, or
gelding, on the perfon or perfons hiring
the fame, and making fuch default as
aforefaid, fubjeft to the pi-ovifions of this
ad.

Schedule (E.) N^ 3. Duties payable on horfes kept for
the purpofe of racing or running for any plate, prize, or
fum of money, or other thing, or kept in training for any
of the faid purpofes.
For every horfe, mare, or gelding, bomifde kept L s. a.
for the purpofe of racing or running for any
plate, prize, or'fum of money, or other thing,
or kept in training for any of the faid pur-
pofes, whether in the ilables of the proprietor
or proprietors, or of any other perlon or
perfons, the fum of- - - - -2130

The faid duty to be charged annually on
the perfon or perfons having the cuftody,
charge, or management of fuch horfes,
mares, or geldings.

Schedule (F.) N° 1. Duties payable for all horfes,
mares, and geldings, not charged with any duty Record-
ing to the Schedule (E.) N° i, 2, 3, and alfp on mules.

For every horfe, &c. not chargeable with any £ s. d.
duty accordingto the Schedule (E.) N° I, 2,
and 3, as aforefaid, and for every mule, ex-
cept in, the cafes herein-after mentioned, where-
in other duties are made payable, the fum of 0740

Schedule (F.) N° 2. Duties payable on hufbandry -horfes,
in the cafes herein-after mentioned.

Any perfon occupying a farm at rack-rent, the £ s. d.
rent of which (hall be lefs than 20/. a-year,
and making a livehhood folely thereby, or
occupying any eftate on any other tenure than
as tenant at rack-rent folely, or fuch other
eftate, together vnth the farm at rack-rent, the
value of which in the whole fliall be lefs than
equivalent to a farm at the rack-rent of 20/.
a-year (reckoning the value of every eftate
occupied by the owner thereof, or on any-
tenure other than as tenant at rack-rent, as
equivalent to double the amount of the like
farm at rack-rent), and making a livehhood
folely by fuch his own eftate, or by fuch eftate
and farm jointly, or principally thei-eby, and
likewife a profit by any trade or employment,
and keeping not more than two horfes, mares,
geldings, or mules, bondjide for the purpofe
of fuch occupation, ftiall be charged for each
of fuch two horfes, mares, geldings, or mules,
the fum of - - - - - -02I0

Any perfon occupying a farm at rack-rent in
Wales or Scotland, the rent of which fhall be
lefs than 10/. fterhng a-year, and making a
livelihood principally thereby, or occupying
any eftate on any other tenure than as tenant
at rack-rent, or fuch other eftate, together

wilii a farm at rack-rent, the value of which £ s. d.
in the whole (hall be lefs than equivalent to a
farm at the rack-rent of 10/. fterling a-year
(reckoning the value of every eftate occupied
by the owner thereof, or on any tenure other
than as tenant at rack-rent, as equivalent to
double the amount of the like farm, at rack-
rent), and making a livelihood principally
thereby, and likewife a profit by any trade
or employment, and keepings not more than
two horfes, mares, geldings, or mules, bondjide
for the purpofes of fuch occupation, and of
fuch trade or employment jointly, or either of
them feparately, fhall be charged for each of
fuch two horfes, mares, geldings, or mules,
the fum of - - - - - - o 2 io

Rules for charging the duties, as fet forth in Schedule (F.)
N^ I and 2.

The faid duties to be chai-ged annually, and paid by the
perfon or perfons keeping or ufing fuch horfes, mares,
geldings, or mules, and to be payable for every horfe, mare
or gelding, and mule, which fhall not be chargeable nor
have been charged with any duty payable in that year, ac-
cording to the preceding fchedule marked (E.) by virtue
of the rules or exemptions therein contained, except ■ as
herein-after is mentioned.

Exemptions from the duties in Schedule (E. ) N" I and 2.

Any perfon whatever, for any horfe, mare', or gelding,
not being by due admeafurement of the height of thirteen
hands, of four inches to each hand, or which fhall not at any
time whatever have been ufed for any purpofe of labour or
otherwife. See Horse and HoRSE-Z)«a/ifr.

Schedule (G.) N° I. Duties payable on dogs.

For every greyhound, hound, pointer,, fetting- £ s. d.
dog, f^paniel, lurcher, or terrier, the annual
fum of- - - - -. - -oil6

For every dog, of whatever defeription or deno-
mination the fame may be, where any perfon
fhall keep two or more dogs, either for his
or her own ufe, or the ufe of any other perfon
or perfons, the annual fum of - - - o l ( 6

Vor every dog not being a greyhound, hound,
pointer, fetting-dog, fpaniel, lurcher, or ter-
rier, kept by any perfon having one fuch dog,
and no more, whether the fame be kept for his
or her own ufe, or the ufe of any other perfon
or perfons, the annual fiim of - - -.070

The faid duties to be paid by the perfons
refpeftively keeping fuch dogs. . •

Exemptions from the duties in Schedule (G.)

Cafe I. — Any dog belonging to his majefty, or any of
the royal family.

Cafe 2. — Any perfon who, on account of poverty, fhall
be difcharged from the afleirment made in refpeft of his or
her dwelling-houfe, in purfuance of the regulations of any
of the afts herein-mentioned, and having one dog, and no
more, the fame not being a greyhound, hound, pointer, fet-
ting-dog, fpaniel, lurcher, or terrier.

Cafe 3. — Any perfon, in refpeft of a dog or whelp,
which at the time of returning the hfts of dogs as by this
aft is required, fhall not aftually be of the age of fix calendar
months.

Cafe 4.

TAX.

Cafe 4. — Any perlon in rcfpctl of the wliole number
of hounds by him or Iicr kept in Great Britain, who (hall
compound for the fame, in any year within thirty days after
the 5th day of April in Inch year, in purfuance of notice
given to the collector or colleftors of the faid duty for any
parirti or place, where fuch perfon (hall be liable to be
airclTcd, of his or her intention fo to do, and on payment of
the full fum of 34/. Herllng to fuch collcftor or colk-ftors,
for which a receipt (hall be given within the period before-
mentioned.

Schedule (H.) Duties payable by horfe-dealers.

Every perfon who ihall ufe or exercife the trade £ j. </.
and bufinefs of a horfe-dealer-within the cities
of I^ondon and Weilminfler, and the hberties
of the fame i-efpetlively, the parilbes of 9t.
Mary-le-Bone and St. Pancras, in the county
of Middleiex, the weekly bills of mortality,
or the borough of Southwark, in the county
of Surrey, the annual duty of - - - 22 10 o

Every perfon who (hall ufe or exercife. the trade
and bufinefs of a horfe -dealer in any other part
of Great Britain, the annual duty of - - 1 1 5 o

Schedule (I.) Duties payable by perfons in refpeft of
Iiau- -powder ufed or worn by them.

By every perfon who {hall have ufed or worn any £ s. d.
hair-powder within the period limited by any
of the ails herein mentioned, the annual fum
of -130

Schedule ( K. ) Duties payable by perfons in refpeft of
any armorial bearing or enfign, ufed or worn by them,
by whatever name the fanie (hall be called ; ii'iz.

By every fuch perfon chargeable with any duty £ j-. d.
made payable by this aft, for any coach or
other carriage, the annual fum of - -280

By every fuch perfon not chargeable for any
fuch coach or other carriage, but who jhall be
chargeable to any of the duties on inhabited
houfes, or to the duties on houles, windows,
or hghts, made. payable by this aiSl, the annual
fum of-. - - - -- - 140

By every fuch perfon not chargeable for any
fuch coach or other carriage, nor being
chargeable to the faid duties on inhabited
houfes, or to the duty on houfes, windows, or
lights, the annual fum of- - - -0120

Schedule (L.) Duties payable in refpeft of killing game.

Upon every perfon who (hall ufe any dog, gun, £ s. d.
net, or other engine, for the purpofe of taking
or killing any game whatever, or any wood-
cock, fnipe, quail or landrail, or any conies,
in any part of Great Britain :

If fuch perfon {hall be a fervant to .any perfon
dnly charged in refpeft of inch fervant to the
duties granted on fcrvants by this aft, and
{hall ufe any dog, gun, net, or other engine,
for any of the purpofes before-mentioned,
upon any manor or royalty in England,
Wales, or Berwick-upon-Tweed, or upon
any lands in Scotland, by virtue of any depu-
tation or appointment, duly regiftered or
entered as game-keeper thereto, there (hall
be charged the annual fum of - - - i i o

And if fuch perfon as laft aforefaid (hall not be £ t. d.
a fervant, for whom tlicfaid duties on ftrvant;;
{liall be charged, there (hall be chargid the
annual fum or - - . . -^*o

Upon every other perfon who {liall ufe any dog,
gun, net, or other engine for any of the pur-
pofes before-mentioned, there (hall be charged
the annual fum of- - . . - x 7. o

By the 46 Geo. III. c. 84. every perfon- liaving more
than two children born in lawful wedlock, and bund Jidt
maintained at tlie expence of fuch perfon, (hall for every
fuch child above two be allowed at the rate of ^ per cent.
on the amount of all the alTenhients on fuch perfon by
virtue of the 43 Geo. III. c. 161. 45 Geo. III. c. 13.
46 Geo. III. c. 78. in cafe the total amount of all the
a{re(rments fhall be under 40/. in any one year, which
allowance {liall be made annually out of the duties fo
charged, at any time in the ' year of afTeffment, on dtli*
very of a declaration in writing, containing the whole
number of fuch children, and their refpeftive names and
places of refidence, and which of them are of the family, or
relide ellewhere.

By f. 2. this provifiun {lull extend to children by a
former marriage, either of the hu{band or wife.

The ilatute 43 Geo. III. c. 99. reciting that it is expe-
dient that certain of the provifions contained in any afts
relating to the duties on wiiidows or lights, on inhabited
houfes, fervants, carriages, horfes, mules, and dogs, and
other duties lately transferred to the commiflioiiers for the
affairs of taxes, fhould be confolidated and amended : enafts
that all the faid duties under the management of fuch com-
mi{rioners (except the land-tax) {hall, from and after
April 5, 1804, be a{re{red, mifcd, levied, and paid under the
regulations thereof.

And as new duties may hereafter be pl.nced under their
management, to be aflelfed in like manner, it is declared
that this aft (liall, with refpeft to fuch duties, take effeft
after the time (ixed by the -aft or afts granting them for
the commencement of the fame. Sec the provifions of this
aft detailed in Burn's Juftice, ubi fupra.

The property-tax being now extinft, we aro happily re-
lieved from giving any account of it.

For the qualifications and powers of commiffioneTs, the
appointment of afleffors and colleftors, tiie mode of making
a{re{rments,- furcharges, appeals, &c. S:c. we refer to Burn's
Juflice, art. Taxes.

For the duty on poll -horfes, &c. (ee PosT-ffor/e.
The revenue arifing from the feveral taxes, which is an-
nually paid to the creditors of the public, or carried to the
linking fund, is lull depofited in the l^oyal exchequer, and
thence iflTued out to the refpeftive offices of payment : for
the manner in which it is apphed, fee Fund and NATiox.iL
Debt. See alfo Revenue.

The people of France were {Irangcrs to tallies or taxes till
the time of St. Louis, when they were firll inipofed in form
of fubtidies necell'ary for the fupport of the war in the Holy
Land. See Choisaue.

They were then extraordinary levies, and were raifed by
capitation ; but they were afterwards made perpetual under
Charles VII. and Philip the F.iir, who, to raile money
without difturbing tlie people, called the people, as a third
eflate, into the general councils of the realm.

Tax alfo denotes the tribute which tenants were occa-
fionally to pay their lord.

Moll lords had a right of taxing on four occai'ions : viz.
when the lord was taken prifoner in a jufl w'ar ; when he

made

T A X

made- his eldcft fon a knight ; whon he married his cldeft
daughter to a gentleman ; and wlien he made the voyage ot

the Holy Land. r , ■ i • j r .

Naude (liews the extravagant rife of this kind of taxes :
thofe, he obferves, which under diaries V I . only amounted to
the fum of 40,000 livres, were increafed under Charles VU.
to the fum of 1,800,000; under Louis XL to 4,740,000;
under Charles VIIL to 6,000,000 ; and under Louis XU.

to 7,640,000 livres. , r >

Taxes were dillinguifhed into free, which were thole due,
in the four cafes, by freemen, or thofe who held free lands ;
and fervih and b.ife', which were thofe due from perfons ot

bafe condition. ,- 7 rr.

They were alfo diftinguidied into real and perfonal. 1 he

perfonal were impofed on the head of the fervant or man in

mainmort, and fo followed him wherever he went.

TAXA, in Geography, one of the fmall Weftern illands,

near the fouth-eaft coaft of Hay. N. lat. 55" 43'. W. long.

6° 3'.

TAXAMALCA, a town of Mexico ; 60 miles S. of

Mexico.

TAXAMARCA, a town of Mexico, in the province
of Mechoacan ; 40 miles E. of Mechoacan.

TAXANTHEMA, in Botany, fo named by Necker,
from TK?!,-, a row, and av9n,x«, hiflnrefcence^ becaufe fome
of the plants on which this fuppofed genus is founded differ
from other fpecies of Statice, in having their flowers difpofed
in a regular feries, or row, and not in a round head ; wit-
nefs S. Limonium and its allies. Thefe fpecies indeed con-
ftitute Tournefort's genus of Limonium, but he affociates
with them others with difperfed flowers. (See Statice
and Limonium.) Mr. Brown, Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i.
426, adopts Necker's genus and name, citing Tournefort's
Limonium as a fynonym. The latter name was probably
judged too near Llmonia to be retained. We prefume to
think the genus of Statice is in itfelf fo natural, and fo well
diftinguiihed from every other, that if a praftical example
were defired, to warn us againft founding generic dillinftions
upon inflorefcence alone, no better could be felefted. See
Cyme and Genus.

TAXERS, two officers yearly chofen in Cambridge, to
fee the true gauge of all weights and meafures obferved.

The name took beginning from taxing and rating the rents
of houfes, which was anciently the duty of their office.

TAX-GUTIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Rh^tia, towards the fource of the Rhine, near Brigantium.
Ptol.

TAXIANA, an ifland fituated in the Perfian gulf, on
the coaft of Sufiana, weft of the ille of Tabiana. Ptol.

TAXILA, a large town of India, on this iide of the
Ganges. Ptol. and Strabo.

TAXIMIRA, a town of Phoenicia. Strabo.

TAXIPA, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the pro-
vince of Guafteca ; 30 miles N.N.W. of Panuco.

TAXIS, Ta|.;, in the Ancient Architefliire, fignifies the
fame with ordonnance in the new, and is dcfcribed by Vitru-
vius to be that which gives every part of a building its juft
dimenf^ons with regard to its ufe.

Taxis, from To-s-^i', lo put in order, in Surgery, the opera-
tion of reducing a hernia with the hand. See a particular
account of it in the article Hernia.

TAXITLAN, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Guafteca ; 38 miles S. of St. Yago de los
Valles.

TAXUS, in Botany, the ancient Latin name of the

J. ^ A. ^^ X^I 1^ , 111 JJUIiHiy, b(li~ (1IIV.1^,11V .LJAI.I11 11UI11\. ^'X \.li^

ew-tree, ufed by Pliny. The word is fuppofed by fome
• be derived from to|o-., a boiu, arroiu, or dart, becauie

T A X

mifTile weapons were poifoned with its berries. We are con-
fident that this precife explanation is erroneous, becaufe,
whatever may be the noxious quahties of any other part of
the plant, the berries are fimply mucilaginous and faccha-
rine, eatable vvitli impunity, as we have often experienced.
The ancient ufe of this wood for bows, perhaps alfo for
arrows or darts, might more truly account for the above
etymology, did not Diofcorides exprefsly tell us Txfo; was

Latin Linn. Gen. 532. Schreb. 706. Willd. Sp. PI.

V. 4. 856. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 1086.
Prodr. Fl. Grxc. Sibth. v. 2. 265. Ait. Hort. Kew.
V. 5. 415. Purfh 647. Juff. 412. Lamarck lUuftr.
t. 829. Gsertn. t. 91. — Clafs and order, Dloecia Mona-
delphia. Nat. Ord. Cnnifert, Linn. JufT.

Gen. Ch. Male, Gal. none, except the fcales of the
bud, refembling a perianth of four leaves. Cor. none.
Stam. Filaments numerous, united below into a column,
longer than the bud ; anthers depreffed, blunt, with eight
notches, at the edge, fphtting all round at the bafe, and
after fliedding tlieir pollen becoming flat and peltate, re-
markable for their eight marginal fegments.

Female, Cal. inferior, of one leaf, clofe, undivided, en-
tire. Cor. none. Pijl. Germen fuperior, ovate, acute ;
ftyle none ; ftigma obtufe. PeKtc none, except a fpu-
rious incomplete berry, formed of the calyx elongated
into a globofe juicy coloured Iheath, open at the top, at
lengtli (hrivelling and drying away. Seed one, ovate-
oblong, projefting with its fummit beyond the berry.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx none. Corolla none. Stamens
numerous. Anthers peltate, with eight fegments.

Female, Calyx cup-fhaped, entire. Style aone. Seed
one, partly enveloped in the pulpy calyx.

Obf. LinnKus properly mentions that the berry of this
genus cannot, ftriftly fpeaking, be denominated a pericarp.
" It is a remarkable fpecies of bern-, like which nothing
elfe is to be feen, except perhaps in Gaulthcria.'" If the
analogy here cited be juft, the part in queftion is a real calyx,
not more extraordinary in its change than that of Blitum, or
of Morus, and we have always ventured to term it fuch,
truiling to the analogies of Juniperus and Ephedra for our
iupport.

I. T. baccata. Common Yew. Linn. Sp. PI. 1472.
Willd. n. I. Fl. Brit. n. i. Engl. Bot. t. 746. (Taxus ;
Ger, Em. 1370. Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 444. Camer. Epit.
84P. ) — Leaves linear, two-ranked, crowded, nearly flat.
Male flowero globofe. — Native of mountainous woods, par-
ticularly in the clefts of high calcareous rocks, in various
parts of Europe, from Norway to Greece, flowering in
March or April. Diofcorides indeed, who calls this tree
o-|UiAaf, fpeaks of it as an exotic, the la^oc of the Romans ;
but Mr. Hawkins noticed it wild on the rocks of mounc
CyUenein Laconia. Thunberg fays it is common ir. Jripan.
The trunk is ftraight, of flow gi-owth, with a fmooth deci-
duous bark, and very hard, tough, cloie-grained wood.
Branches fpreading horizontall)' in two direftions. Leanies
numerous, fcattered, crowded, fpreading in two rows, nearly
fcfTile, linear, entire, flightly revolute, Qbtufe with a fmall
point, fmooth, of a dark fhining green, permanent, about
an inch long. Floivers axillai-y, folitary, nearly feflile, en-
veloped with imbricated bradeas ; the male ones numerous,
fometimes two or three together, cream-coloured, half the
fize of a pea, globofe, abounding with pollen ; females
drooping, their green entire calyx juft vifible beyond the
bradeas. This afterwards affumes the appearance ot a bright
fcarlct berry, the fize of a currant, open at the top, where
the feed appears. The leaves are very poifonous, and if ac-
cidentally eaten by domeftic cattle, prove fatal. The

ancienti

TAXUS.

ancients report that it is dangerous to fleep under this tree.
It was JFormerly much planted in church-yards ; and many
Yews, perhaps " the tenants of a thoufand years," Hill re-
main in the northern and WcKh village cemeteries. This
was the favourite tree for clipping into any fantaftic fliape,
on which art our <jld gardeners fo much valued themfelvcs ;
but the art and the material are now nearly alike difcarded ;
and tlie garden is freed from one of tlie greateft afylunis for
vermin, the trim yew hedge.

2. T. canadenfis. North American Yew. Willd. n. 2.
Purfli n. I. (T. baccata /5, minor; Michaux Boreal. -
Amer. v. 2. 245.) — Leaves linear, two-ranked, crowded,
revolute. Male flowers globofe, always folitary. — In (luidy
rocky places in North America, flowering in March and
April. In Canada. Michaux. Covering a great pwt of
the rocky banks of the Antietum, in Maryland. Under
the (hade of other trees, it does not rife above two or three
feet. Purjh. Michaux defcribes this fpecies as of humbler
growth than the former, fpreading, and with fmaller_y7cw«"x
and fruit, Willdenow fays it is fmaller and narrower in all
its parts, nor does it alter by cidture, and yet a fpecific dif-
tindtion is hardly to be detected. The leaves, how'evcr, are
narrower, fmaller, and revolute at the margin. ^?le Jloivers
always fohtary in the bofoms of the leaves.

3. T. elongata. Long -leaved African Yew. Ait. ed. I.
v. 3. 415. ed. 2. n. 3. Willd. n. 3. Thunb. Prodr. 117.
— Leaves fcattered, linear-lanceolate. Branches fomewhat
whorled. Male flowers cylindrical, with fpirally imbricated,

very numerous, anthers Native of the Cape of Good

Hope. Sent to Kew in 1774, and kept in feveral curious
greenhoufes in England as well as on the continent, flower-
ing in July. Wild fpecimens, anfwering to Thunberg's
charafter of tlie whorled branches, but without a name, are
preferved in the Linnrcan herbarium. In thefe the leaves are
fcattered, on tliort broad ilalks, flat, coriaceous, fomewhat
glaucous, occafionally falcate, from one to two inches long.
Male Jtotvers axillary, folitary, cyHndrical, obtufe, about
half an inch in length, their fcale-like anthers imbricated, ex-
axStly like thofe of a Fir. The garden plant has leaves half
as long again, not glaucous, lometimes oppofite on the
young branches.

4. T. montana. Mountain Peruvian Yew. Willd. n. 4.
— " I^eaves two-ranked, hnear, with a callous point ; tlicir
upper edge rounded at the bafe ; lower contracted. " — Ga-
thered by Humboldt and Bonpland on the mountains of
Peru. Akin to 7". laccnta, but differing in the above cha-
rnifter of the foliage. The fame travellers noticed, in Mexico,
what Willdenow judged to be a mere variety of this fpecies,
with leaves half as long again.

5. T. nucifera. Acorn-bearing Yew. Linn. Sp. PI.
1472. Willd. n. 5.. Ait. n. 3. Thunb. Jap. 275.
Kainpf. Am. Exot. 814. t. 815. — Leaves two-ranked,
dillant, lanceolate, pointed, but half the length of the fruit.
— Frequent, according to Kaempfer, in the northern pro-
vinces of J;;pan, flowering in fpring, and ripening fruit late
in a\itumn. Thunberg obferved it here and there near Na-
gafaki, and in the ifland of Nipon. Mr. Aiton fays it was
cultivated in the greenhoufe of Capt. Thomas Cornwall, in
1764. We have never examined this fpecies. Ksmpfer
defcribes it as a lofty tree, with many oppofite fcaly branches ;
the wood light. Leaves hardly an inch long, one-third of
an inch afunder, nearly feffile, tipped with a Ihort point ;
dark lliining green above ; glaucous beneath. Female
flowers axillary, folitary, difperfed, fomewhat quadrangular,
their thick flefhy fcales becoming a fort of permanent cup at
the bafe of the feed, or nut, which is coated, oval, pointed,
above an inch lonj;. The oil of the kernel is eilcemed for

culinary purpofes. The kernel itfelf is too aftringcnt to be
eaten in general.

6. T. macrophylla. Long-leaved Japan Yew. Thunb.
Jap. 276. Willd. n. 6. Ait. n. 4. Banks Ic. Ksmpf.
t. 24. {Sin, vulgo Maki, feu Fon Maki, id eft Malci legi-
tiina ; Ka;'mpf. Am. Exot. 780.) — Leaves icattcred, lanceo-
late, pointlefs, fpreading every way. Fruit ilalked. — Com-
mon in Japan, flowering in June. Thunberg. Mr. William
Kerr brought it from Cliina to Kew in 1804. A green-
houfe plant, flowering in July and Auguft. Aiton. Ka?mpfer
defcribes this as a large and llout tree, whofe wood is valued
for cabinet work, being not liable to the attacks of infedts,
or other caufes of decay. The leaves are a finger's length,
fpreading equally in all direftions ; paler beneath. Male

foivcrs cylindrical. Fruit axillary, Ilalked, with a pair of
awl-fliaped revolute fcales at the top of the llalk. The feed
is oval, the fi/.e of a pea, and fetms by Kaempfer's figure to
be elevated on a partial ftalk above the fleftiy calyx. Thun-
berg, however, fpeaks of the " ovate fmooth green berry,
turning black in drying, filled by an ovate white feed."
Perhaps this may be a coated nut, as in T. nucifera.

7. "Y . fpinulofa. Spinous-leaved YeW Leaves partly

oppofite or whorled, lanceolate, fpinous-pointed, fpreading
every way. Fr\iit ihdked. — For a fpecimen of this, faid to
have been brought by governor Philip irom Pert Jackfon,
New South Wales, we are indebted to A. B. Lambert,
efq. It very much refembles Kocmpfer's plate of the lait,
in general habit, but the leaves are hardly an inch and
quarter long, and have each a fpinous point. The ftalks
of x\\c fruit are axillai'y, each crowned with a pair of lanceo-
late, revolute, permanent fcales. Fruit oval, elevated on a
ftalk, whicli is equal in length to the calyx, compofcd of
feveral flefhy fcales, that envelopes it. The Cze and whole
appearance of this fruit and its accompaniments are fo pre-
cifely like Kimpfer's figure of the l.ail, which indeed they
help us to underftand, that thefe two plants muft be of the
fame genus, and are more truly perhaps akin to T. nucifera,
than to T. baccata. On this fubjeft we may expeft informa-.
tion hereafter from Mr. Brown ; if at leail our prefent plant
be really a native of New South Wales.

8. T. latifoUa. Broad-leaved Cape Yew. Thunb.
Prodr. 117. Willd. n. 7. — " Leaves folitary, lanceolate,
pointed, fmooth." — Found by Thunberg at the Cape of
Good Hope.

9. T. falcata. Sickle-leaved Cape Yew. Thunb.
Prodr. 117. Willd. n. 8. — " Leaves folitary, lanceolate,
falcate, fmooth." — From the fame country. One of our
wild fpecimens of 7". elongata anfwers to this definition.

10. T. tomentofa. Downy Cape Yew. Thunb. Prodr.

117. Willd. n. 9 " Leaves oppofite, lanceolate, downy

beneath." — Gathered at the Cape by Thunberg, whofe
fpecific characters of thefe fpecies, except of the laft, are
not fufficient to diftinguifh them from llie reft. \Ve have
feen no fpecimens.

11. 'i\ vcrticillata. Whorled Japan Yew. Thunb. Jap.
276. Willd. n. 10. [Ken Jin, item Sen baku, vulgo Inu
Maki, id eft Maki fpuria ; Ksnipf. Am. Exot. 780.) —
Leaves whorled, linear, falcate. — Native of Japan. A tree
with denfe branches, gradually ftiortcr upward, fo as to
aflume a conical figure, like a Cyprefs, three fathoms high.
Fruit ob!ong, in two divifions ; the lower part refembling
moufe-dung ; the upper a grain of pepper, in which is
loofely enclofed a fleftiy, loft, fweetifh kernel. Such is
Ksempfer's defcription, by which it is eafy to perceive the
ch'fe rtferi-.blance of this fruit to our T. mairiphylla and fpi-
n-ulofa. A fpecimei. from Thunberg, without fructification,
in the Linnasaii herbarium, anfwers .veil to his own defc-ip-

tion.

TAX

tion, having round, fmootli, greyilh branches. Whorls
from one to two inches afunder, each of about eight fcfTile,
linear, falcate, entire, fmooth, fingle-ribbed haves, a finger's
length, or more ; two lines broad ; obtufe, or flightly emar-
ginate, at the end ; of a dark ftiining green above ; paler
beneath.

Taxi's, in Gardmir.!;, furnilhcs a plant of the hardy ever-
green kind, of which'the fpecies moftly cultivated is the
common yew-tree ( T. baccata. ) This is a tree which has
feveral varieties, as tliofe with very fliort leaves, with broad
(hining leaves, and with ftriped or variegated leaves.

Method of Culture. — In this tree, the increafe may be
cffcded in fevera! ways, as by feeds, and fometimes by
layers and cuttings. In the firil mode, after iiaving procured
a quantity of the yew berries, and diveftod them of the pulp
or mucilag-^ they (hould be fown in beds of light earth,
either in (hallow di-ills, or fcattered over the furface in the
autumn or fpring feafon ; but the former is the beft method,
as the plants rife in the following fpring ; and be covered
near an inch deep with light mould, out of the alleys, &c.
They require no further care, only to keep the beds clean
from weeds before and after the plants come up, and to
give crccalional waterings in dry weather, in fpring and
fummer, to forward and ftrengthen the plants in their
growth. They Ihould have two years' growth in the feed-
bed ; then in the autumn or fpring be planted out upon four-
feet -wide beds, in nurfery rows, a foot afunder, to remain
two, three, or four years, when fome may be planted out
finaliv for hedges, where required ; others in the nurfery
quarters, in rows, two or three feet afunder, to be trained
in a fuitable manner for the purpofes they are intended.

And after growing in the nurfery till they obtain from
half a yard to four or five feet ftature, they may be finally
planted out in autumn or fpring, for their intended pur-
pofes ; when they will rife from tlie ground with a large
fpread of roots. They (hould be planted in their places as
foon after removal as poffible, giving each plant a good
• watering at the time.

'In the future culture, thofe trained in hedges, &c. muft
be clipped or cut in annually, once or twice in the fummer ;
and thofe in the (hrubberics and rural plantations have the
lower branches pruned up occafionally to a fmgle ftem ; but
the head fhould generally be permitted to fpread agreeably
to its natural mode of growth, except juft reducing any
confiderable rambling branch, &c.

But the ftriped or variegated yews, and other varieties,
fhould be increafed by layers, flips or cuttings, as they are
rarely permanent by feeds. The layers fhould be made
from the young (hoots of not more than a year or two old,
being laid down in fpring, fumrner, or early in autumn,
when many of them will take root, and in one or two years
be fit for planting off into nurfery rows.

And the flips and cuttings (hould be made by cutting or
(lipping off a quantity of the one-year's fhoots, diverting
them of the lower leaves, and planting them in a fhady
border thick together, in fmall trenches, in the early fpring
or autumn, giving water at planting, and afterwards occa-
fionally in dry hot weather. They will be well rooted in
two years, and be fit for being planted out into wide nurfery
rows, or in any other fimilar manner.

All thefe plants may be employed as ornamental ever-
greens, and as foreft-trees ; and they were formerly much
ufed in hedges and trained figures : they have a good effeft
in (hrubberies among others of the evergreen tribe, being
pennitted to affume their natural growth, in common with
other trees and (hrubs ; and alfo when planted as detached
llandards, in extenfive diftant opens of grafs-ground, in

10

T A Y

parks, and the fides of hills, &c. ; likevrife when introduced as
forell -trees in timber plantations of the evergreen kind. See
Plantation.

The different forts of hedges and figure-works which
were formerly in fo high repute in gardens and pleafiu-e-
grounds, are now almofl wholly in difufe, thefe being at pre-
fent laid out in a more open and rural manner, fo as to have
a greater imitation of nature, and a more fuU difplay of their
feveral quarters and parts, as the lawn, walks, and other
places, together with the various plants belonging to
them.

Single yews are now even hardly ever admitted in modern
defigns by way of ornament, but thefe trees, in their natural
growths, are defirable for introducing into lai-ge plantations
of the durative kind, for the fake of increafing the variety ;
and though fome perfons rejeft them in confequence of their
poifonous nature, and gloomy mournful afpeft, others admire
them for fuch folemn appearances, and think they afford a
remarkably fine contraft with the other more lively ever-
greens. There can be no doubt that the leaves, efpecially
when withered, or dried a little, are of a poifonous quality ;
befides, the tree has had the title of the deadly yew given to
it by fome, and been looked upon as an emblem of mortality,
and on that account planted in church-yards, to remind
people of their latter end. That accidents have frequently
arifen to cattle, of both the horfe and cow kind, from eating
the green leaves and tender (hoots, but more particularly
when in the above Hates, is certain. Therefore, as the
cuttings or clippings of thi» fort are often liable to be eaten
with greedinefs by fome cattle, particularly cows, even
when they have lain in the fun for a day or two, and are
become half dried, it is proper and neceffary that they fhould
be either carefully deftroyed by fire, or put quite out of the
way of all forts of animals, and not, as is too frequently the
praftice, be carelefsly thrown over the walls or hedges, into
the roads, lanes, or on the rubbifh heaps, where cattle
frequent.

The beft fizes of yew plants are probably from two or three,
to five or fix feet in height ; but thofe of feven or eight may
be removed with balls of earth about their roots, and be
ufed for particular purpofes and occafions. Watering at
the time of planting them is conftantly requifite.

Taxus, in Zoology, the Ursus Mitks, or common Badger ;
which fee. — Alfo, a name given by Kasmpfer to the hyaena
of the ancients. See Canis Hyiena, and Hyaena.

TAY, in Geography, is a river in Perthfhire, Scotland,
confidered as the greateft of the Scottifh rivers, has its fource
in the weftern extremity of the county, in the diflrift of
Breadalbane, on the frontiers of Lorn, in Argylefhire ; but
has not the appellation of Tay till it iffues from the lake of
that name. At its fource it bears the name of Fillan ; and
defcending in a circuitous courfe of eight or nine miles
through a valley, to which it gives the name of StrathfiUan,
it falls into Loch Dochart. This lake, about three miles in
length, has an ancient caftle upon an ifland, overhung by a
huge promontory ; the whole embowered with wood, fo as
to have a moft romantic appearance. Iffumg from Loch
Dochart, the river retains that name, and gives the appella-
tion of Glen-Dochart to the vale through which it runs.
At the eaftern extremity of this valley, the water is again
detained in its courfe ; and being augmented by the river
Lochay, the united ftreams form one of the mofl beautiful
of the Scottifh lakes, called Loch Tay. IfTuing hence, the
river afTumes the name of the lake, which name it retains
till it mingles virith the waters of the ocean. The valley
through which it paffes may be confidered as the paradile
of the Highlands. On Loch Tay, and the river for

fome

T A Y

T .\ \'

fome miles below it, the banks are richly cultivated, or
covered with beautiful plantations, the whole overlooked
and fheltercd by mountains towering to the clouds ; among
which rifes the lofty Benlawers, the third mountain in point
of height in the ifland. Here, near the village of Kenmore,
is the magnificent feat of the earl of Brcadalbane, called
Taymouth ; and in this valley, although the parilhes are
twenty, thirty, or forty miles in extent, fcveral parifti-
churches are fituated in a traft of a few miles ; a circum-
ftance which demonftrates the difcernment of the clergy in
ancient times in felefting their place of refidcnce. After
leaving the lake about two miles, the Tay acquires a great
increale trom the waters of the Lyon ; at Logierat it re-
ceires the united ftreams of the Gan-y and the Tummel,
and becomes a river of uncommon fizc and beauty. Near
Dunkeld it is increafed by the waters of the Bran, and re-
ceiving in its com-fe the Ida, witli its tributary ftreams from
the eaft, and the Almond from the weft, proceeds by Perth
between the hills of Kinnoul and Moncrieff, till it meets the
Earn, after which it proceeds eaftward, forming the elluary
or Frith of Tay ; which expands to the breadth of three
miles, but contrafts to two miles as it approaches Dundee,
about eight miles below which, it pours its waters into the
German ocean. The hills of Kinnoul and Moncrieff afford
extenfive profpefts ; that from the latter is denominated by
Pennant die " Glory of Scotland." The Tay is navi-
gable as far as Newburgh, in Fife, for veffels of 500 tons ;
and veffels of confiderable fize can go up as far as Perth.
The Frith of Tay is not fo commodious as that of the
Forth ; but from the Buttonnefs or Barray fands to Perth
(an extent of nearly forty miles), the whole may be con-
fidered as a harbour ; having the county of Fife on one
fide, and thofe of Angus and Perth on the other. There
are fewer great falls of water on the Tay than in moft other
rivers which rife in a highland diftrift ; but it poffeffes
feveral cafcades of confiderable height, particularly at the
Linn of Campfie, near its junftion with the I(la, where the
water is precipitated over a huge bafaltic dike into a pool of
great depth. — Beauties of Scotland, vol. iv. Perthftiire,
1806.' Gazetteer of Scotland, 1 806.

Tay, Loch, a lake in Perthftiire, Scotland, extends about
fifteen miles in length from the village of Killin, its
weftern extremity, to its eafl^rn termination at the village
of Kenmore ; its breadth is only from one to two miles. Its
depth varies in different parts, from fifteen to a hundred
fathoms. The banks on both fides are fertile, and finely
diverfified by the windings of the coafts and the varied ap-
pearances of the mountains. On a fmall promontory near
the eaftern extremity, are the church and village of Ken-
more, near which, on a fmall ifland covered with trees,
ftand the ruins of a priory, which was dependent on the
religious cftabhftiraent of Scone. It was founded, in 1122,
by king Alexander I., who depofited there the remains of his
queen Sybilla, the natural daughter of Henry I. of England.
On the death of Alexander the priory was more liberally
endowed, that the monks might perform maffes for the
repofe of his foul, a« well as for that of his queen. The
loch abounds with falmon, pike, perch, eels, charr and
trout. The falmon are peculiarly excellent ; the fiftiery
for which commences in December, and ends on the 26tii
of Auguft. The earl of Breadalbane has the exclufive
right of filhing there at all feafons. Tliis privilege was
originally granted for the purpofe of fupplying fifli for the
monks of the priory, and at the diffolution was, with the
ifland, claimed by this noble family. The waters of this
lake have at times fuffered violent and unaccountable agita-
tion. An ample account of one of thefe phenomena, wnich

Vol. XXXV.

occurred on Sunday, September 12, 1780, is publirticd ni
the firll volume of the Tranfa6tions of the Royal Society
of Edinburgli. It was written by Mr. Fleming, late
minifter of Kenmore. He ftatcs, that " about nine o'clock
in the morning the water was obfcrvcd to retire about five
yards within the ordinary boundary, and in four or five
minutes to flow out again. In tliis manner it ebbed and
flowed fucccffivcly three or four times within the fpace of a
quarter of an hour, when all at once the water ruflied from
the eaft and weft in oppofite currents, and rofe in the form
of a great wave to the height of five feet above the ordinary
level, leaving the bottom of the bay dry to the diftance of
between ninety and an hundred yards from its natural
boundary. When the oppofite currents met, they made a
claftiing noife and foamed ; and the ftronger impulfe being
from the eaft, the wave, after rifing to its greateft height,
rolled weftward, but flowly dimini(hing as it went, for the
fpace of five minutes, when it wholly difappearcd. As the
wave fubfidcd, the water flew back with fome force, and
exceeded its original boundary four or five yards ; then it
ebbed again about ten yards, and again returned, and con-
tinued to ebb and flow in this manner for the fpace of two
hours, theebbings fucceeding each other at the diftance of
about feven minutes, and gradually leffening, till the water
fettled into its ordinal"}- level. During ihi whole time that
this phenomenon was obfervcd, the weather wa.s calm.' It
could fcarcely be perceived that the direftion of the clouds
was from north-eaft." On the 13th of July, 1794, the
loch experienced agitations fimilar to thofe defcribed by
Mr. Fleming, but they were neither fo violent nor fo long
continued. — Beauties of Scotland, vol. iv. Perthfliire.

Tay, a river of Ireland, in the county of Waterford,
which runs into the fea, 7 miles W.N.W. from Dungarvan
bay.

TAYA, a river of Auftria, which rifes near Schweigers,
paffes by Drofendorf, and enters MoVavia, paffes by Znaym,
Laab, &c. and joins the Marfch, 4 miles N.N.E. of

Hockenau Alfo, a fmall ifland in the Indian fea, near

the well coaft of Siam. ~ N. lat. 7° 38'. E. long. 98° 30'.

TAYABO, a town on the eaft coaft of the ifland of
Celebes, in Gunong-Tellu bay. S. lat. 1° 10'. E. long.
121° 30'.

TAYASAN, a town on the eaft coaft of the ifland of
Negros. N. lat. 10° 1 8'. E. long. 123° 3'.

TAYBA, a ruined town in the deferts of Syria, which
fliews in its prefent ftate, evident marks of its former mag-
nificence.

TAYECUA, a town of South America, in the province
of Darien ; 30 miles W. of St. Marie de Darien.

TAYGETA, in Ancient Geography, a river of the Pelo-
ponnefus, in Laconia.

TAYGETUS, a mountain of Laconia, S.W. of Bryfdes,
being a portion of a fmall chain of mountains on the pro-
montory of Teiiarus, on the frontiers of Arcadia. It was
famous for the abundance of its game. On this mountain
was a place confecrated to the iun, called by Paufanias
" Talet." Here they facrificed, among other viftims,
horfes.

TAYKYATT, alon^ and ftraggling town of the Birman
empire, on the W. fide of the Irawaddy ; .5 miles W.N.W.
of Yeoungbenzah.

TAYL, in Heraldry. See Tail.

TAYLOR, Brook, LL.D. and F.R.S., in Biography,
an eminent mathematician, was bom of a good family, at
Edmonton, near London, in the year 1685. In early life he
devoted himfclf to mufic, drawing, and painting, in which
he was reckoned to excel. At the fame time he purfued

Y his

TAYLOR.

his claflical (ludics and mathematics under a private tutor ;
and in 1701, at the age of 15, he was entered a fellow,
commoner at St. John's college, in the univerfity of Cam-
bridge. Sucli was his affiduity in the profccution of
mathematics, that in 1708 he compofed his treatife " On
the Centre of Ofcillation," which was publilhed in tlie
Phil. Tranf. In the next year he took his degree of
bachelor of laws, and in 17 12 he was elefted fellow of the
Royal Society. By a letter addrefTed to Mr. Machin, dated
in this year, it appears that he had then given a folution of
Kepler's famous problem, pointing out its importance and
life. He alfo at the fame period prefented to the Society
three papers, -vis. " On the Afcent of Water between two
Glafs Planes ;" " On the Centre of Ofcillation ;" and " On
the Motion of a ftretchcd String." In confideration of his
fervices to the Society, and diflingui(hed qualifications for
the office, he was ekfted their fecretary in 17 14, taking in
the fame year his degree of doclor of laws at Cambridge.
In 1715, he pubhflied his " Methodus Incrementorun ;"
a curious efTay, preferved in the Phil. Tranf. entitled, " An
Account of an Experiment for the Difcovery of the Laws
of Magnetic Attraftion ;" and alfo a treatife, of high value
and reputation, " On the Principles of Linear Perfpec-
tive." His correfpondence this year with count de Mont-
mort on the tenets of Malebranche was ably conduced, and
gained for him an eulogy from the French academy ; and in
1716, on his vifit to Paris, he was treated with great per-
fonal rcfpeft. Upon his return to London, in 17 17, he
compofed three treatifes, pubhfhed in the 30th volume of
the Phil. Tranf. ; the titles of which are, " An Attempt
towards an Improvement of the Method of approximating
in the Extraftion of Roots of Equations in Numbers ;"
" A Solution of Demoivre's 15th Problem, with the
Affiftance of Combinations and infinite Series ;" and " A
Solution of the Problem of G. G. Leibnitz propofed to the
Enghlh." His health being impaired by intenfe apph-
cation, he was obliged to feek relief at Aix-la-Chapelle.
Upon his return, in 1719, he direfted his attention to (Indies
very different from thofe to which he had been accuftomed ;
and the fruits of thefe ftudies have been found among his
papers by his grandfon fir Wilham Young, in detached
fragments of a treatife on the Jewifh facrifices, and a dilTer-
tation on the lawfulnefs of eating blood. His leifure hours
were ftill devoted to the application of mathematics in tlie
improvement of the arts ; and with this view he revifed his
treatife on Linear PerfpeAive, which appeared in a new and
enlarged form. Drawing was alfo a favourite amufement.
His treatife on Linear Perfpedlive, which has been held
among mathematicians in the higheft eftimation, pro-
duced at this time a controverfy, which terminated in a very
ferious mifunderftanding, between him and J. Bernouilli.
This treatife, abftrufe to thofe who confult it for mere
praftical purpofes, was rendered more plain and perfpicuous
by Mr. Kirby, in an edition, entitled " Brook Taylor's
Perfpeftive made eafy." Our author's anfwer to BernouiDi
is preferved in the 30th volume of the Phil. Tranf. Soon
after his return to England in 1 721, he publifhed the laft
paper that appears with his name in the Phil. Tranf. en-
titled " An Experiment made to afcertain the Proportion
of Expanfion of Liquor in the Thermometer, with regard
to the Degree of Heat."

Dr. Taylor was twice married : his fecond wife was a
daughter of John Sawbridge, efq. of Olantigh in Kent.
On the death of his father, in 1729, he fucceeded to the
family eftate of Bifrons in Kent, and in the following year
his wife died in child-bed. About this time he probably
•Arrote the effay, entitled «' Contemplatio Philofophica,"

publilhed by fir W. Young m 1793. But though hi:i
mind might have thus obtained temporary relief, he furvived
his wife little more than a year, and died of a decline in the
46th year of his age, December 1731. " I am fpared,"
fays his defcendant, " the neceffity of clofing this biogra-
phical flcetch with a prolix detail of^his charaAer, in the beft
acceptation of duties, relative to each fituation of life in
which he was engaged ; his own writings, and the writings of
thofe who beft knew him, prove him to have been the finished
Chriftian, gentleman, and fcholar." Life by his grandfon,
fir William Young, prefixed to his Pofthumous Works.

Taylor, Jekemy, an eminent divine and prelate of the
eftablifhed church in Ireland, was the fon of a barber at
Cambridge, where he was born in the early part of the 1 7th
century. At the age of 13 he was admitted at Gonville
and Caius college in the univerfity of that place, where he
remained till he took the degree of M.A. Having taken
orders, he occafionally preached in London, and obtained by
the intereft of archbifhop Laud, in 1636, a fellowfiiip of
All Souls' college, Oxford. Here he refifted attempts
that were made to profelyte him to popery, and became
more eftabliftied in Proteftant principles. Laud appointed
him one of his chaplains, and procured for him the reAory
of Uppington, in which he fettled about the year 1640, at
which time he furrendered his fellowfhip and married. In
1642 he was chaplain in ordinary to Charles I., and ferved
his caufe by writing in defence of the church of England.
When the parhamcnt became viftorious, his living was
fequeftered, and he retired into Wales, where he was Itindly
received by the earl of Carbery, of Golden Grove, neai"
Llandilo, in Carmarthenlhire ; under whofe prote(Sion he
exercifed his miniftry, and kept a fchool for the fupport of
his family. In this ftate of retirement, he compofed thofe
difcourfes, which caufed him to be held in high eftimation,
as one of the firft writers in the Englifli language, " with
refpeft to fertility of conception, eloquence of expreffion,
and comprehenfivenefs of thought." At this period the
death of three hopeful fons difturbed his tranquillity, and
rendered it necefTary for him to change the fcene and to
remove to London, where he cxpofed himfelf to confiderable
danger by officiating in a private congregation of loyalifts.
Invited by Edward lord Conway to his feat at Portmore in
the county of Antrim, he remained in Ireland until the
Reftoration. On that event he came over to England, and in
January 1660- 1, his fervices were recompenfed by the pro-
motion to the fees of Down and Connor. He was alfo
made privy-counfellor of Ireland, and appointed to the ad-
miniftration of the bifhopric of Dromore, and honoured with
the oihce of vice-chancellor to the univerfity of Dublin. In
thefe high and refponfible ftations he paid fedulous atten-
tion to his official duties, exhibited an example of piety,
humihty, and charity ; and employed fo great a part of his
income in doing good, both privately and publicly, that
when he died at Lifburne in 1667, he left only moderate
portions to his three daughters. His perfon was comely,
his manners were polite, his voice was melodious, and his
converfation was agreeable. Of his works, which were
numerous, confifting chiefly of fermons and devotional pieces,
and printed in four, and alfo in fix volumes, folio, the
nioft remarkable is entitled, " Theologia Ecleftica, or a
Difcourfe on the Liberty of Prophefying ; fhewing the un-
reafonablenefs of prefcribing to other men's faith, and the
iniquity of perfecuting different opinions," 410. firft pub-
lilhed in 1647. The author, when this book was written,
belonged to a vanquiftied and perfecuted party ; and he
ftrongly and boldly pleads for liberty of confcience, and the
rights of individuals to iudge for themfelves in matters of

religion*

TAYLOR.

religion. This work, conliderinjr the time in which it was
written, and the connexions of the author, indicates a very
enhghtened mind with regard to the fubjefls of difcuffion ;
and it is perufed with no fmall degree of intereft in the pre-
fent period of greater knowledge and liberality. With
refpedl to toleration, however, we obferve, that he limits it to
fuch doflrines as are not inconfiftent with focicty or the public
good; — a limitation which is capable of being much mif-
conftrued and mifapplied. Having alTerted, as a firfl. prin-
ciple, tliat " the duty of faith is completed in believing the
articles of the Apoftlcs' creed," he could not confiflently
approve the impofition of drifter creeds. Of the
Athanafian creed he thus fpeaks : " If I fliould be quef-
tioned concerning the fymbol of Athanaiius, I confeiTe I
cannot [fee that moderate fenlence and gentleneffe of
charity in his preface and conclufion, as there was in the
Nicene creed. Nothing there but damnation and perifhing
everlaftingly, unlefle the article of the Trinity be believed, as
it is there with curiofity and minute particularities ex-
plained. Beiides, if it were conlidered concerning Athana-
fius's creed, how many people underftand it not, how con-
trary to natural reafon it feems, how little the fcripture fayes
of thofe curiofities of explication, and how tradition was not
clear on his fide for the article itfelfe, much lelTe for thofe
forms and minutes, — and after all this, that the Nicene creed
itfelfe went not fo farre, neither in article, nor aiiathema, nor
explication, it had not been amilTe if the final judgment had
been left to Jefus Chrift."

This celebrated work did not efcape invidious criticifm
and fevere animadverfion. Among others we may mention
Anthony Wood, who, with cenfurable illiberality, fuggefted,
that Taylor in this book, and Hales in his trait on Schifm,
employed their arguments as a ftratagem by way of raifing
faftions among the Prefbyterians, and dilTolving their union.
The mod popular of Taylor's other writings, have been his
" Golden Grove, or Manual of daily Prayers;" his treatife
an " Holy Living and Dying ;" and his " Duftor Dubi-
tantium, or Rule of Confcience." Dr. Dodwell long fince
obferved, and not unjuftly, that " Dr. Taylor, in his volu-
minous writings, faid many lively things, which will not
bear a ftridl examination." Biog. Brit. Gen. Biog.

Taylor, John, D.D. a learned and highly refpeftable
divine among Proteftant Diifenters, was born in the year
1694, at or near Lancafter. After having received his edu-
cation at Whitehaven under Dr. Dixon and others, he was
nominated by one of the Difney family to the chapel of
Kirkftead, in Lincolnfhire, exempt from ecclefiaftical jurif-
diftion, and which had been occupied from the latter end of
the preceding century by diflenting minifters. Here he
lived, on a fmall falary aided by a fchool, for 18 years ; and
laid a foundation for the theological celebrity, which he
afterwards acquired by a diligent iludy of tlie fcriptures in
their original languages. In this obfcure and retired fituation
he did not efcape notice; and in the year 1733, he complied
with an invitation from the Prelhyterian congregation at Nor-
wich. To his congregation, which had been before his fettle-
ment ferved by Calviniftic minifters, he recommended the
perufal of Dr. Clarke's Scripture-Dodlrine of the Trinity.
His firft publication was " A Prefatory Difcourfe to
Mr. Jofeph Rawfon's Cafe," who, in 1736, had been ex-
cluded from communion with the congregational church
at Nottingham, for refufing his aflent to a declaration re-
quired of him concerning the Trinity ; in which he ably
defended the right of Chriftians to deduce their faith from
the fcriptures, without the intervention of creeds and fub^
fcriptions. His firft avowed attack upon Calviniftic theo-
logy, was the pubLcatioti of his " Scripture-Dodlrine of

Original Sin," which firft appeared in 1740. This excited-
alarm and animadverfion. ( For an account of this coutro-
verfy, fee the article Original SinJ Dr. Taylor's fupple-
ment was publilhed in 1 741. This was fuccecdcd, iii
1 745, by " A Paraphrafe on the Epiftle to the Romans,
with a Key to the Apoftolic Writings." This " Key"
was well received, and has been highly commended. The
late learned Dr. Watfon, bilhop of Llandaft", has given it a
place in his " Theological TraCls ;" and archdeacon Paley
recommends a careful perufal of the Paraphrafe on the
Romans to candidates for priefts' orders. The labours of
his fubfequent years produced feveral fmall trafts, and par-
ticularly his " Scripture-Doftriiie of Atonement ;" but
his opus majus, as we may juftiy denominate it, was his
" Hebrew Concordance," in foho, the firft volume of
which appeared in 1754, and the fecond m 1757. This
work, which does immortal honour to the critical (l<ill and
indefatigable afliduity of the author, was encouraged by a
great number of fubfcribers, among whom we may enumerate
twenty-two Englifti, and fifteen Iriih biftiops. Soon after
the publication of this performance, the author was pre-
fented by the univerfity of Glafgow with the degree of
D.D. In 1754 he publiftied a pamphlet, entitled " The
Lord's Supper explained upon Scripture Principles," and
in 1757 appeared a defence of infant baptifm, entitled
" The Covenant of Grace." Dr. Taylor was happily
fituated at Norwich, and received every teftimony of refpeft
to whieli his learning and charafter entitled him ; but a
fcene of more public and general ufefulncfs was opened to
him in the year 1757, when he was invited to fupply the
place of divinity-tutor at the newly-founded academy of
Warrington, in Lancafhire. But here his fituation was
rendered unpleafant to him ; and fome events occurred
which affefted his health and fpirits. Although he per-
formed his official duties for fome time amidft the difquiets
which he experienced, he was at length carried off, by an un-
perceived death, during the night of March 5, 1 761, at the
age of 66 years. At Warrington he publifhed two pamph-
lets, I'iz. " An Examination of the Scheme of Morahty ad-
vanced by Dr. Hutchefon, late Profeftbr of Morality in the
Univerfity of Glafgow," and «' A Sketch of Moral Philo-
fophy," for the ufe of his clafs. He alfo prepared for the
prcfs " The Scripture Account of Prayer, in an Addrcfs
to the Diifenters in Lancaftiire," in conicquence of the in-
troduftion of a hturgy at Liverpool, an innovation in the
accuftomed mode of worfliip among DilTenters which he
difapproved. His pofthumous work, entitled " A Scheme
of Scripture Divinity," was publiftied by Mr. Richard
Taylor of Norwich, his cldeft furviving fon ; and it was
held in fuch eftimation by the late bifhop of Llandafi^, as
to form a part of his CoUeftion of Trafts. As a preacher,
Dr. Taylor was plain and fimple in his language, but dig-
nified and impreffive ; and he excelled in a critical explana-
tion of difficult pafTages of fcripture. He had the merit of
introducing into the congregation at Norwich a fpirit of
liberal enquii-y, which, we are informed, ftill continues. Me-
moir on the Life of Dr. John Taylor of Norwich.

Taylor, John, LL.D., the fon of a barber at Shrcwf-
bury, was born about the year 1703, and diftinguilhed him-
felf as a fcholar and critic. After a courfe of preparatory
education in liis native town, he was entered at St. John's
college in Cambridge, and became a fellow of it in the year
1730, in which year he publiftied two Latin academical
orations. In 1732 appeared propofals for an edition of
Lyfias. He was firft librarian and afterwards regiftrar of
the univerfity. His " LyCas," Gr. and Lat., with the
conjeftures of Markland, was publiftied from the prefs of
y ,'. Bowyer,

TAYLOR.

Bowj-er, in 1739 ; and a new edition, witli Taylor's verfion
and notes, was printed at Cambridge in the following year.
Upon takinjj his degree of LL.D. he delivered and publifhed
a differtation under the title of " Commentarius ad legem
dccemviiilem de inope debitore in partes diffecando." In
1743, he piibliflied " Orationes dux; una Demofthcnis
contra Meidiam ; altera Lycurgi contra Leocratcm," Gr.
and Lat. with notes and emendations ; and in the follov\nng
year, '• Manner Sandvicenfe, cum Commentarlo et Notis,"
being a differtation on an Athenian marble brought to
England by lord Sandwich, bearing the oldeft infcription ef
known date.

In 1 741, Dr. Taylor had been admitted .in advocate m
Doftors' Commons, and in 1744 he was made chancellor of
Lincoln. He afterwards took orders, and printed a fermon
preached at Billiop-Stortford in 1749. He was prefented
to the archdeaconry of Buckingham, to the reftbry of
Lawford, Eflex ; and in 1757 to a refidentiaryfliip of
St. Paul's. In 1755, ftill profecuting his legal ftudies, he
p»bli(hed " Elements of the Civil Law," 4to. reprinted in
1769. An abridgment of this learned work, entitled
" A Sununai-y of the Roman Law," was publifhed in
1773.

Dr. Taylor held alfo the offices of commiffary of Lincoln
and of Stowe : he was a member of the Royal and Anti-
quarian Societies ; and of the latter he was one of the vice-
prefidents. At the time of his death, his long-promifed
edition of Dcmoilhenes was jull finifhed, in two vols. 8vo.
at the univerfity prefs, Cambridge ; and the notes were
afterwards added, together with part of an appendix to
Suidas. The charader of Dr. Taylor was that of an
amiable and difinterefled man ; and the world was deprived
of his learned labours in April 1766. To the works
already mentioned, we may add fome remarks inferted in
Fofter's " Effay on Accent and Quantity," and various
pieces of poetry, printed in the Gentleman's Magazine, and
in Nichols's " Seka Colleftion of Poems." Anecd. of
Bowyer. Month. Rev. Gen. Biog.

Taylor, Henry, A.M. a very refpeftable clergyman
of the eftabliflicd church, was the fon of William Taylor,
merchant of London, and born at Southweald, in Effex, in
May 171 1. The rudiments of his education he received at
Mr. Newcome's fchool, in the parifli of Hackney, and there
lie formed an early friendfliip with Mr. John Hoadly, fon of
Dr. Benjamin Hoadly, bifliop of Wincheller. From Hack-
ney he removed to Queen's college, in the univerfity of
Cambridge, and having completed. his education with a view
to the church, he took orders, and commenced the exercife
of his mii-.ifterial duties as a preacher with iingular accept-
ance. His talents and acquirements, as well as his voice
and manner of delivery, which were peculiarly pleafing,
recommended him to public notice, and he ranked high in
the eftimation of thofe friends with whom he intimately afTo-
ciated. His firfl preferment was the reftory of Whitfield,
in Oxfordfliire, which he held for a minor. In 1755 he
was prefented by biOiop Hoadly to the reftory of Crawley,
in Hamptliire, which lie afterwards held in conneftion with
the vicarage of Portfmouth, in exchange for a living in
Habnpfhire, which he liad held witli Whitfield. He mar-
ried Ivlifs Chrifllan Fox, daughter of the Rev. Francis
Fox, redlor of St. Mary's, Rotherhithe, who died in the
year 1769 ; and by her he had four fons and two daugh-
ters. His courfe of literary and clerical labour terminated
in April, 1785, and he was interred at Crawley.

Having recited the few particulars wliich we could colleft
concerning the private life of Mr. Taylor, we fh.all now fub-
join a lift of hio publications, fome having his name and others

being anonymous. In 1 760 he publifhed " An EfTay on the
Beauty of the Divine Economy; being the Subftance of a Ser-
mon (withinany and large Additions) preached at the Vifit-
ation of the Lord Bidiop of Winchefkr, held by the Worfhip.^
ful and Reverend Dr. Jolin Hoadly, ehanccllor of tlie Dio-
cefe, on Tuefday September 1 8, 1 759, at the cathedral Church
of Wincheflcr, and pubhflied at the Defire of Mr. Chancellor
and the Clergy." — " A full Aiifwer to a late View of the
internal Evidence of the Chriflian Religion, in a Dlfcourfe

between a rational Chriflian and his Friend," 1771 " A

Trad ap-ainfl Warburton," 1 772 " Confufion worfe con-
founded. Rout on Rout ; or the Bifhop of G ter's

Commentary upon Rice or Arife Evans's Echo from Hea-
ven, examined and expofcd by Indignatlo," London, 1772.
Anonymous. " Two Letters ; •u'tz. I. A Letter to the
Earl of Abingdon, in which His Grace of York's Notions
of Civil Liberty are examined by LiberaUs, publifhed in the
London Evening Pofl, November 6, 1777. 2. Fera Icon;
or a Vindication of His Grace of York's Sermon, preached
on February 211!:, 1777 ; proving it to contain a fevere
Satire againft the Miuiftry, and a Defence of civil and
religious Liberty, upon the well-known Principles of
Whiggifm ; in anfv^er to a Letter from Liberalis to the
Earl of Abingdon, by M^lagogus Candidus." — " The
Apology of Benjamin Ben Mordecai to his Friends, for
embraciniT Chrifliani;:y ; in feven Letters to Elifha Levi,
Merchant of Amflerdam ; with Notes and Illuflrations, by
the Author and the Editor." Lond. 1771. 1773, '774>
4to. The firfl of thefe letters contains an account and ex-
amination of the various opinions among Chriflians, concern-
ing the nature and perfon of Chrift. In the fecond, third,
and fourth letters, it is propofed to fliew from fcripture, that
the Logos was the angel of the covenant, and to prove the
fame from the moft approved commentators on fcripture,
both ancient and modern, both Jewifh and Cliriflian ; and to
demonflrate that Jefus was the MefTiah. The fifth, fixth,
and feventh letters contain preparatory principles to the
Chriflian fcheme of redemption ; giving the fcheme of
Cliriflianity itfelf, and fhewing it to be one, plain, regular, and
confiflent fyflem of divine economy, from the beginning of
the world to the end ; and containing proofs, illuflrations,
anfwers to objeftions, and an examination of Mr. Hume's
notion of miracles. — " Thoughts on the Nature of the Grand
Apoftacy, with Refleftions and Obfervations on the Fif-
teenth Chapter of Mr. Gibbon's Hiflory of the Decline
and Fall of the Roman Empire ; to which are added three
difTertations : I. On the ParouCa of Chrifl ; 2. On the Mil-
lennium ; 3. On the late Rev. Mr. Richard Wood, on Pro-
phecy," 1781. — " Farther Thoughts on the Nature of the
Grand Apoflacy of the Clu"iflian Churches, foretold by the
Apoftles ; witli Obfervations on the Laws againft Herefy,
the Subfcription to Articles of Human Compofition, and
other Subjefts of the utmofl Importance to the Religion of Pro-
teftants, and to Chriflianity in general," 1783. — " Confider-
ations on Ancient and Modern Creeds compared ; the Supre-
macy of the Father ; the perfon;d Exiflence of the Holy Spi-
rit; the Pre-exiflenceof Chrifl and hisDivinity,&c." publifhed
after the author's death by his fon, the Rev. Henry Taylor,
reftor of Spridlington, Lincolnlhire, 1788.

Mr. Taylor, who was of a fprightly, cheerful difpofition,
occafionally amufed himfelf in writing verfes ; fome of
which, particularly his " Paradife Regained," are publifhed
in Dodfley's Collection.

On Mr. Taylor's principles and charafter it is needlefs to
enlarge. Hisconduft in private and focial life correfpondcd
to his clerical profeflion : to the fentiments of bifhop Hoadley,
in church and flate, hcw.is invariably attached ; he joined the

petitioning

r c H

T C H

petitioning clergy in their application for an enlargement of

the terms of conformity ; and he avowed hinifclf on all oc-

cafions, without difguife, the friend and advocate of civil

and religious liberty. In his theological opinions, he confi-

Uered iiimftlf as coinciding more nearly with Apollinaris,

than with any other. ot RulUa, which rifes near Suchotzkoi, in the government

TAY-MING, in Geography, a city of China, of the fiHl of Novgorod, and runs into the Mologa, 16 milc« N. of

rank, in Pe-tche-li ; 232 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. Uftiuzna.

E. long. 114=49'. TCHAHAN Hotun, a town of Chincfe Tartary

TA YNG, a town of Corea ; 25 miles S.E. of Haimen. 260 miles N. of Peking. N lat ai° c8' E loii
TAYWAN, or Tai-ouan, the capital of Formofa; 117° 29'. ^ • '\i i ■ ■

TCHAGANSKOI, a fortrefs of Rnma, 011 the Ural ;
i6mile6 S. of Undflc.

TCHAGODO, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Novgorod, on the lake Voz ; 240 miles N.E. of Nov-
gorod. N. lat. 60° 30'. E. long. 38° 44'._Alfo, a river

)tzkoi, in
Mologa,

36° 20'

ang.

which fee.

TAZ, a river of Ruflia, which rifcs from two lakes, Ku
and Din, and runs into the Tazovlkaia gulf, N. lat. 67^35'.
E. long 80° 14'.

TAZABUCO, a town of Peru ; 46 miles E.N.E. of
La Plata.

TAZATA, in Anc'iaU Geography, an ifland of the
Cafpian fea, near the coaft of Hyrcania. Pliny. It is called
Talca by Ptolemy, and Tidga by Mela.

TAZEE, in Geography, 7i town of Candahar ; 70 miles
E. of Candahar.

TAZEWELL, a poft-town of Tenneflee ; 517 miles
W.S.W. of Wafhington.

TAZINA, in Ancient Geography, *a town of Afia, in
Media.

TAZLA, or Salato, in Geography, a lake of Afiatic
Turkey, 36 miles long, and 2 broad ; 30 miles N. of
Cogni.

Tazla, a town of Afiatic Turkey^ in Caramania ; 28
miles N. of Cogni.

TAZOVSKAIA, a gidf or bay in the Obn<aia gulf,
formed by the waters of feveral rivers of Siberia, and joined
to the Obfl<aia gulf, about 140 miles in length, and 3 in
fcreadth. N. lat. 67^ 40' to 69°. E. long. 76' to 80°.

TAZ REE, a town of Perfia, in the pronnce of Lariftan;
15 miles N.E. of Tarem.

TAZUS, Tachely, in Ancient Geography, a town in
the interior of the Tauric Cherfonefus, E. of Portacra, men-
tioned by Ptolemy. — Alfo, a town of Afiatic Sarmatia, upon
the northern coaft of the Euxine fea.

TAZZETTA, in Botany, the fpccific name chofen by
I-innacus, who fpells it incorrtiStly, for the Polyanthus Nar-
clfTus. (See Narcissus.) The word is Italian for a final!
cup, and De Theis fuppofes it was firft applied in Italy to
this flower, which is much cultivated there, and ufually im-
ported from thence, in its higheft perfe6lioD, by our florifts.
Still we do not fee how Liuna:us came to adopt tliis name,
nor, indeed, how it fell in his way.
TCHA. See Tea.

Tcha, or Cangua, in Geography,. See CanGA.
TCHABA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ; i8
miles E. of Boli.

TCHABA R, a river of Chinefe Tartary, which runs
north into the Songarie.

TCHABISGHI, a town of Ruflia, in the government
of Irkutik, on the Amur ; 40 miles N.N.E. of Slretenik.

TCHACAHAMAR, a town of Thibet ; 10 miles W.
of Ort,).

TCHACAOSO, a town of Thibet ; 25 miles S. of
Chatcheou.

TCHACA-TCHOUTCHI, a town of Thibet; 30
miles N.W. of Tchontori.

TCHACA-TOHOI, a town of Chinefe Tartary, in the
country of Hami ; 15 miles N.W. of Quatcheou.

TCHADOBSKO, a town of Ruflia, in the government
-of Tobolflc, on the Tunguflia ; 2>2 miles EL of Enifei/k.

Tchahan Hanwr, a town of Chinefe Tartary ; 38^ miles
S.W. of Coucou.

Ten AH AN Soubarhan Hotun, a town of Chinefe Tartary ;
163 miles N.N.E. of Peking. N. lat. 41° 38'. E. lonff.
1 18° 44'. ^

TCHAHASGU Hotuk, a town of Chincfe Tartary ;
683 miles N.N.E. of Peking. N. lat. 49° 74'. E. W.
127° 42'. t:' Jt fi

TCHAHI, a town of Perfia, in the province of Cho-
rafan, or Khoraflan ; 258 miles N. of Herat.

TCHAIA, a river of Ruflia, which runs into the Lena,
near Tchamflca, in the government of Irkutfk. N. lat.
58° 5'. E. long. 109° 34'.

TCJiAICAN, a town of Corea; 28 miles W. of
Outchuen.

TCHAI-YAM, a river of China, which joins the Lo,
15 miles W.S.W. of Pao-king.

TCHAKAN-TOTOHO Kiamen, a poft of Chinefe
Tartary, in the country of the Monguls ; 18 miles S.E. of
Kara-Hotun.

TCHAKET, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Aladulia ;
15 miles N. of Adana.

TCHAKTELA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Cara-
mania ; 27 miles N. of Akfhehr.

TCHAL, a town of Kurdiftan, or Curdiftan ; 28 miles
E. of Amadielu

TCHALBISCHEVO, a town of Ruflia, in the go-
vernment of Tobolfk ; 20 miles S. of Enifeiflc.

TCHALMOZA, a town of Ruflia, in the government
of Oloiietz, on the north-calb coaft of lake Onezfkoe ; 32
miles S.E. of Povenetz.

TCHAM, a town of Corea ; 420 miles E. of Peking.

TCHAMDSOU-TIGAC, a lake of Thibet, about 36
miles in circumference. N. lat. 31° 30'. E. long. 81° 26'.

TCHAMNAGOM-DOU, a lake of Thibet, about
36 miles in circumference. N. lat. 30° 50'. E. long.
9f 54'-

TCHAMSKA, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Irkutfc ; 64 miles E.N.E. of Kirenlk.

TCHAM-TCHIM Hotun, a town of Corea; 415
miles E. of Peking. N, lat. 40° 9'. E. long. 1 34" 46'.

TCHAM-TIEN, a town of Chinefe Tartary ; 43 miles
N.W, of Siao-ku-leou.

TCHAMTOU, a town of Thibet ; 54 miles S.W. of
Contchondfong.

TCHANG, a lake of China, about 20 miles in circum-
ference ; 40 miles N.E. of Tcin-tcheou.

TCHANG-CHAN, or Chan-sax, a fmall ifland in the
Chinefe fea, and inotl foutherly of thofe called Mi-a-tou ;
18 miles N.W. of Tcng-tcheou.

TCHANG-FONG, a town of Corea ; 63 miles E.S.E.
of King-ki-tao.

TCHANG-HOA, a town of China, of the third rank,
in the ifle of Hainan ; 42 miles S.W. of Tchen-tchcou.

TCHANG-ING, a town of Corea ; 40 miles S. of
Kang.

TCHANG-

T C H

TCHANG-KIA-KEOU, a gate on the great wall,
which feparatcs Cl>iiia from Tartary, in the northern part of
Pc-tche-li, the principal palTage by which the Tartars enter
China ; 90 miles N.N.W. of Peking.

TCHANG-PING, a town of Corea; 15 miles E. of

Koang-tcheou Alfo, a city of China, of the fecond

rank, in Pe-tche-li ; 20 miles N.N.W. of Peking. N. lat.

40° 14'. E. long. 1 15° 37'-

TCHANG-SING, a town of Corea ; 35 miles S. of

Koang-tcheou.

TCHANG-SONG, a town of Corea ; 33 miles N.W.
of Kang-tcheou.

TCHANG-TCHA, a city of China, of the firft rank,
in Hou-quang, on the Heng river. The inhabitants of
this city have given occafion to a great fcftival, which is
celebrated in the fifth month throughout the empire. The
mandarin who governed this city, and was much efteemcd
and beloved by the people for his probity and virtue, hap-
pening to be drowned in the river, they indituted a feftival
to his honour, which is celebrated by fports, and feafts, and
fights upon the waters, as if they intended to fearch for the
mandarin, the objcft of their love and grief. This feftival,
which was at firft peculiar to this city, came afterwards to
be obferved throughout the empire ; 742 miles S. of Peking.
N. lat. 28° 11'. E. long. II 2° 25'.

TCHANG-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the firft
rank, in Fo-kien; 950 miles S. of Peking. N. lat. 24° 32'.

E. long. 117° 34' Alfo, a city of China, of the firft rank,

in Kiang-nan ; 525 miles S.S.E. of Peking. N. lat.
31° 50'. E. long. 1 19° 29'.

TCHANG-TE, a city of China, of the firft rank, in
Hou-quang ; 717 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 29° 2'.
E. long. 1 1 1° 2'.

TCHANG-YUEN, a town of Corea ; 60 mUes W.S.W.
of Ho-ang-tcheou. — Alfo, a town of Corea ; 30 miles S.E.
of Kang-tcheou.

TCHANI, a lake of Rufiia, in the government of Koli-
van, upwards of 200 miles in circumference ; 100 miles
W.N.W. of Kolivan.

TCHANKOUR, a town of Thibet ; 105 miles S.E. of
Sourman.

TCHAN-TE, a city of China, of the firft rank, in
Ho-nan. This is one of the moft northern cities of the pro-
vince. Two things are here remarkable : the firft is a fi(h
refembling a crocodile, the fat of which is of fuch a fingular
nature, that when once kindled it cannot be extinguiftied ;
the fecondjs a mountain in the neighbourhood, fo iteep and
inacceflible, that in time of war, it affords a place of refuge
to the inhabitants, and a fafe afylum from the infults and
Tiolence of the foldiery. Tchan-te contains in its diftrift
one city of the fecond clafs, and fix of the third ; 255 miles
S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 36° 6'. E. long. 1 14°.

TCHAO-KING, a city of China, of the firft rank, in
Quang-tong, on the river Si ; 1 062 miles S.S.W. of Peking.
N. lat. 23° 3'. E. long. 111^44'.

TCHAO-NAIMAN-SOUMI-HOTUN, a town of
Chinefe Tartary ; 198 miles N. of Peking. N. lat. 42° 28'.
E. long. 1 1 5° 44'.

TCHAO-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the firft rank,
in Quang-tong, on the Pe-kiang ; 1007 miles S. of Peking,
N. lat. 23° 37'. E. long. 1 16° 21'.

TCHAOUTCHE-AGHISI, a town of Afiatic Tur-
key, in Natolia, on the Black fea ; 12 miles N.W. of
Erekli.

TCHAPIE-DSAKE-TOMPSOU, a lake of Thibet,
jibout 54 miles in circumference. N. lat. 32° 12'. E. long.
•4° 3V-

T C H

TCHARKAZ. See Zakciias.

TCHARONDA, a town of Rufiia, in the government
of Novgorod, on the Sula ; 188 miles E.N.E. of Nov-
gorod. N. lat. 59° 40'. E. long. 37° 34'.

TCHASl RCONG, a town of Thibet, near the Ganges;
24 miles E. of Latac.

TCHASTIJA, an ifland of Ruflia, in the government of
Irkutflc, on the Lena ; 112 miles N.E. of Kirendv.

TCHAT, a mountain of Thibet, on the frontiers of
Yarkan. N. lat. 33° 10'. E. long. 78° 44'.

TCHATELI, a town of Chinefe Tartary, in the country
of Hami ; 38 miles N.W. of Hami-Hotun.

TCHAUNSKAIA, a gulf on the northern coaft of
Rufiia, in the Frozen fea. N. lat. 71° to 72°. E. long.
166° to 169°.

TCHAUSI, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Mogilev, on the Soz ; 40 miles S.E. of Mogilev. N. lat.
53° 36'. E. long. 31° 14'.

TCHAZMIUNSKOI, a cape on the eaft coaft of
Kamtfchatka; 52 miles S. of Verchnei Kamtfchatfl<oi. N.
lat. 55° 48'. E. long. 16®^ 15'.

TCHEBAKSAR, a town of Ruflia, in the govern-
ment of Kazan, on the Volga ; 64 miles W.N.W. of
Kazan. N. lat. 56° 24'. E. long. 46° 30'.

TCHEBARKULSKAIA, a fortrefs of Ruflia, in the
government of Upha; 132 miles E. of Upha.

TCHECHUI, a river of Ruflia, which runs into the
Lena, nearly oppofite Ilin(l<a.

TCHECO, a town of Thibet; 93 miles E.S.E. of
Lafia.

TCHEFTKAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Ala-
dalia; 45 miles N.N.W. of Adana.

TCHEGEN, an ifland in the Cafpian fea; 144 miles S.
of Aftrachan.

TCHEGOTCHINA, a river of Ruflia, which runs
into the Kolima, N. lat. 68°. E. long. 150° 14'.

TCHEGUEDE Hotun, a town of Chinefe Tartary,
on the eaft bank of the Amur, oppofite Teldom ; 673 miles
N.N.E. of Peking. N. lat. 49° 26'. E. long. 127° 37'.

TCHEHARSHEBEH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
Natolia; 30 miles S.E. of Alah Shehr.

TCHEKENAGUR, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
Caramania; 21 miles S. of Kirfliehr.

TCHE-KIANG, a province of China, bounded on the
north and north-weft by Kiang-nan, on the eaft by the fea,
on the fouth by Fo-kien, and on the fouth-weft by Kiang-fi ;
about 200 miles in length from north to fouth, and from
1 20 to 1 80 broad. This province, which was formerly the
refidence of fome of the emperors, is one of the moft con-
fiderable in the empire, on account of its maritime fituation,
extent, riches, and the number of its inhabitants. The air
is pure and healtkful ; the plains are watered by a number
of rivers and canals, kept in good order ; and the fprings and
lakes, with which it abounds, contribute greatly to its fer-
tility. The natives are mild and lively, and very polite to
ftrangers ; but they are faid to be extremely fuperftitious.
A prodigious quantity of filk-worms is bred in this pro-
vince ; whole plains may be feen covered with dwarf mulberrj' -
trees, which are purpofely checked in their growth : they
are planted and pruned almoft in the fame manner as vines.
Long experience has taught the Chinefe, that the leaves of
the fmalleft trees procure the beft filks. The principal
branch, therefore, of the trade of this province, confifts in
filk-ftuffs ; thofe in which gold and filver are intermixed are
the moft beautiful, and moft efteemed in the empire. With
regard to their common pieces, an immenfe quantity is fent
to every part of China, to Japan, the Philippines, and to

Europe 5

T C H

T C H

Europe ; and, notwithftanding this ncporution, fo much is
tek, that a complete fuit of filk may be bought here as
cheap as one of the coarfeft woollen-cloth in France. Ex-
cellent hams are brought from this province, and thofc fmall
gold fifh with which ponds are commonly (locked. The
tallow-tree grows here, and a Ipecies of mufhrooms, which
are tranfported to every province of the empire. In Tche-
kiang there are reckoned to be 1 1 cities of the firil clafs,
72 of the third, and 18 fortreflcs, which in Europe would
be accounted large cities. (Grofier's China, vol. i. p. 64. )
According to fir George Staunton, the number of in-
habitants amounts to 21 millions, and the province includes
39,150 fquare miles, or 25,056,000 acres. See China.

TCHELAO, a town of Perfia, in the province of Cho-
rafan, or KhoralTan : near it is a narrow defile in a mountain,
called, by the orientalifts. Hell, from the difficulty of the
pafTage.

TCHELBOSCH, a river of Ruffia, which joins the
Bifuga, and runs with it into the fea of Azof ; 40 miles
S.W. of Eifl<oi.

TCHELEH-DAGHI, a mountain of Natolia, N.E.
of Boli.

TCHELGA, a town of Abyffinia ; 20 miles N.W. of
Gondar. N. lat. 12= 44'. E. long. 37° 18'.

■• '""g- 37
wn of Rufi

TCHELIABINSK, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Upha; 188 miles E. of Upha. N. lat. 54° 50'.
E. long. 62" 4'.

TCHELMINAR, or Tchilminar. See Chilminar.

TCHEMURTAESKOI, in Geography, a fortrefs of
Ruffia, in the government of Irkutlic ; 60 miles S.W. of
Selenginllc.
^ TCHEN, a town of Corea ; 13 miles N.N.E. of

Ping-hai Alfo, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in

Ho-nan ; 416 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 34° 46'.

E. long. 110° 36' Alfo, a city of China, of the fecond

rank, in the ifland of Hai-nan ; 57 miles S.W. of Kiong-
tcheou. N. lat. 19° 32'. E. long. 108° 49'.

TCHEN-AN, a town of Corea; 35 miles S.S.E. of
Hetfin.

TCHENBAR, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Penza ; 80 miles W.S.W. of Penza. N. lat 52'' 52'. E.

iong- 43° 30'- . ■■

TCHENDEI, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the
Yana, near its mouth.

TCHENE, a town of Egypt, on the right bank of the
Nile ; 18 miles N. of Enfeneh.

TCHENG-TCHANG, a town of Corea ; 30 miles
ci.S.E. of Haimen.

TCHENG-TE, an ifiand in the Eaftern fea, near the
fouth coaft of Corea ; about 10 miles long, and 6 broad.
N. lat. 34° 20'. E. long. 128° 37'.

TCHEN-HAI, a town of Corea ; 30 miles S. of Tfin-
tcheou.

TCHEN.TEE. See H.emus.

TCHEOU-CHAN, or Chu-san, an ifland in the
Chinefe fea, near the weft coaft of China, belonging to the
province of Tche-kiang, about 24 miles long, and from 4
to I o broad.

TCHEPAGIRSKOI, a town of Ruffia, on the Pod-
kamonfkaia Tungufka. N. lat. 61° 20'. E. long. 96° 44'.

TCHEPETKINA, a river of Ruffia, which runs into
the Kolima, 88 miles N. of Verchnei Kovimikoi. N. lat.
tf SS'- E. long. 148° 14'.

TCHER, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Don,
near Tcherkovfkaia, in the country of the ColTacks.

TCHERDAKLI, a town of Ruffia, in the government
■of Ekaterinoflav ; 32 miles N. of Mariupol.

TCHEREDOVA, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Tobolflc, on the Irtifch ; i6 miles N. of Tara.

TCHEREMISSES and Tciiki.wasses, tribes of peo-
ple occupying the vicinity of the Volga, in the government
of Regen. Thefe people ufe the horfe in their facrifices,
and chiefly white ones, efpccially in their gre.it annual folem-
nitics in autumn, of which none can partake, unlefs he has
firft bathed and put on a clean fliirt.

TCHEREMSCHAN, a river of Ruffia, which runs
into the Volga, near Singiliev, in the government of Sim-
birlk.

TCHEREPOVETZ, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Novgorod, on tiie Snla ; 1H8 miles E.N.E. of
Novgorod. N. lat. 59= 40'. E. long. 37" 34'.

TCHERGONA, Fallry of, a fequeftered beautiful
valley of the Crimea, iniiabited by the richeft Tartars, who,
from their vicinity to Aktiar, find a ready market for the
produce of their lands ; carrying thither honey, wax, fruit,
and corn. Tiiis valley is defcribed as the retreat of health
and joy ; the pipe and tabor founding merrily among moun-
tains, thick fet with groves, which clofe them on every fide.
The performers confiil of parties of Tzigankies, or gipfies,
who, as mendicant artificers, muficians, and allrologers, are
very common all over the fouth of Ruffia. They have alfo
a wind-inftrumcnt refcmbUng a liaut-boy, made of the wood
of cherry-tree, and they carry with them the large Tartar
drum, charadlcrillic of the Cimbri in the time of Strabo.
Thefe gipfies are much encouraged by the Tartars, who
allow them to encamp among their villages and to exercife
their various occupations. Many of them are rich, poffeffing
fine horfes and plenty of otlier cattle ; but rich or poor,
their mode of hfe is the fame.

TCHERIKOV, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Mogilev, on the Soz ; 80 miles S. of Mogilev. N. lat.
52° 36'. E. loufi. 30° 54'.

TCHERKASK, a town of Ruffia, in the country of
the Coflacks, on the Don. The appearance of the town,
viewed from the river, affords a molt novel fpeftacle. Al-
though not fo grand as Venice, it fomewhat refembles that
city. The entrance to it is by broad canals, intcrfefting it
in all parts. On each fide, wooden houfes, built on piles,
appear to float upon the water : to thefe the inhabitants pafs
in boats, or by narrow bridges only two planks wide, with
pofts and rails, foj-ming a caufeway to every quarter of the
town.

The town of Tcherkafl< is divided into eleven ftanitzas,
and contains 15,000 inhabitants, occupying about 3000
houfes, and allowing, upon an average, five perfons to each
houfe. Here are fcven churches, four built of ftone and
three of wood. One of thefe churches is appropri.ated to
the Mahometan worfhip of the Tartars. The firfl crcfted
in this place was founded by Peter the Great, and in tliig
they keep what they call their regalia, applying the term to
republican, rather than to regal, cnfigns of diitinftion. An-
other church is built in the Grecian t.afte, with fourteen
Corinthian columns, covered entirely with burnifhcd gold.
Almofl all the other public edifices are conflrufted of wood.
Here are fix prifons, four for males and two for females ;
and the prifoners are allowed to go about begging in their
chains. The fhops are very numerous, kept cliiefly by
Greeks, and containing the produce of Turkey, as pearls,
cloth, fhawls, tobacco, fruit, &c. Here are two public
baths, and each llanitza has its refpe<Elive tavern. The in-
habitants, according to Dr. Clarke in his Tnivels (vol. i.),
arc cleanly in their appearance, polifhed in their manners,
well inflrufted, hofpitable, generous, and difintereftcd, hu-
mane to the poor, good hufbands, good brothers, good

wives.

T C H

wives, good mothers, rirtuous daughters, valiant and duti-
ful fons. " A CofTack," he fays, " placed by the fide of a
Ruffian, what a contrail !" 32 miles E.N.E. of Azof.

TCHERKASSES, or Tschekkassians, a tribe of
people, who inhabit that part of Caucatas which is called
the Great and Little Kabardia, the illands of the lower
Kuban, and tlie foiitheni bank of tliat river. (See Cin-
CASSIA.) Thcfe people are famous for tiiei» horfes, which
are about the fize of the Kalmuck horfe, ill-made, without
elegance or proportion, and for the moil part ewe-necked,
but of fuch llrong and hardy natures, as to be able to run
five or fix hundred Enghfli miles in three days.

TCHERKESH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Na-
toha ; 45 miles W.S.W. of Caftamena.

TCHERKIN, a town of Abyffinia; 36 miles N. of
Gondar. N. lat. 13=' 15'. E. long. 37'' 40'.

TCHERMAEVSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Tobollk ; 32 miles E.N.E. of Turinlk.

TCHERNAIA, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the
Anadir, 100 miles below Anadirflvoi.

TCHERNAIAGRIADA, a fortrefs of Ruffia, on
the Volga ; 32 miles N.N.W. of Aftrachan.

TCHERNIGOV, a town of Ruffia, and capital of a
government, on the Defna ; 344 miles S.S.W. of Mofcow.
N. lati 51* 24'. E. long. 31- 14'.

TCHERNIGOVSKOE, a government of Ruffia,
bounded on the N. by Mogilevfkoe, on the N.W. by Nov-
gorod Siever(l<oe, on the E. by Charkovlkoe, on the S. by
Kievlkoe, and on the W. by Poland : about 1 80 miles long
and 40 broad. N. lat. 49= 50' to 51° 5'. E. long. 31''
to 35°.

TCHERNIKEH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the
government of Sivas, at the union of the Tofanlu and Jekil-
Ermak ; anciently a city of Pontus, and called Eupatoiia,
from Mitlu-idates, furnamed Eupator ; 24 miles N. of Ama-
fia. N. lat. 40° 26'. E. long: 36° 38'.

TCHERNITZ. See Czern-itz.

TCHERNOIYAR, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Saratov, defended by a ditch and chevaux-de-frieze,
with fome cannon ;■ 200 miles N.W. of Aftrachan. N. lat.
47° 54'. E. long. 46° 4'.

TCHERNOLUrZKAIA, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Tobolfk ; 20 miles W. of Omflc.

TCHERNOMORSKI, or Cojfacks of the Black Sea, a
tribe of CofTacks, whofe territory is fep;u-atcd by the river
yie or Tea, from that of the Grecian or Malo-Ruffian in-
habitants, whofe number does not exceed 700 perfons, and
the boundary of whofe diftrift is formed by the river Ae
towards the S. and by the fea of Azof to the N. The
Tchernomorflii are a brave but rude and warlike people, and
hofpitable to ftrangers. Tiieir original appellation was Za-
porogztzfi or Zaporagians, denoting their former fituation
" beyond the catarafts" of the Dnieper. From the banks
of tliis river they were removed by the late emprefs Catha-
rine to thofe of the Kuban, in order to repel the incurfions
of the Circaffians and Tartars from the Turkiffi frontier.
Ih confequence of the fervice they rendered to Ruffia in
Catharine's laft war with Turkey, the emprefs, by an ukafe
of the 2d of June, 1792, ceded to them the peninfula of
Taman, and all die countries between the Kuban and the
fea of Azof, as fai- as the rivers Ae and Laba ; an extent
of territorj' comprehending upwards of looofquare miles.
They had alfo a conftitution allotted to them in all refpetls
fimilar to that of the Don Coffacks, and received the appel-
lation of " CofTacks of the Black fea." They were alfo al-
lowed the privilege of choofmg an Ataman ; but their num-
bers have been confiderably diminifhed. They could once

T C H

bring into the field an army of 40,000 effedlive cavalry ; but
at prefent, their number of troops does not exceed 15,000.
They r pw occupy the whole country from the Ae to the
Kuban, and from the Black fea to the frontier of the Don
Coffiicks. (See Cossacks. ) The Tchernomor{ki do not
refemble the Coflacks of the Don in habits, difpofition, or
any otlier charafteriftic quality. The latter wear the true
uniform ; the former wear any habit according to their ca-
price. The Don Colfack is mild, affable, and polite ; the
Black-fea Coflack is blunt and even rude, from the boldnefs
and martial hardihood of his manners. If he ia poor, he
appears clad like a primeval (hepherd, or the wildefl moun- as
taineer ; at the fame time having his head bald, except one U
long braided lock from the crown, placed behind the right
ear. This lock diftinguiflies the Tchernoraorfki CofTack
from the CofTack of the Don, as well as from every other
tribe of CofTacks in the Ruffian empire. If the Euxine
CofTack is rich, he is very lavifh in the cottlinefs of his drefs,
which confifts of embroidered velvet, and the richeft filks
and cloths of every variety of colour. The Tchernomorflci
are more cheerful and noify than the Don Coflacks ; turbu-
lent in their mirth ; vehement in convcrfation ; fomewhat
querulous ; and if not engaged in difpute, they are generally
laughing' or Tinging. Both thefe CofTacks hold one another
in Tow eftimation. The metropolis of the Tchemomorflvi
CofTacks is " Ekaterinedara," or " Catherine's Gift." It
has no refemblance to a town ; but is rather a grove, or foreft
of oaks, in which a number of ftraggling cottages, widely
feparated, are concealed, not only from general obfervation,
but from the view of each other. The country is covered
with tumuh, which are vei-y ancient, and appear by their re-
mains to have been fepulchres. The government is wholly
exercifed by the Ataman and his officers, who wear theatri-
cal and fplendid habits. Their breafts are covered with
chains of gold and gold-lace ; their fabre is Turkifh ; their
boots of red or yellow -coloured leather ; their cap of black
velvet, ornamented with lace and filver chains, or fine black
Tartarian wool, taken from lambs in an embryo ftate. They
bind their waift with filken fafhes, fuftaining piftols of the
moll coftly workmanfliip. A fmall whip, with a (liort lea-
thern thong, is attached to their httje finger. The lowes
extremity of their lance is Tupported by the right foot ; and
from the powder-flaflc, pendent in front, are fufpended filver
coins, and other trinkets. The Circaffians and Tcherno-
morilci carry on trade by a peculiar kind of barter. The
exchange of corn, honey, mats, wood, and arms, for the
fait of the CofTacks, is tranfafted without contraft ; the
wares of the Circaffians being placed on the ground where
they find the fait ready ftationed for barter. The Tcherno-
morfki who are employed in guarding their cattle in the
fteppes, amounting to many thoufands, from the depreda-
tions of the Circaffians, pafs the night upon the bare ground ;
and in order to proteft themfelves from the mofquitoes,
which are both numerous and troublefome, creep into a kind
of fack, fufficient only for the covering of a fingle perfon ;
beneath this they lie upon the thiftle? and other wild plants
of the fteppes. In order to avoid the exceffive irritation
and painful fwelling occafioned by the ftings of thefe fe^
rocious infedls, they hght a number of fires to drive them
from the cattle during the night ; but their thirft of blood
is fo infatiate, that fwarms will attack a perfon attempting
to fhelter himfelf even in the midft of fmoke. See Clarke's
Travels, vol. ii. 8vo.

TCHERNORIEGENSKAIA, a fortrefs of Ruffia,
in the government of Upha, on the Ural ; 1 2 raits W. of
Orenburg. — Alfo, a fortrefs of Ruffia, in the government
of Simbirflf, on the river Sak ; 80 miles S.E. of Simbirik,

7 TCHER-

T C H

T C H

TCHERPLINSKOI, a fortrefs of Ruflla, in the go-
vernmeiit of Uplia, on the Ural; 124 miJes E. of Oren-
burg.

TCHERTCHI, a town of Thibet; 20 miles S.W. of
Harachar.

TCHERTOVSKA, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Irkutftc ; 32 miles S.W. of Kireiifk.

TCHERVLENA, a fortrefs of RufFia, in the govern-
ment of Caucafus, on the Malka ; 64 miles E. of Eiiatc-
rinograd.

TCHESKAIA, a gulf or bay in the Frozen ocean, on
the N. coaft of Ruffia. N. lat. 66° 50' to 77° 40'. E.
long. 45° to 47°.

TCHESUCHINSKOI, afortrefsof Ruflia, onthebor-
ders of China ; 104 miles S.W. of Nertchinfk.

TCHE-TAN, a river of China, which runs into the
Tom, 12 miles W. of Yeou.

TCHE-TCHEOU Hotun, atownof ChinefeTartary,
in the country of Hami ; 983 miles E. of Peking. N. lat.
40° 29'. E. long. 94° 21'.

TCHETIRDAGH, a mountain of the Crimea, the
Trapezius of Strabo, the height of which Pallas flatcs to
be about 1200 feet, and Dr. Clai'ke fays, that it does not
exceed 1 300 feet ; though the rapidity of its rife from the
coail about Alufta makes its elevation appear to be much
greater. Almoil the whole of the Crimea may be feen from
]t& fummit in clear weather. The higher parts of this
mountain exhibit a mafs of lime-done, very compaft and of
a grey colour. Its ancient name, Trapezius, was probably
derived from the table- fonn of its iummit. The lower
diftridt is covered by groves impenetrable to the rays of the
fun.

TCHEUISKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of ToboKk, on tlie Oby ; 48 miles N.N.E. of Kohvan.

TCHEVTZA, a river of Ruffia, which runs into tlic
Viatka, near Slobodfkoi, in the government of Viatka.

TCHIATAM, a town of Thibet; 510 miks E. of
Lalfa. N. lat. .28° 3'. E. long. 99° 20'.

TCHICOU, a town of Cores; l8 miles S.S.E. of
I^ong Kouang.

TCHICSE, a town of Thibet ; 12 miles E. of Latac.

TCHICTAMA, a town of Thibet ; 15 miles N.E. of
Pi-tchan.

TCHIEIN, a town of Ruffia, near the ftraits which fe-
parate the continent of Afia from America. N. lat. 65" 40'.
E. long. 188' 24'.

TCHIGLING, a river of North America, which runs
into the Frozen fea, oppofite to the ifland of Chichitfi.

TCHIKIRI, a river of Chinefe Tartary, which runs
into the Amur, 15 miles N. of Saghalien Oula Hotun.

TCHILINSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Irkutflc, on the Ingoda ; 60 miles E. of Doroninik.

TCHILLDIR Mountains, a name whicJi is given to a
very high ridge, formed by fomc branches of mount Cauca-
fus, which taking an oppofite direftion of thofe known by
the name of the " Mountains of Ccraunii," pafs towards
the S. and S.W., crofs Ahgaz and Mingrelia, and encircle
the Euxine to the E. and S.E. Thefe unite in the above-
named high ridge on the northern frontier of Immerctia,
and again open into the Turkifh province of Akifha.
Here they aflume the appellation of Tchilldir, and would
appear to feparate into three branches, the mod northern
of which follows in a S.E. line the banks of the Cyrus, and
ultimately produces an immenfe range, which running pa-
rallel with the Cafpian, feparates Irak from Ghilan and Ma-
25anderan, and to the N. of Meflied is loil in the dcferts of

Vol. XXXV.

Khoraffan. In tjie neighbourhood of Sultnnea and Caz-
wecn this range receives the name of Khai Caucafan, and in
the vicinity ot Tehraun it is called Elbourz. The middle
ridge of the Tchilldir mountains, under the denomination
of the Moffian iiills, traverfcs the province of Georgia, and
bounds on the N. tlic dehglitful plain of Erivan. It then
enters tlic Ruffian diftriifts of the Karabaug and Karadaug,
and gradually finks into the plains of Mogan. The laR and
mod fouthern branch of the Tchilldir mountains, bending
to tiie S. and E., paflfes the town of Kars, and forms a
junftion with mount Taiu-us. Kinneir's Mem. of the Per-
fian Empire.

TCHINDAT TuRiiKUEVSKOi, a fort of Ruffia, in the
government of Irkutik ; 72 miles S. of Nertchinflc.

TcmtiDAT Turuiue'vjia, afortrefsof Ruffia, in tlie go-
vernment of Irkut(]< ; 80 miles S.W. of Nertchinlk.

TCHINEH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, iR Natolia ;
15 miles W.N.W. of Moglah.

TCHING, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in Ho-
nan ; 382 miles S. of Peking. N. lat. 33° 49'. E. long.
1 14° 38' — Alfo, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
Ho-nan ; 340 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 34° 50'.
E. long. I 13° 29'.

TCHI-NGAM, a city of China, of the fecond rank,
in Sc-lchuen ; 780 miles S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 28° 32'.
E. long. 107° 4'.

TCHING-CANG, a city of Chma, of the fecond rank,
in Yun-naii ; 1302 miles S.W of Peking. N. lat. 24° 12'.
E. long. 99° 16'.

TCHING-CHAN, a town of Corea ; 30 miles S.S.E,
of Ou-tchuen.

TCHING-HE, a town of Corea ; 30 miles N.N.E. of
Kang-tcheou.

TCHING-HIANG, a city of China, of the fird rank,
in Se-tchuen ; 910 miles S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 27° 18'.
E. long. 104° 26'.

TCHING-KIANG, a city of China, of the firft rank,
in Kiang-nan, on the fouth fide of the river Yang-tfe. ■ This
is not one of the largeil cities of the pro'/ince, for it is not
above a league in circumference, and has authority over only
tliree cities of the tliird clafs, but it is one of the mod con-
fiderable for its fituation and commerce ; it is the key of the
empire towards the fea, and is alfo a fortrefs, where there
is alfo a ftrong garrifon ; the walls are above 30 feet in height
in feveral places. The dreets of the city and fuburbs are
paved with marble ; 470 miles S.S.E. of Peking. N. lat.

32° 14'. E. long. 1 1 8^ Si' A'fO' = city of China, of the

fird rank, in Yun-nan ; 1082 miles S.S.W^. of Peking. . N.
lat. 24° 44'. E. long. 102° 40'.

TCHING-NING, a city of China, of the fecond rank,
in Koei-tchcou ; 1017 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat.
26° 3'. E. long. 105-23'.

TCHING-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the firft
rank, in Hou-quang. This city is fituated on an angle
made by two rivers ; the country is watered by a great num-
ber of Ijrooks, which make the vallies exceeding fruitful ; it
is very full of mountains, which yield plenty ofquick-filver,
lapis lazuh, and grcen-dones for painting. There arc alfo
mines of filver and gold. The people who inhabit the moun-
tains aie not fo polite as the red of the Chinefe ; on the
contrary, their rude and favage manners make them to be
looked upon as barbarians. The didrift of this city con-
tains one of the fecond order, and nine of the third ; 765
miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat- 28° 23'. E. long.
109'' 40'. — Alfo, a city of the pro\-ince of Kiang-nan,
fituated near the canal through which all barks going from
2 Sou-

T C H

Sou-tcheou to Kiang rauft pafs. It is celebrated on ac-
count of its trade, and water which gives tea a pleafant
taftc : dependeut on it are five cities ot the third clafs, in
which a particular kind of earthen-ware is manufaftured,
highly valued by the Chii.efe, and preferred to the moft ele-
gant porcelain.

TCHING-TEOU, a town of Corea ; 30 miles S.S.W.
of Kaug-tcheou.

TCHING-TING, a city of China, of the firR rank,
in Pe-tche-li. Tching-ting is a large city, about four miles
in circumference. Its jurifdidlion is very extenfive, and
comprehends 32 towns ; five of wtiich are of the fecond,
and 27 of tlic third clafs. Northward from it lie feveral
mountains, where the Chinefe fay many fimples and curious
plants are to be found ; on thefe mountains there are alfo
feveral monuments or temples, ercfted in honour of deceafed
heroes ; among which is one confecrated to the memory of
the tirft emperor of the dynafty of Han ; 137 miles S.S.W.
of Pekjng." N. lat. 39=" 9'.- E. long. 1 14^ 20'.

TCHING-TOU, a city of China, of the firft rank, in
Se-tchuen. This was formerly the refidence of the em-
perors, and one of the largeft and moft beautiful cities in
China; bul in 1646, it was almoil entirely deftroyed, dur-
ing the civil wars which preceded the laft invafion by the
Tartars. Its temples, bridges, and the ruins of ancient
palaces, are objeAs of admiration to ftrangers ; neither its
conunerce, nor the manners of its inhabitants, have any thing
to diftinguifh it from other cities, nor its fituation, which is,
however, exceedingly pleafant. It has under its jurifdiftion
fix cities of the fecond clafs and 25 of the third ; 810 miles
S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 30" 40'. E. long. 103° 44'.

TCHIN-HOA, a town of Corea; 50 miks E.N.E. of
King-ki-tao.

TCHINKITANY Bay, a bay on the W. coaft of North
America, called by the Spaniards Baya de Guadaloupe.

TCHIN-NAN, a city of China, of the fecond rank,
in Yun-nan ; 1187 miles S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 25° 16'.
E. long. 101° 4'.

TCHIN-NGAN, a city of China, of the firft rank, in
Quang-fi ; 1 150 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 23° 21'.
E. long. 106°.

TCHIN-YUEN, a city of China, of the fecond rank,
in Quang-fi; 1145 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 23°
14'. E. long. 106^49'.

TCHIRAKI, a town of Chinefe Tarfary, in the coun-
try of the Kalkas. N. lat. 48= 36'. E. long. 115^ 1 6'.

TCHIRINKOtjTAN, one of the fmall Kurile idands.
N. lat. 49" 20'. E. long. 153° 4'.

TCHIRNOOI, one of the fmaU Kurile iflands. N.
lat. 47° 8'. E. long. 151'' 50'.

TCHIRON. See Shiron.

TCHISEGI Daghi, a mountain of Afiatic Turkey, in
the government of Sivas, near Divriki.

TCHISTAY, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Bo-
leflau ; 4 miles N;W. of Jung Bunlzel.

TCHISTIAKOVA, a town of Rufiia, in the govern-
ment of Perm ; 36 miles N. of Perm.

TCPIISTOKOLSK, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Kazan ; 36 miles S.E. of Kazan. N. lat. 50° 16'.
E.loiig. 49° 54'.

TCHI-TCHEOU, a city of Cliina, of the firft rank,
in Kiang-nan ; 570 miles S. of Peking. N. lat. 30° 45'.
E. long. 117°.

TCHI-TCHOUAN, a town of Thibet; 20 miles N.
•f Chao-nja-mg Hotun-

T C H

TCHIUNA, a river of Ruffia, which rifes fix miles
from Bratlkoi, in the government of Kolivan, lat. 56° long.
101°, and runs into the Tunguilca, 56 miles S.E. of Enifeilk.
N. lat. sf 54'- E. long. 93° 34'.

TCHIURAC, a river of Natolia, which runs into the
Meinder near Tcheharfhebeh.

TCIil-YUEN, a town of Corea ; 15 miles S.E. of
Tfin-tcbeou. — Alfo, a city of China, of the firft rank, in
Koei-tcheou ; 1000 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat.
27° i'. E. long. 107" 51'.

TCHO, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in Chan-fi,
on the river Fuen ; 298 miles S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 36"
36'. E. long, iii'^ 23'. Ji

TCHOCOU, a town of Thibet ; 18 miles E. of Hara- T
char Hotun.

TCHOHA KlAMEN, a poft of Chinefe Tartary ; 4J
miles S.W. of Kara.

TCHOI. See Palcati Nor.

TCHOKA. See Saghaliex.

TCHOL, a river of Chinefe Tartary, which rifes in lat.
48° 20', long. 120° 34', and runs into the Noupi, N. lat.
46^28'. E. long. 123° 31'.

TcHOL Hotun, a town of Chinefe Tartary, on a river of
the fame name ; 500 miles N.N.E. of Peking. N. lat. 46°
41'. E. long. 123° 35'.

TCHOL-ABADI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Ca-
ramania ; 32 miles S.W. of Alkfhehr.

TCHOM-COU-CHO, a town of Chinefe Tartary;
25 miles S.W. of Ning-yueR.

TCHOM-YUEN, a town of Chinefe Tartary ; 15 miles
N. of Geho.

TCHONG, a town of Corea ; 68 miles from Kin-nai-
tchan. — Alfo, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
Quang-fi; 1 1 75 miles W. of Peking. N. lat 22° 26'. E.
long. 107° 4'.

TCHONG-HOTOC, a town of Thibet ; 90 miles
S.S.W. of Horatoube.

TCHONG-KIANG-CHE, a town on the W. coaft of
Formofa. N. lat. 24° 40'. E. long. 138° 2'.

TCHONG-KING, a city of China, of the firft rank,
in Se-tchuen. This is one of the moft commercial cities of
the province. It is in a great meafure indebted for its trade
to its fituation at the confluence of two remarkable rivers ;
one of which, called H'm-cha-kiang, or G olden- f and, re-
ceives in its courfe ail the ftreams from the mountains,
which rife on the neighbouring confines of Tai-tary. The
other is Ta-kiang, which has its fource beyond the bound-
aries of China, and is commonly called T ang-tje-l'iang.
Tchong-king is built upon a mountain, and rifes in the form
of an amphitheatre : the air round it is wholefome and tem-
perate. Tliis city is celebrated for its fifli, and a particular
kind of trunks, made v«th canes, interwoven in the manner
of bafiiet-work. It has in its diftridl three cities of the
fecond clafs, and eleven of the third ; 750 miles S.W. of
Peking. N. lat. 29° 42'. E. long. 106'^ 19'.

TCHONG-KOUE, or the Middle Kingdom, the name
which the Chinefe give to this empire ; the wcftern Moguls
call it Catay ; the Mantchew Tartai-s, Nican-courou ; the
Japanefe, Thau : and the people of Cochinchina and Siam,
Cin, from wliich Isft appellation that of Cliina is probably
derived.

TCHONTORI, a town of Thibet; 175 miles S.E.
of Hami. N. lat. 40° 24'. E. long. 96° 34'.

TCHO RRO-TOHON-KI AMEN, a poft of Chinefe
Tartary ; 23 miles N. of Odoli.

9 TCHORS,

T C H

T C I

Thibet, near the
Chinefe Tartary.

TCHORS, a town of Pcrfia, in the province of Adir-
beitzan, inhabited by Curds, fubjeft to Pcrfia ; 78 miles
W.N.W. of Tauris.

TCHOSCHO, a fmall river of RuITia, which runs into
the Tchefkaia galf, 40 miles N.N.E. of Mezen.

TCHOUCDOU, a town of Chinefe Tartary ; 20 miles
N.N.W. of Petoune-Hotun.

TCHOUCHAN, a town of Corca ; 38 miles S. of
King-ki-tao.

TCHOUCHLOMA, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Koftrom ; 76 miles N.E. of Koftrom. N. lat.
58° 35'. E. long. 42" 40'.

TCHOUCTEY-KIAMEN, a poft of Chinefe Tar-
tary ; 10 miles N.E. of Tchol.

TCHOUDSONG, a town of Thibet, on the borders of
China; 340 miles S.E. of LaiTa. N. lat. 27° 22'. E. long.
96° 50'.

TCHOUKIA-POURAN, a town of Thibet ; 69 miles
S.S.E. of LafTa.

TCHOU-KIONG, or Yung, a city of China, of tlie
firft rank, in Yun-nan ; 1 187 miles S.W. of Peking. N. lat.
25° 6'. E. long. 101° 20'

TCHOULGUE-HOTUN, a town of Chinefe Tar-
tary ; 74^ miles E.N.E. of Poking. N. lat. 44° l'.

E. long. 1 3 1° 47' Alfo, a town of Chinefe Tartary ; 840

miles E.N.E. of Peking. N. lat. 44'' 48'. E. long.

133° 49'-

TCHOUMOU, a town of Thibet ; 63 miles E.S.E. of
Laffa.

TCHOUMOURTI, a town of
Ganges ; 225 miles E.S.E. of Latac.

TCHOURHATAI, a town of
N. lat. 43° 4'. E. long. 1 19" 45'.

TCHOUSOR, a town of Thibet ; 36 miles S.W. of
LafTa.

TCHOU-TAN, a river of China, which runs into the
Yuen, near Hong-kiang-fe.

TCHOU-TCHAN-TCHE, a town of the idand of
Formofa. N. lat. 24° 48'. E. long. 120^^21'.

TCHUDSKOI, a lake of Rultia, between the govern-
ments of Petersburg and Riga ; about 64 miles in length,
and from 8 to 24 in breadth. N. lat. 58° to 59° 10'. E.
long. 27^to 27° 28'. See Peipus.

TCHUGUEV, a town of Rufiia, in the government of
Charkov ; 12 mJes E. of Charkov. N. lat. 49° 58'.
E. long. 36° 14'.

TCHUKOTCH, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the
Icy fea, N. lat. 71° 30'. E. long. 155° 14'.

TCHUKOTSKIJA, the moft eaftern province of
Ruffia, in the government of Irkutfk, extending from N.W.
to S.E., about 740 miles in length, and nearly 520 from N.
to S. N. lat. 63° to 73° 20'. E. long. 157° to 159".

TCHUKOTSKOI, a cape of the N.E. extremity of
Siberia, at the entrance of the ftraits which divide the Pacific
ocean from the Frozen fea, and the continent of America
from Afia. N. lat. 66° 15'. E. long. 199° 14'.

TCHULIM, a river of Ruflia, formed by the union of
feveral rivers, which runs into the Oby, near Moltchanovka.

TCHUMARA-STANITZ, a town of Ruffia, in the

fovernmefit of Irkutfk, on the Lena. N. lat. 61° 12'.
;. long. 125° 14'.
TCHUMISCH, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the
Oby, 6 miles S.S.E. of Kolivan.

TCHURKINO, a lake of RufGa, 320 miles N.N.W. of
Zafhiverflt. N. lat. 72° 30'. E. long. 134° 4'.

TCHUSOVALA., a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Perm ; 28 miles N. of Perm. — Alfo, a town of Ruflia,

in the government of Perm, at the usiion of the Tchufovaia
and the Kama; 16 miles N. of Perm. — Alfo, a river of
R*uffia, which joins the Silva, and runs into the Kama, about
12 miles above Perm.

TCHUSOVOI, a town of Ruffi?, in the government of
Perm ; 40 miles N.E. of Perm.'

TCHU-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the firfl rank,
in Tche-kiang ; 730 miles S.S.E. of Peking. N. lat.
28° 36'. E. long. 139° 33'.

Tt I-NAN, or Tsi-N AK, r. city of China, of the drfi rank,
in the province of Chan-tong, fitusted fouth of tlie river
Tfing-ho, or Tfi : this city i.; large and populous, and is
much refpcdted by the Chinefe, on account of its having
been formerly the refidence of a long furies of kings, whofe
tombs, rifing on the neighbouring mountains, aflbrcTa beauti-
ful profpeft. Tci-nan lias under its juriidiAion four cities
of the fecond clafs, and 26 of the third; 235 miles S. of
Peking. N. lat. 36° 46'. E. long. 1 16° 46'.

TCIN-CHOUI, a lake of Chi:,a, about 37 miles in cir-
cumference ; 25 miles N.N.E. of Tiln-tcheou.

TCING, a city of Cliina, of the fecond rank, in
Pe-tche-li ; 130 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 38° 8'.
E. long. 114° 6'.

TCI-NGIN, a city of Ciiina, of the fecond rank, in
Chang-tong ; 275 miles S. of Peking. N. lat. 35° 34'.
E. long. 1 1 6° 24'.

TCIN-TCHEOU, or Tsin-tcheou, a city of China, of
the firfl rank, in Chang-tong. The principal branch of its
commerce is fifh, which are caught in fuch abundance, that,
we are afTured, the profit arifing from their flvins only is very
confiderable. It has in its diitrift one city of the fecond
clafs, and 13 of the third; 230 miles S.S.E. of Peking.
N. lat. 36° 46'. E. long. 1 18° 20'.

TCITCICAR-HOTUN, a town of Chinefe Tartary.
This is the ufual refidence of a Tartarian general, and capital
of a diftrift. This city was built to guard the frontiers of
the Chinefe empire from the Ruffians. The city is fortified
by clofe palifades, and a wall conftrufted of earth. The
fpace inclofed by the former contains the tribunals and the
houfe of the Tartar general ; that which is between the pali-
fades and the earthen wall is occupied by the foldicrs of the
Tartar garrifon, merchants, and tradefmcn, moft of whom are
Chinefe invited hither by hopes of gain, or condemned to
exile, and whofe houfes are only of earth, forming pretty
large ftreets. The jurifdiftion of tlie general who com-
mands here extends over the new cities of Merguen and
Saghalien-oula (city of the Black river) : the latter being,
on account of its fituation, the moft populous, the richeil,
and the moft important. It is fituated on the fouthern bank
of the river Saghalien, commands a plain in which feveral
villages have been built, and fecures to the Mantchcw Tartars
the pofTeffion of extenfive deferts covered with woods, io
which a great number of fables are found.

The diftrift to which this city belongs is the moft northerly
of the three departments of Eaflcrn Chinefe Tartary. It is
occupied by different Tartar tribes, the principal of which
are the Mantchews, Solons, and the Tagouris, the ancient
inhabitants of the country. The two latter tribes fubmittcd
to the Mantchews, and implored their affiftance againft the
Ruffians or Mufcovites, who, with armed barks, palfing from
the Saghalien-oula into the Songari-oula, infeited all thf
rivers which flow into them, and made thenifclves furm:dable
to the Tartar nations who inhabited their banks. The
Ruffians would foon have become maftcrs of the valuable
forefts in which the fables are found, if the fort of Yafca,
which they built on the river Saghahen,had boon fuffered to
remain; but, by the treaty of peace concluded in 1689,
Z 2 between

TEA.

between the Ruffians ajid Chintfe, it was agreed that it
Ihould be demohlhod, that no caufe of umbrage or complaint
might be left to the Tartar hunters.

The Tagouris, who appear to be the oldeft inhabitants of
the country, are tall, ftrong of body, and accuftomed to
labour ; they build themfcKes houfcs, fow corn, and culti-
vate their lands, although they have always been fufrounded
by Tartars w|jo live under tents, and are entirely ignorant of
agriculture.

The Solon Tartars are ftill more robuft, braver, and of
greater ingenuity ; they arc almoft all hunters ; their women
mount on horfeback, handle the bow and the javelin, and
follow in the chace ttags and other wild animals. It is gene-
rally about the beginning of Oftober that thefc Tartars
depart to hunt fables, clad in a (hort clofc garment of wolf's
Ikin : they cover their heads with a cap made of the fame,
and carry their bows fufpended at their backs.

They take along with them feveral horfes loaded with
facks of millet, and their long cloaks made of foxes' or
tygers' (kins, which they wrap round them to defend tliem-
felves from the cold, efpecially during the night. Their
dogs are trained to this kind of hunting ; they are accuf-
tomed to cHmb the fteepeft rocks, and know all the ftrata-
gems of the fables.

The fables' flvins of this country are highly valued. Some
of the rivers that run into the Sagiialien^ula furnifh pearls ;
335 miles N.E. of Peking. N. lat. 47° 25'. E. long.

123° 3°'-

TE, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in Chan-tong,

on the grand canal; 1 50 miles S. of Peking. N. lat. 37° 35'.

E. long. 115° 50'.

TEA-Tree, in Botany. See Thea.

Tea, in common language, denotes the leaves of the tea-
tree, as they are imported into this country, and the infufion
of them in boiling water. The term is more extenfively ap-
plied to any other infufion of ordinary roots or herbs.

Dr. Lettfom, in his botanical defcription of the tea-plant,
thinks it moft probable, that there is only one fpecies, and
that the difference between the green and bohea teas depends
on the nature of the foil, culture, age, and the manner of
drying the leaves. He adds, that it has even been obferved,
that a green tea-tree, planted in the bohea tea country, will pro-
duce bohea, and on the contrary ; and that on his examining
feveral hundi-ed flowers, brought both from the bohea and
green tea countries, their botanical charafters have always
appeared uniform. We are principally indebted to Ksempfer,
Le Compte, and Du Halde, for an authentic hiltory of the
culture of this exotic flirub, and the manner of preparing or
curing its leaves.

The particulars of greateft importance that have been
recited, have lately been judicioufly coUefted, and the fub-
jeft further illuilrated by additional obfervations by Dr.
Lettfom.

The tea-tree loves to grow in vallies, at the foot of moun-
tains, and upon the banks of rivers, where it enjoys a fouthern
expofure to the fun ; thougb it endures confiderable vari-
ations of heat and cold, as it flourifhes in the northern clime
of Peking, as well as about Canton ; ajid it is o'uferved that
the degree of cold at Peking is as fevere in winter as in fome
of the northern parts of Europe. However, the beft tea

frows in a mild temperate climate, the country about Nan-
ing producing better tea than either Peking or Canton,
betwixt which places it is fitiiated.

The root refembles that of the peach-tree ; the leaves are

green, kmgiih at the point, and pretty narrow, an inch and

half long, and jagged all round. The flower is much hke

that of the wild role, but fnaaller. The fruit is of different

6

forms, fometimes round, fometimes long, fometimes triangu-
lar, and of tlie ordinary fize of a bean, containing two of
three feeds, of a moufe-colour, including each a kernel.
Thefe are the feeds by which the plant is propagated : a
number from fix to twelve or fifteen being promifcuoufly
put into one hole, four or five inches deep, at certain dif-
tances from each other. The feeds vegetate without any
other care, though the more induftrious annually remove the
weeds, and manure the land. The leaves which fucceed are
not fit to be plucked before the third year's growth, at
which period they are plentiful, and in their prime.

In about feven years the ftirub rifes to a inan's height,
and as it then bears few leaves, and gi-ows (lowly, it is cut
down to the ftem, which occafions an exuberance of frefh
fhoots and leaves the fucceeding fummer ; fome, indeed,
defer cutting them till they are of ten years' growth. In
Japan, the tea-tree is cultivated round the borders of the
fields, without regard to the foil ; but as the Chinefe export
confiderable quantities of tea, they plant whole fields with
it. The leaves are not coUefted from the cultivated plan!
till it is three years old ; and after growing feven or ten
years, it is cut down, in order that the numerous youug
flioots /iiay afford a greater fupply of leaves.

The beil time to gather the leaves of tea is while they are
yet fmall, young, and juicy ; and the different periods in
which they are gathered are particularly defcribed by
Kaempfer. The firft gathering of the tea-leaves, according;
to this author, commences about the latter end of February,
when the leaves are young and unexpanded. The fecond
collection is made about the beginning of April, and the
third in June. The firll collettion, which confifts only of
the fine tender leaves, is moft efleemed, and is called Im-
perial tea. Tlie fecond is called Tootsjaa, or Chinefe tea,
becaufe it is infufed and drunk after the Chinefe manner.
The lafl, which is the coarfeft and chcapeil, is chiefly con-
fumed by the lower clafs of people. Befides the three kinds
of tea here noticed, it may be obferved, that by garbling or
forting thefe, the varieties of tea become Hill further mul-
tiplied. The leaves are plucked cai-efully one by one, and
notwithilanding the feeming tedioiifnefs of this operation^
the labourers are able to gather from four to ten qif fifteen
pounds each in one day. The tea-trees that yield often the
finefl leaves, grow on the fteep declivities of hills, where it
is dangerous, and in fome cafes imprafticable to colleft them.
The Ciiinefe are faid to vanquifh this difficulty by a fingular
contrivance. The large monkies which inhabit thefe cliffs
are irritated, and in revenge they break off the branches,
and throw them down, fo that the leaves are thus obtained.
The leaves fliould be dried as foon as pofTible after they are
gathered.

The buildings, or drying-houfes, that are erefted for
curing of tea, contain from five to tenor twenty fmall furnaces,
about three feet high, each having at the top a large fiat
iron pan. There is alfo a long low table covered with mats,
on which the leaves are laid, and rolled by workmen, who
fit round it : the iron pan being heated to a certain degree by
a Uttle fire made in the furnace underneath, a few pounds of
the frefh-gathered leaves are put upon the pan ; the frefh and
juicy leaves crack when they touch the pan, and it is tht;
bufinefs of the operator to (hift them as quick as poflible with
his bare hands, till they become too hot to be eafily endured.
At this inftant he takes off the leaves with a kind of fhovel
refembling a fan, and pours them On the mats before the
rollers, who, taking fmall quantities at a time, roll them in
the palm of their hands in one direftion, while others are
fanning them, that they may cool the more fpeedily, and re-
tain their curl the longer. This procefs is repeated two or

three

TEA.

llircc times, or ofttiicr, beforf tlie tea is put into the ftorea,
in order that all the moiflure of the leaves may be thoroughly
diffipated, and their curl more completely preferved. On
every repetition the pan is lefs heated, and the operation
performed more (lowly and cautioufly. The tea is then fc-
parated into the different kinds, and depofitod in the itore for
domeftic ufe or exportation.

The Chinefe kiiow nothing of imperial lea, Jlower of tea,
and many other names, which in Europe ferve to diftinguiih
the goodnefs and the price of this fafliionable cummodity ;
but, befide the common tea, they dillinguifh two otiier kinds,
•uiz. the tioiii ind foumh, which are referved for people of tlie
firft quality, and thofe who ai-e lick. We have two princi-
pal kinds of tea in Europe ; viz.

Tea, Green, which is the common tea of the Chinefe,
&c. F. le Compte calls it bing tea, and fays it is gathered
from the plant in April. It is held very digeitive, and a
little aftringent ; it gives a palifh-green tinfture to water, and
its leaves are much twifted.

Tea, Bohea, which is the 'vom tea, or bou tcba of the Chi-
nefe. F. le Compte makes this only differ from the green
tea, by its being gathered a month before it, ^1%. in March,
while in the bud ; and hence the fmallncfs of the leaves, as
well as the depth of the tinfture it gives to water. Others
take it for the tea of fome particular province ; the foil being
found to make an alteration in the properties of the tea, as
much as the feafon of gathering it. It is aD bought at Nan-
kin, and thence brought into Europe, where it is now much in
vogue.

As to the differences in colour and flavour peculiar to
thefe two kinds, and to their varieties. Dr. Lettfom thinks
that there is reafon to fufpeft that they are, in fome meafure,
adventitious, or produced by art. He has been informed by
intelligent perfons, who have relided fome time at Canton, that
the tea about that city affords very little fmell while growing.
The fame is obferved of the tea-plants now in England,
and alfo of the dried fpecimens from China. We are not,
however, as he obferves, to conclude from hence, that art
alone conveys to tea, when cured, the fmell peculiar to each
kind ; for our vegetable graffes, for inftance, have little or no
fmell till they are dried and made into hay.

As to the opinion, that the green tea owes its verdure to
an efRorefcence acquired from the plates of copper on which
it is fuppofed to be cured or dried, he fliews that there is no
foundation tor thisfufpicioii. Theinfufions of the fineft im-
perial and bloom teas undergo no change on the affiifion
of a volatile alkali, which would deteft the minutefl por-
tion of copper contained in them, by turning the liquors
blue.

The fine green colour of thefe teas, with as little reafon, hath
been attributed to green copperas ; as this metallic fait would,
on its being diffolved in water, immediately aft oa the aftrin-
gent matter of the leaves, and convert the infufion into ink,
as happens when a chalybeate water has been employed );i the
making of tea.

On the whole. Dr. Lettfom thinks it not improbable, that
fome green dye prepared from vegetable fubftances, is em-
ployed in the colouring of the leaves of the gi-een teas.
And Neumann fufpefts, that the brown colour and the fla-
vour of the bohea forts are introduced by art. Both the
grcan and bohea teas have an agreeable fmell, and a lightly
bitterifh fu'"'a(lringent tafte : v/ith folution of chalybeate
vitriol, they flrike an inky blacknefs. They give out their
fmell and tafte both to watery and fpirituous menftrua ; to
water, the green forts communicate their own green tinc-
tiu-e, and ttie bohea, their brown ; but to redtified fpirit,
tiiey both impart a line deep green. The cxtrafts, obtained

by gently drawing off the menftrua from the fJtercd tinfturts,
are very confiderably aftringent, and not a little ungrateful ;
but tile fpirituous niofl fo.

Savary alfo fpeaks of a fort of red tea, or Tartar tea,
called Honan tcha, which tinges the water of a pale red, and
which is faid to be extremely digeiliye : by means of it
the T.irtars are faid to be .able to feed on raw Hefh. Its
tafte is earthy, and much the k'aft agreeable of them all :
but this is fcarcely luiown in England.

Tea is to be chofen of the brilkeft fmell, and as whole an
poliible : and tlie gieateft care is to be taken that it have not
been expotcd to the air to pall and evaporate.

The drink, tea, is made in China, and throughout the
greatcft part of the Eaft, after the fame manner as in Eu-
rope ; I'ix. by infuling the leaves in boiling water, and
drinking the infufion hot. Indeed, among us, it is ufual to
temper its bitteruefs with fugar, but the Orientals ufe it
without the addition of fugar or milk.

However, the Japanefe are faid to prepare their liquor in
a fomewhat different way, viz. by pulverizing the leaves,
ilirring the powder in hot water, and drinking it as we do
coffee.

From the account given by Du Halde, this method is not
peculiar to the Japanefe, but is alfo ufed in fome provinces
of China.

The common people, who have a coarfer tea, boil it for
fome time in water, and make ufe of the liquor for common
drink. Early in the morning, the kettle, tilled with water,
is regularly hung over the fire for this purpole, and the tea
is either put into the kettle enclofed in a bag, or by means
of a bafket of proper frzo preffed to the bottom of the
veffel, that there may be no hindrance in drawing off the
water.

The Bantsjaa tea only is ufed in this manner, whofe vir-
tues, being more fixed, would not be fo fully cxtrafted by
infufion.

The Chinefe ai-e always taking tea, efpecially at meals :
it is the chief treat with which they regale their friends. The
moll moderate take it at leall thrice a day ; others ten times,
or more ; and yet it is computed, the confnmption of tea
among the Enghfti and Dutch is as great, in proportion, as
among the Orientals.

With regard to the commercial hiftory of tea, we may
obferve that it was firft introduced into Europe by the Dutch
Eaft India Company, very early in the 17th century, arid
that a quantity of it was brought over from Holland by
lord Arlington and lord Offory, abotit the year i666, at
which time it was fold for 60/. a pound. But it appears,
that before this time, drinking of tea, even in public coffec-
houfes in this country, was not uncommon ; for m 1660, a
duty of 8(/. per gallon was laid on the liquor made and fold
in all coffee-houfes.

Tlie prefent confnmption of it ig immenfe, both among the
rich and poor. Dr. Lettfom tells us, th .t he has been in-
formed, that at lealt three milhons of pounds are allowed
for the annual home confumn'iou nc.i includmg the incre-
dible quantity fmuggkd into he kingdom ; and that the
Eaft India Company have generally in their warehoufeB a
fupply for three yeai'S.

In the appendix to fir George Staunton's Account of
Lord Macartney's Embaffy to China, we have feveral ftate-
meiits relating to the tea-trade with China. The average of
teas exported from'Cliina to Europe in foreign fhips, for nine
years, viz. from March 1772 to 17S0, the average- of the
number of fhips being tA'clve, was 13,198,201 lbs. ; in
Englifti ftiips, at the average of nine, 5,639,939 lbs. : the
total average of fhips is tweaty-one, and 6f exported tea

18,838,140.113

TEA.

i8,R3R,i4olb6. The annual confiimption oftea byforeigners
in Europe is eftimatcd at 5,500,ocx)lbs.; ancl the confump-
tion of Great Britain and her dependencies is at leaft
13,338,140 lbs., which, at 700,cx30 lbs. ^.-r fhip, would em-
ploy thirty-eight lar^c (hips conftantiy in the China trade,
inftead of eighteen (hips, as above, moft of which were fmall,
one fleet going out when another is coming home.

The above is exclufivc of private trade teas, brought legally
and illegally into Europe. It is faid, upon the authority of
confidential information, that the Englilli fiiips have often
fmuggled from 1000 to 300O chefts of tea each ; and alfo
that the foreign captains bring a large quantity of tea, which
they cither fmuggle at fea, or throw into the fea, the punifh-
meiit being fevere. The lofs to the public cm 1 000 chefts
of hy fun tea fmuggled, is above 20,000/.

The average quantities for one year of each fort of tea
fold by die Eaft India Company in ten years, from March
fale 1773 to September fale 1782 inclufive, exclulive of
private trade, which was trifling, are as follow :

Bohea ... 3)075)30? lbs.
Congou - - 523,272

Souchong and Pekoe 92,572

Singlo - - - 1,832,474
Hyfon - - 218,839

5,742,464

See Commutation- Aa.

As to the properties of tea, they are ftrangely contro-
verted : the Eaftern nations are at leaft as much pofTefled
with an idea of their extraordinary virtues as the Europeans ;
but it is, perhaps, becaufe imagination bears as great a fway
there as here. The reafon why the gout and ftone are un-
known in China, is afcribed to the ufe of this plant.

Tea is extolled as the greateft of all medicines : moderately
and properly taken, it afts as a gentle aftringent and corro-
borative : it ftrengthens the ftomach and bowels, and is
good againft nauleas, indigeftions, and diarrhoeas. It afts
alfo as a diuretic and diaphoretic. The immoderate ufe of it,
however, has been very prejudicial to many, who have been
thereby thrown into the diabetes.

And alfo in Europe, infufions of tea-leaves have been ex-
travagantly condemned by fome, and commended by others.
From the contradiftory opbions, even of medical writers,
on this fubjeft, the natural inference feems to be, that they
poflefs neither noxious nor beneficial powers, in any very
confiderable degree. They feem, when moderately ufed,
to be for the moft part innocent ; in fome cafes they feem to
be falutary ; in fome they are apparently prejudicial. They
dilute thick juices, and quench thirft more apparently, and
pafs off by the natural emunftorics more freely, than more
watery fluids : they refrefh the fpirits in heavinefs and
fleepinefs, and feem to counteraft the operation of inebriating
liquors.

From their manifeft aftringency, they have been fuppofed
to ftrengthen and brace up the folids, but this effed expe-
rience does not countenance ; as it is in diforders, and in
conftitutions in which corroborants are more ferviceable,
that the immoderate ufe of tea is peculiarly hurtful ; in cold
indolent habits, cachexies, chlorofis, dropfies, and debihties
of the nervous fyftem. Lewis's Mat. Med.

Dr. Lettfom has particularly inquired into the medical
qualities and effefts of tea ; and having obferved that infu-
fions of bohea and green tea contribute to preferve fweet
fome fmall pieces of beef immcrfed in them, he infers that
they poITefs an antifeptic power, when applied to the dead

animal fibre, and from their ftriking a purple colour with
fait of iron, he deduces their aftringent quality.

From other experiments he concludes, that the aftivity of
tea chiefly refides in its fragrant and volatile parts ; and that
if the ufe of it be beneficial or injurious to any particular
conftitution, it becomes fo principally by means of this
odorous fracrrant principle. He apprehends that it is the
fafeft courfe to ufe the infufion of the more ordinary kind*
of this plant, which abcnmd lefs with this fragrant principle.
Or the tea may be boiled a few minutes, in order to diilf-
pate this volatile part, which ftands charged as the caufe of
thofe nervous affeftions that are faid to be produced, or ag-
gravated, by the ufe of this Hquor. By this procefs may
likewife be extrafted more copioufly the more fixed, bitter,
and ftomachic parts of this vegetable.

Dr. Lettfom, who feems to be thoroughly perfuaded of
the occafionally noxious effefts of this volatile principle, in
the finer teas efpecially, recommends this laft ment'oned
mode of making tea, or the fubftitution of the extratt in-
ftead of the leaves ; by the ufe of which the nervous relax-
ing effefts, which foUow the drinking of tea in the ufual
manner, would be in great meafure avoided. This exlraft
has been imported hither from China, in the form of fmall
cakes, not exceeding a quarter of an ounce each in weifrht,
ten grains of which might fuffice one perfon for breakfaft ;
but it might eafily be made here by fimple decoftion and
evaporation, by thofe who experience the noxious qualities
of the volatile principles of this plant.

It may be farther obferved, that the efFeft of drinking
large quantities of any warm aqueous liquor would be to
enter fpeedily into the courfe of circulation, and pafs off as
fpeedily by urine or perfpiration, or the increafe of fome of
the fecretions.

Its effefts on the folid parts of the conftitution would be
relaxing, and thereby enfeebling.

If this warm aqueous fluid were taken in confiderable
quantities, its effefts would be proportionable, and ftill
greater if it were fubftituted inftead of nutriment. The in-
fufion of tea, however, has thcfe two peculiarities. It is
not only pofleiTed of a fedative quality, but alfo of a confi-
derable aftringency ; by which the relaxing power, afcribed
to a mere aqueous fluid, is in fome meafure correfted on this
account. It is, perhaps, lefs injurious than many other infu-
fions of herbs, which, befides a very flight aromatic flavour,
have very little, if any, ftypticity, to prevent their relaxing
debihtating effefts.

So far, therefore, tea, if not too fine, if not drank too
hot, nor in too great quantities, is perhaps preferable to any
other known vegetable infufion. And if we take into con-
fideration, likewife, its known enlivening energy, our at-
tachment to it will appear to be owing to its fuperiority
in tafte and effefts to moft other vegetables. See Dr. Lett-
fom's Natural Hiftory of the Tea-tree, with Obfervations
on the Medical Qualities of Tea, and Effefts of Tea-
drinking, 4to. 1772.

Tea may be confidered as a very powerful aphrodifiac ;
and accordingly, a phyfician of confiderable eminence in his
profeflion, imputes the amazing population of China, amongft
other caufes, to the general ufe of it. Percival's EfF.

We fhall clofe this part of the article with a tranfcript of
its medicinal powers, as they are ftated by Dr. Cullen ( Mat.
Med. vol. ii.) " With refpeft to its qualities as a medicine,
that is, its power of changing the ftate of the human body,
we might fuppofe it afcertained by the experience of its
daily ufe ; but from the univerfality of this ufe in very different
conditions of the plant, and in every poffible condition of

the

TEA.

tiie perfons employing it, the coiiclufions di'awii Irom its
ffFcdls mull be verj- precarious and ambiguous, and we mull
attempt by other means to afcertain its qualities with more
certainty.

" To this purpofe it appears, from the accurate Dr.
Smith's experiments ' De Ailione Mufculari,' No. 36,
that an infuiion of green tea has the effcdl of deitroying the
fenfibility of the nerves, and tiie irritabihty of the mufcles ;
and from the experiments of Dr. Lettfom, it appears tliat
green tea gives out in diftillation an odorous water, which is
powerfully narcotic.

That the recent plant contains fuch an odorous narcotic
power, we might pixfume from the neceflity which the Chi-
nefe find of drying it with much heat before it can be
brought into ufe ; and that, even after fncli preparation,
they mull abllain from the ufe of it for a year or more, that
is, till its volatile parts are (lill farther diHipated : and it is
laid, that unlefs they ufe this precaution, the tea in a more
recent ilatc manifeflly fhcws ftrong narcotic powers. Even
in this country, the more odorous teas often fliew their fe-
dative powers in weakening the nerves of the ftomach, and
indeed of the whole fyftcm.

" From thefe confideratlons we conclude very firmly, that
tea is to be confidereJ as a narcotic and fedative fubllance ;
and tliat it is efpecially fuch in its moil odorous ftate, and
therefore lefs in the bohea than in the green tea, and the
moft fo in the more odorous, or what are called the finer kinds
of the latter.

" Its efFedls, however, feem to be very different in dif-
ferent perfons ; and hence the different, and even contra-
diftory accounts that are reported of thefe effefts. But
if we confider the ■ difference of conftitution, which occa-
fions fome difference of the operation of the fame medicine
in different perfons, and of which we have a remarkable
proof in the operation of opium, we fhall not be furprifed
at the different operations of tea.

" If to this we add the fallacy arifing from the condition
of the tea employed, which is often fo inert as to have no
effefts at all ; and if we ffill add to this the power of habit,
which can deftroy the powers of the moll powerful fub-
flances, we (hall not allow the various and even contradiftory
reports of is effetts to alter our judgment, with refpedl to its
ordinary and more, general qualities in affeifting the human
body.

" From the experiments above-mentioned, and from
the obfcrvations which I have made in the courfe of fifty
years, in all forts of perfons, I am convinced that the qua-
lities of tea are narcotic and fedative.

" It has been often alleged, that fome of the bad effefts im-
puted to tea are truly owing to the large quantity of warm water
which commonly accompanies it, and it is poffible that fome
bad effetts may arife from this caufe : but from attentive ob-
fervation I can affert, that wherever any confiderable effefts
appear, they are in nine of every ten perfons entirely from
the qualities of the tea ; and that any like effefis of warm
water do not appear in one of a hundred who take in this
very lai-gely.

" But while we thus endeavour to eftablilh the poifonous
nature of tea, we do not at the fame time deny that it may
fometimes (hew ufeful qualities. It is very poffible, th.at in
certain perfons, taken in moderate quantity, it may, like
other narcotics in a moderate dofe, prove exhilarating, or,
like thefe, have fome effeft in taking off irritability, or in
quieting fome irregularities of the nervous fyftem.

" As its bad eftefts have been often imputed to the warm
water that accompanies it, fo we have no doubt that fome
of its good effetts may alfo be afcribed to the fame caufe,

and particularly its being fo often grateful after a full
me;fl."

By 9 Geo. II. c. 35, if a veffel, coining from foreign
parts, and having 6 lbs. or more of tea on board, fhall be
found at anchor, or within two leagues of the (hore, &c.
all lucii tea, with chell and package, fhall be forfeited. The
importer of any coffee, tea, or cocoa-nuts, fh;Jl within tliirty
days enter the faid tea, &c. and warehoufe it. (10 Geo.
c. 10. 5 Geo. III. c. 43.) That which is landed without
entry and warehoufing fliall be forfeited. But this fhall not
extend to any coffee or tea imported by the Eafl India Com-
pany. The coffee and tea intended for home confump-
tion fhall be entered and the duty paid. ( 10 G. c. 10.)
A permit (liall be given for the removal of tea from any
wareiioufe, whether it be boliea, congou, fouchoug, or
pekoe tea ; and fueii tea fhall in the permit be fpecified under
tiie denomination of lil{ick tea ; and if the tea be neither
bohea, congou, fouchong, nor pekoe tea, then fuch tea fliall
be fpecified under the denomination of ^r«n tea. 43 Geo. III.
c. 129.

By 13 Geo. III. c. 44. no licence fhall be granted to the
Eafl India Company to export tea, unlefs there remain in the
warehoufes a quantity not lefs than ten millions of pounds
weight.

No tea is allowed to be imported, except from the place
of its growth, on pain of forfeiture. ( 1 1 Geo. c. 30. ) And
by 24 Geo. III. c. 38. all the duties upon tea imported,
fold, or ufed in this kingdom, fhall ceafe from September 15,
1784 ; at which period the Eafl India Company is difcharged
from the payment of duties on tea in their warehoufes ; and
afterwards there fhall be paid a duty of 12/. 10s. per cent.
computed upon the grofs prices for all tea delivered by the
Company to the purchafers, which duty fliall be di-awn back
on exportation to any place where the drawback is already
allowed. The Company is required to make four fales in the
year, and to fell fuch quantity as fhall be fufScient to fnpply
the demand, provided an advance of id. per lb. be bid upon
the prices at which tlie teas fhall be put up ; and at the
four firfl fales after paffing the aft, thefe prices fhall not ex-
ceed the following rates ; via. for bohea tea. Is. fd. per lb.;
congou tea, 2x. ^d. per lb.; for fouchong tea, 3/. 31/ per lb.;
for finglo tea, 3^. 4^. ^fr lb.; and for hyfon tea, 4J. 11 J.
^^rlb.: and afterwards the whole price at which the teas
are put up, fhall not exceed the prime cofl, with the
freight and charges of importation, lawful interell from
the time of the arrival of fuch tea in Great Britain,
and the common premium of infurnnce. In lieu of the
duties on tea, this aft fubftitutes an additional duty on win-
dows. See Commutation Atl.

By this fame aft, the inland duty upon cocoa-nuts and
coffee fhall ceafe from September ij, 1784, and the follow-
ing additional duties be paid ; viz. for every pound of cocoa-
nuts, the produce of Britifh America, 6d. and the produce
of any other place, \s. 6d. ; and for eycry pound of coffee,
the produce of Britifh America, 6d. and tlie produce of auy
other place, 2s. 6d.; aiid thefe duties are fubjeft to an addi-
tional impr.ll of 5 per cer.l.- and ^percent thereon impofedby
19 Geo III. c. 25. and 22 Geo. III.c. 66.

If coffee or t^'a are intended to betaken out for export-
ation, th;:y (hat! be deliv-red out on fecurity that they Ihall
beexpor;ed, a:!d not r -landed. 13 Geo. c. 10.

No drawback IhaJl be allowed on tea exported, except to
Ireland, &c. where the Aviiole duty on exportation fhall
be allow. 'd. 18 Geo. II. c. 26. 17 Geo. III. c. 27.
43 Geo. III. c. 69.

Evi i-y perfon having in his cuftody more than fix pounds
weight o£ tea, is a dealer ; and felling without a licence, to

be

TEA

TEA

he had for izJ., fliall forfeit 5/. a month. ( 1 1 Geo. c. 30.)
If any perfon offer any tea to falc without a permit, or a
pedlar with one, the perfon to whom it is offered may feizc
the fame, &c. 9 Geo. II. c. 35. See Coffee.

Every perfon deahng in tea, &c. fiiall caufe to be painted
or written over the door of his (hop, tlie words dealer in coffee,
tea, cocoa-nuts, or chocclate, on pain of 200/. (19 Geo. III.
c. 69.) And any dealer buying of any perfon who has not
this infcription, incurs forfeiture of 1 00/., and any other per-
fon 10/. By 20 Geo. III., c. 35. no perfon (liall trade in
coffee, tea, or chocolate, without a licence, at the price (by
43 Geo. III. c. 69.) of 5J. Gd., under penalty of 20/.
The adulteration of tea is fubjeft to a penalty of 100/. be-
fides the forfeiture of the fame, and for every pound of
dyed leaves of tea, 5/. 1 1 Geo. c. 30. 17 Geo. III. c. 29.

At the Eaft India Company's fale of teas, an account
(hall be taken of the buyers and prices, and the bed bidder
ftall witliin three days depofit with the Company, or their
clerks, 40/. for every tub or cheft of tea, on pain of fix
times the value, and fuch fale /hall be void, and the fame
(hall in 14 days after be put up again. ( 18 Geo. II. c. 26.)
And by 13 Geo. III. c. 44. the depofit for ever)^ tub and
cheft of bohea tea (hall be 4/. By 13 Geo. III. c. 44.
tea may be exported. No tea fliall be received, with or
without a permit, within the limits of the bills of mortality ;
and no tea, exceeding 2olbs. weight, fliall at one time be re-
ceived, with or without a permit, out of the faid limits, on
pain of forfeiture. (21 Geo. III. c. 55. 22 Geo. III. c.68.
23 Geo. III. c. 70.) All tea feized and condemned (hall
be fold to the beft bidder. (24 Geo. III. feff. 2. c. 47.)
Tea carried in the night, with or without a permit, except in
certain circumftances, (hall be forfeited, and may be feized
by any officer for the inland duties as tea. 21 Geo. III.
c. 55.

Tea, Buckthorn. See Rhamnus.

Tea, German. See Speedwell.

Tea, Mexico, Chenopodium arnbrojioides of Linnseus, is a
fpecies of chenopodium, which, as well as the Jerufalem
oak, or chenopodium botrys, are natives of the fouthern
parts of Europe, and fown annually with us in gardens.
Infufions of the leaves and flowery heads of both thefe
plants, which are r.or unpalatable, drank as tea, are faid to
be of fervice in humoral afthmas and coughs, and other dif-
orders of the breaft ; they are fuppofed to be antifpafmodic
and antihyfleric. Lewis's Mat. Med.

Tea, New Jerfey. See Ceanothus.

Tea, New Zealand. See Philadelphls.

Tea, Ofwego. See Monahda.

Tea, Paraguay, or South Sea. See Paraguay.

Tea, Wefl Indian. See Sida.

Tea Soup, in Rural Economy, that which is prepai-ed
from the tea, liquid, or infufion of forae fort of vegetable
fubftance or other, fuch as hay, cut llraw, or haulm, &c.
by. thickening it a little -svith fome fort of mealy material, or
mafhed potatoes, or other fuch roots, after being boiled or
fteamcd.

Tea, in Geography, a river of England, in the county
of Buckingham, which runs into the Oufe near Stony
Stratford.

TEAHOWRAY. See Portland IJland.

TEAK, or Teek, a fpecies of timber that occurs f»e-
quenlly in various paits of the Eaft Indies, and which is
applied to a variety of domcftic and nautical purpofes. Ex-
tenfive forefts of thefe trees border on the banks of the
Godavery within the mountains, and fupply abundance of
Ihip-timber for the adjacent ports. The teak forefts, from
which the marine yard at Bombay is furnifhed with that ex-

cellent fpcciee of (liip-timber, lie along the weftern fide of
the Gaut mountains, and other contiguous ridges of hills,
as the N. and N.E. of Baffeen ; the uumerous rivulets that
defceiid from them affording water-carriage for the timber.
Major Rennell reproaches tiie unpardonable negligence with
which Europeans are chai-geable for delaying to build fhips
of war for the fervice of the Indian feas. They might be
freighted home, without the ceremony of regular equipment,
as to mafts, fails, and furniture ; which might be calculated to
anfwer the purpofe of the home-paffage at the beft feafon ;
and crews could be provided in India. Teak fhips of 40
years old and upwards are not uncommon in the Indian fe«;,
while an European fhip is ruined there in five years. The
teak is called the Indian oak. See Tectona.

TEAKI, in Geography, an ifland in the Mediterranean ;
twenty miles long, and tour broad. This ifland was an-
ciently called " Ithaca," and is memorable in Grecian
hiftory for being the kingdom of Ulyffes ; fome Europeans
call it « Val de Compare." * N. lat. 38° 47'. E. long.
21° 40'.

TEAL, QtiERQUEDULA, in Ornithology, the jinas crecca
of Linnxus, the fmalleft of all the duck kind. Its beak is
black, and its head, and upper part of its neck, of a r»ddifh-
brown ; but there runs on each fide of the head a green
ftreak from behind the eyes quite to the back part, and be-
tween thefe is a black fpot under the eyes ; there is a white
line which feparates the reddifh colour from the green. The
lower part of the neck, the fhoulders, and the fides, are
very beautifully variegated with black and white ftreaks ;
the breaft and belly are of a dullcy greyifh-white ; the firft
beautifully fpotted with black ; the vent black ; the tail
(harp-pointed and duflcy ; the coverts of the wings brown ;
the greater quill-feathers dufky ; the exterior webs of the
leffer marked with a gloffy green fpot, above which is an-
other of black, and the tips white ; tlie irides vi'hitifli, and
the legs dulky. The female is of a brownifh afh colour,
fpotted with black, and has a green fpot on the wing, like
the male. Ray and Pennant. See Duck.

Teal, Crcjled, Qucrquedula crijlata, a name given by Bel-
lonius and fome others to a fpecies of duck, remarkable for
a tuft of feathers an inch and half long, hanging down
from the back part of the head, and thence called the tufted
duck ; but more known among authors by the name of capo
negro. See Duck.

Teal, Summer, Anas circia of Linnxus, is apprehended
by Mr. Pennant to be no other than the female of our teal,
though Linnsus has defcribed it as a diftinft fpecies. See
Duck.

Summer teal is alfo a name given in fome places to the
garganey.

Team, Theam, or Thame, in our Ancient Ciyhms,
fignifics a royalty granted by the king's charter to a lord of
a manor, for the having, reftraining, and judging bondmen,
neifs, and villeins, with their children, goods, and chattels,
in his court.

Team, in Agriculture, the number of horfes, oxen, or
other animals vi-hicli are drawing together at once in the
fame plough, cart, waggon, or other carriage. There is
a great variety of different forts of teams employed in field,
road, and other forts of labour, which is carried on by
means of domeftic animals ; and it is of very great import-
ance to afcertain which of them is of the greateft advantage,
and the chcapeft in the different ufes and intentions.

In all forts of farming work, in the field as well as en the
road, the heavier kinds of ftrong horfes, and thofe of the clofc,
fhort, compadl, punch breeds, have hitlierto, for the moll
part, been employed for the purpofe of team labour ; and

for

TEAM.

for the dray, and every fort of fimilar heavy work, where a
How, fteady, ftrong draught is required, they are atfo uii-
queftionably the molt proper and fuitable, as long experi-
ence has fully proved. But a confiderable alteration has
lately taken place in the kinds which are made ufe of as
teams for carrying on the lighter forts of road-work, whether
by means of carriages or other vehicles.

It has been foraid that the ftouter fort of horfea, pof-
feffing a little blood, are by much the beft adapted to this
kind of labour of any, being much more adtive and expe-
ditious, as well as more durable, and lefs liable to fatigue
and to become tired out on the road. On this account they
form the teams for moft. forts of coach and other carriage
labour, and in many, inftances for various heavier defcrip-
tions of it ; and it is not improbable but that, in fomc cafes,
they might be fubftituted as teams for farming work with
great propriety and advantage, in confequence of their
quicker pace, and having what is commonly called more
bottom.

Among farmers it has long been a difputed point, whether
horfes or oxen form the moft economical and advantageous
team for the purpofe of the cultivator in performing his
work, and it remains ftill undecided, though many intelli-
gent agriculturalifts now incline to the fide of horfe -teams,
except in particular circumftances and fituations. And a
late writer has remarked, that the circumftances in which
the latter have been chiefly fuppofed to be more advantage-
ous than the former, are in their being kept at lefs expence,
and their not declining in value. But that thefe, when ex-
amined, are perhaps not fo decifive of their fuperiority, as
they may at firft light appear ; for where the work of the
farm is done by the younger fort of horfes, which is per-
haps the beft method, the decline in value cannot be of any
material confequence, while the fuperiority in point of the
difpatch of work is very great. And in regard to the
keep, as oxen cannot perform their labour well in con-
tinuance without oats, or fome other fuftenance of a fimilar
kind, it would feem not improbable but that young horfes
may pay nearly as well as oxen, and be kept with little dif-
ference in the expence. Indeed the common opinion, that
oxen are fuperior to horfes in the tillage of heavy fends,
does not at all appear to be well founded, efpecially when
drawn in yokes and boius, as the poaching muft be greater
than by horfes working at length. But when in harnefs,
they may, from their greater fteadinefs, be preferable ; of
courfe, under different management, they are capable of be-
ing employed in both ways. But in all fuch cafes, as where
quick motion is of more importance than the fteady drawing
of heavy weights, the horfe is much fuperior to the ox, as
well as in carting, where great fpeed is required in the un-
loaded ftate, and wherever the roads or lands are rough,
ftiarp, and ftony, as oxen cannot be ftiod fo well as horfes
to ftand fuch roads. And in harrowing with light harrows,
where a jumping irregular motion is neceflary, it has been
ftiewn in the Annals of Agriculture, that horfes are the
moft proper, and to be conftantly preferred. In ihort, that
teams of the ox-kind may be made ufe of with benefit in
many cafes in bufmeffes about the farm, but they are incom-
patible with aU forts of diftant work, and efpecially on the
road, and in ftony fituations.

It has been remarked, in a late Calendar of huftiandry,
that there are two cafes in which oxen are certainly more
beneficial than horfes : firft, when a farmer lives in a diftrift
where there is a breed of cattle well adapted to work ; and,
fecondly, when his farm is fo large, that he can buy in a
lot of cattle annually, at a fmall expence per head, and feel
jio inconvenience in turning out fuch beafts from the teams

Vol. XXXV.

to fatten as do not work well. In both ihcfe tafcs, tl|c
writer has little doubt of the fuperiority of ox»ri to horfes.
But ill countries thiit do not poffefs a breed of cattle well
adapted for work in the ftate of oxen ; and on fmall farms,
whence fairs muft be attended at the diftance of a hundred
miles to purchale a few, and confequently at a great ex-
pence per head, and poiTibly without land for fattening any,
the benefit will be very queftionable.

It has been fuggefted by the writers of the Agricultural
Survey of the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire, that from the
circumllances of ox-teams being almoft univerfally given up
in thofe places wliere they were formerly in i-epute, a fut-
picion arifes, that working them is not attended with profit.

In regard to the national advantages to be derived from a
change from horfes to oxen, there does not appear to be
any great benefit, as it has been fliewn by Mr. Pitt in an ejt-
cellent paper in the fifth volume of Communications to the
Board of Agriculture, that as thole ufed in agriculture art
in a great meafure a nurfer)' for thofe wanted tor other pur-
pofes ; the extent of fuch change can take place no farther
than about the work of 100,000 horfes.

To afcertain what general eftcft fuch a change might pro-
duce in increafing food for mankind, as what he calls the
higher kept farm-horfes are generally, or at leaft a part of
them in preparation for fale, for the road, or harnefs ; he
muft fuppofe the deduction made, from what he has caHed
moderately kept farm-horfes ; now fupported at four acres
and a half per head ; then the deduftion of

Acre*.
100,000 of thofe would fave the landed pro-1

duceof - - - - } 450,000

And the dedudlion of young ftock, in the J

fame proportion, one-ninth of the whole, (

would fave one-ninth of 250,000 acres, to C

preferve even numbers, fuppofe - J

In all faved - - - - -

30,000

480,000

The idea in all the midland counties is, it is obferved,
that two oxen will be required to do the work of each horfe ;
200,000 working oxen will therefore be wanted inftead of
the horfes thus dedufted. To give the oxen a fair chance
in this calculation, he will fuppofe them fit to work at three
years old, and the workers to be of the ages of three, four,
five, and fix refpeftively, 50,000 of each ; the fame number
coming one, two, and three years old, wU be wanted for
fucceffion ftock ; and 50,000 annually fatted off ; the land
neceflary for their fupport may be nearly as follows :

Acres.
Keep of 50,000 fteers, of the ages of coming "J
one, two, and three years old refpeftively, |
150,000 acres in all, at one acre each per j
head per annum - - - J

200,000 working oxen,
five, and fix years old,
at two and a half

ti, of full three, four,!
old, 50,000 of each, (
" acres per head per f

150,000

500,000

annum

Lefs land cannot, it is bcheved, be poffibly"
allowed to keep them in working condi-
tion ; they muft have hay and fometimes
com when clofely worked, 50,000 fatting,
at three acres per head

Land neceflary for the oxen

Deduft for the horfes - - -

Difference

Aa

150,000

800,000
480,000

310,000

Thcfc

TEAM.

Thefe 320,000 acres of land will produce 50,000 fat oxen,
»r 32 acres will produce five fat oxen ; fiippofe them 27olhs.
per quarter each, or 5400 lbs. of beef from 32 acres; this
ui 1 68 J lbs. of Wd per acre per annum: but a dairy will,
it is faid, produce more, and a flock of flu-cp well managed
quite as much human food per acre. Little advantage,
therefore, would, it is faid, be derived from tliis change of
fubftituting oxen for horfes in agriculture, unlefs the ufe of
horfes on the road, and for purpofes of pleafure, luxury,
pomp, amufement, trade, mining, manufactures, commerce,
and war, could be abolifhed or Icfrened.

Accordingly, Mr. Malthus thinks the advantages of
luxury, when it falls fhort of aftual vice, are certainly
great : it cannot be denied, but it contributes to the com-
forts, enjoyments, and confequent happinefs of a nation ;
but if carried too far, it will completely defeat its own pur-
pofe ; the fureft way is to itop Ihort of tlie mark.

In the clear, full, and excellent account of the ftate of
agriculture in the county of Middlefex, the very able and
experienced author has brought together into one point of
view a great number and variety of the different objeftions
and reafons, which either operate againft or wholly prevent
the ufe of oxen for the piirpofe of performing team-labour ;
and which the inquirer, who \vi(hes for more full information
on fo important a fubjeft, may do well to confult, as they
place the quellion witli much clearnefs and decifion greatly
in favour, and on the fide, of the horfe.

In faft, the writer thmks it very clear, that tliofe perfons
who prefer horfes to oxen, for the purpofe of labour, dif-
play fuperior knowledge in agriculture. This opinion, he
fays, is fanftioned by the praSice of nine-tenths of the bcft
huftandmen in the nation. In proportion as Britons become
enhghtened, they lay afide ox-teams ; and experience has
now fo completely eftabhfhed the fuperiority of horfes, as to
render their employment almoft univerfal. And under this
fyftem, the fcience and praftice of agriculture have improved
more rapidly than at any former period of time. " The
number of horfes ufed in hufbandry are nearly," fays the
writer, " 1,200,000. If half this number were to be fuper-
feded by oxen, in the proportion of two oxen to one horfe, it
would require 1,200,000 fueh cattle to do the fame quantity
of labour as is now done by 600,000 horfes. The difference
of -thefe two numbers would be an increafe to that extent of
our labouring cattle. The other 600,000, in the place of
To many horfes, as well as the increafed number, feed in the
fame manner as cows, and on a fimilar herbage ; confequently
the whole 1,200,000 would deprive us of the means of fup-
porting fo many cows. So unwife a meafure would reduce
the number of our cows to one-fourth of their prefent num-
ber. The veal, milk, butter, and cheefe, would be dimi-
nifhed in that proportion ; and in confequence of this fcanty
produce of the dairy, the price would be fo exorbitant, that
none but the moft wealthy could afford to eat of thefe
things.

" After what has been faid, need I add, that every ox
ufed m hufbandry at this time deprives the nation of a cow,
and of all the comforts which that animal is calculated to
beltovv. The introduftion of oxen, to do one half the la-
bour now done by horfes, would deprive the labourers of
the greater part of their diet : a dearth would be the inevit-
able confequence, until the numbers of our people were
reduced to equal the fcantinefs of their food, or until the
oxen could be fattened and flaughtered, to make way for
the return of the more valuable cow. Hereafter I fhall
expetl tlie farmers in theory only, who are advocates for
ox-teams, to change their notes, and write in favour of a
team to be drawn bv cows."

Upon the whole, the writer is of opinion, that the vci y
few advantages which oxen polfefs are not by any means of
fuch confideration, as to compenfate for the damage which
their being ufed would do upon fome kinds of land ; nor are
they fo proper for the general purpofes of a farm as horfes,
and the general fubftitution of labouring oxen in lieu of
horfes would be vatlly injurious to the nation.

It is allowed that thofe who have argued in favour of the
fuperior advantage of oxen may be corretl in all their rea-
fonings, fo far as they are deduced from their own ex-
perience ; but that the experience of others may furnilh
arguments as flrong on the other fide. Circumflances vaiy
in every diflrift, and render the good or the bad of any
praftice altogether relative. In the county of Cheflei", for
inftance, the farmer has not only to fallow his corn land,
and lead manure to his meadows, but he has often to fend
his team to diftances of ten or fifteen miles, to take his corn
to market, to fetch lime or coal, and for various other pur-
pofes, on hard turnpike roads ; and the time in which fuch
fervices are performed is to him of effential confequence.
Would oxen be as well able to accomplifh fuch journies as
horfes ? Are oxen ufed in any county where circumflances
are precifely fimilar ? Do not oxen require more reft than
horfes ? Will they fland hard work as well ? Are they as
ready for every different kind of work on a farm as horfes ?
Unlefs thefe queftions can be anfwered in the affirmative, we
have to place in oppofition to the faving of expence in keep-
ing them, convenience and time, which are as valuable as
corn and money. It is alfo further argued, that the dimi-
nution in the ufe of corn, from employing oxen, is an objedt
of great national importance ; all that the horfe confumes
being fo much lofs as the food of man ; and the lofs of
animal food, occafioned by the preference given to horfes, is
likewife urged. But if, in the fame portion of time, horfes
will do more work than oxen, the earth will be enabled to
yield a greater produce, and the additional portion of food
gained may more than counterbalance what is lofl. The
confumption of food, however, is not an argument which
fhould be brought forward againft the farmer, who, by
every proper ai'tificial means, Ihould be induced to raife the
greateft quantity pofiible from his ground. On what prin-
ciple is it that the legiflature, by bounties, endeavour to en-
courage exportation, when the prices of corn fink below a
certain fum ? Is it not that more may be produced, in the
ordinary courfe of feafons, thaa the nation can confume, in
order to fecure a fufBciency when the harvefts are below
their average ? The more horfes are kept, the greater the
confumption of corn, and the greater the demand ; and is it
not better to have it increafed by fuch means, than by ex-
portation ? The horfes, in the year of fcarcity, may be fed
entirely on hay or grafs ; and, at all times, their exiftence is
fo much real national wealth. May it not be doubted too,
whether, if farmers could difpenfe with the ufe of horfes, a
fufficient number would, as hinted at above, be reared for
the mere purpofes of pleafure or luxury, to anfwer the de-
mand of government, in cafes of emergency ? Nuqjbtrs of
them, of all defcriptions, whether for tlie increafe of ca\alry,
or the draught of artillery, are furely defirable in every
country that muft truft its defence exclufively to its own
exertions. Even now the breeding of them is attended
with fo much hazard, that very many are fearful of encoun-
tering the rifle : what then would be the confequence, if the
demand was confiderably lelTened ?

In refpeft to the feeding of teams, whether of horfes
or oxen, it is a point that requires much thought, care,
and attention ; as where a want of economy prevails, it
may lefTen the profits of the fanner in a very high de-

r E A

^rfc, as is obvious from the vaft confumption of expenfive
food that miift take place. The yearly expencc of keep-
ing a labouring horle and an ox, previous to the late
rife in tlie different articles that are made ufe of as food,
has been Hated, in the fixteenth volume of the Annals of
Agriculture, to be in the general amount as follows : ^f'z.
that of a working horfe, 1 7/. i oj-. Gd. ; and that of a working
ox, 13/. IJ-. lod.: fo that the difference of expcnce in favour
of the ox is 4^. Sj. 8^.

The difference in the expences of food, (ince the above
period, may have probably demanded the addition of rather
more than one-third to thefe accounts ; though they are at
prefent much lowered.

The training or breaking' in the oxen for team-labour is
commonly performed by firil confining them by means of a
halter or rope, while the yoke or harnefs is put on, and
then placing them between a pair of old Heady oxen both
before and behind, fo that they can neither pufli forward nor
backward in an improper manner ; and another, perhaps
better, way is to yoke them fingly with an old team-ox,
which is not a free worker, as they are lefs liable to be hurt
in hot weather in this way. They may alio be firil broken
in, by being employed in other forts of labour before they
are put to the plough.

Oxen are more apt to tread, poach, and injure the land,
efpecially where it is of a heavy, clayey, moift nature, when
worked in yokes, than when in harnefs ; yet fome diftrifts
prefer the fyitem of yokes and bows, either fingle or double,
to the harnefs method, which is a later praftice. And
there is a wide difference of opinion among pradlical farmers
about the fuperiority of the one or the other method. Some
very fenfible men, who have tried both ways, contend that
three in harnefs are equal to as much work as four in the
other mode, and that they are more quick in their motions,
and work with more eafe : while others, equally well ex-
perienced, are decidedly of opinion that the old eftablilhed
method is fuperior to the new, and that any number in
yokes are equal to the fame number in collars. The queltion
is, of courfe, not yet well decided : however, it is agreed,
that it is unfavourable to work them too hard in any
method.

The neceffary proportion of horfes to the extent of the
farm, is alfo' a circumflance that is of much interefl to the
farmer ; but which muft of neceffity vary greatly, according
to the nature, fituation, and flate of the land, as well as the
mode of hufbandry under which it is conduCled.

In deciding the neceffary proportion of team, the farmer
muft likewife well confider the extent which tlie fward or
grafs-land bears to that which is in the ftate of tillage ; as
where the proportion of the former is confiderable, there
will be much lefs team-work to be executed, of courfe a
much lefs ftrength may be fufficient. Where the farm is
under the hay fyftcm, as there is feldom much team-work,
except in conveying the produce and carting manure, a
finaller extent of team is moftly fufficient, in proportion to
the quantity of land, than in other cafes. And in the dairy
management, the fame is the cafe ; but as in this cafe it be-
comes neceffary to raife green crops as cattle food, a fome-
what ilronger team may be required than in the former
cafe.

In perfeftly tillage farms, whether condufted under the
naked fallow fyftem, or the more improved management
under the convertible hufbandry, a much greater force of
team will be required, in proportion to the extent of land
that is to be cultivated. Some reduftion of team-labour
may, however, be effefted in both cafes, by having recourfe

T E A

to green fmothcring crops in the place of the fallowings
which lliould always be done as much as polliblo. '

There can be no doubt but that t'lereare fome other forts
of animals, befides thofe of the horfe and ox kind, that may
be occafionally employed in team-labour. Th- nmle is an
animal well calculated for this purpofe, from its biing more
hardy, and enduring work a greater length of time, or to a
more advanced age, than the horfe. in fome cafes, the
fmaller forts of mules have been recomme.ided, as more
hardy and ufeful ; but in Worcefterlhire, large mules iiave
been found more beneficial for team purpofes.

The afs may likewife be employed for leam-labour with
advantage, in fmall concerns, from its hardy nature, and
being capable of living on more fcanly faie than the horfe ;
and it is very ufeful for numerous purjjofes about the farm-
houfe.

\Vhatcver fort of teams may be made ufe of upon farms,
they fliould always be well attended to, and no negleft of
any kind fuffered in regard to them ; and when attacked by
diieafe, recourfe be had as quickly as poffible to proper
remedies.

TEAN, in Geography, a river of England, which runs
mto the Dove, 2 miles N.E. of Uttoxeter.

TEANO, a tov\'n of Naples, in Lavora ; 14 miles N.W.
of Capua.

TEANUM, TiANo, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Italy, m Campania, towards the fouth-eaft. It was a Re
man colony, and a confiderable town. — Alfo. a town ot
Italy, fu»named Apulum by Strabo, and Apulcni; Kv
Pliny.

TEAP, in Rural Economy, provincially a tup i
See Ram.

TEARNE, in Geography, a river of England, v.-; .
runs into the Severn, near Shrev\'fbury.

TEARPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Sumbul ; 13 miles N.N.E. of Sumbul.

TEARS, in Phyfwlogy, the pecuhar limpid fluid fecreted
by the lacrymal gland. This fluid is deftined to prefervc the
tranfparency of the cornea, by keeping it moift, and remov-
ing from it foreign fubftances. In man a preternatural flow
of tears is excited by different palTions of the mind, efpe-
cially grief; but it is doubtful if this takes place in any
inferior animal. See Eye, Man, and Passion.

The fluid of tears has been examined chemically by Four-
croy and Vauquelin, but tlieir account of its properties is
not fo complete as could be wifhed. It is colourlefs and
tranfparent, without any fmcll, but of a perceptibly faline
tafte. Its fpecific gravity is fomewhat greater than that of
water. It tinges vegetable blues green. It unites with
water, both cold and hot, in every proportion. The
mineral acids produce no change upon it. When evaporated
to drynefs, a number of cubic cryftals of muriate of foda
are obtained ; and there are alfo diftinft traces of a free
alkali, which is foda. One hundred parts, when evaporated,
leave only four of folid matter, of which about one is faline
matter, and the reft a peculiar animal fubllance, which
thefe chemills confidered as a fpecies of mucus, and which is
feparatcd likewife from tears in tlieir fluid ftate, in the form
of flakes, when alcoiiol is poured upon them. This peculiar
animal matter, on expofure to the air, is ftated to poffefs the
property of gradually ablorbing oxygen, which renders it
thick andvifcid, and of a yellow colour. In this ftate it is
infolublc in water, and remains long fufpended in it without
alteration. Hence, fays Berzehus, if thefe obfervations al-e
to be depended upon, this fubftance bears a confiderable
affinity to tlie mucus of the nofe, which probably, like that
Aa z of

T E A

of tears, is fecictcd in a fluid (late, and afterwaids coii-
verted, by the aAion of the air during refpiration, into the
Hate we ufually fee it. The folid matter of tears obtained
by evaporation, when burnt, leaves feme traces of the
phofphates of lime and foda. Journ. de Phyfique, t. xxxix.

p. 256.

TEASARRAH, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 72

miles W. of Midiiapour.

TEASEL, or Teazel, in Botany. See Dipsacus.
Befide the common wild fpecies of this plant, there is a
larjre kind of it, the heads of which are of fingular ufe in
railing the nap upon woollen cloth, for which it is pro-
pagated in great quantities in many parts of the .weft of
England.

The foils moft adapted to the growth of this plant are
thofc of the more ftrong and deep kinds, but which are not
too rich; as loamy clays, and fuch a,s have ftrong marly
bottoms, and are fit for the growth of wheat crops.

The moft favourable fituations are thofe that are rather
elevated, open, and incline a little to the fouth ; and the
higher grounds, particularly where the country is inclofed,
are the moft advantageous.

For tlic preparation of the ground, where k is a lea, it
ftiould te ploughed up deeply in the early part of the year,
as in the beginning of February ; and where it is inclined
to moifture, it ftiould be executed in narrow ridges of not
more than three bouts each, the furrow flices being laid over
in as even and regular a manner as poffible, the fine mould
from the furrows being raifed by the plough or fpade fo as
to cover the fku-face. But in lands that are fufficiently dry,
and which are broken up from ftubble, the ploughing may
be defen-ed to a later period, and be laid in ridges of much
greater breadths, and in a more flat form.

Mr. Billingfley, in his Agi-icultural Report of So-
merfetftiire, has remarked, that in the providing feed, it
ftiould conftantly be taken froni fuch plants as are the moft
perfeft of their kind, and the moft produdtive in heads ; as
there is much difference in the quantity that is afforded by
different plants, fome producing nearly a hundred, while
others do not afford more than three or four. It ftiould be
fnffered to remain till it becomes perfeftly ripened, and be
ufed while frefti.

With refpeft to the proportion of feed, that which is
moftly employed on the acre is from about one to two
packs, according to the above writer ; but fome make ufe
of a larger quantity, as two pecks, or more.

It may be noticed, in regard to the feafon of putting in
crops of this fort, that it 13 commonly about the middle of
March or beginning of April. The common method of
putting this fort of crop into the ground is the broad-caft,
It being fown evenly over the furface, in the manner that is
praftifed for turnips, fown in this way. But before this is
done, the land (hould be well harrowed down, in order to
afford a fine ftatc of mould as a bed for the feed. It is then
to be covered in by a flight harrowing with a light (hort-
tined harrow, fuch as is ufed for grafs-feeds. Some, how-
ever, prefer a light bufti-harrow for this purpofe.

However, this fort of crop may be fown in rows in the
drill method, at the diftance of eight, twelve, or more inches
from each other, in the fame way as that of the driUed tur-
nip. But this method is not, we believe, yet much em-
ployed by thofe who are in the praftice of raifing crops of
this nature.

In the after-culture of crops of this kind, much depends
on the land between the plants being kept perfeftly clean
and free from weeds ; in having them fet out to proper and

9

T E A

fufficient diftanccs, as about twelve inches ; and in liaving
them well earthed up. Some cultivators perform frequent
diggings, that the ground may be rendered cleaner and more
mellow, confequcntly the growth of the plants be the more
cffeftually promoted. This bufinefs has ufually the name
of fpaddling, or fpittling, and is executed with great dif-
patch by labourers that are accuftomed to perform it.
When thefe diggings have been finifhed, nothing further is
neceffary till the period of cutting, which is generally about
the end of the month of July in the fecond year, which is
known by fome of the upperinoft heads beginning to blow ;
as when the bloffoms fall, they are ripe, and in a ftate to be
cut and fecured.

This cutting is moftly executed at three different times,
at the diftances of about ten days or a fortnight from
each other. It is performed by means of a knife, contrived
for the purpofe, with a fhort blade, and a ihing attached to
the haft. This laft is done, in order that it may be hung'
over the hand or wrift, when the leaves are to be ftripped
from the ftem parts. A pair of ftrong gloves is likewifc
neceffary. Thus prepared, the labourer cuts off the ripe
heads along the rows or lines, or otherwife, with about nine
inches of ftem, and ties them up in handfuls with the ftem
of one that is more perfeftly ripened, or etherwife. And
on the evening of the day on which they are cut, they ftiould
be put into a dry (hed ; and when the weather is fine, and
the air clear, they fhould be taken out and expofed to the
fun daily, till they become perfeftly dry. As foon as they
are completely dried, they ftiould be laid up in a dry room,
in a clofe manner, till they become tough and of a bright
colour, and ready for ufe. They ftiould then be forted or
feparated into three different kinds, by opening each of the
fmall bundles. Thefe are diftinguiftied into kings, mldiUings,
and fcrubs, according to their different qualities. They^re
afterwards, the author of the above report fays, made ifito
packs, which, of the firft fort, contain nine thoufand heads ;
but when of the fecond, twenty thoufand ; the third is a
fort of very inferior value. By fome, before forming them
into packs, they are done up into what are termed ftaves,
by means of fplit fticks, when they are ready for fale.

The produce in crops of this nature muft be very uncer-
tain, there being fometimes fifteen, or fixteen, or more packs
on the acre ; and at other times fcarcely any. The produce
is difpofed of to the cloth manufafturers in Somerfetftiire,
Wiltftiire, and Yorkftiire.

It has been ftated, that formerly an acre of land, if well
grown, and what is deemed a full crop, often produced nine
packs of tings, nineteen of middlings, and two of fcrubs.

In the county of Elfex, they have a fingular praftice of
cultivating and growing teafel crops with feeds, fuch as
coriander and carraway, producing thereby a fort of treble
crop. It is ftated, that the feeds of thefe feveral plants are
fown together, very early in the fpring, upon a ftrong old
lay, once ploughed ; and generally yield very confideraMe
returns.

It is noticed, that the head of the teafel is of a conical
form, two or three inches in length, and one or one and a
half in diameter at the bottom, or largeft end ; armed on
every part with fmall ftrong points, turned a little down-
wards ; and are bought by the woollen manufafturers, who
fix them upon frames, calculated to cover a cylinder, which
is made to turn round, and flightly catch their fays, bays,
and other fuch articles, which another part of the weaver's
machine draws agaiiift them ; by which means the knap is
raifed to almoft any length the manufafturet wilhes.

The largeft burs, and thofe moft pointed, are efteemcd

the

TEA

the beit, and are now called male toafels ; they are molll)
ufed in the drefling and preparing of ftockings and coverlets ;
tlie fmaller kind, properly called the fulh-rs' or drapers^
teafels, and fometimes the female tcaicl, are ufed in tlie pre-
paration of the finer ftufts, as cloths, rateens, &c. The
Imaller kind fometimes, called linnots heads, are ufed to draw
out the knap from the coai-fer (luffs, as bays, &c.

The leaves of the common wild teafel dried, and given in
powder or infufion, have been commended by fome as a
powerful remedy againft flatufes or crudities in the (lomach.
TEATE, Chif.ti, in ylnci'r.t Geography, a town of Italy,
in Samnium, feated on a mountain, at a fmall diftance from
the Adriatic gulf. It was the capital of the people called
Marrucini. Ptol. In the Itinerary of Antonine, this town
is marked on the route from Rome to Hadria, by tiie Va-
lerian way.

TEATHE, in Agriculture, 3. term applied to the dung of
cattle in feeding off green crops ; or which, in a more par-
ticular fenfe, fignifies the foil or improvement left upon the
pafture lands in feeding them with live-flock, or the fertil-
izing effedls which are produced on them, in confequence of
fuch cattle or other live-ilock being foddered upon them with
any fort of food, whether fuch improvements be caufed by
their dung, urine, treading, breath, perfpiration, wai'mth of
their bodies, or other fimilar caufes. It is a term much made
ufe of in the hiifbandry of Norfolk.

TEATHING, the praftice of eating turnips, or other
fuch matters, off, upon young wheat crops, or in other
ways, in the early fpring months, by livc-ftock, as (lieep and
bullocks. It is often written lathing by farmers.

It is a fnigular hu(bandry, which the v>'riter of the Nor-
folk Agricultural Report met with on entering the diflrift
of Fleg, in coming from Yarmouth. It confills in carting
turnips on to wheat in February and March ; they call it
pull and thronv on wheat, eating them on that crop by fhcep
and bullocks, if Iheep are kept ; if not, by bullocks alone.

The outfield grafs-land in fome of the fheep diftrifts in
the northern parts of the ifland, which are inclofed in a tem-
porary manner, and intended to be broken up for tillage, ai-e
fometimes teathed, by confining black cattle and (heep upon
them in fomething of the fold manner.

TEATINOS, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Pacific
ocean, between the ifland of Chiloe and the coaft of Chili.
S. lat. 43° 35'.

TEATS, Sore, in Neat Cattle, an affeftion m thofe of
the cow-kind, to which fome are much more fubjeft than
others ; efpeciiiUy fuch as have newly or lately calved. When
the teats of thefe animals are affefted during the fummer
months, they often become ulcerated, and by the tcazing of
the flies, the cattle ;u-e rendered difficult to be milked : they
alfo become a very great nuifance at the periods of milking,
as the difcharges from them are apt, without much attention,
to pafs between the fingers of the operator into the milk -pail,
and fpoil the milk.

The affeftion is caufed by inflammation, irritation, and
too much diftention of the parts by the milk.

In order to the removal of it, the milk fliould be firfl fre-
quently drawn, and the parts well waflied with foft foap and
warm water ; after which, a fubfl:ance compofed of elder
ointment and wax melted together, to which is then added
a little alum and fugar of lead, in fine powder, may be ufed
to the parts after milking at night and in the morning ; or a
weak folution of white vitriol and a little fugar of lead, in
foft water, may be made ufe of in the fame way, in fome
cafes, with more advantage. The addition of a httle affa-
foetida, and fuch hke lubftances, in powder, is, it is faid, be-
neficial in the fummer feafon in driving away the flies.

TEC

Great care is to be taken to keep tlic teats as clean an
poffible during the time of cure.

TEBALA, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Hedsjas ; 128 miles S.S.E. of Mecca.

TEBALDEO, Antonio, in Biography, an Italian poet,
was born at Ferrara in 1463. Although brought up to the
medical profeffion, he cliiefly devoted himfih" to poetry, and
it was his cullom to accompany his verfcs with his lute. Of
thefe, which were much admired, a coUeftion was pubhihed
by his coufin Jacopo, in 1499, and often reprinted. In
Latm verfe he fuccecded better than in tiiofe of his native
language ; and it is faid, that pope Leo X. gave him 500
gold ducats for a finglc epigram. After the death of Leo,
whofe favour lie enjoyed, he was reduced to the neceflity of
bfgging 30 florins of cardinal Bembo. He died at Rome in
the year 1537. Specimens of his compofitions in both lan-
guages are given in Mr. Rofcoe's Life of Leo X. Gen.
Biog.

TEBECRIT, in Geography, a town of Algiers, near tlie
Mediterranean ; 2 miles from Ned Roma.

TEBELBELT, a town of Africa, in the country of
Tafilet ; 100 miles S. of Sugulmefla.

TEBENDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
the interior of Pontus Galaticus. Ptolemy.

T'E.YiJ.'^T A.,\nGeography,A town of Africa, in the kin^
dom of Tunis, on the borders of Algiers, wlierc are found
feveral beautiful ruins. It was anciently very fl;rong ; but,
in the year 1057, was laid wade by MuUy Mahomet. Te-
befta is well fupplied with water, and the environs abound
in almonds and nuts ; 130 miles S.S.W. of Tunis.

TEBET, or Thevet, the fourth month of the civil year
of the Hebrews, and the tenth of their ecclcfiaflical year. It
anfwered to part of our December and January, and lias but
twenty-nine days. The fecond day of this month is tiie lail
of the oftave of the dedication of the temple, after it .was
purified by Judas Maccabeus. See i Mace. iv. 59. John,
X. 22.

The tenth day of this month is obferved by the Jews as a
faft, in memory of the fiege of Jerufalem by Nebuchadnez-
zar, in the ninth year of Zedekiah.

TEBIQUARl, in Geography, a river of South America,
which rifes in S. lat. 27'', and joins the Iquay, to form the

Rio Grande, in S. lat. 30" 55' Alfo, a river of South

America, which runs into the Paraguay, 8 miles below
Affumption.

TEBOOA. See Hood's IJland.

TEBSEN, a town of Egypt, on the Nile ; 16 miles N.
of Cairo.

TEBUC. See Tahuk.

TEBUHASAN, a town of Africa; 15 miles S.E. of
Sugulmeffa.

TEC A LA, a town of European Turkey, in Theffaly ;
30 miles W. of Lariffa.

TECALETH, a town of Morocco ; 1 2 1 miles W.N.W.
of Morocco.

TECALIA, in Ancient Geography, a town in the northern
part of Germany. Ptolemy.

TECEUT, or Teciieit, in Geography, a town of Africa,
in the country of Sus, fituated in a fertile foil, abounding
with grain, dates, figs, grapts, and fugar-canes. Here is
a manufafture of Morocco It-ather ; 150 miles S.W. of
Morocco.

TECH, a river of France, which rifes in the Pyrenees,
and runs into the Mediterranean, near Elne.

TECHE, a river of Louifiana, which connefts with the
Vermillion ; and thefe arc the principal rivers of the Atta-
kapas. Their general courfcs are nearly the fame to the

lake

TEC

lake Taffe ; their channels are deep, and they are conncfted
by ftrcams from the lake TafTe. The Tcche is much iarger
and longer than the other, being upwards of 200 miles in
length. The Taffe is a beautiful lake of clear water, about
10 miles in circumference. The principal fettlements of the
Attakapas are on each fide of the Teche, moftly weftern, and
on the Vermillion. Befides the culture of cotton, maize,
&c. they have the advantage of extenfive natural meadows to
fupport their herds, which, on account of the natural mild-
nefs of the climate, are kept without much trouble. The
inhabitants of the Attakapas are generally wealthy, and live
as luxuriantly as the planters of the MilTifippi. Upon the
whole, this part of Louifiana feems deftincd to become one
of its richell dittridls.

TECHIA, a town of the Arabian Irac ; 160 miles N.
of Bagdad.

TECHNICAL, Technicus, formed of t!x«ixo;, artifaal,
of Tsx", "'■/, fome'thing that relates to art.

In this fenfe we fay, technical -words, technical verfes, &c.
And in this fenfe Dr. Harris entitles his diftionary of arts
and fciences, Lexicon Technicum.

Technical is more particularly applied to a kind of
verfes, in which are contained the rules or precepts of any art,
thus digefted to help the memory to retain them. See Arti-
fcial Memory.

Technical verfes are ufed in chronology, &c. Such, e. gr.
are thofe expreffing the order and meaiure of the calends,
nones, &c. thofe exprefling the feafons, and thofe expreffing
the order, &c. of the figns.

F. Labbe has compofed a fet of teshnical Latin verfes, in-
cluding all the epochas in chronology ; and F. Buffier, after
his example, has put both chronology and hiftory into French
verfe, and even geography alio.

Technical verfes are commonly compofed in Latin ; they
are generally wretched ones, and often barbarous ; but utility
is all that is aimed at in them : to give fome idea of which
we will here add a few inftances. The cafuifts include all
the circumftances which make us partakers with another in
a theft, or other crime, in thefe two technical verfes.

" Juffio, confilium, confenfus, palpo, recurfus,

Participans, mutus, non obftans, non manifeftans."

The firft of F. Buffier's technical verfes of the hiftory of
France, are thefe :

" Ses lois en quatre cents Pharamond introduit,
Clodion Chevelu, qu' Aetins vanquit.
Merovee ; avec lui combatit Attila ;
Childeric fut chafle, mais on le repella."

TEcnKiCAL Words, are what we otherwife call terms
of art,

TECHUKS, in Geography, the moft remote people of
Afiatic Ruffia, who fcarcely exceed 1000 families, are ge-
nerally found in fmall camps, pitched by the fides of rivers.
Their rude tents are fquare, confifting of four poles, fupport-
ing {l<ins of rein-deer, which alfo form the covering : before
every tent are fpears, and arrows, fixed in the fnow againft
any fudden attacks of the Koriaks, who, though of the fame
face, are a more malicious and enterprifing people. In the
midft is a ftove, and the bed confifts of fmall branches of
trees fpread on the fnow, and covered with deer-(kins.
Their habitations and food are dirty and difgufting ; and the
drefs of the women confifts only of a fingle deer-(kin fattened
on the neck, fothat on loofcning one knot the body remains
naked. The features are coarfe, but they have not the flat
iKjfes, nor little hollow eyes of the Kamtchadales ; and
Leffeps proBounces their countenances to have nothing of

TEC

the Afiatic form, in which aftertion he bad been preceded
by Pallas and Tooke. The Koriaks are fuppofed not to
exceed 2000 families.

TECKLENBURG, a town of Weftphalia, and capital
of a county to which it gives name ; 7 miles S.W. of Ofna-

bruck. N. lat. 52^ 15'. E. long. 7° 35' Alfo, a county

and principahty, bounded on the north and eaft by the
biftiopric of Ofnabruck, and on the fouth and weft by the
biftiopric of Munfter ; about 20 miles in length, and 10 in
breadth. This county was formerly more extenfive, includ-
ing the county of Lingen, and part of the biftiopric of Mun-
fter. The foil is fertile, and yields good corn, and paf-
tures for cattle : the river abounds in fifti, and in feveral
places are quarries of ftone : the chief manufactures are linen
cloth. It is now annexed to Weftphalia.

TECLITIUM, or Teglitium, in ylncient Geography, a
town of Lower Moefia, upon the route from Vininatium to
Nicomedia, along the Danube. Anton. Itin.

TECOANTAPEQUE, in Geography, a fea-port town
of Mexico, in the province of Guaxaca, fituated at the foot
of a volcanic mountain, near the Pacific ocean ; 160 miles
S.E.'of Acapulco. N. lat. 16° 2'. W. long. 99° lo'.

TECOLATA, or Tetolata, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Galha Narbonnenils, upon the Valerian way, between
Ad Turrem and Aquae Sextiae. Anton. Itin.

TECOLITHOS, in Natural Hijlory, the name of a gem,
otherwife called Syriacus lapis, and Judaicus lapis, good for
dilTolving the human calculus. See Syriacus and Ju-
daicus.

It has this name from rnna, / diffhlve, and XiSo;, a Jlone ;
becaufe it diftblves ftones.

TECOMA, in Botany, fo called by Juffieu, from the
Mexican appellation Tecomaxochitl, under which one of the

fpecies appears in Hernandez Juft. 139. Brown Prodr.

Nov. Holl. V. I. 471. (Tecomaxochitl alia; Hernand.
Mex. 409.) — Clafs and order, Didynamia Angiofpermia.
Nat. Ord. Perfonatit, Linn. Btgnonia, JufT. Bignoniacea,
Brown.

This genus is feparated from Bignonia by Juffieu, folely
becaufe the partition of the capfule or pod is contrary, not
parallel, to the valves ; and he enumerates as fpecies the
B.Jians, radicans, and ptntaphylla of Linnaeus, befides the
above plant of Hernandez from Mexico. Mr. Brown adds
to thefe the B. pandorana, Andr. Repof. t. 86 ; which is
B. Pandora, Curt. Mag. t. 865 ; B. pandorea, Venten.
Malmaif. t. 43 ; though the laft -mentioned author fays he
found the partition of the capfule parallel to the valves, and
therefore this fpecies is a Bignonia according to Juffieu. So
indeed it remains in Mr. Alton's Hort. Kew. v. 4. 34, with
the fpecific name of aujlralis, by the fubftitution of which
Mr. Brown has happily got rid of the above pandorean con-
fufion ; and there we (hall readily leave it, only remarkftig
that it is, according to Mr. Brown, a native of Port Jackfon,
and of the tropical part of New Holland, not of Norfolk
ifland. The_/?cm is twining. Leaves pinnate, with an odd
leaflet, fmooth. Flotuers panicled, white, with a purple
throat. For the other fpecies above named, fee Bigxonia,
n. 1 1, 14 and 15. We doubt whether the tribe in queftion
is fufficiently well known at prefent for botanirts to under-
take its generic reformation. Nor can we permit the above
name of our diftinguifhed friend Juffieu to pafs without ani-
madverfion, as nothing can be more contrary to found prin-
ciples of nomenclature, nor to his own declaration againft
barbarous names in his preface. The prefent is peculiarly
ill applied, as the original Tecomaxochitl of Hernandez ap-
pears to be Solandra grandiflora, or very like it, having
fimple leaves.

TECONA,

T E C

TECONAjin Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Dow-
latabad ; 2 i miles W. of Poonah.

TECONIC Falls, a cataraft in the river Kennebeck,
about 65 mites from its mouth.

TECORIPA, a town of New Mexico, in the province of
Sonora ; 70 miles E. of Pitquin.

TEC R IT, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the government
of Moful, fitiia''ed on a rock near the weft fide of the Tijrris,
on the bordfi s of the Arabian Irak. Tecrit is thought to be
the Birtha or Vitra of the ancients, defcribed as a very ftrong
fortrefs, and faid to have been conftrufted by Alexander
the Great. It was chofen in the feventh century for the
abode of a Jacobite primate, and increafed to a confidcrable
town. In 1393, it was taken by Timur Bee, who put all
the foldiers that defended it to death. The ruins are exten-
five, and the number of houfes amount to about five or fix
hundred, with a caravaufera and two cofTee-houfes ; 120
miles S. of Moful. N. lat. 34° 37'. E. long. 42° 37'.

TECTONA, m Botany, a name altered by Linnaiusfrom
the Eaft Indrar; r.ame of this valuable timber-tree, Tei, Tciia,
Theia, or Teak, and made clafTical, according to a method
which he fometimes ufed, from te^Ivv, a carpenter, or tckIovm,
a piece-ifjorh In timber, or iron, both derived from iivx''', to
build ; alluding to the ufe of the wood in building houfes as

well as (hips Linn. Suppl. 20. Schreb. 141. Willd. Sp.

PI. V. I. 1088. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4. Thunb. Nov. Gen.
diff. 4. 71. Ait. Hon. Kcw. V. 2. II. Gsertn. t. 57.
(Theka; JuiT. 108. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 136.)— Clafs and
order, Pentandria Monogynia, Nat. Ord. Perfonatti, Linn.
V'ttices, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-fhaped,
its margin in five, occafionally fix, ovate blunt fegments, per-
manent. Cor. of one petal, funnel-lhaped ; tube Ihorterthan
the calyx ; limb in five, occafionally fix, deep, obovate, crenate
fegments, incurved at the point, twice as long as the tube.
Neftary a glandular ring, at the bafe of the germen. Stam.
Filaments as many as the fegments of the corolla, inferted,
alternately therewith, into the tube, decurrent, thread-lhaped,
ereft, rather longer than the limb ; anthers heart -ihaped ;
two-lobed, ereft. Pifi. Germen fuptrior, nearly globular,
downy ; ftyle thread-fhaped, downy, (lightly curved, the
length of the corolla ; ftigmas two, revolute, obtufe. Peric.
Drupa nearly globofe, deprefTed, dry, fpongy, hairy, con-
cealed in the enlarged, inflated, membranous calyx. Seed.
Nut bony, the fhape of the drupa, with a terminal knob, of
four cells, with folitary kernels.

EflT. Ch. Corolla five-cleft. Stigma divided. Drupa
dry, fpongy, within the inflated calyx. Nut of four cells.
Obf. The terminal flowers are often fix-cleft.
I. T. grandis. Teak-wood, or Indian Oak. Linn.
Suppl. 151. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Roxb. Coromand.
V. 1. 10. t. 6. (Theka ; Riiccde Hort. Malab. v. 4. 57.
t. 27. Jatus ; Rumph. Araboin. v. 3. 34. t. 18.) — Native
of the mountainous parts of the Malabar and Coromandel
coafl:s, as well as of Java, Ceylon, and other countries of the
Eaft Indies, flowering during the hot feafon ; but not till
tl)e tree is arrived at a confiderable age and magnitude, fo
that there is little chance of feeing it bloffom in our iloves,
where young plants are fometimes introduced. The trunk
in its native country grows creft, to a vaft height, with co-
pious fpreading oppofite branches, croiling each other,
quadrangular when young. Leaves fpreading, oppofite,
ilalkcd, elliptic-oblong, acute, entire, flightly waved, with
one rib and many tranfverfe veins, whofe fubdivifions are
finely reticulated ; their upper fide rough like a file ; lower
finely downy : their length is generally about a fpan, but

TED

the leaves on young branches fometimes mcafurc eighteen
mches or two feet, and arc nearly half as much in breadth.
Panicles tcrmmal, ho.-iry, very large and fpreading, rcpcitcdly
fubdivided in an oppofite manner, with lanceolate brafi/as,
Floivers very numerous, comparatively fmall, being fcarcely
half an mch long ; externally hoary ; internally yellow,
dotted with red. Anthers yellow. Fruit the fize of a fmall
cherry, rough, brown, in a large membranous, brown, blad-
dery calyx, refembling the Phyfatis Alkegengi in gcticral fhape,
but hardly fo large.

The wood of this tree is, as Dr. Roxburgh remarks, by
far the moft; ufeful timber in Afia ; it is light, eafily worked,
and though porous, both ftrong and durable. For fliip-
building it is peculiaily excellent for its lightnefs, and its
durability either in cr out of the water. Pegu affords the
largeft quantity of this timber, which is eafily brought down
the rivers of chat co^nitry, and fold cheap. The fame author
mentions thul the banks of the Godavery, in Hindooftan,
afford a teak which is beautifully veined, much clofer in the
grain, and heavier, than ufual. This fort is peculiarly fitted
for furniture, :nd gun-carriages.-^Teak-wood, according to
Thunberg; iLiches a confiderable price at the Cape of Good
Hope, on account of its great utility, in a country where
large timber-trees are rare.

TECTOSAGES, or Volca: Teffofages, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a people included amongft thole who inhabited the
fouthern part of Gaul, belonging more particularly to
Languedoc.

TECTRICES, in Ornithology, are the lefter coverts of
the wings of birds, or the feathers wliich lie on the bones of
the wings.

TECUCZl,OTTECVTSCH,in Geography, a town of Euro-
pean Turkey, in Moldavia, on the Birlat ; 70 miles W.NiW.
of Galatz.

TECULET, a town of Africa, in the empire of Mo-
rocco, fituated near the coaft of the Atlantic, on the edge of
a mountain. In the year 15 14, this town was lacked by the
Portuguefe, and a great number of inhabitants carried away
for (laves. It has been fince re-peopled ; 15 miles E. of
Mogodor.

TECUM Duces. See Duces.

TED, in Agriculture, a term made ufe of to fignify.the
fpreading abroad new-mown grafs, which is the firft thing
done in order to its being dried, and made into hay. Much
m the procefs of hay -making depends upon good and com-
plete tedding of the grafly hay in the beginning of the
work.

TEDANIUM, Tedonius, or Tidanus, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a river of Illyria, which ferved as a boundary be-
tween this province and Japygia. Pliny.

TEDBURY, in Geography. See Tetbury.
TEDDER, Teddoh, or Tether, in Agriculture, a rope
or chain by which an animal is tied, and confined in the
fields, that it may not pafture on too wide a range. This is
very fcldom a good praftice, or one that fliould be much
followed.

TEDELER, or Tedlis, in Geography. See Dell vs.
TEDESCHI, or TuDEsnii, Niccolo, in Biography,
an eminent canonift, fometimes called " the .abbot," and
fometimes " Panornjitanus," from the city of Palermo, the
city in which, as fome fay, he was born, in 13S6, though
others make Catania his native place. At the age of fourteen
he took the habit of St. Benedici in Catania, and after-
wards purfued his ftudiis at Bologna. We fliall not follow
him througli all tlie ftages of his advancement from one de-
gree of reputation, and from one ftation of honoiu- and trull

10 to

TED

to another ; but oblerve, that he accepted a cardinal's hat
from pope Felix V., favoured by Alphonfo, king of Sicily,
and openly embraced his party during the contcfts about the
papal throne. In 1442 he was pope's legate to Frederic,
Iting of the Romans ; but when Alphonfo took part with
pope Eugenius, Tedefchi retired to liis church at Palermo,
of which he was archbifliop. He would not dived himfelf
of the purple, though received from an anti-pope, but died
poflefled of it in 1445- Of the erudition of this ecclefiaf-
tic, however fluftuating and temporifing he was in his poli-
tics, we have ample evidence in his works, an edition of
which was publiflied at Venice, in 9 vols, fol., in 1617.

TEDESCHINI, CnnisTIANr, a buffo tenor finger
in the comic opera, who came hither from Berhn at the
fame time as the Paganini, 1760. He appeared firft in
an under charaftcr in " II Mondo nella Luna," cora-
pofcd by Galuppi. Nor was his figure (which was ^oWo)
or voice fit for a more important part. He was, we be-
lieve, by birth a German, whence he had his name ; but he
had been in Italy, and his language on the ftage, and manner
of finging, were perfedlly Italian.

He fung on our opera ftage but one year, and afterwards
devoted his time totally to fcholars, and became a very
faftiionablc and ufcful finging-mafter. Among his numerous
pupils he made many good fingers, the Mi{s Fitzpatricks,
Mifs Sloper, &c. &c.; and was of ufe to many of ourftage-
fingers. After accumulating a confiderable fum of money
by diligence and hard labour, he returned to the continent to
end his days.

TE DEUM, a kind of hymn, or fong of thankfgiving,
ufed in the church, beginning with the words TV Deum lau-
damns, IFe praife thee, 0 God. — It is ufually fuppofed to be
the compofition of St. Auguftine and St. Ambrofe.

It is cuftomarily fung in the Romifh church with extra-
ordinary pomp and folemnity upon the gaining of a battle,
or other happy event : and fometimes even to conceal a
defeat.

This hymn was likewife fung in Proteftant churches on
days of thankfgiving for a viftory, peace, or other national
CTent. Purcell compofed his Te Deum for the opening of the
cathedral of St. Paul's, but did not live till that ftrufture
was finifhed.

In Boyer's Annals of Queen Anne, vol. iv., 1704, it is
faid that the hymn Te Deum, with other anthems, were
admirably performed at St. Paul's, when her majefty went
thither in great ftate on the day of thankfgiving for the vic-
tory at Blenheim. We are not informed by whom the mufic
was compofed ; it is only faid that it was performed \vith
great folemnity by the three choirs of her majefty's chapel,
Weftminfter Abbey, and St. Paul's. There was no inftru-
mental band on this occafion, or any other accompaniment
to the voices than the organ, which feems to have been the
cafe in all former times, when any of our fovereigns went in
ftate to St. Paul's.

But in 1706 we are told in the fame Annals, vol. v.
p. 333, that at a pubhc thankfgiving for the battle of Ra-
miUies, her majefty went in great ceremony to St. Paul's, ac-
"companied by both houfes of parliament, and all the great
officers of ftate ; when Te Deum was performed " with
vocal and injirumental mufic, after the compofition of the fa-
mous Mr. Henry Purcell." And this feems the firft time
that an inftrumental band was allowed to accompany the
voices in our metropolitan church of St. Paul.

In 1708, Te Deum was fung to excellent mufie at St.
Paul's, compofed by Dr. Crofts for the vijftory at Aude-
narde, whither her majefty went in great folemnity.

TED

We were extremely curious .to learn when and where Hai>
del's grand Te Deum for the peace of Utrecht was firft per-
formed. It was natural to imagine that it was firft heard at
St. Paul's, and that queen Anne went thither in ftate on the
occafiOn, which fir John Hawkins pofitively aft'crts, telHng us
that, " in 1713, the treaty of peace at Utrecht being
finiftied, a public thankfgiving was ordered for the occalion,
and Mr. Handel received from the queen a command to
compofe a Te Deum and Jubilate, which were performed at
St. Paul's cathedral, her majefty herfelf attending the fer-
vice." Hift. Muf. vol. v. p. 269.

But though in a paragraph of the Poft Boy, July 2,
1713, it is announced that " her majefty goes the 7th to
St. Paul's, being the day appointed for the thankfgiving,
accompanied by the houfes of the lords and commons;"
yet in the fame newfpaper, from Saturday July 4, to
Tuefday July 7, 1713, the public was informed that " her
majefty does not go to St. Paul's July 7, as ftie defigned,
but comes to St. James's (from Windfor) to return thanks
to God for the bleflings of peace."

If Handel's elaborate compofition had been executed at
St. Paul's, a ftyle of mufic fo new, forcible, and maflerly,
muft have had a great effeft on an Englifti congregation, who
had never heard ecclefiaftical mufic fo accompanied. Pur-
cell's voice parts, always pleafing, well accented, and ex-
preflive, had little affiftance from an inftrumental band. In-
ftrumental mufic, except organ playing, was but little culti-
vated in our country during his time. But Handel, befides
his experience in Germany, had heard operas and maffes per-
formed by great bands in Italy, with fuch precifion and
efi^efts, as were unknown in our country till he came hither to
teach us.

Handel's Te Deum for the battle of Dettingen, 1743,
and Graun's for the king of Pruffia's viftory at Colin, in
1757, are the moft celebrated compofitions to that facred
hymn of the laft century, and the moft likely to furvive
the prefent.

TEDIASTUM, in Anc'unt Geography, a town placed by
Ptolemy in the interior of Liburnia, near Aruciae.'

TEDJEN, or TeDVEK, in Geography. See Tedzen.
TEDIF, a town of Syria, in the pachalic of Aleppo.
Here is a Jewilh fynagogue ; and the inhabitants have a tra-
dition that one of the minor prophets refided here. On a
hill near this town are fome fepulchres and aquedufts cut in
the rock ; 2 1 miles E. of Aleppo.

TEDINGHAUSEN, a town of the duchy of Bre-
men ; 9 miles S. of Otterlberg.

TEDIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia De-
ferta, near Mefopotamia. Ptol.

TEDLA, or Tedila, in Geography, a province of the
empire of Morocco, in the kingdom of Fez, which ex-
tends along the eaftern fide of Mount Atlas, and has to the
weft the province of Shavoya, and to the S. Morocco. This
is a rich province, abounding in fheep, whofe wool is fo fine,
that no filk is fofter : it is ufed in the manufacture of caps
worn by the opulent, and is fold at Fez at a very high price :
its exportation being prohibited, it is confumed by the in-
habitants. The province contains 450,000 inhabitants.

TEDNEST, or Tedoest, a town of Africa, in the
empire of Morocco. This town was deftroyed by the Por-
tuguefe in the year 15 14, and in part rebuilt by the Jews ;
40 mOes N.E. of Mogador.
TEDONG. See Tirun.

TEDSI, a town of Africa, in the coimtry of Sus,
fituated to the eaft of Tarudant ; 90 rnjles S.W. of Mo-
rocco.

TEDZEN,

TED

T E D

TEDZEN, a town of Perfia, in Klioraflfan, on a river
of the faille name ; 32 miles E. of Mefghid. — Alfo, a river
of Perfia, in the province of Klioraflfan, fuppofeJ to be the
aiTcient Ochus, and next in fize to the Oxus. It has its
fource near Saraks ; and after receiving many ilreams, and
in tlie number McHicd river, falls into the Cafpiau fea, in
N. lat. 38° 41'. ■
TEE, in the Manege. See Breast-/'/^/,?.
T^t.-Square. See Square.

TEEBAKAN, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Eaft
Indian fea, near the N. coall of Borneo. N. lat. 7^52'.
E. long. 117° 39. , .

TEECHA, a town (rf Bengal; 45 miles E. of Cal-
cutta.

TEEDIA, in Botany, fo named by Perfoon, we know
not with what meaning. — " Perf. Syn. .v. 2. 166." Brown
in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 47. See Capkakia, fp. 3,
lucida, on which alone this genus is founded, being dillin-
guiihed by having a berry inftead of a capfule, as is r'einarked
in the place indicated. We have not had an opportunity of
examining wliether this be really the cafe, or whether it be
a capfule with or without a pulpy coat ; nor do we know
how far WiUdenow's fuggeftion, that all the Cape fpeciea
poffibly have a fimilar feed-veifel, is well founded.

TEEFEE, in Geography, a town of Africa, in KafTon ;
30 miles N.W. of Kooniakary.

TEEHEENGAN, a fmaU ifland in the Eaft Indian
fea, N. of Borneo. N. lat. 7° 49'. E. long. 117° 30'.

TEEKOOL, a fmall ifland in the Sooloo Archipelago.
N. lat. 6^ 6'. E. long. 120" 25'.

TEELNA, a town of Bengal ; lo miles W. of Con-
thong.

TEEMBIE, a town of Africa, in the country of
Foota. N. lat. 10° 28'. W. long. 10"' 48'.

TEEMBOO, a town of Africa, in the country of
Foota. N. lat. 9° 59'. W. lang. 10° 18'.

TEEN-TALLOW, a town of Hindooftan, in Guze-
rat ; 20 miles S.E. of Brodera.

TEERAH, a province of Candahar, W. of Paiftiawar.
TEERANDAZEE, a town of Candahar; 8 miles E.
of Suffa.

TEERRAWHITTE, the fouth-weft point of the
iiorthernmoft: ifland of New Zealand, in the. South Pacific
ocean, and the N. fide of Cook's Straits.

TEERWISCH, a town of Pruflia, in the province of
Oberland ; 8 miles N.N.W. of Ortelfljurg.

TEES, a river of England, which rifes on the borders
of Cumberland, and runs into the German ocean, about
ten miles below Stockton, N. lat. 54° 42'. The whole
courfe forms a boundary between the counties of York and
Durham.

TEESDALIA, in Botany, received that name from
Mr. R. Brown, in memory of the late Mr. Robert Teef-
dale, F.L.S., who died on Chriflmas^lay, 1804. This
accurate EngUfli botanift was, for many years, a feedfman
in the Strand, but retired from bufinefs fome time before his
death, refiding firft at Ranclagh, near Chelfea, and after-
wards at Tumham-Grecn. He was the author of " Planttc
Eboracenfes ; or a Catalogue of the more rare Plants, which
^ow wild in the neighbourhood of Caftle Howard, in the
North Riding of Yorkfliire, difpofed according to the Lin-
.lajan Syflem ;" publiflied in the Tranfaftions of the Lin-
isan Society, v. 2. 103. The author compofed this cata-
logue whilft he was gardener to the earl of Carhfle Brown

!"i Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 83. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. i r.

28V Compend. Fl. Brit, ed- 2. 98 Clafs and order, Te-

Vou. XXXV.

Nat. Ord. Silijuo/e, Liin. Cruciftrt,

fradynamia Silkulofa.
Juir.

Gen. Ch. Cat. Perianth inferior, of four cllii)tical, con-
cave, fnull, fpreading, equal, deciduous leaves. Cor. Pe-
tals four, obovate-oblong, obtufc, fpreading, with fliort
broad claws. Stum. Filaments fix, (lightly club-fliapcd,
afcendnig, each with a dilated ovate fcale attached to its inner
fide, a little above the bafc, the two lateral ones fliorteR and
mod diftant, in one fpecies wanting ; anthers vertical, of
two round lobes, diltant at their bafe. Pijl. Germen
fuperior, feflile, roundifli, emarginatc, tumid at one lide, flat
at the other ; llyle fcarcely any ; fligma capitate. Ptrit.
Pouch erea, inverfely heart-fliaped, tumid, with a longi-
tudinal furrow in front ; cuncave, with an elevated ridge, ;it
the back, two<elled ; partition lanceolate ; valves boat-
fliaped, oblique, keeled. Seeds two in each cell, ovate.

Efl". Ch. Pouch emarginatc, inverfely hcart-fhapcd. Seeds
two in each cell. Filaments with a fcale on their inner fide,
near the bafe.

I. T. nudicaulis. Naked-ftalked Tecfdalia. Ait. n. 1.
Sm. Tr. of L. Soc. V. II. 286. (Iberis nudicaulis; Linn.
Sp. PI. 907. It. Oeland. 139. Sm. Fh Brit. 692. Engl.
Bot. t. 327. Curt. Lond. fafc. 6. t. 42. Fl. Dan. t. 323 ?
Burfa palloria minima ; Ger. Em. 276. Shepherd's Cn-fs ;

Petiv. Herb. Brit. t. 50. f. 2.)— Petals unequal Native

of dry gravelly fituations in the northern parts of Europe,
flowering in April or May. It occurs about London, Nor-
wich, and Bury, but is not a general Englifli plant. The
root is fmall, tapering, annual. Herb vaiying much in luxu-
riance and number of ftalks. Leaves feveral, almofl en-
tirely radical, pinnatifid in a lyrate manner, (talked, rough-
ifli principally at the edges. Stalks unbranched ; the cen-
tral one always ereft and naked ; the reft afcending, fpread-
ing or decumbent, often bearing a leaf or two. Floviert
white, very fmall, corymbofe. Calyx fmooth, often pur-
phfli. Two inner or upper petals as long as the calyx ;
outer ones full twice as long ; all entire. The remarkable
fcales on t\\cjlamens were firft particularly noticed in Englifh
Botany. On thefe Mr. Brown founds liis principal generic
charafter, omitting the irregularity of the petals, in which
this plant agrees with Iberis, though very little in its habit,
which is rather that of a Lepidium. (See thofe articles.)
The writer of the prefent article has, in the Tranfaftions of
the Linnsean Society above quoted, critically inveftigatcd
the hiftory of this fpecies and the following, and has fak
brought them together under one genus.

2. T. rcgularls. Regular -flowered Teefdalia. Sm. as
above, 286. (Lepidium nudicaule ; Linn. Sp. PI. ed. I.
643. ed. 2. 898. Locfl. It. Hifp. 155. Nafturtium mini-
mum vernum, foliis tantilm circa radicem ; Magnol. Bot.
Monfp. 187. t. 186. N. foliis pinnatifidis, caule nudo flori-
bus tctrandiis ; Gerard G.illopr. 347, excluding the Ibiris
of Liunxus.) — Petals equal. Stamens but four. — Native of
dry elevated gravelly places in the fouth of France, and
above the convent of St. Bernard at Madrid, flowering in
the early ipring. The root is annual. Whole herb fo pre>-
cifely refembling the foregoing, except in being ufually ra-
ther lefs luxuriant, that it is fcarcely poffible to diftingui/h
them, except by thcjloiuers. 'V\k petals of the prefent are
all of equal fize, fpreading, longer than the calyx. Sta-
mens only four, two at eacli broad fide of the gcmici:, each
bearing a white expanded fcale, as in the T. nudUaulii ; the
two ftiorter, or more fpreading^flmc/u entirely wanting. It
is much to be wilhed that feeds of this fpecies could be pro-
cured from Montpelher, that we might compare both ia
a living ftate. Linnxus was .ilways perfuaded of their
being diftin£\.

B b TEESEE,

TEE

T E E

TEESEE, in G«frfl/)/;^', a town of Africa, in Kajaaga.
N. lat. 14° 50'. W." long. 9^ 27'.

TEESHOO LOOMBOO, or Lrnnoxc, a town and
large monallory of Thibet, confillinir of three or four liun-
drcd habitations of the Gylongs, bclides temples, maufolca,
and the palace of the fovereign pontiffs, all built of ftone ;
2 miUs S.W. of Sgigatchee;

TEESTA, orYoS.WPOO, a river of Afia, which rifes
in Thibet, and runs into the Ganges by two llreams, one 25
miles N., the other 80 E.S.E. of Moorfhedabad.

TEETBADDY, a town of Bengal ; 27 miles N.E. of

TEETH, Difeafcs of the. The difeafes which affed the
teeth and the parts conncftcd with them, are ufually divided
into two kinds ; namely, into fuch as are termed common,
becaufe they are alfo met with in other parts ; and into
thofe which are called proper, being obferved only in the
teeth. Hence, as the celebrated Plenck has remarked, the
fubjed may be conveniently treated of under the following
heads. Doftrina de Morb. Dentium, &c. Lovanii, 1796.

Of Natural Denl'itlon. — The procefs by which the teeth
make their way through the gums, is named dentition, (fee
Dentition,) which may be divided into the Jirfl and
fccond.

I. Of the F'lrjl Dentition In the fixth or feventh month

after birth, the Jlrjl or milk teeth make their appearance
tlirough the gums. The two middle incifores of the lower
jaw are thofe which mod frequently firft come out, and, in
the courfe of a few weeks, they are generally followed by
the two middle incifor teeth of the upper jaw. At
length, after fome months more, the lateral incifors and the
canme teeth (hew themfelves. The anterior molares, or
front grinders, do not commonly pafs through the gums until
the child is a twelvemonth old.

The third and fourth grinders are cut about the tenth or
twelfth year, and the dentes fapientiae at the age of twenty,
or even at a more advanced period of life.

The Jirfl dentition, therefore, lads from the fixth month to
the fecond or third year. The fccond from the ninth to the
thirteenth year.

But it is to be obferved, that the interval betwixt the
periods when the teeth are aftually cut, is fubjeft to very
great variety, both with refpcdl to different teeth and dif-
ferent children. Sometimes a month, fometimes half a year,
and, on, other occafions, a whole twelvemonth will elapfe
between the firft appearance of one tooth and that of
another.

The cutting of each tooth has two diftinft ftages ; the firft
of which has been called the pcrlodus ingrtffus ; the fecond, the
perlodus egrejfus.

The firft ftage is ufually obferved in the fourth month,
or about fix weeks before the tooth pafTes through the gums.
It happens when the tooth, in confequence of its augmented
fize, begins to prefs againft the bony laminae of the focket,
fo as to make them recede. At this period the child feels a
degree of itching in the gums, and hence it is that he now
frequently puts mto his mouth his fingers, or other hard
bodies, and comprefTes them by ftrongly biting them between
the gums. The fecretion of the faliva is increafed. The
gums become red, and fwell in the fituation of the tooth
which is about to be cut. When the child fucks, he irritates
and bites the nipple ; he is alfo commonly troubled with a
purging and a cough; he is watchful, cries frequently,
and becomes feverifh.

Sometimes, however, dentition takes place fo eafily, that
none of the preceding fymptoms are remarked.

After a few days, the above complaints generaDy ceafe,
II

but not unfrcquently come on again in about a fortnight or
a month, that is to fay, about the commencement of the
fecond ftage, or that in which the tooth makes its egrefs.
Tiien tlie gum grows white, or exhibits whitifh points iji the
fituation of the tooth which is about to be cut. Thefe are
caufed by the tooth itfelf, and difappear as foon as it has
paffed through the gum.

2. Of the Second Dentition In the feventh or eighth year,

the milk-teeth, amounting in number to twenty, become
loofe, and gradually fall out, generally in the fame order in
which they were cut. Soon afterwards, the fecond or perma-
nent teeth rife out of the gums. It hardly ever happens,
that the fecond dentition produces any dangerous fymptoms,
the paffage through the alveolary procefs and gum being
now fufRciently capacious.

After the milk-teeth have fpontaneoufiy fallen out, or
been extrafted, they are almoft always found to be deftitute
of fangs. This is a circumftance which has puzzled many
eminent writers, and has even given birth to the eiTOneous
doftrine, that the milk-teeth are never furnifhed with fangs.
Suffice it here to fay, that in the opinion of the bsft informed
modern furgeons, the difappearance of the fangs is the ciTcft
of abforption.

Sometimes children, but more frequently adults, cut their
teeth a third time. It is faid that dentition has been ob-
ferved to happen thrice in an infant five years of age ; and
Plenck was acquainted with a man, who was born with two
of the grinding teeth, which were afterwards changed twice.
(Doftrina de Morbis Dentium, p. 10.) Even a fourth
dentition has been noticed by fome very experienced men.
Halleri, torn. viii. 1. 30. p. 22.

Of Difficult Dentition. — The advance of the teeth out of the
fockets or gums may be attended with the moft alai-ming
fymptoms. But experience proves, th&t in numerous children,
the whole femicircle of each jaw becomes furnifhed with teeth,
without the flighteft mark of indifpofition either before, or
during the progrefs of the teeth through the gums. In other
inftances the worft fymptoms prevail, both while the teeth are
making their way out of the fockets, and through the gums ;
fuch as an inflammatory fwelling of the gums, tonfils, and
parotid glands ; rednefs of the eyes and cheeks ; vomiting,
griping pains, tenefmus, proiufe diarrhcea with green evacu-
ations, and fometimes obftinate coftivenefs and retention of
urine. Fever, accompanied with cough and other catarrhal
affeftions, hiccough, univerfal or partial tetanus, convulfions,
&c. are the fymptoms by which, according to tlie cftimate of
feveral writers, nearly a third of children are deftroyed in
difficult dentition.

Thefe are the common fymptoms of difRcult dentition ;
but occafionally /ifc/z/wr ones arife, which not unfrcquently
fubfide as foon as the tooth is cut ; as, for inftance, gutta
rofacea (Lorry, Traft de iVIorb. Cutaneis, 1777, p- 4ll-)5
deafnefs ; amaurotic blindnefs ; enlargement of the knees;
paralyfis ; and lamenefs of one or both legs. (P;d^ch, Ab-
handlung aus der. Wundarzney von. den Zahaen, S. 25.
36.) Aphthae of the mouth ; an inflamed tubercle over the
tooth which is about to be ctit ; fuppuration, ulceration, and
even Houghing of the gums. Rachitis is alfo alleged to have
its origin fometimes from difficult dentition.

Thefe effcfts arc particularly met with in very plethoric
and irritable children ; or in infants whofe bowels are over-
charged with irritating excrementitious matter. Too much
laxity, or too great hardnefs of the gums, is hardly ever the
fole caufe of fuch fymptoms.

With regard to the prognofis, it may be remarked, that
favourable dentition is a fign of future health. Ricketty
children almoft invariably cut their teeth with difficulty.

The

TEETH.

The more numerous the teeth are which are making their
way out together, the more fevtrc are generally the lymp-
toms, and the greater is the danger.

Bloated, coliive, heavy children are extremely liable to be
carried off by dentition.

The iucifors and grinders ufually come out with more eafe
than the canine teeth. Thin children, who are aflFcfted with
acute fever, and whofc bowels are open, arc in Icfs danger
from dentition. Infants who have a cough during tliis pro-
cefs, are often a long while in cutting their teeth. The fore-
going prognofis accords with what was pronounced upon
the lubjeft by Hippocrates, whofe accuracy remains unim-
peached.

As the fymptoms of dentition are partly inflatmnatory,
being accompanied with a ftrong determination of blood
towards the head and brain ; and partly fpafmoilic, in confe-
quence of the fympathy of the teeth with other parts, the
treatment requires that antiphlogiilic and antifpafmodic
means be en>ployed. It is neceifary, therefore,

1. That the bowels be kept open with emollient clyfters.

2. That leeches be applied behind the ears.

3. That the fyrup of poppies, with nitre and one or two
drops of laudanum be internally adminiftercd.

4. That the red part of the gum over the tooth which is
about to be cut, be rubbed with a mixture of lemon-juice
and honey, or cream.

5. That in the event of there being a tendency to convul-
fions, in addition to tlie other fymptoms, a divifion of the gum
be made over the tooth. By the majority of praftitioners,
indeed, the lall is confidered as by far the mofl ufeful and
efficient means of relief.

This incifion is to be made through the gum with the
common inftrument, well known by the name of the gum-
lancet, which is fai- better for the purpofe than an ordmary
lancet, which is apt to cut the tongue and lips, efpecially
when the child moves about much. The grinding teeth re-
quire a crucial incifion : all the others a fimple tranfverfe
cut completely through the gum. The wound is then to be
examined v?ith the finger, in order to afcertain that no tenfe
fibre over the tooth continues undivided. In this country,
pradtitioners feldom apply any thing to the incifion ; but
abroad, it is not uncommon to put to it a mixture of lemon-
juice and honey.

Internally, antifpafmodics may be exhibited, particularly
the fyrup of poppies, with the fpiritus ammonia: fuc-
cinatus.

In order to promote dentition, and render its effefts on the
conftitution as mild as poffible, the celebrated Plenck re-
commends, that as foon as the infant is five months old, its
goims be rubbed fcveral times a day with a mixture of lemon-
juice and honey, firfl over the middle incifors of the lower
Jaw, and when thefc have come out, over thofe of the upper
jaw.

Emollient remedies are faid to relax the gums too much,
the confequence of which is, that the loofe gum is (lowly
and difficultly perforated by the tooth, as inilead of ulcer-
ating, it is only raifed and rendered tenfe.

The ufe of hard applications, as biting the root of marfh-
mallows, fmooth corals, boars' tuilcs, &c. render the gums
callous ; but more good might, perhaps, be derived, if fub-
ftances with rough furfaces were employed.

A premature incifion of the gum foon clofes again, and
therefore does little fervice ; but we do not believe that the
cicatrix, thus produced, can be any impediment afterwards
to dentition, as many have imagined ; for it is a;i ellabliilied
faft, that cicatrices in general are more difpofed to ulce-
rate and be abforbed, than the original parts of the body.

We would never fulTcr any idle apprehenfions of the above
fort to deter us from dividing the gum, were there any chance
of benefit from the proceeding. At the fame time, we do
not recommend this as a prophybaic meafure, but as being
proper only when illncfs, fufpeded to arife from dentition,
aftually cxifts.

Pranalure Denl'ilion — This is ftated to happen, when the
milk-teelii come out before the infant is fix months old.
Sometimes children are even born with their teelli already
cut. R/.afcynky, Rliodiu8, 1'Eclufe, and Stoerck, mention
a boy, who had the molares at the time of birth. Alfo in an
abortion of fix months, and anotlier of feven, teeth have been
obferved. (Haileri Elemcnta Phyfiol. t. vi. p. 19.) Van
Swieteu met with two incifors in an abortion of five months.
(Comm. t. iv. p. 742.) In a very weak male child, born at
eight months, Arnold faw two perfed teeth rife out of the
lower jaw ou the feventh day after birth, and grow with ex-
traordinary quicknefs ; but they fell out in tlie eighth week
from their firft appearance. Obf. Phyfico-Med. p. 70.

In general it is to be concluded, that early dentition indi-
cates great conftitutional vigour and ftrength.

Of BacLzuard Denthiiii — Backward dentition is when the
milk-teeth are not cut, though the child is a twelvemonth old,
or even older. The proximate caufe of this delay is gene-
rally referred by medical writers to languor and weak-
nefs of the conilitution. But late dentition is of fcveral
kinds.

1. Backward dentition from an unknown caufe fome-
times happens, the teeth not making their appearance for a
year after birth, notwithftanding the children have not any
appearance of debility. Van Swieten met with a moll
healthy female child, who was nineteen months old when fbe
cut the firll tooth. Comm. t. iv. p. 742.

2. Backward dentition from the rickets. It is univcr-
fally known, that in rickelty children the cutting of the
teeth is a long while delayed. In thefe fubjedts the gums
are always much relaxed, and wc have already Hated, that
this circumllance is by no means favourable to dentition.
It is probable, alfo, that in ricketty infants the teeth them-
felves are a long while before they are perfeftly formed, it
being well afcertained, that in fuch conflitutions the depofi-
tion of the phofphate of lime takes place with extraordinary
flownefs and difficulty.

3. Backward dentition of the dentes fapientix. The wife
teeth are feldom cut before the twentieth year, and fome-
times they firll come out in perfons confidcrably advanced in
years. Hallcri Element. Phyfiol. t. vi. p. 28.

4. Late dentition in adults. Sometimes this takes phce
a third time, chiefly with refpedl to the incifores ; and iii-
ilances are aftually recorded, in which thefe teeth were cut
in adults, or even in old perfons. Hallcr quotes examples,
in which they were cut at the ages of 90, 95, 100, 1 1 8, 1 20,
and later. Haileri, 1. c. t. viii. 1. 30.

Wrong Situation of the Teeth This iiappcns when the teetii

make their appearance in the palate, or in any place not
comprifed in the alvcolary arches. The proximate caufe of
this unpleafant occurrence is the preternatural formation of
the young tooth in an erroneous fituation.

The caies may be of different kinds, in regard to the place
which the tooth occupies.

1. When a tooth grows out of the palate, it obilrufts
maftication, and by rubbing againll the tongue, often makes
it ulcerate. The inconvenience can only be remedied by
extraftiiig the difplaced tooth.

2. The tooth may come out under the tongue. This cafe
produces the fame grievances as the preceding, and requires
the fame mode of relief.

B b 2 3. The

TEETH.

^. Tlic iiAt curious circumftancc whicli we have to
rotice, is the ^owth of-tceth in the ovaries. It is now be-
Kevtd, that the teeth fometinies found in thcfe organs, arc
not always the relics of a previous embryo, but may be
formed tfiere as a lufus naturj^. An iuftance, in which a
tooth was formed in an encyfted fwcllmg in the orbit, has
been lately recorded by Mr. Barnes of Exeter. See Medico-
Chir. Tranf.

4. Albinus records an example, m which a tooth grew out
of the maxillary proccfs below the orbit. It was concealed
until it made its way out in tliis extraordinary fituation.
Annot. Acad. t. i. p. 54.

e. The teeth have fomctimes been obfervcd inverted,
their bodies being fituated towards the jaw. Poilich,
Increm. OlTium, p. 25. Albin. c. 9. Palfin, c. 9.

Exlraordinayy Dijlance of theTeelh from each other — Somer
times the teeth are placed too diftant apart, fo that between
their crowns large intcrfpaces are left.

1. In children three years of age, the crowns of the milk-
teeth are fo clofe to each other, that they are laterally as it
were in contaft ; but in children feven years old, there are
wide interfpaces between them. The reafon of tliis is
owing to the iaw increafing in fize, while the dimenfioiis of
the teeth undergo no alteration. The fecond or permanent
teeth, on the other hand, (at leaft the firft twenty of them,)
liave larger bodies than the milk-fet.

2. Fnquently the tartar infinuates itfelf between the
crowns of the teeth, and occafions a confiderable feparation '
of them. We need fcarcely obferve, that the cure requires
that the tartar fhould be taken off, and the teeth reduced
into their natural pofition.

3. The deformity of which we are now treating, is occa-
fionally afcrib.ible in adult fubjefts to the preternatural
breadth of the jaw, in which circumftance it is abfolutely
incurable.

Extraordinary Chfemfs of the Teeth — The teeth may be
too crowded together, fo that their crowns are laterally in
contaft. This d»f«'ft may extend to feme or all the teeth.
The frequent conf-quence is, that the lateral margins of
thefe parts b"come carious.

There are two fpecies of the diforder.

1. The firft arifes from the gi-eat width of the crowns of the
teeth, and it may be afcertained by oculai- examination.
In fome inftances, all the bodies of the teeth are preter-
natnrally wide ; in others, only a certain number of them.

The mode of cure confifts in filing off" a little of the lateral
edges of tlr.' teeth affected.

2. The fecond fpecies is caufed by the uncommon (hort-
nefs of the jaw. It may be known by obferving that the
crowns of the teeth ai-e not too large, and that the alveolary
arches are ftrikingly diminutive.

Here the mode of relief is the fame as in the foregoing
cafe.

Extraordinary Number of Teeth. — Sometimes the number
of the teeth exceeds what is the ufual (hare of the human
fpecies in general ; and this particularly occurs whenever the
number amounts to more than thirty-two.- Columbus has
feen thirty-three (p. 34. ) ; Fauchart, thirty-three and thirty-
four (edit. 2. torn. i. p. 3.>; Boui-det, thirty-fix (p. 25.);
and Ingi-aflias, thirty-fix, including twenty-four grinders.
Text 2.

1. With refpeft to the redundant number of each clafs, it
i» when ther-" are fix incifores, or four canine teeth, or more
than ten molares in one jaw. The cafe is incurable.

2. In fome inftances, the exceffive number is owing to
there being a double row of teeth. This malformation may
ihappen to both jaws, or be confined to one. It has been

noticed in both jaws by Munick, p. 144; Plinius, e. xi.
p. 623 ; C. Bartholinus, p. 464, &c.

Arnold met with a boy, fourteen years old, who had al-
together feventy-two teeth in his mouth. There was a
double fet of the incifores, canine teeth, and three pofterior
grinders ; but the anterior grinders were triple : confe-
quently there were counted in each jaw eight incifores, two
canine on each fide, and twelve molares. The incifores were
not arranged in an even double row, but each row feemed
iiTegular, and its order as it were promifcuous. The ar-
rangement of the canine and grinding teeth was more regular.
None of thefe teeth were affedled with caries. Obf. Phyf.
Med. p. 69.

3. Thrre may be a larger number of teeth than common,
in confequence of the prefence of one of the milk-teeth ; for
when the latter does not fall out at the ufu.il period, the cor-
refponding permanent teeth come out in the vicinity of it.

Here the cure confifts in drawing the fuperfluous milk-
tooth.

Deju'ient Number of Teeth. — Sometimes the number of the
teeth falls ftiort of what is ufual ; and this happens whenever
they are fewer in the adult fubjctl than thirty-two.

1. Tlie defedlive number may be owing to a preternatural
fhortnefs of tlie jaw. Sometimes one or more teeth remain
concealed during life. Thus, the dentes fapientia are never
cut in pcrfons who have the upper or lower alveolary arch
not fufficiently long.

2. The fex alfo makes a difference ; women, generally
fpeaking, having fewer teeth, than belong to men. Riolan,
p. 38, and 39.

3. The deficiency in the number may proceed from a
tooth having been drawn, or di-opped out. This is evi-
dently a caf ' wliich can only be remedied by the infertion o£.
an artificial tooth.

4. Laftly, the limitation of the number may be owing to
infancy ; for, in children under feven years of age, the na-
tural number of the teeth does not exceed twenty.

Obliquity of the Teeth. — The pofition of fome or all the
teeth may bv oblique ; an inconvenience which may be
caufed by the milk-teeth not being ftied, by tartar infinu-
ating itfelf into the interfpaces of the teeth, by loofenefs of
the alveoli, and, laftly, by a forcible luxation of the teeth
affefted. The milk-teeth feldom grow obliquely ; the per-
manent ones do fo much more frequeiitly. The molares
hardly ever rife in a wrong direftion ; and, in general, they
are only the incifores and canine teeth which deviate from
the right pofition.

With regard to the effefts of fuch obliquity, we have ta
obferve, thafthe teeth affected impede maftication, interfere
with the articulation of words, ferioufly disfigure the cou«-
tenance, and, unlefs .drawn, or replaced in their natural po-
fition, may occafion incurable ulcers on the tongue, lips, or
cheeks.

The differences of the obliquity make thefe cafes divifible
into feveral kinds.

1. The obliquity fcM-ward is when the tooth projefts an-'
teriorly, fo as to hurt the cheek or lipSi Such a tooth may
caufe ulceration of thefe parts, as already m:.itioned. The
paiotid duft has been known to be perforated, and a fali-.
vary fiftula brought on, by an oblique tooth in the upper
jaw. Pafch, 1. c. p. 71.

2. The obliquity backward is when the pofition of the
tooth inclines towards the centre or pofterior part of the
mouth, fo as to be capable of hurting the tongue. Teeth,
fo circumftanced, have fometimes been the caufe of ulcers 011
the tongue, which in point of obftinacy and malignancy have
truly vied with cancer. Plenck informs us, that by draw-
ing

TEKTH.

iiig'thc left eye-looth, lie once curr«l an ulcer, wliich had
cxiftt d half a year on the left edge of the tongue. P. Jo.

3. The converging obliquity is when the crowns of the
teeth converge in tht ir fituation, or even crofs each other.

4. The diverging obliquity is when they diverge.

5. The lateral obli<iuity is when the fide of tne body of
tlie tooth is turned more or lefs forwards or backwards.

6. Obliquity of the fang. Sometimes the fanrs of the
teeth are curved fo obliquely backwards or forwards, that
the bottom of the fockets either projefts like a fmall ex-
oftofis, or is completely perforated.

Of the Reduc'ion of an oblique Tooth. — With refpedt to one
of the permanent teeth, which is rendered oblique by the
prefence of one of the firft fet, the treatment confifts in im-
mediately txtraifting the latter.

The milk-tooth may be known by its pearl colour, its
more polilhed furface, and its fmaller fize. The permanent
tooth is longer, whiter, ftronger, and of greater breadth.
The crowns only of the fecond fet of grinders are fliorter
than thofe of the milk-fet. Albini, Annot. Acad. 1. ii.
p. 19.

But an oblique permanent tooth may be replaced in its
right poCtion, by the following means.

1. When the child is very young, and the tooth quite
recent, it may be reduced into its proper fituation, by fre-
quently prefling upon it with the finger in the courfe of the
day.

2. Or the reduction may be efFefted with a double filk-
thread,- fmcared with wax and maftich. A noofe is to be
made at each end of the thread, and fattened to the adjacent
teeth. The thread, being then divided into two, is to be
made to crofs two or three times firmly over the oblique
tooth.

3. By a metallic plate. The length of the plate fhould
exceed the meafure of the two neighbouring teeth, together
with the oblique one. Its width fliould be lefs than the
height of the teeth. It is to be applied to the infide of
fuch teeth as incline inwards, and to the ontfides of thofe
which inchne outvirards. At the ends of the plate are two
holes, through which the filk-threads, fmeared with wax,
are to be patted, and, after erofiing each other, are to be
tied over the oblique tooth.

4. By Bruner's machine. When the tooth does not ad-
mit of reduftion by the preceding means, Bruner's machine
jnay be tried. See A Bruneri Einleitung zur Wiffenfchaft
fines Zalii.arztes, p. 83.

When feveral of the teeth are oblique, the cure is to be
attempted by the fame operations ; but when the fide of a
tooth inclines forw;ird, it is neceflary to ufe the forceps to
bring the part into its right pofition.

Loofenefs of the Teeth. — Sometimes the teeth become loofe
and moveable in their fockets. The proximate caufe of this
affeftion may depend upon the lofs of the elafticity of tlie
alveoli and gums, upon the too great or too fmall fize of
the fockets, or upon the abforption or wafting of t he fwigs.
Loofe teeth are very inconvenient in maftication, and eafily
drop out.

Of this complaint there are feveral fpecies, the differences
of which are referrible to the caufes.

1. Loofenefs of the teeth from fecond dentition. After
the feventh year, the twenty milk-teeth begin to grow
loofe, and fall out, nearly in the fame order in which they
were cut.

2. Loofenefs of the teeth from age. In old perfons the
fockets become contrafted, and the canal in the fangs being
obliterated, thefe parts alfo diminifh. Hence we fee the
reafon why tlic teeth frequently become loofe in fubjeCls ad-
vanced in life.

3. Loofcwfs of the tftth from violent eonculTion*. A
forcible conculTion, fuch as happens in f.Jl6 againfl the foelh,
diimnilhes the elafticity of the gums and fockets, and of
courfe may be a caufe of the prefent difyrder.

The cure requires corroborant waflies : the tinftura lacca-,
aftringent decoftious, red wine, fpirit of wine, ur the terra
catechu or fangnis draconis, dilfolved in camjihor.ited fpirit.

4. Loolenefs of the teeth from relaxation of the gums.
There are people whofe gums are pale and relaxed, at the
fame time that there is no appearance of fcurvy.

Here the cure is to be aceomplifhed by the means recom-
mended for the preceding cafe.

5. Loofenefs of the teeth either from caries of the focket
or fang. This cafe may be known by the cmifTion of pus
from the focket of the loofe tooth. Sometimes a cure may
be effefted by gargles ; but, in general, if the tooth is alfo
painful, it ought to be extrafted.

6. Loofenefs of the teeth from fcnrvy of the gums. In
fubjefts with fcurvy, the gums become loofe and fungous,
and the fockets filled with a fetid purulent matter : hence
the teeth are loofencd.

The cure requires the internal exhibition of antifcorbutic
medicines, and the ufe of antifcorbutic wallics.

7. Loofenefs of the teeth fruin mercury. Mercury z&.i
fpecifically upon the gums, dellroying their tone, and pro-
moting the fecretion of faliva. Hence, perfons ufing mer-
cury, either outwardly or inwardly, arc liable to have their
teeth rendered loofe.

The cure demands purgative medicines, the expulfion of
the mercury from the fyftem, and the ufe of tonic gargles.

Defeat oj Teeth. — When the teeth are entirely wanting,
feveral very uiijileafant efietts are neceflarily the conh;-
quence. The proper maftication of the food being then
abfolntely iinpofilble, cardialgia, and other complaints con-
nected with dilhcult digeftion, ai'e produced. The de-
ficiency of the grinding teeth occafions a collapfe of the
cheeks, and of courfe an nnfightly emaciation of the coun-
tenance ;. while the want of the incifores fpoils the voice.

1. It is natural for all young infants to be without teeth,
until they are fevcn or eight months old ; but when the
teeth do not begin to come through the gums after a child
is a twelvemonth old, tlien the backwardnefs of dentition
may be confidered as morbid.

2. In old perfons, the teeth naturally fall out, and the
alveoli contraft into a kind of ftiarp edge, covered with the
callous membrane of the gums, by which the fofter fpecies
of food may yet be chev.vd.

3. Want of teeth from rickets. When the rudiments of
the permanent teeth are deftroyed with the milk-teeth, then
of courfe no fecondary teeth ever make their appearance.

4. Lofs of teeth from violent caufes. Under this head
we comprehend the defett of one or feveral teeth, drawn,
or beaten out.

5. Lofs of teeth from necrofis. Every form of this dif-
order makes the teeth fall out in little pieces.

6. Lofs of teeth from fcurvy. In fituations where the
fcurvy is prevalent, it is common to meet with numerous
perfons who have loft their teeth in the very prime of life.

Every kind of deficiency of teeth, except that which be-
longs to infancy, cannot be remedied in any other way but
by the infertion either of artificial or natural teeth.

Of the Infertion of Teeth There are various fpecies of

this operation, but all of which may be included under the
following heads.

1. The infertion of a healthy proper tooth. When a
tooth that has been cxtraAed, or beaten o\it, appears to be
entirely found, it is to be immediately replaced in the focket,
and tied with thread to the adjacent teeth. Sometimes it

fpon-

TEETH.

fpontinpoufly becomes fixed again, if care be taken to
ufc an allringent gaigle with a view of making the gum

contraft. , , ,

2. The infertion of a proper tooth that has a canous
fang. Wlion the tootli, which has been removed from the
alveoli, is merely carious in the fang, it may. be replaced
again, after the carious part has been filed away.

3. The infertion of a proper tooth, which has a caries
of its body or crown. When a very fmall portion of the
crown is carious, it may be removed with a file, and the
tooth can then be put into its fockct again. But if the
whole body lie difeafed, it may be cut off tranfverfely from
the root ; a fmall hole may be drilled acrofs the latter part,
and, with the Iielp of a golden wire, an artificial crown or
body, having alfo a tranfverfe hole for the paffage of the
wire, may be faftened to tlie root. In this ftate, the tooth
may be replaced.

4. The infertion of a tooth taken from the mouth of
another living fubjeft, or from a dead fubject. The perfon,
to whom the tooth is to be transferred, (hould not be above
the age of forty ; but the fubjeft, from whom it is to be
taken, ought not to be more than four-and-twenty. The
tranfplaiited tooth fhould belong to the fame jaw and fide of
the face, and be of the fame fliape and fize, as the tooth
that is extrafted.

The canal of the tooth, which is to be inferted, muft be
clofed with gold ; and the tooth muft be every where ren-
dered free from inequalities, fo that it may be the more
likely to adhere.

5. The infertion of an artificial tooth. The form and
fize which fliould be given to the artificial tooth muft be
determined by a model of foft red wax, which has been
prefied into the gap made by the loft tooth. In order that
the white colour of the artificial tooth may correfpond to
the light yellowifli colour of the reft of the teeth, the new
tooth fhould be macerated in ftrong coffee, or in the lees of
red wine.

Artificial teeth ought to be made of ivory, or of the tooth
of the hippopotamus. Each of them fhould be grooved on
both fides, and perforated tranfverfely, fo as to admit of
being tied to the neighbouring teeth. The noofes of two
tlireads are to be faftened on the neighbouring teeth, and
the ends having been drawn tranfverfely through the hole
of the artificial tooth, and there made to decuffate, they are
to be tied in a furgeon's knot. The tooth having been
placed in the focket, the threads betwixt the artificial and
old teeth muft be tightened and made faft. Laftly, an
aftringent gargle muft be ufed for a few days.

6. The infertion of feveral artificial teeth. When two,
three, or a larger number of contiguous teeth are wanting,
an equal ninnber muft be formed of one piece of ivory, or
other fubftance, and faftened at once to the neighbouring
teeth.

7. The infertion of a whole fet of artificial teeth. When
all the teeth of the upper and lower jaws are loft, a com-
plete fet may be fixed on the margins of the alveolary
arches. Should any of the natural teeth remain, they may
often be of great affiftance, in rendering tlie lodgment of
the artificial ones more firm and fecure. When the whole,
or the greater part, of the teeth of either jaw is loft, an
attificial fet may alfo be inferted.

The cuftom of wearing ivory teeth, and of binding tliem
in with a gold wire, is very ancient : Lucian and Martial
fpeak of it as praftifed among the Romans. Bat ligatures
of wire have been found to hurt the natural teeth, with
which the artificial are connefted ; whereas filken twift
cannot affeft them to any confidcrable degree for feveral
years.

Guilleman gives us the compofition of a parte for making
artificial' teeth, which will never grow yellow : the com-
pofition is white wax granulated, and melted with a little
gum elemi, adding powder of white maftich, coral, and
pearl.

Thus whole fets may be made for one or both jaws, £b
well fitted to admit of the neceffary motions, and fo con-
veniently retained in their proper fituation, by means of
fprings, that they will anfwer every purpofe of natural
teeth, and may be taken out, cleaned, and replaced by the
patient himfelf with great eafe.

IVearing out of the Enamel. — (See Cranium.) The
bodies of the grinding teeth being wide, exceffively hard,
and expofed to perpetual friction, they become worn much
fooner than the rei\ of the teeth, and fiat in confequence of
the deftruftion of their points. Halleri Element. Phyfiol.
t. vi. p. 29.

With i-efpeft to the effefts of the lofs of the enamel, it is
to be obferved, that the teeth which ai-e deprived of it be-
come fo fenfible, that painful fenfations are produced in them
by heat and cold, and by fohd as well as liquid aliment. In
the end, alfo, they readily become carious. ^

The fpecies of this affeClion depend upon the caufes.

1. Lofs of the enamel from age. After the age of thii-ty,
almoft all the teeth in the human fubjeft have been fomewhat
worn by long maftication. Some writers affert, that in
youth, the wafte of the enamel may be repaired by nature ;
but if the teeth be deftitute of vafculai-ity, the evil mufl
be always irreparable. See Cranium.

2. Lofs of the enamel from gnafhing of the teeth. Per-
fons who in tlie night are in the habit of gnafhing their teeth
deftroy the enamel. For the purpofe of preventing the ill
confequences of this praftice, it has even been recommended
to cover the teeth in the night-time with a thin gold
plate. •

3. Deftruftion of the enamel by the life of tobacco-
pipes. Plenck informs us, that in the incifor teeth of men,
who had for many years been accuftomed to fmoke pipes,
he has feen the diftinft imprefiion of a black femicircle.

4. Lofs of the enamel from long and violent brulhing
of the teeth. They who daily rub and brufli their
teeth forcibly with a rough hard tooth-powder, or too
ftiff a brufh, inevitably deftroy, in the courfe of a few
years, all the enamel on the front furface of the teeth.
Here the cure obvioufly depends upon the avoidance of the
caufe.

5. Lofs of the enamel from applying the file to the
teeth. Whenever this operation is carried to too confidcr-
able a depth, the enamel is removed by mechanical violence.

6. Lofs of the enamel from biting a very hard body.
This fort of violence fometimes fplits the enamel, which im-
mediately falls off in pieces, at the very time of making
the bite.

7. Lofs of the enamel from its being preternaturally
brittle. When the enamel is thus affefted, it is apt to break.
in chewing and biting fubftances without the exertion of any
particular degree of force.

8. Lofs of the enamel from the projeftion of an oppofite
tooth. A tooth which juts out confiderably, fo wears the
correfponding tooth in the oppofite jaw, as to make a deep
imprefiion in it. The treatment confifts in fhortening the
tooth, which is injurious on account of its length, with a file.

Concretion of feveral of the Teeth into one Mafs. — A true
anchylofis of the teeth cannot happen from any procefs like
offification, becaufe they poffefs no vafcularity ; and fome
of the cafes, referred to by writers, were probably original
malformation.

There arc feveral varieties fpecified.

I. The

TEETH.

1. The true coucretion of the teetli, which happens when
the teeth ai-e connefted togetlier by a fubftancc rcfombhiig
bone.

2. The fpurious concretion, or tliat arifincr from the
exceffive clofenefs of the teetli to each other, in which ftate
they fecm as if they had aftually grown together.

3. The concretion from tartar. Sometimes the intcrfpaces
of the teeth arc fo filled up with tartar, that the teeth co-
here in fuch a degree, as to caufe an appearance rcfcmhling
what may be fuppof^d to proceed from an aftual bony con-
cretion of thofc bodies. The mode of treating this cafe
will be confidered in fpeaking of the tartar of the teeth.

4. The clofe contaft of the fang of tlie tooth with tlie
focket. In this circumftance, the tooth either cannot beex-
trafted, or, in the event of great force being ufed, the tootli
is broken away from the jaw.

Elongation of the Teeth. — Sometimes one or more of the
teeth appear to become longer.

1.' Elongation of a tooth from the deficiency of the oppo-
fite one. Thus, when one of the molares of the upper jaw
is drawn out, the correfponding tooth of the lower jaw
feems lengthened ; becaufe after a time the neighbouring
teeth are worn down by the friftion which they continually
exercife againft each other.

2. Elongation from preternatural foftnefs of the tooth.
Plenck informs us, that he has feen in a female child eight
years old, the right canine tooth of the lower jaw elongated,
and which, after being extrafted, was found fo foft, that the
crown and fang could be comprefTed with the finger.

3. Elongation of a tooth from exceffive growth is men-
tioned by writers ; but this cafe cannot be poffible, as the
teeth are known not to be vafcular.

4. Imaginary elongation. Perfons whofe teeth are
afFefted with ftupor, are apt to fancy that their teeth are
longer than natural ; but without real caufe. The cure con-
fifts in removing the ftupor.

Foulnefs of the Teeth The teeth are often feen covered

with a fordid, fetid, yellowifh, or dark-brown mucus.

The proximate caufe is the adhcfion of the mucus of the
mouth and fauces to the furface of the teeth.

1. Morning foulnefs. In almoft all men, the teeth become
coated in the night during deep with a dirty mucus, and
appear foul in the morning. The reafon is, becaufe during
fleep the faliva is more flowly fecreted in the mouth ; and,
on account of the motionlefs Hate of the tongue and jaws,
it is not walhed ofi" the teeth.

This fpecies of foulnefs is eafily removed by wr'hing the
tnouth every day with cold water, and the teeth with a bit of
rag, the finger, or a wet fponge.

2. Foulnefs of the teeth from negleft to clean them.
They who are not in the daily habit of wafhing their mouths
and teeth with cold water, by degrees have the interftices and
fangs of their teeth incrufted with mucus in the morning,
and with the remaining particles of the food.

With refpeft to the treatment, merely wafhing the mouth
in this inftance is not enough ; it is alfo requifite to clean
the teeth occafionally with tooth-powder.

3. Foulnefs of the teeth from fever. This is remarkably
feen in cafes of putrid fever, in which, owing to the (late of
the faliva, the teeth become covered with a yellow or dark-
brown coat.

Here the teeth fliould be frequently wafhed and cleaned
with vinegar.

4. Foulnefs from ptyalifm, efpecially that produced by
mercury. In the beginning of a falivation, the teeth become
coated with mucus. The beft treatment is to wafh and
clean them frequently with a honey gargle.

5. Scorbutic foulnefs. In perfons labounng under fciirvy,
the teeth are invariably covered with a purulent kind of
mucus, iffuing from the fockets of tlie loofcned fangs.

The cure demands the internal and external employment
of anti-fcorbutic remedies.

6. Foulnefs of the teeth from tartar. In the early ftate of
the formation of tartar, the fiirfac<' of the teeth becomes
covered with a mixture of e.irth and gluten.

The treatment confills in removing the tartar with a tJiick
tooth-powder.

Of cleaning the Teeth In perfons whofe teeth are perfcftly

found, it is only necefTary U) wadi their mouths every morn-
ing with water that has had the chill taken off it, and that con-
tains a few drops of the fpirit of lavender ; the mucus being
wiped from the teeth with a bit of rag, or fponge-. The
fame flionld alfo be done after meals, and the fragments of
meat lodged between the teeth niuft he removed with a tooth-
pick, which inllrument fome recommend to be made of ju-
niper wood.

But in perfons in whom a depofition of tartar readily
takes place, the tartar ought to be removed with a tooth-
fcraper, and the teeth well cleaned every week with tooth-
powder.

Charcoal, or carbon, is ufed for cleaning the teeth, and
the beft is made from the (liell of the cocoa-nut. We are
informed by hiltorians that the ladies among the ancient
Britons ufed the charcoal made with the wood of the com-
mon hazel-nut for this purpofe. See Den rii'iiicr;.

The abforbent earths .ire ufed for dentifrices ; they me-
chanically cleanfe the teeth from the thick mucus and tartar,
and at the fame time preferve the tone of the gums. There-
fore,

1. The bafis of dentifrice powders may be prepared
fhells, red corals, mother-of-pearl, powdered crabs' claws,
bone of the cuttle-fidi, lapis ha;matites, &c.

2. For communicating an agreeable colour to the pow-
der, carmine or cochineal may be added.

3. For giving an agreeable odour, ambergris, cinnamon,
or cloves may be ufed.

4. For ftrengtheniiig the gums, armenian bole, fanguis
draconis, or terra catechu, is tlie beft ingredient.

Rough tooth-powders, like that containing pumice-ftone,
gradually wear away the enamel, efpecially when they arc
employed every day.

Acid applications, particularly the mineral ones, do in-
deed whiten the teeth ; but when long ufed, render them
brittle.

Hence crude and burnt alum ought to be reje(ftcd from
every kind of dentifrice. The nitric, muriatic, and fulphu-
ric acids in tinftures are ftill more hurtful.

Of the Tartar of the Teeth. — This fiibftance is an earthy
crult, which adheres to the teeth. As it fills up the inter-
fpaces of feveral of the teeth, and occupies their external
furfaces, it is feldom obferved upon their iiifides. By the
Greeks it was called odontoUthos, from m-a^, a tooth, and ^i6o.-,
a flone. By others it has been termed tophus, vel calculus
deiitium.

With regard to the eflfefts of the tartar, it difplaces the
teeth, and renders them loofe and painful ; it alfo feparates
the gu.fis from the fangs, producing caries in the latter, and
a bad fmell in the breath.

In refpeft to colour, the tartar of the teeth is of three
kinds, namely, dark-brown, yellow, ai.d bLck.

Since niai y perfons who never clean their teeth at all are
not disfigured with thefe depofitions of tartar, it appears that
a pecuhar difpofiiig caufe is necelfary for the occurrence of
the complaint, 'flie fpecies are :

I. Tartar

TEETH.

the growth of the tooth is thoroughly completed ; and,
therefore, it is a totally different diforder from necrofis oi'
the bones, which is attended with plienomena, connefted
with the vafcularity of the parts themfelves.

Hence it is only in infants that feveral of the teeth are
ufually thus diflempered.

Necrofis of the milk-teeth is indeed much more frequent
than of the permanent fet.

The following varieties of the complaint, depending on the
difference of the caufe, have been diftinguilhed.

I . Blacknefs of the teeth from rachitis. In ricketty in-
fants, the milk-teeth come out of the jaw more tardily, and
they foon afterwards turn black and friable, and fall out
piecemeal. The fecondary teeth alfo, when rachitis is not
cured between the firft and fecond dentition, are affefted
with the fame deftrudlive change, fo that fubjecls of this de-
fcription are either deftitute of teeth during the whole of
their livcii, or only have in their mouths teeth which have a
black eroded appearance.

As for the cure of rachitis, we do not intend to confider
it in the prefent place, and Ihall merely ftate that the pure
milk of a healthy nurfe, falubrious air, a great deal of exer-
cife, good food, abforbent medicines, white alkaline falts,
Bcrdmo're"reiaterrfurpri'rmg example of this fort of bark, ftcel, fea-bathing, &c. are the remedies principally
tartar. A man, thirty-two years of age, had the teeth of recommended.
each jaw coated with folid tartar, half an inch in thicknefs, 2. Scorbutic blacknefs of the teeth. When the fcurvy
both on the outfide and infide of -the teeth, and on the fur- attacks children before the offification of the teeth is corn-
face of the gums, fo that ilieinterfticesofthe teeth were alto- pleted, the milk-teeth, as foon as cut, either appear to be
gether invifible. The gums were every where pulhed off the ah-eady eroded, or in a (hort time afterwards become fo, and
teeth, and painful. The incruftations upon the incifor teeth -•' — - >-'—'' --'"■-

I. Tartar from negka to wa(h the mouth. It originates
from the gluten of the faliva, whidi, in uncleanly fcorbutio
fubieAs, and great wine-drinkers, adlie.es to the teeth, be-
comes putrid "with the lieat. and in putrefying depolits a lort
of earthy matter upon the teeth. People who drink chiefly
water are (Adorn troubled with earthy mcrullations on tlieir

teeih. . , , on

The cure require the removal of the tartar. Small por-
tions of tartar may be taken off by means of a brufli and a
thickifh tooth-powder.

But when the tartar is abundant, thick, and grown, as it
were, to the teeth, it mull be cut witii a fuitable mftrument
placed obliquely, beginning from the neck, and cai-rying the
inftrument towards the upper part of the tooth. The tartar
hiring been cut, is then to be removed picc-meal.

Any remaining particles of tartar may afterwards be gra-
dually got rid of by the ufe of a brulh and tooth-powder.

2. Spontaneous tartar. There are certain perfons, whofe
teeth are conftantly incruftcd with tartar, notwithftanding
they are in the continual habit of wadiing their teeth and
mouths.

This peculiar d^athefis feems to confiR in an extraordinary
quantity of earthy matter in the faliva.

were fo tliick, that the lower lip was rendered more promi
nent. Diu-ing a fortnight, Berdmore removed every day fome
of the tartar from the teeth with an inftrument, and at
length employed a dentifrice and brufli. The retraced
gums were fcarified, and thus made to adhere to the necks of
the teeth. The patient was obhged to brulh his gums and
teeth three times a day, partly with a view of preventing the
new formation of tartar, and partly in order that the regene-
ration of the gums might be flill more promoted. But
although the patient ftriftly followed this plan, his teeth and
gums, in the courfe of half a year, became again covered
with an extremely thick coat of tartar. Berdmore was there-
fore under the neceffity of recommending the ufe of a ftiffer
brufli, and a dentifrice made of fliells, for the purpofe of re-
moving the tartar. P. 56.

With refpeft to the treatment of tartareous incruftations
of the teeth in general, it is effential to remove the tartar and
clean the teeth well every day.

The internal and external remedies alfo, which are ufually
advifed for diffolving ftones in the bladder, may be employed,
as lime-watei, pure potaffa, &c.

Sometimes peppermint-water, with a few drops of nitrous
acid, is ufed with advantage.

3. Tartar from the porofity of the furface of the teeth.
Perfons who are in the habit of ufing acrid tindlures or pow-
ders which diffolve the enamel, and make it porous, are fre-
quently troubled with tartareous incniftations.

The x:aufe being avoided, the mode of treatment is the
fame as in the preceding cafes.

0/ Blacknefs or Necrofis of the Teeth. — This is a very pe-
culiar affeftion of all the teeth, making them appear black,
rough, and eroded.

Sometimes only the upper part of the crown exhibits a
dark-coloured erofion ; while, in other inftances, the whole
fubflance of the tooth is eroded.

The proximate caufe of this difeafe is imputed by Plenck
to injury of the nutrient veffels of the pulp by difeafe, before

6

put on a black colour.

The cure demands the immediate exhibition of anti-fcor-
butic medicines, with the affiftance of which the fecond
teeth are fometimes perfeftly healthy.

3. Blacknefs of the teeth from the fmall-pox. In chil-
dren who are feized with malignant fmall-pox during the
firft or fecond dentition, a black erofion of the teeth is fre-
quently obferred.

The cure requires the repeated adminiftration of purga-
tives, and then the Peruvian bark.

4. Blacknefs of the teeth from mealies. The fame black
erofion of the teeth has been remarked after fevere cafes of
meafles.

The cure is the fame as in the .foregoing inftance.

All the preceding fpecies of necrofis, when they affect the
milk-teeth, are to be ftopped by their proper fpecific reme-
dies, in order that the fecond fet of teeth may not be af-
fefted ; but when thefe are difordered, the cafe is irreme-
diable.

5. Blacknefs of the teeth from tart.ir. The tartar it-
felf fometimes tunis black, and even after its removal, the
teeth often remain of a blackifli colour, wliich cannot be
effaced.

6. Blacknefs of the teeth from the appbcation of mineral
acids. Nitrovis acid diluted with water, in a fliort time,
whitens the teeth ; but foon afterwards renders them black
and friable. Plenck has feen the lateral edges of the teeth
turned black and corroded by the employment of mercurial
cofmetics.

7. Blacknefs of the teeth from cancer. Plenck has twice
noticed in men, who were afflifted with ulcerated cancers of
the lower lip, the teeth disfigured with a deep black colour.
But it is to be remarked, that the affeftion was confined to
the enamel, and did not extend to the bony fubftance of the
fangs.

Preternatural Co/our of the Teeth, — This is a change of
the natural colour of the teeth to a yellow or alh-eolour.
I . Difcolouration from negleft to clean the teeth. The

fordcs.

TEETH.

fordes, which colkft upon the teeth, dimuiifli their glofs
and wliitenefs, and render them yellow or afli-coloured.
The cure confirts in removing tlic fordes.

2. Dilcolouration from age. The wliitenefs and polifh
of the teeth, peculiar to youth, change in the advanced
period of life into a dull yellow, which is totally irre-
mediable.

3. Difcolouration from the ufe of mercury. The teeth
are difcoloured not only by the internal, but alfo by the ex-
ternal ufe of mercury. Hence gilders, and other .irtizans
T7ho make ufe of mercury, have their teeth ftaincd of a
leaden colour. Plenck has feen the fame fort of disfigure-
ment occafioned by cofmetics containing quickfilver.

The cure requires that the mercury be got out of the
fyftem as expeditioufly as poffiblc.

4. Difcolouration from fcurvy, &c. Scorbutic perfons
are efpecially noticed as having the colour of the teeth
fpoiled. Venereal and ricketty fubjefts are alfo frequently
afFefted in the fame way.

To this head muft likewlfe be referred the difcolouration
of the teeth obfervablc in mariners.

5-. Difcolouration of the teeth from pregnancy. In preg-
nant and fuckling women, the luftre of the teeth is often
remarked to leflen, and thefe parts to be difcoloured. Lorry,
Tra£t. de Morb. Cutaneis, p. 61.

It is fuppofed that this change of the teeth is frequently
connefted with the bad ftate of the milk, the evacuation and
correftion of which are the means of cure advifed by feveral
authors.

6. Difcolouration from taking hot food. Perfons who
make a praftice of drinking very hot hquids, or of chew-
ing fubftances which are top warm, have the luftre and
whitenefs of their teeth deftroyed. It is queftionable, whe-
ther the beautiful white colour of the teeth of animals in
general may not be owing to their abftainmg from hot
aliments ?

7. Difcolouration from dentifrice powders and tinftures
containing mineral acids. Thus, burnt alum and fpirit of
nitre for a (hort time whiten the teeth ; but a little while
afterwards, the enamel turns pale and falls off in bits.

8. Difcolouration from the fmoke of tobacco. The oil
of this plant is well known to have the effeft of turning the
colour of the teeth to a dark brown or black.

9. Difcolouration from thinnefs of the enamel. When
the vitreous fubftance is in a certain degree worn away, the
bony fubftance, which is yellow, can be feen through it.
The defeft is incurable.

10. Difcolouration from an internal caries of the tooth.
Such a tooth lofes its luftre and whitenefs, and becomes
pale, afti-coloured, dark-brown, and at length black.

Here the only mode of cure is to extraft the difeafed
t®oth.

11. Difcolouration from the ufe of madder. It is re-
marked, that only the bony part of the tooth is ftained red
by this root, but not the enamel. The rednefs alfo does not
extend itfelf to the portion of the tooth already formed ; but
only to the part formed while the animal is fed with madder.
This coloi:r hkewife never difappears : circumftances much
againft the doftrine of the teeth being vafcular.

12. Golden difcolouration of the teeth. This fpecies is
brought on by art.

Fragility of the Teeth, — In this affeftion, the cohefion of
the fubftance of the teeth is fo flight, that a very inconfi-
derable force makes it break.

The proximate caufe of this fragility of the teeth is pro-
bably connefted, in many examples, with fome imperfeftions
sn their original growth.

The varieties defcribed by writers are as follow :
Vol. XXXV.

1. The fcprbutie fragility. In people affliAcd with the
fcurvy, the bodies of the teeth by degrees become fo fragile
that they drop out piccon1e.1l.

2. Fragility from rickets. In children thus affefted, the
milk-teeth, foon after they have been cut, become dark-
coloured, are cafily broken, .ind ufually fall out in pieces.

3. Fragility from old age. In old age the teeth .ve apt
to be broken in biting With force, and to fall out piece-
meal.

4. Fragility from the application of mineral acids or
burning oils. The abufe of fuch medicines, too long con-
tinued, brings on a fpecies of fragility, which admits of no
mode of cure.

5. Fragility from caries. Teeth, which are excavated
by caries, and rendered thin, are readily broken in mallica-
tion, and drop out in jiieces.

All the difl'erent fpecies of fragility arc incurable.

MoUilies, or Pretcriuiturjl Softncfs of the Teeth. — This dif-
eafe is fo remarkable a foftnefs of the fubftance of the teeth,
that it can almoll becompreircd together by the fingers.

The proximate caufe is faid to be either too great a
quantity of the gluten, which connects the earthy particles
together, or elfe a deficiency of tlie earth.

The fpecies arc :

1. Softncfs of a milk-tooth. Plenck extrailcd from a
girl fevcn years of age, a canine milk-tooth of th« lower
jaw, which was livid and foft, like cartilage, and was com-
preflible by the fingers, efpecially at the fang. Dc Morb.
Dentium, p. 39.

2. Softnefs of the teeth from farcoftofis of the fang.
Sometimes the fang of a tooth is abforbed, and a fungous
fubftance fills up its place. This cafe has been abfurdly in-
ftanced as a fpecimen of mollities of the teeth.

3. Softnefs of the teeth from fcurvy. It is aflertcd, that
in the fcurvy, the teeth have been fometimes fofteiTcd and
enlai-ged. (Grainger Hift. Febris Anom. p. 6.) But fuch
accounts muft be incorred, fince they imply a vafcular or-
ganization of the teeth. It merits attention alfo, that in
certain dead fubjcCls, whofe bones are all affetled with mol-
hties, the teeth are found pcrfeftly hard.

Preternatural Angles, or Sharpnefs of the Teeth. — Some-
times the form of a tooth is fo acute, that it hurts the
neighbouring parts by pricking them.

The effefts of fuch a tooth are irritation of the tongue,
or of the inner furface of the lips, or check. Hence in-
flammation of thefe parts, or an ill-conditioned ulcer oppofif e
the ftiarp portion ot the tooth, curabla by no means Vrlir.t-
foever, except the removal of the angle or fli.vpnefs.

The fpecies are afcribablc to the particularity of the
caufe.

1. Irritating angles, or (liarpnefs from malformation of a
tooth. In this caie the tooth has a found appearance, and
the crown is felt to be too pointed or (harp.

2. Irritating angles, or Iharpncfs from an oblique frac-
ture of a tooth ; as fometimes happens from biting hard
nuts and other fubftances. The cafe can be detcitcd on
ocular examination,

3. Irritating angles, or fharpnefs from the tooth being
worn obliquely. This is the moft common cafe.

The cure requires that the pointed or (harp part of t!ic
tooth be removed cither with a file or a pair of cutting
forceps ; but if this cannot be acconiplilhed, the tooth
(hould be pulled out.

Fradurcs of the Teeth. — A frafture of a tooth is a folu-
tion of it into two or more fragments.

The folution of continuity may be tranfvcrfc, oblique, or
comminuted. The moft common kind of fraAure is the ft-
paration of a particle of the enamel from the reft.

C c The

TEETH.

The offfiSs r.re, confiderablo pain in the tooth, and fomc-
fimes convuliions ; an implcal'ant I'onfation in the tongue
upon its touching the fradhire. An oblique fradure hurts
the tongue, hps, or check, by its pointed form. The
broken furface of a tooth not unfretiuently becomes carious.

The fpecies .ire :

1. Frafture from violence ; as occurs in a fall upon the
teeth, a blow on them, or in biting the hard ilones of fruits,
or in an iinperfeft extraction of a tooth.

2. Fradure from previous caries, or fragility of a tooth.
When either of thefe caufes is prefent, a very inconliderable
force will break the tooth, and fplit it into feveral pieces.
The furface of the fraftured part ought to be kept covered
for feveral days with mallich.

The fraAure of a tooth is an incurable accident.

Fi/fures of the Teeth A fiffure of a tooth means a folu-

tion of continuity, like a mere line, or a crack in the
enamel.

For the mod part, the caufe originates from biting the
ftones of fruit, or other hard fubltances.

The effects are pain and tendernefs of the tooth, and, in
confequcnce of the entrance of fordes into the fifliire, caries
is frequcntiv produced.

The treatment confifls in filling up the fiffure, while
recent, with gum maftich.

Luxations of the Teeth The luxation of a tooth means

the difplaccment of it from its natural pofition in the focket,
occafioned by violence.

The caufes are biting hard or refilling bodies with ex-
trertle force ; falls or blows upon the teeth ; but, mod
commonly, the accident is brought on by an imperfeft and
imfucccfsful attempt to draw a tooth.

The disfigurement, arifing from the wrong pofture of the
tooth, is the chief efFeft. The tooth may be put into its
right pofition again with the aid of a pair of forceps.

Stupor of the Teeth This is a very fingular fenfation in

the teeth, which cannot be defcribed by words. It was
called by the Greeks hismodia, from j^i^inJixa, olflupefco :
the French term it I'agacement des dents.

The proximate caufe is a peculiar affeftion of the nerves
■of the teeth.

With regard to the effefts, this annoying fenfation pre-
vents maftication, and excites a preternatural fecretion of the
faliva ; while it is exafperated by the entrance of air into the
cavity of the mouth. For the moft part, the complaint is
only of a tranfient nature.

The fpecies are :

1 . Stupor of the teeth from eating unripe fruit. Hence
wc find, the affeftion is often caufed by eating four cherries,
currants, goofeberries, &c.

This cafe may be relieved by chewing fweet almonds, or
applying fomentations to the teeth.

2. Stupor of the teeth from vomiting dark bilious matter
from the ftomach. The fecretions thrown up from the
llomach are fometimes of an auftere acid kind, and therefore
may give rife to this affeftion of the teeth. Plenck has
many times noticed the occurrence in hypochondriacal fub-
jeds. Doftrina de Morb. Dentinm, p. 42.

The cure demands emetics and abforbents, or mild alka-
line remedies.

3. Stupor of the teeth in ricketty fubjefts. The teeth of
perfons who labour under rachitis, are, on account of their
greater fenfibility, particularly expofed to the attack of this
complaint.

Befides the radical cure of rachitis, which is to be at-
tempted by tonic and abforbent medicines, external palliative
means are not to be omitted

4. Stupor of the teeth from harft r.oifes. Thus the pain-

7

ful fenfation is brouglit on by the acute rough found made
by filing various fubltances, fcraping (late, favviug (lone, &c.
In a fright, the gnalhing of the teeth has been obferved to
have a fimilar effeft.

Odontalgia, or Tooth-ache. — This fignifies pain in one or
more of the teeth ; the etymology being oJoi/f, dens, and
i.'hyiji, doleo.

The proximate caufe is an irritation of the nerves which
are dillributed to the teeth and gums.

As for the effedls, the pain in the teeth fometimes rifes
to fuch a degree, that relllcfTnefs, fever, delirium, fpafms,
convulfions, faintings, &c. are produced, efpecially in per-
fons of irritable conllitutions.

The cheek of the painful fide very often fwells upon a
little abatement of the complaint taking place ; the patient
drivels confiderably ; and maftication cannot be performed
without an increafe of iuffering.

The different fpecies of the complaint are as follows :

1. Odontalgia rheumatica, or the tooth-ache occafioned
by the rheumatifm affecting the gums and teeth.

The fymptoms of this cafe are, pain in the teeth, without
any thing ailing the gums, as far as can be detected by ocu-
lar examination.

The cure demands purgative medicines, and afterwards
fudorifics.

Externally, wine and water ; or vinegar, in which the
radix pyrethri has been boiled ; the fmoking of tobacco ;
finapifms to the cheek ; or blifters upon the temples, or
nape of the neck ; are efteemed amongft the moft eligible
means of relief.

2. Odontalgia catarrhalis. This cafe is moftly brought
on by a cold damp atmofphere and the fuppreffion of per-
fpiration, or from fudden expofure to cold while the body
is very much heated.

This fpecies may be known by the prefence of the ufual
fymptoms of catarrh, the difcharge of mucus from the
noilrils, cough, occ.

It admits of relief by the fame means which are proper
for a catarrh, or the rheumatic fpecies of tooth-ache.

3. Odontalgia inflammatoria. The complaint is brought
on by inflammation of the gums. Such inflammation often-
times affedts, at the fame time, all the neighbouring parts, as
the cheeks, ears, ej'es, and indeed fometimes the whole
head.

Frequently the cafe brings on, in a flow manner, the form-
ation of abfceffes between the gums and cheek, which ab-
fceffes, after a great deal of violent pain, burft.

This tooth-ache is exafperated by every kind of warm
medicine, whether given inwardly, or ufed as an externa] ap-
plication.

The cure of the complaint in its early ftage demands
venefedtion, purgatives, nitre, and other antiphlogiftic re-
medies.

Externally, there is no better application than the aqua
plumbi fuperacetatis.

4. Odontalgia arthritica, or odontagra, arifes on the
abatement of a gouty affedtion of the joints, but fubCdes
again as foon as the latter difeafe recommences.

5. Odontalgia venerea. Both the venereal difeafe itfelf,
and the merciu-y which is adminiftered for its cure, not
unfrequently give rife to fevere tooth-ache. In each of
thefe cafes, purgatives are indicated, and afterwards an
emulfion of gum arabic, the warm bath, and the compound
decodtion of farfnparilla.

Here drawing the teetli is faid to be extremely dangerous,
as it is apt to bring on inflammation of the throat, and even
fatal confequences.

6. Odontalgia fcoi-butica. This cafe may be known by

the

TEETH.

the exifteilce of the ufual fymptoms of the fcurvy. In ad-
dition to an intolerable itching in the gums, very acute pain
is alfo often experienced.

With refpeft to the cure, topical remedies muft be em-
ployed, together with fuch external and internal medicines
as are generally requiilte for the fcurvy.

7. Odontalgia gaftrica is an acute pain in the teeth and
gums, arifing from a vvrojig ftate of the prima: vis.

It may be cured by emetics, purgatives, and other me-
dicines calculated to put the bowels and llomach into order
again.

Odontalgia gaftrico-vcrminofa. People who have worms
are frequently tormented with the tooth-ache. Authors at-
tempt to explain the faft as follows : they ilate that worms
in the inteiltines irritate the great intercoftal nerve, which
has a ftrong fympathetic conneftion with the nerves of the
teeth.

The ciu-e demands purgatives and anthelmintic remedies.

8. Odontalgia a ventriculi debilitate, feu irritabilitate.
It fometimes happens that men and hyfterical women, whofe
ftomachs are weak and irritable, are afflifted with excru-
ciating tooth-aches, which yield to no remedies but antifpaf-
modics, ftomachics, and tonics.

9. Odontalgia gravidarum. In the tooth-aclie originating
"from pregnancy, the pain often fhifts from one tooth to

another, and comes on very repeatedly, although the teeth
are frequently perfedlly found. Sometimes the pain is
merely fympathetic ; but, in moft inftances, it is connefted
with that plethoric ftate of the female conftitution known
to prevail during pregnancy. Venefeftion is, therefore,
the chief means of rehef, and then topical applications
may be ufed.

It is a queftion, whether the operation' of drawing a tooth
fliould ever be performed on pregnant women. There are
fome women who have fuch a dread of the inftruments for
tliis purpofe, that the very fight of them brings on the
danger of convulfions and a mifcarriage. But, on the
other hand, the pain may be fo violent as to create a chance
of the fame evils. Here much addrefs is requifite to per-
fuade the patient to undergo the operation, and at the
fame time great prudence not to advife it, unlefs rendered
abfolutely indifpenfable by the feverity and obilinacy of the
pain.

10. Odontalgia nutricum. Women who fuckle are alfo
particularly fubjeft to be afBifted with excruciating tooth-
ache, whether the teeth be found or carious. When the
pain refifts the ufual means, efpecially opium and venefec-
tion, the tooth muft be extrafted. This cafe has been fup-
pofed to depend upon a certain fympathy between the
mamma; and the teeth.

11. Odontalgia from cutting the dens fapientis. Some-
times great and long-continued pain, delirium, and other
alarming fymptoms take place, until the tooth has made its
way out, or the gums have been divided.

12. Odontalgia hyfterica. This fpecies of tooth-ache
often affedls hyfterical women a long while, notwithftanding
the teeth may be perfeftly healthy^; nor does it always yield
to opium, nor even to the operation of extradting feveral of
the painful teeth.

The treatment requires the warm bath, emollient fomen-
tations to the cheeks, and gargles of the fame quality to
the mouth.

13. Odontalgia from the teeth being worn away. The
bony fubftance of the teeth is fo fenfsble, when deprived of
the enamel, that on coming into contaft with air, or food,
at all too warm, or cold, the moft intolerable pain is
excited.

14. Odontalgia from tartar on the teeth. The tartar
feparates the gums from the neck and fang of the tootli, fo
as to expofe the latter parts to the cold air, and the tlimu-
lating quality of the food. Hence, it is obvious, p;>in
mulf be the confcquence.

Tlie radical cure can only be accomplifhed by removing
the tartar. The complaint may be palliated by the common
applications for the relief of tooth-ache.

I 5. Odontalgia from a frafture of the body of the tootli.
In tlijs cafe the nerves of the remaining portion of the tooth
are expofed to the air, and fometimes become afTcfted with
extreme pain.

Writers recommend for the purpofe of relieving thiti
complaint, either applying the cautery to the furfacc of the
fraftured tooth, or elfe covering it with wax, or gum
maftich.

16. Odontalgia verminofa. Whether the tooth-ache can
ever really arife from the prefence of worms in a carious
tooth, is doubtful. Plenck conceives the occurrence pof-
fible, and he propofes as a means of cure the employ-
ment of a gargle containing the muriates of ammonia and
foda.

17. Odontalgia periodica fignifies that form of the tooth-
ache, which comes on every other day, and refembles in its
periods of attack an intermittent fever.

In the treatment, authors recommend the ufe of'purgatives,
emetics, and the Peruvian bark.

18. Odontalgia cariofa. It is not every fort of caries
of the teeth which is accompanied with pain ; but only the
internal or external humid kind of caries. In the dry caries,
and alio in the humid, when all the nervous filaments of tlie
bone of the tooth have been deftroyed by it, the carious
tooth remains free from pain.

In the tooth-ache from caries, the following modes of relief
are recommended :

1. Preffure upon the nerve which comes out of the jnfra-
orbitary canal of the fuperior maxillary bone.

2. Preffure upon the nerve whicli paffes out of the canalij
mentalis of the lower jaw-bone.

3. Sulphuric acid apphed to the carious part of the
tooth by means of a probe. Plenck has fometimes found
this plan ufeful.

4. Vinum pyrethri, vel rutre, or ftrong vinegar.

5. Sinapifms to the cheek.

6. Blifters to the nape of the neck, and behfhd tlie
ears.

7. The application of a magnet to the painful tooth.

8. Oil of cloves introduced into the carious tootli.

9. Camphorated milk retained for a time in the mouth.

10. Burning the nerve with a heated probe.

1 1 . Opium applied to the carious tooth, or admiiiiftered
internally,

12. Luxating the painful tooth is another mode of ixlief
which has been propofed. With the aid of a fuitablc iii-
ftrument the tooth is to be turned a httle round in its
focket, and then turned back again into its natural pofition.
Thus, the fmall nerve, which enters the hole in the fang,
is cither broken or rendered paralytic.

Caries of the Teeth, — This fignifies an erofion of the fub-
ftance of the teeth.

The dentes molares are more frequently than the reft of
the teeth affefted with caries, and the dentes fapiciitiie
oftener than any of the other grinders.

Caries of the teeth varies in rcfped to its Ctuation,
figure, nature, and caufe.

In regard to fituation, the caries may take place in one,

in feveral, or in all tlic teeth. It may occur upon the ex-

C c 2 ternal

TEETH.

ternal or internal furface of a tooth ; upon tlie l>ody or the
fang of a tooth ; or it may affert every part ot it.

As to caufcs, the caries may proceed from fuch as are
properly called external, as a fiiTure ; a wearing away of
the enamel ; fordcs adhering to the teeth ; tartar ; a detach-
ment of the glims ; a violent effort to bite, by which the
apex of the fang, or the bottom of the fockct, is contufcd ;
the ufe of mercury ; cofmetics ; the application of acids,
efpecially thofe which are termed mincrj ; dentifrice powders
containing alum ; cold damp air ; fmoking, or chewing

tobacco, &c.

Sugar has been imagined to he hurtful to the teeth ; but
probably without real foundation. General de Beaufort
ate every day for forty years a pound of fugar, and lived
to the age of fevcnty. After death, his vifcera were found
free from difeafe, .ind his teeth found. (Anecdotes de
Medccine, torn. ii. p. 35.) Plenck put a healthy tooth
into fome fyrup diluted with water, and kept it there two
months, at the end of which time it was taken out, and
found to have undergone no change. Doftrina de Morb.
Dentium, p. 52.

The internal caufes are fcurvy, rachitis, fcrofula, &c.

In relation to the particular nature of caries of the teeth,
there are two fpecies ; one termed humid, which quickly
deilroys the tooth afFeftcd with it ; the other is the di-y ca-
ries, which advances (lowly, lafts a long while, is altogether
indolent, and cannot be palliated by any known remedy.

The effefts of caries are fetor of the breath; repeated
attacks of tooth-ache ; infeftion of the neighbouring teeth ;
and not unfrcqueutly the correfponding tooth on the oppo-
fite fide of the mouth becomes alfo affedled with caries, as
feveral authors whimfically fuppofe, from nervous fympathy.
In the fituation of the difeafed tooth, efpecially, over the
carious fang, the gum is moft. commonly attacked with a
parulis, or epulis. Sometimes chronic ophthalmy originates
from the irritation of the difeafed fang (Journ. de MCd.
tom. xxxvi.) ; or elfe a fiftula of the gums or cheek, or an
ozaena of the antrum Highmorianum. Even a locked-jaw
has been known to arife from carious teeth. Truka Com.
de Tetano, p. 151.

In refpeft to figure or form, the following fpecies of
caries may be eftablifhed.

1. Caries foraminofa, or a carious canal, which runs from
the external furface of the crown, and penetrates the fub-
ftance of the tooth.

In the treatment, it is proper to clean out the carious
canal with a needle, and by injefting a fluid into it. Then
it is to be burnt with a heated needle ; and, laftly, elofed
with wax, maftich, gold, or lead.

2. Caries of the whole crown or body of a tooth. When
the middle of the crown of a tooth is eroded in fuch a man-
ner, that the caries is wider fuperficially than it is more
deeply, then the gold, or lead, or whatever is ufed for filling
it up, cannot be retained in its place.

In this circumftance it becomes neceffary to burn the
carious furface with a fuitable inltrument ; or to deftroy it
with cauftic applications ; or to apply antifeptics.

But when, notwithttanding all thefe means, the caries yet
fpreads, the tooth ought to be extrafted, in order to re-
move the pain, prevent the occurrence of other difeafes,
and not incur the rifk of the tooth breaking in pieces in
the attempt to take it out at a later period, vvhen it may be
excavated and rendered too thin.

3. Caries maculofa. If the fuperficial fpot only appear
upon the external furface of the tooth, it may be removed
with a file.

4. Caries ftriata. Whfn the caries occurs in the form

of a longitudinal black (Ireak, it is cither in the middle of
tlie crown, or on the lateral margins of the tooth. This
cafe may be oecafioned by the teeth being placed too clofely
together, and alfo by the ufe of cofmetics. It admits of
being taken off with a file.

5. Caries of tlie fang of a tooth. The body of fuch a
tooth is fometimes found. The tooth, however, is fre-
quently painful, the cheek of the affeAed fide, and the
gum near the painful tooth fvvell, and an abfcefs is formed,
which is lefs common in the other fpecies of caries.

The cure requires that the tootli ftiould he drawn out as
foon as the inflammation has fubfided, It is reckoned dan-
gerous to perform the operation while the parts are much
inflamed.

6. Internal caries of a tootli. In this complaint the
tooth is painful, and exhibits a leaden colour, and if it be
fliaken with an inflrument the pain is confiderably ex-
afperated. Thus the difeafed tooth may be detefted ampngfl
many which are healthy, even when feveral of them are
thought by the patient to be unfound.

The cure requires the tooth to be extrafted.

7. Caries of all the teeth. This afHiftion is fometimes
induced by the fcurvy, and rachitis. The radical cure is
of courfe impoffible ; but the progrefs of the caries can be
checked by the internal ufe of antilcorbutic medicines, the
remedies againft rachitis, and by giving affa-foetida.

Externally, antifeptic wafhes may be ufeful.

Plumhatio dentis is the fiUing of the carious cavity with
thin fheet-lead, tin, or gold. Gold is preferable to lead,
which is apt to be afted upon and diffolved by acid food,
and may therefore produce the faturnine colic ; but, on the
other hand, lead is more cafily introduced into the tooth,
and it can be more firmly fixed there. Some dentiils give
the preference to tin.

The operation is proper, if the carious tooth has a narrow-
entrance. It can only be performed on the incifors, canine
teeth, 'and firfl grinders, which are furnifhed with but one

The operation is contraindicated, when the orifice of the
caries is wider than its bottom, as the lead cannot then be
retained. Alfo, when pain and inflammation are prefent,
the introduflion of the lead muft be deferred until thefe
fymptoms have fubfided.

The inftruments for this operation are,

1. The introduftor.

2. The perforator.

3. The planatorium.

4. The file.

5. The plates or leaves of gold, about three or four times
as thick as thofe commonly met with.

As for the operation itfelf,

1. A thin plate of lead, tin, or gold, is to be put into
the hollow of the tooth, by means of the inltrument called
the introduftor.

2. The lead or gold is to be gradually compreffed more
and more clofely, fo that it may fill up well the (ides of the
cavity. This is to be done with the planatorium. Then
fome holes a»e to be drilled in the metal with the perforator,
and thefe are to be filled with lead. Laftly, the place is to
be rendered even and fmooth with the file.

The lead, for fome days after the operation, proves r.-ither
difagrccable to the tongue ; but, in a ihort time, the patient
is habituated to it, and he experiences no longer any fuch in-
convenience.

Sometimes pain and inflammation follow ; in which cafe,
the lead muft be taken out for a few days with a pointed
ioftrument.

8 There

TEE TIL

[

There liave been pcrlons who liave had load in their
teeth feveiity years, and upwards, without any annoyance
from it.

Of drawing or extrading a Tooth. — We fhall conclude this
article with a few obfervations upon the furgical operation of
extrafting a tooth from its focket.

The following cafes make the performance of it necef-
fary.

1. A carious tooth, producing a fe\ere degree of pain,
which can be abated by no remedies.

2. A (liarp tooth, which irritates and hurts the tongue,
and does not admit of being amended with the file.

3. An ulcer, or abfcefs of the maxillary finus.

4. A tooth which renders the focket carious, or caufes
abfcefles, or excrefcences of the gums, fiftulx of the jaw, or
fome other troublefome complaints.

5. A milk-tooth not being fhed at the ufiial period, and
its prefence forcing one of the permanent ftft to grow in a
wrong direftion.

6. A tooth growing out of the palate, or in any otlier
unnatural place.

On the other hand, the operation is contraindicatcd, when
the gums are highly inflamed ; or when a tooth-ache, excited
by mercury, or the fcurvy, is prcfent. Drawing a tooth,
in thefe circumftances, might give rife to exteniive inflam-
mation and angina in a dangerous degree.

The common inftruments are,

1. The odontagra.

2. The pelicanus.

3. The clavis, or key.

Thefe three inftruments are objeftionable in one refpeft :
namely, they pull the tooth out of its focket obliquely ;
and hence they often break the alveolary procefs, or the tooth
itfelf.

4. But the tooth-inftrument which Aitken has defcribed,
draws the tooth out of the focket perpenaicularly ; and, on
this account, has an advantage. See Eftays on feveral im-
portant Subjefts in Surgery, London, 1771, p. 196.

5. The tooth forceps.

fi. The pes caprinus, or punch.

The molares, when they can be firmly taken hold of, may
be extrafted with either of the firft four inftruments.

The incifores, canini, and firft molares, may be drawn
out with the forceps.

Stumps and fangs cannot be taken hold of with thefe in-
ftruments ; they muft, therefore, be puftied out of the al-
veolary procefs with the pes caprinus, or punch, and then
be removed with a pair of forceps.

The patient and furgeon are to place themfelves as
follows.

I . If the tooth be in the up.per jaw, and it is to be taken
out with the odontagra, pelicanus, or punch ; or if the
tooth, which is to be drawn, is in the lower jaw, the patient
muft be feated in a low chair, or on the ground, the furgeon
ftanding behind him.

;. But if the tooth is to be taken out with the key, or
from the upper jaw with the forceps, the patient is to fit
in a common chair, and the furgeon is to ftand in front of
him.

The following are the different methods of performing the
operation.

I. Of extrafting a tooth with the odontagra.

The inner gum of the tooth about to be drawn, is to be
deprefted with the claw of the inftrument nearly down to the
alveolary procefs. The other part of the inftrument is to
lie apphed to the crown of the tooth.

While the thumb is employed in making iirm preffurc

upon the claw, the liandle is to be held with the fingers,
and, under the diredion of tlie palm, the tooth is to be
raifed perpendicularly from its focket.

By means of the fcrew, which admits of- being turned,
the inftrument may readily be adapted to the larger
teeth.

2. Of drawing a tooth with the key.

The key is applied to the tooth nearly in the fame way as
the odontagra, except that the thumb of the other hand is
placed upon the claw. At the commencement, the key is to
be turned verj* gradually ; and the tooth, when it yields, is
to be cautioully and (lowly raifed, left it flip away, and re-
main adherent to the gum.

3. Of drawing a tooth with the pfclicanus.

'J'he claw of this inltrumcnt is to be applied to the infide
of the neck of the tooth, while the rotula is to be put upon
the two neighbouring teeth. The thumb of tlie liand not
holding the inftrument is to be applied to the infide of thein,
fo as to counteraft the refiftance of tlie rotula.

4. Of the cxtradtion of a tooth with the forceps.

The neck of the tooth being firmly grafped with the
forceps, is to be gradually moved, until it is fufficicntly
loofened to admit of being taken out perpendicularly.

5. Of taking out a tooth with the pes caprinus, or
punch.

The two points of the inftrument are to be firmly applied,
under the gum, to the lower part of the neck of the re-
maining portion of the tooth. The tliumb of the hand not
thus employed is to be covered with fome linen, and ap-
plied internally. The fang is then to be puflicd out of the
focket, and removed with a pair of forceps.

With regard to the fymptoms arifing after the operation :
a flight hn?morrhage, and a fwelling of the gums and check,
are the ufual confequences. Thefe, however, are free from
danger, and, when the mouth is waflicd with a gargle of
tepid vinegar, they are foon relieved.

The more ferious confequences, which fometiines occur
after the extraftion of a tooth, are,

1. A violent and dangerous degree of hxmorrhage.

2. Alarming inflammation of the gums and cheek.

3. Abfcefles of the gums ; vei-y apt to take place, when
the gums have been confiderably bruifed by the inftrument,
or when fphntcrs of bone are left b.^hind.

4. A frafture of the alveolary procefs, or of the pailate.
This accident is moft hable to happen, when the fangs of
the teeth diverge, or when the fang and focket have grown
together by the procefs of olTification. The cxiftence of the
laft cafe may be known by the neck of the tooth being
curved. Here the tooth fhould always be drawn out to-
wards its concave fide.

5. Diflocation of the jaw. This may occur, if thCmouth
be too much open, or the lower jaw be brought too much
forward, in the operation. The luxation ought to be im-
mediately reduced. See Lvxation.

6. Frafture of the jaw. See Frac ruuE.

7. Caries of the focket.

8. Laftly, frafture and luxation of the tooth may be the
confequences of an unfuccefsful attempt to perform the
operation.

In the preceding remarks, we have been chiefly aflifted
by Plenck's excellent compendium, entitled " Doftrina de
Morbis Dentium," &c. Lovanii, 1796.

Some interefting obfervations on the difeafes of the teeth,
particularly with a view to the qucftion whether thefe parts
are vafcular, will be found in the article CitANiui.f.

For a defcription of the difeafes of the gums, we refer to
Gums, Difeafes of.

A Daniflt

TEETH.

A Danilh pliyficiaii, named H.ngeriip, maintains in cer-
tain tlicfes that otic may licar with the teeth.

As to animals, there are fome lilhcj whicli have teeth on
their tongues, as trouts ; others have them at the bottom of
the gull>-t, .IS the cod-li(h ; fome, as the great fea-dog or
(hark, called canis carcharias, iiave throe, four, or five rows
of teeth on tlie fame jaw ; tlic crocodile three, and thofe all
incifors ; vipers have two large crooked canine teeth, which
«re moveable, .md ordinarily lie flat, only being raifed when
they would bite ; and the rana pifcatrix, fea-frog, or fea-
devil, has whole rows of the like moveable teeth. The toad
and cuttle-filh have no teeth, and yet they can bite. See
ylnatomy of FisH.

Teeth, Chemical Analyfis of. The teeth clofely re-
femble bone in their compolition.. The bodies conlifl of a
cartilaginous bafis, united with phofphate of lime, and fmall
proportions of other earthy falts. The enamel differs fo far
only from the bodies, that it contains no cartilaginous matter,
bnt confifts entirely of earthy fubftances. The teeth have
been often examined, and with various refults, according to
the ftate of chemical knowledge at the period of examina-
tion. We do not think it neceflary to give an account of
all that has been faid on the fubjeft, but fhall confine our
attention principally to the lateft and mod perfeft analyfes.
We (hall begin with the analyfis of Mr. Pepys : he found
the enamel of teeth compofed of

Phofphate of lime -
Carbonate of lime -
Lofs and water

78

6

16

The bodies of the teeth, according to the fame chemift,
confift. of the following proportions.

Roots of tlie
Teeth.

Teeili of

AduUs.

F.rft Teetlt
of Children.

Phofphate of lime -

Carbonate of lime

Cartilage

Lofs - - -

58

4
28
10

64

6

20

10

62

6

20

12

100

100

100

A much more complete analyfis, however, of the enamel
of teeth has lately been made by Berzelius. He gives the
following table of his refults, compared with the compofition
of the .bones of the fame animals.

Drieil
Human
Bones.

Enamel of
Human
Teeth.

Bones of
Oxen.

Enamel
of Ox
Teeth.

Cartilage
Blood-veffels
Fluate of lime
Phofphate of lime -
Carbonate of lime -
Phofphate of mag-'

nefia
Soda, muriate of

foda, water, &c.

32-17

'•'3

2.00
51.04
11.30

1. 16
1.20

3-2

85-3
8.0

1-5

2.0

133-30

2.50

3-85

2.05
2.45

} 3-56

4.00

81.00

7.10

3.00

1-34

too

100

100

100

Tiius confirming a difcovery made many years before by
Morichini, an Italian chemift, namely, that the enamel of
teeth contains fluoric acid ; a circumftance which had been
called in quellion by later inquirers.

FoJJile ivory and bone have been found by Fourcroy and
Vauquelin to retain proportions of animal matter, varying
from 45 to 15 per cent. ; a curious fatil, and highly illuftra-
tive of the powers of intimate mixture, or rather perhaps
cliemical union, in preventing the deftruftion of organic
fubftances.

Tketh, jlrtificial, are thofe fet in lieu of natural ones,
whicli are wanting. See Teeth, Difeafes of.

Teeth, Mark of, in the Manege. See M.-VRK and Eye
of a Bean. See alfo Teeth, infra.

Teeth of Fijl^. See Anatomy of Fish.

Teeth, in Rural Economy, little bones fixed in the jaws,
which ferve not only to reduce the food and nourifliment,
but lliew the age in fome animals. The horfe has forty-
teeth, including the tufhes, which are thus diftinguiftied.
Twenty-four are called grinders, being placed at the bottom
of the mouth, beyond the bars, twelve on each fide of the
channel, ^'^z. fix above, and fix on each fide. Thefe teeth
continue, and do not give place to new teeth in their
room, fo that they are of no ufe in diftinguiftiing a
horfe's age ; and they are fubjeft to wolves teeth. In re-
gard to the other fixteen, twelve of them are called in their
infancy milk or foal teeth, and the remaining four go by the
name of tujlxs. The twelve foal teeth are (hort, fmall, and
white, and are feated on the fore -part of the mouth, fix
above, and fix below : and thefe change and call, to give
place to others ; which, in procefs of time, become long,
large, and yellovvifh.

Thefe new teeth are diftinguiftied by different names given
them, according to their putting forth ; and it is the manner
of their coming forth that gives the knowledge of the firft
years of a horfe's age.

Of thefe twelve, four are caUed nippers, four middling
teeth, and four go by the name of corner teeth. The four
nippers are feated on the fore -part of the mouth, two above,
and two below. When a horfe iias put forth thefe, he is
concluded to be from two and a half to three years old.

The middling teeth are placed near the nippers or ga-
therers, one above, and one below, on each fide of the jaws.
They come out and appear between three and a half and
four years.

The corner teeth are placed ftill more forward in the
mouth, one above, and one below, on each fide of the jaws.

They begin to ftioot between the fourth and the fifth
year, and are got above the gum at five years ; and when
furmounting the gum at that age, they become hollow, and
mark commonly till feven or eight years. By marking is
meant, that in the hoDow or cavity of the corner teeth a
little black fpeck is formed, which, from its refemblance,
is called the h\iA or eye of a bean, or the mark. But when
the horfe pafles fix, the cavity begins to fill, and the black
mark difappears by degrees ; yet this diminution of the
cavity and the mark continues from fix to feven and a half.
However, at eight years, the cavity is filled up, and the
black mark gone ; and the tooth is then full, and even as if
it had been ftiaved. It is then faid, that the horfe has raized,
which happens a little before the eighth year ; and after that,
the horfe does not mark ; fo that the fureft knowledge of
his age is then formed from his turtles.

The turtles are placed beyond the corner teeth, upon the
bars, two on each fide below, without being preceded by
any foal teeth. The two under turtles cut fometimes at
three years, fometimes at three and a half, fometimes at

four;

T E E

four ; bill the two upper Hifhcs fomctimt-s at four, fomc-
times at four and a half; fonietimes before and fometimes
after the corner teeth, without any certain rule ; and till the
age of fix they are chamfered within. And at about ten
years of age the two under tuflies appear much worn, which
ferves for that age. After that they grow out in length,
and become bare of flefli, becaufe the gum flirinks and re-
tires ; and at laft, about the iiftcentli or fixteenth year, the
horfe JheUs.

It is fometimes faid, that a horfe is not capable of any
great fatigue till his tulhcs have cut the flcin. See AcK, in
Horfemanjl.np.

The teeth in flieep are divided into two kinds, the inciforcs
and the molares, or the cutting and dividing, and the rub-
bing and grinding teeth. Such flieep as are fuU-mouthed
have eight of the firft fort of teeth ; throwing up two every
year, conlequently lole their fucking teeth. The incifores
are found to wear down in proportion to the adfion which
they have ; but the molares, having more ftrength, and a
different form, do not fuffer fo much in this way.

It has been fuggeiled by an experienced flieep-farmer,
that thefe forts of young animals moltly renew their firfl
two teeth at from about fourteen to fixteen months of age ;
and after that, every year nearly at the fame tiine, until
they are turned three years old, or, in the technical language
of the fheep-mafter, three fhear, when they become full-
mouthed ; for although they have eight teeth before in the
imder jaw, it is commonly believed that they only caft and
renew the fix infide ones. Shepherds, however, differ much
on this point, fome contending that they only fhed the fix
fore-teeth, while others maintain that they caft the whole
eight fore-teeth. The matter is, therefore, not yet well
afcertained. Some properly remark, that iheep are very
uncertain in their throwing up their teeth ; much depending
upon their being early or late lambed, well or ill fed, and
other fimilar circumftances. Tups have been known to have
four broad or renewed teeth, when by the age, as (hewn in
the above manner, they ought to have had only two. Some
fheep are remarked to be more backward than others, by
feveral months, in proportion to their ftrength of conftitu-
tion, and other matters.

In Romney Marrti the teeth of fheep are found to decay
much fafter, it is believed, than in any other part of the
coimtry. Clofe feeding wears the teeth exceedingly ; of
courfe, the teeth of the fheep of thofe who ftock the hardeft
commonly decay the fooneft. The fheep graziers m this
dillrift are very particular in mouthing their ftieep, which
are kept or rejefted according as their mouths are found to
be good or bad ; as, where the latter is the cafe, they have
great difficulty in maintaining themfelves during the winter
feafon.

It is noticed that fheep, about the tiine of renewing their
teeth, are very tender in their mouths, and do not thrive fo
well as they do at other feafons. At one feafon a teg, it is
fuppofed, may ilarve any fheep by clofe feeding ; but on
the renewal of its broad teeth, any (lieep may itarve it.

In the above diftrift, the barrens or old breeding ewes are
generally caft off" when they have had their third lamb ;
though fometimes, if their mouths be good, and they are
often better than thofe that have had only one lamb, they
are kept for the fourth lamb : nor is this fuppofed a bad
praflice, fince by it fome valuable ewes may be referved.

Sheep are feldom kept here to any great age : fome fa-
vourites are, however, kept till ten years old, without a
tooth in their heads. Some have heard of their living twenty
years. In the county of Hereford they are faid to live to a
great age : they live on long grafs in the fummcr feafon, and

T E F

pcafc-ftraw and other fnnilar matters in the winter, which
do not wear their teeth fo mucii as when they labour hard
on a clofe fliort-fef turf. See Shkei'.

The teeth of the various other forts of domeftic animals
have hitherto been but little noticed or attended to by ftore
or ftock mafters, though tiiey are probably, in many cafes,
as much changed, and lervc to mark the ages and growths of
the animals as much and as certainly, as in the inilanccs ami
cafes which have been given above. •

Teeth, Mammoth's. See MaMMOTh'j Teeth.

Tf.eth, IVolf's. See Wolves' Teeth.

Tkktii of a Wheel, in Mcchamcs. See WllEEL.

TEETHING. See Dentition, and Difeafei of Teeth,
fupra.

TEETMOW, in Geography, a town of Bengal : 40
miles S.S.E. of Curruckpoiu-.

TEFEE, a town of Brafil, in the government of Para,
on the river of the Amazons ; 220 miles W. of Fort Rio
Negro.

TEFELSDORF, a town of Tranfylvania ; 7 mUes N.
of Scheftiurg.

TEFEN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ; 28
miles S.W. of Amafieh.

TEFESSAD, or Tfessad, a town of Algiers, whofc
ruins extend along the coaft of the Mediterranean near a
league, fuppofed to have been the ancient Tipafa ; 32
miles S.S.W. of Algiers. N. lat. 36° 32'. E. long.
2° 54'.

TEFETHNE, or Teftane, a town of Morocco, on
the coaft ; 60 miles W. of Morocco. — Alfo, a river of
Morocco, which runs into the fea near Mogodor.

TEFFEREG, a town of the archbiffiopric of Salzburg ;
I mile S. of Windifch Matray.

TEFLIS, a town of Afia, capital of the principality of
Georgia, and fee of a bifliop, founded, according to an old
infcription in the citadel, by a certain prince Sarang, A.D.
1063, is fituated on the N.W. fide of the great plain of Kara-
joes, at the foot of a hill, occupying both banks of the
river Kur, over which is a bridge. This city is furrounded
with ftrong walls, except towards the river ; and has a large
fortrefs at the declivity of the mountain, which contains a
garrifon, and is often made ufe of as a place of refuge for
criminals and debtors. All the houfes are of ftonc, with
flat roofs, which ferve, according to the cuftom of the Eaft,
as walks for the women. The buildings are neat and clean ;
but the ftreets are exceedingly dirty and narrow. The town
contains one Roman Catholic, thirteen Greek, and feven Ar-
menian churches. Near it are fome warm fprings, and hence
it is called Theleftokar, or Warm town. In the year 13^6,
this town was taken by Tamerlane, and the king of Geor-
gia made prifoner. In 1723 it was taken by tlic Turks;
and in 1734 retaken by Kouli Khan. Before it was taken
by Aga Mahomed Khan, in 1 797, it contained 4000 houfes,
and 22,000 inhabitants. Although mo.-t of the houfes,
which are neatly built, are now ftanding, the population
does not exceed 15,000 fouls. It was for many years the
refidence of prince Herachus, and is at prefent tiiat of the
Ruffian governor and commander-in-chief, who has at all
times a large force ftatioiied in the city, to the difguft of the
inhabitants, who iluidder at the thoughts of their wives and
daughters being conftantly expofed to the view and impor-
tunities of ftrangers. This circimiftance tends to render the
Ruffian name detefted by the Georgians: 1 00 miles N.N.E.
of Erivan. N. lat. 42^^ 45'. E. long. 45° 2o'.

TEFTE RI) A R, the name of an officer of dignity in the
Eaftern nations. In Egypt he is lord high trealurer of tlie
tribute p;ud out of the lauds to the grand fignior. He is named

for

TEG

for a year by the Porte, but is generally comimicd in his
office many years. This oHice is romctimes given to one ot
the poorer beys, to help him to fupport his dignity ; and fre-
quently to a quiet one, who is not likely to enter into in-
trigue;. For one party never cares that a Ihrring man of
the oppofite party Ihould be invelted with an office of this
dignity. See DKKTAnnAR.

■ TEFUT, in Gevgruphy, a town of Africa, in the country
of Darah, formeriy the capital of the ancient kings of
Darah, now gone to deciy.

TEFZA, a town of Morocco, built by llie Arabians
on the fide of a mountain : the funounding walls are com-
pofed of blocks of marble ; 70 miles N.E. of Morocco.
N. lat. ^i'4o'.

TEFZRA, a town of Algiers; 15 miles S. of Tre-
mecen.

• TEG, a term ufed in fome parts of the kingdom by the
farmers, to exprefs a lamb of a year old. Among fportfmen
it denotes a roe of two years old. When a flock of ewes
and lambs are turned into a turnip-iield, the young lambs
of three weeks old will immediately fall to eating the turnips,
and fcoop them very prettily ; but thefe tegs will not touch
them for feveral days. They ufually ftay till almoft ilarved
to death before they begin, but when they have begun, they
foon grow fat.

In the Romney Marfli fyftem of management, both the
ewe and the wether tegs are kept upon the upland grafs
farms during the winter feafon, by which advantages aie
gained in various ways. They are by this means enabled to
keep more ewes and fattening fheep on their marth-lands,
and to have the tegs when the pallures require them. See
Sheep.

TEGADOO Bay, in Geography, a bay on the eaft coaft
of themoft northern iflands of New Zealand, difcovered by
captain, then lieutenant Cook, in 1769. S. lat. 38° 10'.
W. long. 181° 14'. ■

TEGiEA, JiMMEL, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Africa, mentioned by Hirtius, fituated S.W. of Leptis.

TEGANAN, an illand of the Mediterranean, in the
vicinity of that of Rhodes.

TEGAPATAM.in Geography. See FoRT St. David.
TEGAREE, a town of Bengal; 11 miles N. of
l\.i(henagur.

TEGAZA, a town of Africa, capital of a diftrift in
Zenhaga ; near it is a falt-mine, about 300 miles from the
Atlantic, and 4CX3 S. of Cape Non. N. lat. 22° 20'.

TEGE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa Propria,
between the two Syrtes. Ptol.

TEGEA, a town in the S.E. part of Arcadia, at a
fmall diftance from the Argolide ; and placed by M. D'An-
ville on the fcite of the modern Mokha. In this place was a
famous temple of Minerva Alea, in which was a ftatue of
the goddefs, which was removed to Rome by Auguftus.
This temple contained a number of other curiofities ; and the
priefthood in it was exercifed by a young female under fifteen
years of age. Near this temple was a ftadium, in which
were celebrated games in honour of Minerva, and others in
memory 'of a viftory gained over the Lacedaemonians. The
public place was ornamented with ftatues, and particularly
one of Mars Gynecothoene, (yt/mxoS&iB!,) fculptured upon
a column. The epithet ferved to maintain the remembrance
of a viftory obtained by the valour of the females of Tegea.
At a fmall diftance from the public place was a magnificent
theatre, encompaffed with bronze ftatues. This city fuffered
much in the wars which raged in Arcadia in the time of the
Achaean league. Paufanias fays that here was a temple of
Venus Urania, near that which was dedicated to Ceres

TEG

and Proferpine. The Tegeates were a valiant people.
Herodotus (1. i. c. 61.) mentions them with commendation.
The Lacedarmonians ravaged the territory of Tegea, and
at length obtained a fuperiority over its inhabitants.

Tkgea, a town of the iile of Crete, faid to have been
inhabited by Agamemnon. — Alfo, a town of Macedonia.

TEGEHET, or Tegegilt, in Geography, a town of
Africa; 120 miles S.S.W. of Fez.

TEGEL, Eric, in Biography, a Swedifh hiilorian, and
principal fecretary to Eric XIV. His father, having in-
curred the juft refentment of Eric, as the caufe of the mif-
fortunes that occurred during his reign, was apprehended by
Charles, duke of Sudermania the brother of Eric, aad
put to death at Stockholm in 1568. Charles, however,
took the fon under his protetlion, and fent him to Germany
for improvement ; and when he had vifited Spain and Poland,
appointed him his fecretary. In 1614 he was nominated by
Guftavus Adolphus hiftoriographer of the kingdom, and in
161 7 a privy-counfellor. He died at Stockholm in 1636,
and left feveral works, of which the following were printed
in Swedilh : viz. " The Hillory of Guftavus I. in two
Parts." Stockholm, 1622, fol. " TheHiftory of Eric XIV.
with Stiernman's Remarks ;" 16-172 1, 4to.

TEGENUM, or Tegianum, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Lucania.

TEGERHY, or Teigarea, in Geography, a town of
Africa, in the country of Fezzan ; 80 miles S.W. of Mour-
zouk. It is a fmall town, and collefts from its lands little
produce beCdcs 'flates and Indian coru. N. lat. 26° 17'.
E. long. 15° 5'.

TEGERN, a town of Bavaria, on a lake called the
Tegcrn See, anciently Lacus Tigurinus. Here is a cele-
brated abbey, founded by Albert and Ockar, two Bavarian
princes; 28 miles S. S.E. of Munich.

TEGESSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
ifland of Cyprus.

TEGEWSE, in Geography, a town of Africa, near
the lake of Marks, anciently c;dled Tichafa ; 38 miles
S.S.W. of Gafsa.

TEGHURI, a large river of Mingrelia, which rifcs be-
tween the Alani and Soanni hills, and diferobogues into die
Phafis, 10 verfts above the Schariftkali.

TEGIANUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy,
in Campania, according to Gluvier ; though others affign it
to Lucania, and call it Tegenum

TEGIUM, a town of Afia Minor, in the Troade.

TEGLA, in Geography. See TtGGALA.

TEGLIO, a town of Italy, in the Valtehne, fituated
upon the top of a mountain, is a long ftraggling place, con-
taining about 300 houfes, about 9 miles from Tirano, and
12 from Sondrio. Cloie to the town arc the ruins of a
fortrefs, ftanding upon an infulated rock, and formerly
efteemed of great ftrength. This elevated fpot com-
mands a rich and extenfive profpeft from Tirano to the
lower part of the valley, beyond Sondrio, as far as Mor-
begno. The government of Teglio is faid to contain the
12th part of the Valteline ; it is the moft populous diftrift,
and contains about 8000 fouls. In a good feafon, it pro-
duces much more corn than is fufKcient for the confumption
of the inhabitants, and rivals Sondrio and Tirano in the
goodnefs of its wine.

TEGNA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Gaul, on the
banks of the Rhone, not far from Valentia, to the north ;
the modern Tein.

TEGOM A, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the country
of Afoudan ; 50 miles S. of Agades. N. lat. 19° 10'.
E. long. 12° 20',

TEGO-

TEH

T E 1

TEGORARIN, a town of Africa, in BiWulgerid ; 70
miles N.N.W. of Gardeiah.

TEGUCO, a town of New Mexico, in the province of
Culincan ; 40 miles N. of Culiacan.

TEGUIXIN, in Zoology, a fpecies of li%ard ; which
fee.

TEGULA., in jlncitnt Geography, a town of Sardinia, on
the route from Sulci to Nora. Anton. Itin.

TEGULET, in Geography, a town of Abyflinia ; 180
miles S. of Gondar. N. lat. 9° 54'. E. long. 38° 35'.

TEGUMENT. See Integument,

TEGYRA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece, in
Bcetica.

TEHAE', in Geography, a town of Curdillan ; 30 miles
E. of Amadieh.

TEHAMA, a fandy belt which encompafles the penin-
fulaof Arabia, beginning at Suez, and terminating at the
mouth of the Euphrates. It is of various breadth ; for the
mod part about two days' journey from the fea-fhore to the
rife of the hills ; or at leaft this is the breadth of the plain
adjacent to the Red fea. It bears every mark of having
been anciently a part of the bed of the fea. Its bottom foil
is agre'yifh clay, with a large proportion of fand, and having
marine exuvix interfperfed to a great diftance from the fea-
ihore. It contains large ftrata of fait, which in fome places
rife up to hills. Its regular inclination towards the fea indi-
cates that it has emerged gradually. The fmall eminences
on the confines of this plain are compofed of calcareous
itones, with a blackifh appearance, as if they had been burnt
by the fun. The adjoining hills contain fchiftus and bafaltes.
The fea, it is thought, ftill continues to recede, and the
Tehama on that fide is gradually extending its limits. Hif-
tory confirms thefe appearances of the gradual receffion of
the waters ; and mentions, as fea-ports, feveral places which
are at prefent inland, without noticing the prcfent maritime
towns, which muft have been of later origin than the
formation of the land on which they ftand. Thefe newly-
formed lands, however, are barren and unfruitful.

TEHRAUN, one of the five large diftrifts of the pro-
vince of Irak, in the Perfian empire : the other four being
Ifpahan, Naen, MuUayer, and Kermanfhaw. Tehraun is alfo
the name of the prefent capital of Perfia, which is rendered in-
terefting by the furrounding fcenery. To the S. are the exten-
five ruins of the grand and once proud city of Rae ; to the E.
the mountains of Elburz( famed in the Perfian traditions as the
abode of dsemons) ; to the N. the fnow-clad fummit of the
lofty Dumavend ; and to the W. a plain enriched with cul-
tivation and villages, and forming a delightful contraft with
the rugged and ftupendous rocks which (kirt it on the N.
and S. Tehraun is about four miles in circumference, fur-
rounded by a ftrong wall, flanked by innumerable towers,
and a noble dry ditch, with a glacis between it and the wall.
The only building of confequence within the city is the
citadel, which contains the palace of the fovereign and his
officers. It was founded by Kurim Khan, enlarged by the
late king, and beautified by the prefent fovereign. The forti-
fications can be conlidercd as formidable only in a country
where the military art is unknown. The population is va-
riable, being in fummer about 10,000, and in winter not
lefs than 60,000 people. The environs of Tehraun are not
unpleafant ; the plain, to the E. and W., being covered
with villages, and abounding in grain. On the N. fide the
king has completed a palace, which, from its fituation, and
the fine gardens that furround it, is a moft delightful refi-
de!\ce. There are many reafons which have probably in-
duced the late king to fix upotj Tehraun as the capital of his
dominions. Its centrical fituation, and the eafy defence

Vol. XXXV.

which it affords to the Perfian empire ; the fertiKty and pro-
dudivenefs of the furroundijig country ; the number of
wandering tribes tluit have fettled round it, and th.at may be
eafily and foon affembled ; and above all, perhaps, its pro-
pinquity to Ailrabad, the native city of Aga Mahomed
Khan, and alfo to Mazandemn and Daluftan, countries pof-
fclfcd by the Kajer tribe, of which ho was the chief, and
on whofe power and affeftion to his pcrfon his authority wa$
in a great meafure founded ;— all thefe confiderations might
have induced him to make this city the capital of the em-
pire. N. lat. 35° 40'. E. long. 50° 52'.

TEHROOT, o.r ZKiiEftooT, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Kerman, furrounded by numerous gardens ; 8
miles N.W. by W. from Subzillan, and about 52 miles
from the ruins of Bumm.

TEHUACAN, or Teguacan, a pleafant town of New
Spain, between Oaxaca and Orizava. It is fituated in a delight-
ful vale, near a river of the fame name, called alfo Rio Grande,
of a nitrous quality, and fo petrifying a nature, that the
Ihorcs referable ruinous walls. It has four churches ; and
the ftreets, fquares, and houfes are neat and modern. The
chief market is that of wheat, which is excellent, and the
pomegranates are highly efteemed. Befides numerous fami-
lies of Spaniards and Mulattoes, here are about 2080 In-
dians. In the vicinity of this town are two wheat-harvefts,
one in May, the other in September.

TEHUELS, a large lake of South America, towards
the S. of Chili.

TEHUKHA, a town of Thibet; 4 miles S. oT
Jhanfu Jeung.

TEICHOPCEUS, Tii^oTOiof, among the Athenians, an
officer who had the care of the city walls ; their number wa«
the fame with that of the tribes, every tribe having the
choice of one.

TEIGN, in Geography, dLTivtroi England, in the county
of Devon, which runs into the Englilh Channel at T*ign-
month.

TEIGNMOUTH, a market-town in the hundred of
Exminfter, and county of Devon, England, is fituated, at
its name imports, at the mouth of the river Teign, and if
flieltcred on the eaft and north-eaft by a chain of hills, near
the foot of which it ftands. It is diftant from Exeter i z
miles S. by E., and from London 187 W.S.W. A fmall
rivulet divides the town into two parts or parifhes, called
Weft and Eaft Teignmouth. The town is recorded to have
bee« burnt in the tenth century by the Danes, who, having
landed here, and defeated the king's lieutenant, ravaged the
country to a confiderable extent. It was alfo nearly eon-
fumed in the reign of queen Anne, when the French landed
and fet fire to it : one of the new ftreets, erefted with the
money procured by a brief for the diftreffed inhabitants,
was named French-ftreet, as a memorial of the calamity.
Siiice that period the tow]-, has become of much greater im-
portance, and is now one of the moft falhionable watering-
places in the wcftern part of England. The principal re-
fort of company is Eaft Teignmouth, where the public
rooms and theatre are fituated : the former, a neat building,
contains tea, coffee, aflcmhly, and billiard-rooms ; the theatre
has been recently built on a fpot of ground given by lord
Courtenay, and was firft opened in the fummer of 1802. A
walk or promenade leads from the public rooms towards the
fouth, over an cxtrnfivc flat called the Dan, on which is a
fmall fort creftrd for the defence of the town. The viaw
hence, up the river, is extremely beautifid ; the rrourd
gradually rifing on each fide into vcrdar.t hiilf, well culti-
vated, and adorned with woods. The cli.Ts overhangi.'ig the
fea have a fingular appearance, being, with the exception of
D d a few

T E I

a fevr broad patches of verdure, of a deep red cplour, and
mount in rude irregular fhapes to the height of feventy or
eiehty feet. Nc-ar the centre of Weft 1 e.gnmouth is the
church, a very ancient ttune fabric, buih in the form of a
crofs : the roof is fupported in a fingular manner by the
ramifications of a wooden pillar, that was formed from the
trunk of a fmgle tree. Eaft Teignmouth church is a vene-
rable pile near the beach, and, from the appearance ot
its architeaure, was probably one of the earheft ftrudures
crefted after the coming of tlie Normans. The trade ot
Teignmouth confills chiefly of commercial intercourfe
with Newfoundland ; the exportation of clay, and the
importation of co:d ; and is carried on principally ui craft
built at the place, where are conveniences for launching vei-
fels of a hundred tons. The clay exported is brought from
Bovcy, for tiie moft part by a canal ; and dug on the eftate
of James Templar, efq., who, with true patriotifm, is em-
ployed indefatigably in promoting the folid interefts of his
country, by improving agriculture, and encouraging manu-
faftures. Weft; Teignmouth had anciently a chartered mar-
ket, held on Sundays ; but this was difcontinued by order
of the (heriff in the reign of Henry III. The market
is now held on Saturdays. Salmon, trout, whiting, mac-
karel, and various other kinds of filh, are taken here ; and
by fome excellent local regulations, the inhabitants have the
privilege of fupplying themfelves before any can be fold to
the dealers. The lord of the manor holds a court -baron,
or court -leet, in the town once every year : at which court a
jury is nominated, two confl;ables deputed and fworn, and a
portreve chofen, who is inverted with confiderable authority.
In the population return of the year 1811, Weft Teign-
mouth was ftated to contain 441 houfes ; Eaft: Teignmouth,
188; the inhabitants of the former being 2080; of the
latter 813 : making an aggregate of 2893 perfons, occupy-
ing 629 houfes.

Nearly oppofite Teignmouth, and almoft under the pro-
montory called the Nefs, is the hamlet of Shaldon, the pro-
perty of lord Clifford, which has lately become a favourite
fummer refidence for many families who vifit the watering
places on this coaft. The chapel, erefted about the year

1670, ftands in a beautiful fituation, a little above the
Teign, about three quarters of a mile from the hamlet, and
is approached by a level walk (haded with luxuriant trees. —

Beauties of England and Wales, vol. iv. Devonfliire. By
J. Britton and E. W. Brayley, 1803. Warner's Walk
through the Weftern Counties, 1 800.

TEIJEUT, a town of Morocco ; 15 miles S.E. of Mo-

godor.

TEIL, a river of France, which runs into the Atlantic,

N. lat. 47= 39'. W. long. 3° 8'.

Teil, Le, a town of France, in the department of the

Ardeche, on the Rhone ; 1 2 miles S. of Privas. — Alfo, a

town of France, in the department of the Ille and Vilaine ;

15 miles S.E. of Rennes.

TEILLEUL, Le, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Channel ; 6 miles S. of Mortain.

TEIN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Pilfen ;

6 miles N.E. of Tachau.

Tein, or Teyn, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of

Bechin ; 4 miles S. of Bechin.

TEINITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Pilfen ;

26 miles S.W. of Pilfen. N. lat. 49° 30'. -E. long. 12''

^7'. — Alfo, a tovrn of Moravia, in the circle of Brunn ; 27

miles S.S.E. of Brunn.

Teinitz Jungfern, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of

Schlan ; 8 milts W. of Sc'ilan.

TEINTS, and Semi-Teints, in Painting, denote the fe-
1

T E I

veral colours ufed in a pifture, confidered as more or lefs
high, or bright, or deep, or thin, or weakened, and dimi-
nilhcd, &c. to give the proper relievo, or foftnefs, or dif-
tance, to the feveral objefts. See Colouring.

The word is pure French, where it fignifies the fame.

TEIRCE, or Teirs. See TlEKCE.

TEISBACH, in Geography, a town of Bavaria, on the
Ifer ; i mile W. of Dingelfingen.

TEISENDOPvF, a town of the archbifhopric of Salz-
burg ; 1 2 miles W.N. W. of Salzburg.

TEISKO, a town of Sweden, in Tavaftland ; 45 miles
N.N.W. of Tavafthus.

TEISSIER, Anthony, in Biography, a voluminous
French writer, was born at Montpellier in the year 1632.
Having ftudied Greek and philofophy at Orange, and being
deftined for the miniftry among the Calvinifts, he applied
to Hebrew and theology at Nifmes ; and after fpending
fome time in the academy at Montauban, he removed to that
of Saumur. From thence he went to Paris, where lie cul-
tivated an acquaintance with feveral learned men ; but
giving up his defigns for the miniftry, on account of a dif-
order under which he laboured, he turned his thoughts to
jurifprudence, and took the degree of LL.D. at Bruges.
In 1683 he married ; but upon the revocation of the edift of
Nantes, he was obliged to quit France. He then retired
with his wife to Switzerland, and was recommended by
Turretin and Heidegger to the family of Efcher, a burgo-
mafter of Zurich. Declining to accept advantageous offers
if he returned to France, he engaged with the fenators of
Berne for two years in condufting a French gazette in tliat
city. In 1 69 1 he quitted Berne aijd went to Zurich ; and
from thence he proceeded to Brandenburgh, where refugees
enjoyed common privileges with thofe of the natives of the
country. At Berlin, the eledlor appointed him hiftoriogra-
pher, with an annual penfion of 300 crowns, which was fuc-
ceflively augmented. He was alfo honoured with the title
of counfellor of legation, and ordered by the elettor to tranf-
late into French the life of his father, Frederic WilHam,
written in Latin by Puffendorf. For this fervice he was
liberally rewarded, though his tranflation was never printed.
He was afterwards employed in compofing many works for
the inftruflion of the prince royal ; and though his confti-
tution was delicate, he enjoyed good health till his death,
which happened in 1715, in the eighty -fourth year of his
age. It would exceed our limits to enumerate all his works ;
an ample account of them may be found in the General
Biography.

TEI-TCHANG, in Geography, a town of Corea ; 13
miles N.N.E. of Haimen.

TEITEI, in Ornithology, the name of a Brafilian bird, a
fpecies of tanagra, in the Linnxan fyftera, called alfo gui-
ranheemegeta, and guraundi.

It is of the fize of our red-breaft, and beautifully co-
loured.

It fings very fweetly, and is kept in cages, five or fix to-
gether in the fame cage. Marcgrave's Hift. of Brafil.

TEITH, in Geography, a river of Scotland, formed by
ftreams from feveral lakes, in the county of Perth, which
runs into the Forth, two miles above Stirhng.

TEJUCO, the capital of the Diamond diftria in Brafil,
fituated in a ravine at the foot of a mountain. Tejuco is
feparated by the fmall rivulet of St. Francifco from the op-
pofite mountains. The greateft of the diamond works, called
Mandanga, is fituated on the river Izgitanhanha, and employs
about 1000 negroes, fometimes double this number. This
rich river, formed by the junaion of feveral ftreams, is as
wide as the Thames at Windfor, and in general from three

to

T E 1

T E L

to nine feet deep. The part now working is a curve or elbow,
from which the current is divvrtcd into a canal cut acrofs
the tongue of land round wliich it winds ; the river being
flopped below the licad of the canal by an embankment
formed of feverat thoufand bags of fand. The deeper parts
of the channel of tlie river are laid dry by large caiflbns, or
chain-pumps, worked by a water-wheel. The mud is then
carried off, and the cafcalhao is dug up and removed to a con-
venient place for wafhing by machinery adapted to tliis pur-
pofe. The contrivance for obtaining th- diamonds from tlie
cafcaliiao is particularly defcribed by Mr. Mawe, ubi infra.
Tejuco is fituated in a fterile diftrift, which produces no-
thing for the maintenance of its inhabitants, whofe number
IS about 6000 ; and therefore depends for a fupply of provi-
fions, on farms fituated at the diftance of feveral leagues.
Neverthelefs, Tejuco may be called flourifliing, on account
of the circulation of property created by the diamond-works
in its vicinity. The annual fum paid by government for the
hire of negroes, falaries of officerB, and various neceffaries,
■fuch as nitre and iron, does not amount to lefs than 35,000/.
and this, added to the demands of the inhabitants of the
town and its neighbourhood, occafions a confiderable trade.
The (hops are Itocked with Englifh cottons, baizes, and
cloths, and other manufaftured goods ; alfo hams, cheefe,
butter, porter, and other articles of confumption, which
are brought on mules from Bahia and Rio de Janeiro. Te-
juco, from its fituation on the fide of a hill, is very irregu-
larly built ; its ftreets are uneven, but the houfes in general
are well conftrudled, and in good condition, compared
with thofe of other towns in the interior. Its name, fig-
nifying in the Portuguefe language a muddy place, is de-
rived from places of that defcription near it, which are ren-
dered pafTable by being covered with large pieces of wood.
The diamonds are locked in the treafury under three locks ;
and thofe found in tlie diftrift are depofited every month, as
they are received from the works ; they are carefully weighed,
and fome of them felefted and kept feparate. The average
quantity obtained may be eftimated at from 20,000 to 25,000
carats annually, which are fent under a military cfcort to
Rio, and there lodged in the treafury. The diamonds are
tied up in black filk bags, and depofited in elegant inner ca-
binets, all which are locked up in ftrong chefts, bound with
iron. Tejuco affords fome good barley, but grafs for cattle
is fcarce and dear. Moll parts of the country abound in
oranges, pines, peaches, guavas, and a great variety of in-
digenous fruits : ginger and pepper grow fpontaneoufly,
and many fpices might probably be cultivated with fuccefs.
Mawe's Travels in the Interior of Brazil, 1812.

TEJUGUACU, in Zoology, the name of a fpecies of
lizard, common in the Brazils, and called alfo temapara.

It much refembles the iguana in its general figure, but
differs from it in that its whole body is black, only variegated
with fome white fpots. It lives principally on tlie fucking
of eggs, but it is capable of bearing hunger a long time ;
Marcgrave having kept one alive feven months without eat-
ing. This fpecies afforded alfo a certain tellimony to that
author of the reprodudlion of the tail when cut off. Ray.

TEIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of ACa Minor,
fituated on the Euxine fea, on the frontiers of Paphlago-
nia, near the fmall river BiUis, 370 ftadia from the town of
Heraclea. It was a Greek Ionian colony, which derived its
name and its origin from Ths, a Milefian prieil, according to
Arrian and Mela. The wcrfhip of Jupiter named Patarus
was praftifcd in this town, according to Demofthenes. On
the E. the territory of this town was bounded by the river
Parthenius. The town was much augmented when the em-
pire of the Perfians was deftroyed.

TEIUNHANA,inZ/3fl%^, thenameofafmall American
lizard. It is about tlie thickncfs of one's little fir.ger, and ha»
a (harp nofe. Its tail is very (lender, fix fingers breadtli long,
and terminates in a point almoft as fharp as a needle. It*
head is covered with fcales ; and its back, fides, and legs,
with a tender flvin, as foft as fatin to the touch ; and its tail
is covered with extremely minute fcales, of a fqoare figure
Ray.

TEKAT, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
Natolia ; 10 miles N. of Kiangari.

TEKEBI, a town of Egypt; 22 miles W.S.W. of
Damietta,

TEKEH, a town of Turkilh Armenia ; 40 miles S.E.
of Trebifond.

TEKEREE, a town of Hindooftan, in Candeifli ; 14
miles E. of Barrawnay.

TEKIN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania ;
100 miles W. of Tocat.

TE-KING, a city of China, of tlie fecond rank, in
Quang-tong, near the river Si ; 1064 ™'" S.S.W. of

Peking. N. lat. 23° 12'. E. long. 111° Alfo, a city of

China, of the fecond rank, in Quang-tong ; 1065 miles S. of
Peking. N. lat. 23° 12'. E. long. 1 10° 50'.

TEKKIUR DAG, a mountain of European Turkey,
in Romania; 32 miles S.S.E. of Adrianople.

TEKLA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Chrudim ;
6 miles S.W. of Leutmifchl.

TEKMABAD, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Scgeilan ; 70 miles E.N.E. of Boll.

TEKOA, a village, and anciently a city of Paleftinc,
built by Rehoboam, king of Judah, and confiderable ruins
appear of its ancient grandeur. It was the native place of
the prophet Amos ; 9 miles S. of Bethlehem.

TEKOLY, a town of Hindooflan, in Bahar ; 53 mile*
S.S.W. of Patna.

TEKUPH^, or Thekupii.t., in the Je-wijh Chronology,
are the times in which the fun proceeds from one cardinal
point to the next.

The fame term is alfo apphed to the moment in which the
fun enters a cardinal point : thefe four terms, or tckuphat,
into which the Jews divided their folar year, are obfervcd
among the Jews with a great deal of ceremony ; the rcafon,
as we ai-c informed by Munfler, is this :

That people have a notion, that in each tekupha the fun
has a feparate angel appointed to guard and direct it ; and
that in the very point where the fun finifhcs one tekupha, and
enters upon another, before the one direftor has taken
place of the other, the devils have a power to exercife all
kinds of tyranny in the water.

And hence, they fancy, that if any body drinks the
fmalleft quantity of water at that time, he will infallibly
have a dropfy, or fome other grievous dillemper.

The tekupha of Tifri correfponded to the autumnal equi-
nox, that of Tebeth to the winter folilice, that of Nifan
to tlie vernal equinox, and that of Tamuz to the fummer
folilice

TEKY Sound, in Geography, a road on the coaft of
Georgia, fouth of the Savannah river, where a large fleet
may anchor in ten or fourteen fathoms, and have lafe en-
trance over the bar of the river ; the flood tide generally
feven feet.

TEL Aremas, a town of Afiatic Turkey, on the Eu-
phrates ; 5 miles W.N.Wof Diarbekir.

Tel Gi%ir, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province
of Diarbekir ; 16 miles W. of Merdin.

Tel K'laran, a town of Afiatic Turkey ; 30 miles S.S.W.
of Diarbekir.

D d 2 Tel

T E L

Tel Miifcl, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the govern-
ment o{ Diarbekir ; 33 miles N.W. of Mo*ul.

Tel tlJuduh, a town of Egvpt, where the Jews had for-
merly a temple, deftroyed by Vefpafian ; 17 miles N.L. ot

CtATO. r o • \

TELA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spam, on the
route from A'fturica to Saragoita, between Intercatia and
Pintia. Anton. Itin.

Tela, or ConJIantia, a place of Afia, m Mefopotamia,
near the mountains, about N. lat. 37° 25'.

Tela Cellulofa, in Anatomy, the Cellular Subjiance ;
which fee. It is fometimes alfo called tela mucofa.

TELACH, in Geography, an ifland of RulTin, in the
Penzinrtvoi fea. N. lat. 61^ 35'. E. long. 159° 14'.

TELAMON, in Ancient Geography, a promontory of
Italy, in Etruria, at the foot of which was a port, between
the rivers Almina and Alma. (Anton. Itin.) Pliny calls
this port Telamon.

TELAMONE, in Geography, a town of the Stato del
Prefidii, on the coaft ; 10 miles N. of Orbitello. N. lat.
42° 38'. E. long. 11° 6'.

TELAMONES, a name given by the Romans to what
the Greeks called At/antes ; -viz. the figures of men fup-
porting entablatures, and other projeftures. See Atlas.
The woi-d, according to fome, is derived from the Greek
TiXxfiut, from TEXau, or -r'Ao-u;, I bear.

AmoBg the Greeks they were called atlantes, otTXavxi;,
which comes from the fame word, Ta^«w, or tA«i', by the
figure metathefis.

Telamones is alfo ufed by furgical writers fometimes
for lint, and fometimes for the fillets or bandages which
they apply over their dreflings.

TEL ANA, in AncunS Ge-ography, a very ancient town
of Afia, in Affyria. Steph. Byz. fays that the king made
it the place of his refidence before Nineveh was built.

TELANADING Islands, in Geography, three fmall
idands lying eaft and weft, near the N.W. coaft of the ijland
of Gilolo. N. lat. 2° 18'. E. long. 127° 30'.

TELANDRIA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland on the
coaft of Lycia, in Afia Minor. Pliny.

TELANDRUS, a town of Afia Minor, in Lycia.
Pliny.

TELAPSAR, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Tur-
key, in the province of Diarbekir ; 20 miles W. of
Mtoful.

TELARUSE, a river of Afia, which forms the north
boundary of the kingdom of Queda, feparating it from
Lower Siam, and runs into the Eaft Indian fea, N. lat.
6° 55'. E. long. 99° 42'.

TELAUGIA, in Natural Hifiory, the name of a genus
of fcrupi, of a glittering appearance, ufually containing
flakes of talc, and emulatine the ftrufture of the granites.
Hill.

Of this genus we have twelve fpeciet.
TELCHINE3, in Ancient Geography, a people who de-
rived their origin from the ifle of Crete. They eftablifhed
themfelves in Cyprus, and in Rhodes, where it is faid they in-
vented the ufe of iron and brafs.

TELCOOTE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Orifla ; 20 miles S.E. of Jaypour.

TELDOM HoTUN, a town of Chinefe Tartary, on the
weft fide of the river Saghalien ; 745 miles N.E. of Peking.
N. lat. 49° 56'. E. long. 127'=' 33'.

TELE, TtAx, among the Athenians, thofe revenues that
were brought in by lands, mines, woods, and other public
pofleflions, fet apart for the ufe of the commonwealth ; as

TEL

alfo tributes paid by fojourners and freed-fer^-ants, and ti""
cuftoms laid upon cettain trades and goods.

TELEBA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Albania, be-
tween the mouth of Soana and that of Garrus. Ptol.

TELEBOAS, a river of Afia, in the environs of the
fources of the Tigris ; furrounded, as Xenophon fays, by a
great number of villages.

TELEGRAPH, a machine adapted for communicating
intelligence at a confiderable diftance, by making various
fignals, which have been previoufly agreed upon between twc
parties, to reprefent letters, words, or ideas. The means of
making fignals that are ufed in naval and military oper-
ations, :u-e not called telegraphs, although they effeft in a
great degree the fame objeft. See Signal.

The word telegraph, which is derived from two Greek
words, tuXf, at a diftance, andy^o^f, to lurite, was brought into
ufe about 1 793 or 1 794, when the French direftory eftablilhed
machines of this kind for communicating intelligence betweeFi
Paris and all the principal towns in France. The Britifin
government foon after adopted the fame meafure, and it has '
fince become very general.

No machine for making fignals can with propriety be
called a telegraph, unlefs it is adapted to exprefs a fufficient
number of Tetters or words to form a complete language,
and which can therefore be made to communicate any inform-
ation which can be exprefTed by oral or written language,
Lefs perfeA fyftems of fignals, which extend only fo far as
to communicate intelligence of events which have been
forefeen, and the appropriate fignals previoufly arranged,
are ftill called fignal flags, fignal lanthorns, fignal guns, or
fires, &c.

When people wifh to tranfmit intelligence to others at a
diftance, in a quicker manner than by Tetters fent by mef-
fengers or carrier-pigeons, it can be done only by fignals,
Thefe may be employed in three diff^erent ways : either by
fingle fignals, which, according to previous agreement, con-
vey whole ideas ; or by feveral fuccefiive fignals, which, by
reprefenting letters and words, anfwer the fame purpofe ; or
otherwife, by employing fignals which exprefs numbers, each
perfon being provided with a diftionary in which every
word has a number affixed to it.

The firft kind of fignals were employed in the earlieft
periods, and fome of them were fuited to the ear as well as to
the eye. For the making of vifible fignals, the ancients employ-
ed fire and fmoke, torches, flags, &c. ; and in modern times,
flcy-rockets have been ufed. For the audible fignals, they
employed drums and trumpets ; and fince the invention of
gunpowder, the firing of cannon has been applied to the
bke ufe. But all thefe methods are incapable of expreffing-
what could be communicated by fpeech and writing ; and
the means of exprelfing all the poffible variations and com-
binations of the letters of the alphabet, form, in a proper
fcnfe, the true telegraphic art. Even the fignals commonly
ufed at fea, as they extend only to particular circumftances,
are, when compared to fignals by letters, only a kind of
hieroglyphics.

Thepropofed objeft of the telegraphic art is, therefore, to
obtain a figurative language, the charafters of whicli may be
diltinguifhed at a diftance. On the firft refieftion, we find that
the prafticable modes of fuch diftant communications muft be
confined to found and vifion ; each of which is in a great degree
fubjeft to the ftate of the atmofphere ; for independent of the
wind's direftion, it is known that the air is fometimes fo far
deprived of its elafticity, or fome other quality that in-
fluences the conveyance of founds, that the heaviefl ordnance
can fcarcely be heard farther than the fhot flies. It is alfo
well known, that in thick hazy weather, the largeft and

moft

TELEGRAPH.

moft defined objafts become totaUy obfcured at a (hort
diilance. No inib-ument, therefore, defigned for the purpofe
can be perfeft. We can only endeavour to diminith thefe
irremediable defefts as much as may be.

The moft barbarous nations employed fignals, which
could quickly inform them of the approach of enemies, as
appears by the teftimony of feveral ancient authors ; and
there is reafon to believe that fome fort of telegraphic com-
munication was in ufe among the Greeks. The deftruc-
tion of Troy was certainly known in Greece very foon after
it took place, and before any perfon could have returned
from it. A Greek play begins with a fcene, in which a
watchman defcends from the top of a tower in Greece, and
gives information that Troy is taken. " I have been look-
ing out thefe ten years (fays he) to fee when that would
happen, and this night it has been done."

In addition to the Stenterophonic tube which was known
and ufed by Alexander the Great, the Romans had a method,
in their walled cities, either of forming a hollow in the
mafonry, or of applying tubes to the walls, fo as to confine
or augment found, and convey information to any part of
their works. In lofty hoafes and warehoufes, it is now a
common cuftom to have a pipe, by way of fpeaking trumpet,
to give orders from the upper apartments to the lower. Bv
tliis mode of confining its volume, found may be carried to a
very confiderable diftance ; but beyond a certain extent the
found will lofe all articulation, and only convey alarm, with-
out giving direflions.

Every city of the ancients had its watch-towers ; and the
caftra ftativa of the Romans had always fome fpot, elevated
either by nature or art, from whence fignals were given to
the troops cantoned or foraging in the neighbourhood : but
it appears that they had not arrived to any greater refine-
ments in the telegiaphic art, than that on feeing a certain
fignal they were immediately to repair to their appointed
rtations. Flags or enfigns, with their various devices, .ire of
the earlieft invention, efpecially at fea, where, from the firft
idea, which was raoft probably that of a vane, to fliew the
direction of the wind, they have been long adopted as the
diftinguifliing marks of nations, and are now fo perfefted into
a fyftem of fignals, that evexy requifite order and queftion is
received and anfwered by the moft diftant (hips of a fleet.

The mode of fignalling in ufc about half a century ago
was very imperfeft. It was a good deal amended and fim-
plified by that lamented officer admiral Kempenfelt ; and
his fyftem, as it was called, continued in ufe till within thefe
twenty-five years. It was fuperfeded in the navy by fir
Home Popham's, who firft brought into praftical utility a
plan originally, it is believed, fuggefted . by Mr. Richard
Gower, of the Eaft India Company's fervice, in his " Prac-
tical Seamanfhip," pubhfhed in 1794. This was the fubfti-
tution of ten or twelve numbered flags, for a great number
of flags. It is furprifing that this eafy fcheme fhould not
fooner have been difcovered and adopted. Inftead ot the
immenfe " colour cheft" that we and our naval cotempora-
ries can recolleft, and the difficulty of finding and hoifting
the variety of flags required, it is pleafing to witnefs the
facility with which communications can be now made, by
means almofl; as eafy of application as the pen.

The fyjl em now in ufe, originating, as we have ftated, with
an officer of the Eaft India Company's fervice, has recently
been greatly improved by another of thefe officers. It is not
eafy to deicribe the nature of thofe improvements ; nor
proper, perhaps, were it otherwife ; for the direftors of the
Eaft India Company have deemed it expedient to keep them
fecret. The author of them is captain Thomas Lynn. His
work was printed in 1 8 14, at the Company's ex'pence, in a

confiderable quarto volume, under the title of •' Lynn's
Improved Syftcm of Telegraphic Communication." It is
adopted throughout the extenfive fervice of the Eaft India
Company ; and we are glad to fee it noticed in the preface
to the volume, that the highly refpcflable court of dircftorc
moft hbcrally patronized the work and its author. Wc do
not find, notwithftanding the manifeft advantage of the
" Improved Syftem," that it has yet been introduced into
the royal navy ; although every officer in tliat as well as the
Eaft India C jmpany's fervice, who have had opportunities of
ti-ying it, are loud in its praifc. It adapts itfelf to every
detcription of telegraphic machinery now in ufc ; or, as fur
as we can fee, that can be ufed : it requires fewer flags tlian
were heretofore neccfl^ary ; and its powers are vaftly greater
than the other codes or fyftems. This paragraph, and
perhaps this whole page of our dictionary, can be thus com-
municated, word for word, or phrafe by phrafe, without dil-
ficulty, and with a rapidity unattainable by any fcheme
hitlierto publifhed. The numbers, and powers, and meaning
of the fignals, may be changed at plcafure : fo that if the
work, fall into improper hands, it merely communicates the
principle on which the fyftem is founded.

In applying tliis or a fimilar mode of communicating in-
teUigence in land fervice, feveral objeftions prefent ihem-
felves : the variety of communications neceffary to be made
is fo much greater, that the combination would become too
comphcated ; and if the perfon for whom the information is
intended, ftiould be in the direftion of the wind, the flag
would then prefent a ftraight line only, and at a little diftance
would be fcarcely vifible. The Romans were fo well aware
of this inconvenience of flags, that many of their ftandards
were folid, and the name manipulus denotes the rudeft of
their enfigns, which was a trufs of hay fixed on a pole.

A beacon or bonfire, made of the firft inflammable ma-
terials that offeredj being the moft obvious, is perhaps the
moft ancient mode of general alarm. By being previoufly
concerted, the number of points where the fires appeared
may have paiticular intelligence affixed. The fame ob-
fervations may be referred to the more modern plan of tlirow-
ing up rockets, whofe number, or the places from whence
they are thrown, may have affixed fignifications. Many
of our hills ftill retain the name of beacon hills, from the
fignals which ufed to be made upon them, by means
of fire and fmoke, which were the chief things employed
during the dark ages, and in the times of the feudal fyftem.
The fire was ufed by night, and the fmoke by day. Within a
few years, fignals made by thefe means were very common
amongft the fmugglers on our coaft.

The machine of .£neas, who wrote a trcatifc on the duties
of a general in the time of Ariftotle, is defcribed by Polybius
to have confifted of two earthen veffels, made cxaAly fimilar
in all their dimenfions : they were to be filled with water, and
each was to have a cock or fpout, which could be opened or
ftut at pleafure, and would, when open, difcharge an equal
quantity of water from both veflels, fo that each of thcveifels
would take precifely the fame period of time to difcharge the
whole, or any given proportion, of its contents. A float of
cork was to be provided for each veffel to reft upon the fur-
face of the water, andfupport a perpendicular ftem or index,
which could be divided, and have certain fentenccs written to
correfpond with each divifion. The apertures of the fpouts
of the two veffels were to be previoufly adjuftcd, and the
veffels filled with water to the fame height, fo that their
floats and indices would correfpond in pointing out the fame
fentences : then, if both cocks were opened at the fame in-
ftant, the water would run out from each vcffel, and the floats
of both would fubfide together, fo that when either index

flood

TELEGRAPH.

flood at a particular fentence, the other index would, at the
fame time, point out the fame fentence. Now this operation
could be equally well performed when the two veffels were
moved to any dillance afunder, provided the obfervers were
within fight of each other, to be able to make the requifite
fignals for opening and (hutting the cocks of both veffels at
the fame moment. The author thus defcribes the ufe of this
inftrument : The two veffels being prepared and adjulled, they
muff be carried to the two places where the fignals are to
made and obferved ; water is poured into each, and the floats
and indices are put into the veffels. When any of the events
which are written upon the indices (hall happen, a torch or
light is raifed, which muft be held aloft till fuch time as ano-
ther is raifed by the party to whom it is direfted. (This
firft Cgnal is only to give notice that both parties are ready
and attentive.) Then the torch or other light muil be
taken away, and the cocks fet open inllantly by both parties.
When the interval ordivifion on that part of the index where
the event, of wliich notice is to be given or written, (hall be
fallen to a level vpith the veffels, then the man who gives the
fignals lifts up his torch, and on the other fide, the corre-
fpondent fignal maker immediately fhuts the cock of his veffel,
and looks at what is written on that part of the (lick which
touches the mouth of the veffel ; on which occafion, if every
tiling has been executed exaftly and equally on both fides,
both parties will read the fame thing.

The proper telegraphic art was not wholly unknown to
the ancients. The Greeks and the Romans made ufe of pots
filled with lighted twigs and ftraw for fignals, over which
they poured oil ; and thefe being placed in certain rows, ex-
preffed certain letters, according to the order in which each
row was lighted.

Polybius defcribes a new method of communication, which
was invented by Cleoxenus, or by Democlitus, and vi'hich
Polybius himfelf very much improved. It poffeffes the prin-
cipal advantage of the modern telegraph, -via. that, by means
of fignals, it communicates the letters of the alphabet, and
can therefore be ufed to exprefs any thing which can be
required. It is only inferior to the telegraph in the
means of making the fignals, which is by the light of
torches, and rather complicated, fo that it would be te-
dious to tranfmit any thing more than fhort fentences.
Polybius defcribes this method, which he calls Pyrfia, in the
following manner : Take the letters of the Greek alphabet,
and divide them into five parts, each oi which will confift of
five letters, except the laft divilion, in which there will be only
four. Let thefe be fixed on aboard, in five columns. The man
who is to give the fignals is then to begin by holding up two
torches, which he is to keep aloft till the other party has alfo
fiiewn two : this is only to denote that both fides are ready :
thefe torches are then withdrawn. Both parties are pro-
vided with boards, on which the letters are difpofed as for-
merly defcribed. Then the perfon who gives the fignal is
to hold up torches on the left hand, to point out to the
Other party, from what column he (hall take the letters as they
are pointed out to him : thus, if the letter is to be from the
firft column, he holds up one torch ; if from the fecond, two ;
and fo on for the others. He is then to hold torches on the
right hand, to denote the particular letter of the column that
is to be taken. All this muft have been agreed on before-
hand. The man who gives the fignals muft have an inftru-
ment (JiQTT^o., perfpehive), confifting of two tubes, and fo
placed, that by looking thnVUgh one of them he can fee only
the right fide, and looking through the other, he can only fee
the left-hand fide of him who is to anfwer. The board muft
be fet up near this inftrument ; and the ftations on tlie right
and left muft each be furrounded with a wall ten feet broad,

and about the height of a man, that the torches raifed abote
it may give a clear and ftrbng light, and that when taken
down they may be completely concealed.

The ftegaiiographia trithemiana of a Benedidline monk, in
the fifteenth century, feems to have been fomething of the
fame kind ; but the firft recorded experiment, after the man-
ner of the Greeks, is defcribed by Kircher, in his " An
magna Lucis et Umbrae," under the title of Cryptogamia
catoplrlca ; it was however imperfeft, and could be em-
ployed only at a certain diftance. Schott, in his " Technics
curiofa," propofes, after an anonymous author, to ereft pofts
upon an eminence, fo as to be diftinguiflied through a tele-
fcope, and on which proper fignals could be elevated, as might
be neceffary.

The marquis of Worcefter, who is fojuftly celebrated for
having firft dilcovered that the force of fteam could be
applied to mechanical purpofes, brought telegraphic com-
munication to a confiderable degree of perfeftion, if at
leaft we give him credit for having really effefted every
thing which he mentions in his Century of Inventions.
This little tra& was pubhlhed in 1663, and contains the
following articles.

" No. 6. How at a window, as far as eye can difcover
black from white, a man may hold dii'courfe with his corre-
fpondent, without noife made, or notice taken, being accord-
ing to occafion given and means afforded, ex re natd, and no
need of provifion before-hand, though much better if forefeen,
and means prepared for it, and a premeditated courfe taken
by mutual confent of parties.

" No. 7. A way to do it by night, as wejl as by day,
though as dark as pitch is black."

The marquis gives us no idea of the means which he ufed
for exhibiting his fignals, by which we can judge of the prac-
ticability of his plan for communicating any detailed intel-
hgence.

Kefsler, in his Concealed Arts, advifes charafters to be cut
out in the bottom of a caflc, fo as to appear luminous when
a light is placed withinfide, and the charafters muft be
changed fucceffively to exprefs words and fentences.

Dr. Hookers Telegraph. — The firft idea of a telegraph upon
a fimilar conftruftion to thofe ufed at prefent, was fuggefted
by Dr. Hooke towards the end of the laft century, the
fiege of Vienna by the Turks having turned his attention to
the bufinefs. He gave the firft complete defcription of fuch
a machine, as appears by the following extraft, from a paper
of his, read before the Royal Society on the zift of May,
1684. " I propofed (fays he) fome years fince, a method
of difcourfing at a diftance, not by found but by fight : I
fay that it is poffible to convey intelligence from any one
high and eminent place, to any other that is in fight of it,
though thirty or forty miles dirtant, in as ftiort a time almoft
as a man can write what he would have fent ; and as fuddenly
to receive an anfwer, as he that receives it has a mind to re-
turn it, or can write it down on paper. Nay, by the help of
three, four, or more eminent places vifible to each other, lying
in a ftraight line, 'tis poffible to convey intelligence almoft in a
moment, to tvs'ice, or thrice, or more times that diftance, with
as great a certainty as by writing.

" For the performance of this, we muft be beholden to
a late invention, which we do not find any of the ancients
knew ; that is, the eye muft be aflifted with telefcopes, that
whatever charadljrs are expof^d at one ftation, may be made
plain and diftinguifhable at the other.

" Firft : For dij ftations, if they be far diftant, it will be
neceffary that they fliould be high, and lie expofed to the
flcy ; that there be no higher hill or part of the earth be-
yond them, that may hinder the diftinftnefs of the charac-
ters,

TELEGRAPH.

ters, which are to appear dark againft the (ky, beyond thfm
appearing white, by which means ;iiio the vapours near the
ground will be pafled over and avoided. Next, in clioofing
thefe ftations, care muft be taken, as near as may be, that
there be no hill that interpofes between them, that is almotl
high enough to touch the vifible ray, becaufe in fnch cafes
the refraftion of the air of that hill will be very apt to dif-
turb the clear appearance of the objctl. The (lations being
found convenient, the next thing to be confidered is, what
telefcopcs will be neceflary for each ftation. One of thefe
telefcopes muft be fixed at each extreme ftation, and two of
them in each ' intermediate ftation ; fo that a man for each
glafs, fitting and looking through them, may plainly dif-
cover what is done in the next adjoining ftation, and with
his pen write down on a paper the charafters there expofed,
in their due order ; fo that there ought to be two perfons at
each extreme ftation, and three at each intermediate one, that
intelligence may be conveyed backwards and forwards at the
fame time. Next there muft be certain times agreed on,
when the correfpondents are to expeft it ; or elfe there muft
be fet at the top of a pole, in the morning, the hour ap-
pointed by either of the correfpondents for afting that
day.

" Next there muft be convenient apparatus of charafters,
confifting of at leaft as many diftinft charafters as there are
secefTary letters in the alphabet, (to be made ufe of as is ex-
prefled in Plate Telegraph, fg. I.) And thefe muft be either
day charafters or night charafters. If they are to be made
ufe of in the day-time, they may all be made of deals, and
of a fize convenient for the feveral diftances, any one of
which charafters may fignify any one letter of the alphabet,
and the whole alphabet maybe varied io,ooo ways, fo that
none but the two extreme correfpondents fhall be able to dif-
cover the information conveyed. If the charafters are for
the night, then they may be made with links, or lights dif-
pofed in a certain order, which may be covered or un-
covered, according to the method agreed on. There will be
alfo requifite feveral other charafters, which may for expe-
dition exprefs a whole fentence, fuch as ' I am ready to
communicate ;' ' I am ready to obferve.' I could inftance
a hundred ways of facilitating the method of performing the
defign with the more dexterity and quickncfs, and with little
change, but that I think will, be needlefs at prefcnt, fince,
whenfoever fuch a way of correfpondence . ftiall be put in
praftice, thofe and many more than I can think of at pre-
fent will of themfelves occur, fo that I do not in tlie leaft
doubt but that with a little praftice dl things may be made
fo convenient, that the fame charafter may be feen at Paris,
within a minute after it hath been expofed in London ; and
that the charafters may be expofed fo quick after one ano-
ther, that a compofer ftiall not much exceed the expofer in
fwiftnefs, and this not only at the diftance of one ftation,
but of an hundred ; for fuppofing all things ready at all of
thofe feveral ftations for obferving and expofing as fail as the
fecond obferver doth read the charafters of the firft expofer,
the fecond expofer will difplay them to the obferver of the
third ftation, whofe expofer will likewife difplay them for
the fourth obferver, as faft as his obferver doth name them
to him or write them down. There may be many objeftions
brought againft this way of communication, becaufe it has
not yet been put in praftice, but hardly any that may not be
eafily anfwered and obviated."

Dr. Hooke illuftrates his invention thus : Let ABC
(^jig. 2.) reprefent three very long mafts or poles erefted, E
the top piece that joins them together, D a fcrecn, behind
which all the deal-board charafters hang upon certain rods
or line8, and may, by the help of fniall lines connefted with

each of them, be expofed at 1"', or drawn back at D, at
occafion may require.

This propofal of our ingenious countryman it very com-
plete and well ftndied ; it would be Icfs convenient and expe-
ditious than the modern telegraphs, but would certamly have
anfwered very ufifiil purpolee, with the advantage of being
very free from the uncertainties and errors of more complete
machines, which, at the fame time that they admit of mak-
ing a greater variety of figns than the letters of the alphabet,
are for the fame reafon more liable to miftakes in exhibiting
as well as in reading or tranflating them. The only obvious
improvement on Dr. Hooke's telegraph is, that, inilcad of
concealing the charafters behind the fcreen D, they (hould
be kept down below in the houfe on which the machine
is to be erefted, and be hoifted up into tlie frame when they
are to be exhibited.

M. Amontons, an ingenious French academician who ftu.
died mechanics, was born at Paris in 1663, and died in 1 705,
at the age of forty-two. He propofed the following method :
Let there be people placed in l^L'veral ftations, and at fuch
a diftance from each other, that by the help of a telcfcope, a
man at one ftation may fee a fignal made in the next before
him : he muft immediately repeat the fame fignal, that it
may be feen by perfons in tlie ftation next after him, who
are to communicate it to thofe in the following ftation, and
fo on. Thefe fignals may be as letters of tlie alphabet, or
as a cipher, underftood only by the two perfons who are in,
the diftant places, and not by tliofe who make the fignals.
The perfon in the fecond ftation making the fignal to the
perfon in the third the very moment he fees it in the firft,
the news may be carried to the greateft diftance in as little
time as is neceftary to make the fignals in the firft ftation.
The diftance of the feveral ftations, which muft be as few
as poftible, is meafured by the reach of a telefcope. M.
Amontons is faid to have tried this method on a fmall traft
of land, before feveral perfons of the highefl rank at the
court of France ; but we are not acquainted with the kind of
apparatus he employed ; all that we know of his method is
precifely the fame as Dr. Hooke's.

Guyat, a long time after Dr. Hooke, propofed tables,
with letters cut out in them : and Paiihan, in his Diftionnaire
de Phyfique, defcribes a tranfparent figure, confilling of
one perpendicular and three Iiorizontal ftripes, forming ten
compartments, each of which can be rendered vifible or in-
vifible at pleafure, by blinds or ftiutters moveable from
behind.

Mr. Richard LovcU Edgeworth, in a memoir which he
prefented to the Royal Society of Ireland (fee their Tranf-
aftions, vol. vi. p. 125.), adduces proof, that in 1767 he tried
an experiment of tlie prafticabllity of communicating intel-
ligence by a fwift and unfufpefted mode ; and for this pur-
pofe he employed a common windmill, and arranged a fyf-
tem of fignals, which could be made by the different pofitions
of the arms of its fails, the canvas being removed fr^i" °n*'
or more arms, as was required. Thefe fignals were made to
denote numbers, and both parties were provided with voca-
bularies, in which all the words were numbered.

French Telegraph Akhough the telegraph was thm

fully explained in 1684, it does not appear that this valuable
invention was at all praftifed or applied to any ufcful pur-
pofe until 1793 or 1794, \\hen the events of the French re-
volution had direfted all the energies of that ingenious people
to the improvement of the art of war. A report made by
Barrere to the fitting of the French Convention in Auguft
1794, attributes the invention of the telegrapli which they
ufed to citizen Chappe.

" The new invented telegraphic language of fignals is an

artful

TELEGRAPH.

ariful contrivance, to tranfmit thaughts m a peculiar lan-
auaee from one diftance to another, by means of machines,
which arc placed at different dillanccs of from twelve
to fifteen miles afunder, fo that the expreffion reaches a very
diftaiu place in the fpace of a few minutes. This is now
brought to fuch a (late of perfeftion, that a correfpondence
may be conduded with Liflc, upon every fubjeft and every
thing : even proper names can be cxpreffed ; an anfwer may
be received ; and the correfpondence thus be renewed feveral
times a day. The only thing which can interrupt their
cffeft is the weather, when the air is fo very bad and turbid
that the objcifts and fignals cannot be diftinguidied. By this
invention, remotenefs and diftance almoft difappear, and all
the communications of correfpondence are effefted with the
rapidity of the twinkhng of an eye. By its aid the opera-
tions of government can be very much facilitated, and the
unity of the republic confolidated much more by the fpeedy
communications with all its parts.

" The greateft advantage can be derived from this mode of
correfpondence, becaufe, if thought proper, its objects need
only be made known to certain individuals, or to one indi-
vidual alone, or to the extremities of any diftance ; fo that
the Committee of Public Welfare may at prefent carry on a
correfpondence with the reprefentative of the people at Lifle,
without any other perfons being acquainted with their ob-
jefts. If Lifle was even befieged, we fhould know every
thing at Paris that might happen in that place, and could
fend thither the decrees of the Convention without the
enemy being apprifed of it, or able to prevent it."

M. Chappe's or^he French telegraph is reprefented in^^. 4,
which ii made from fome fketches taken from the telegraph
»n the palace of the Louvre, at the time of its firft eftablifti-
ment, and publifticd in the Monthly Magazine, and other
publications.

A B is a beam or ftrong maft of wood, erefted perpen-
dicularly from the centre of a cabin or fmall houfe fituated
on a rifing ground: it muft be about 15 or 16 feet high
above the top of the houfe. C D is a balance-beam, jointed
to the top of the maft, fo as to be moveable on its centre,
like a fcale-beam. This balance-beam, which is called the
long indicator, may be placed vertically or horizontally, or
any how inclined, by means of ftrong cords, which are at-
tached to the central wheel or pulley D , which has two grooves
in the edge to receive the cords. The long indicator is about
1 1 or 12 feet long, and 9 inches in breadth ; and at each
extremity it carries fecondary indicators F, G, which like-
wife turn upon centres or joints, by means of four cords,
which are condufted through a hollow in the centre pin or
axis of motion of the long indicator, otherwife the motion of
the long indicator to put it into different pofitions, would
derange the cords, and alter the direftion of the fecondary
indicators, which are capable of being placed in any pofition
with refpeft to the long indicator, by thofe cords being con-
di;fted by puUies down into the cabin, and there attached to
Other mechanifm, by means of which the whole machine is
moved, and can be made to affume any of the pofitions re-
prefented by the fmall figures in the plate, in which pofi-
tions it forms a variety of different charafters, to denote the
letters of the alphabet or numerals.

That the indicators may be very light, and at the fame
time oppofe the leaft refiftance to the wind, they are formed
by frames, the interior parts of which are filled up by fmall
oblique and feparate boards, which however, being feen in
front, appear contiguous. The ends of the fmall indicators
are carried beyond the centres, and carty counter -weights to
balance the weight of the indicators ; but thefe ends and
balances are made fo as to be invifible at a diftance.

It is eafy to find the number of fignals polTible to be
made with this telegraph : for if we confider the great indi-
cator as being fixed, we (hall find that each of the fmaller
ones may diftinftly take five different pofitions : two where
it makes a right angle wiih the great indicator ; two where
it makes an angle of 45° ; and one where it falls back upon
the great one, in which cafe it will difappear. Three other
diftinft pofitions might alfo be created ; one where the fmall
indicator would be Horizontal with the great one, and two
where it would make an angle of 135° with it.

The leffer indicators then, confidered as fingle movers,
will furniffi five times five, or twenty-five fignals. As the
great indicator is alfo a mover, there are twenty-five times as
many fignals as this indicator has diftinft pofitions ; and as
it has but four diftinft pofitions, one horizontal, one ver-
tical, and two inclined, there are in all four times twenty-five,
or one hundred fignals.

The manner of ufing the telegraph was as follows : At the
firft ftation, which was on the roof of the principal pavilion
of the Louvre at Paris, M. Chappe, the inventor, received
in writing, from the Committee of Public Welfare, the words
to be fent to Lifle, near which the French army was at that
time ftationed. Each of the telegraphs in the line employed
three perfons to work it : one to move the machine, which
was done by a fingle motion of a winch, and could there-
fore be effefted in a moment. A fecond perfon was em-
ployed with a telefcope to obferve the telegraphs of the two
adjacent ftations, to receive the communications, and to know-
by their fignals, if they had underftood the communication
made to them, and alfo to receive the anfwers. The third
perfon was employed to write down the obfervations made
by the fecond perfon, and to give orders to the firft. The
ftations were about three or four leagues diftant, and an
obfervatory was fituated near the Committee of Public
Safety at Belleville, to obferve the laft telegraph.

The grammarian will eafily conceive that iixteen figns may
amply l"upply all the letters of the alphabet ; fince fome
letters may be omitted, not only without detriment, but with
advantage. Thefe figns, as they were arbitrary, could be
changed every week : fo that the fign for B one day, might be
the fign for M the next ; and it was only neceffary that the
perfons at the extremities ffiould know the key. The intei^-
mediate operators were only inftrufted generally in imitating
and repeating thefe fixteen fignals, which were fo diftinft, and
fo marked, as diff^erent the one from the other, that they
were eafily remembered. The conftruftion of the machinery
within the houfe was fuch, that each fignal was uniformly
given in precifely the fame manner at all times. It did not
depend on the operators' manual fliill, becaufe the pofition
of the arms could never for any one fignal be a degree higher
or a degree lower than was intended, their movements being-
regulated mechanically. M. Chappe, having received at the
Louvre the fentence to be conveyed, gave a known fignal to
the fecond ftation, which was Montmartre, to prepai-e : at
each ftation the obfervers with telefcopcs were on watch, and
each telegraph immediately gave the fignal of preparation
which he had received ; and this being communicated fuccef-
fively through all the line, all the machines were brought
into a ftate of readinefs. The perfons at Montmartre then
received, letter by letter, the fente/ice from the Louvre,
which they repeated with their own machine, and this was
again repeated from the next height, with inconceivable ra-
pidity, to the final ftation at Line, where the obfervations
were written down, and tranflated according to the key
which had been before arranged to be ufed, either by pre-
vious concert, or by fome particular ^ignal made with the
telegraph, to denote that ksy which was ufed. The time

taken

TELEGRAPH.

taken up for each movement was about twenty feconds ; of
whicli the motion alone took up four feconds ; and during tlie
other fixteen, the telegraph was kept ftationary, that it might
be diftinClly oblerved and written down by the people at
the next ftation. The figns were fometimes made for words,
and fometimes for letters: when in words, a fmall flag was
hoilled ; and as the alphabet could be changed at plcafure, it
was only the correfponding perfons at each end of the line
wlio knew the meaning of the figns. In general, news was
gi\-en every day about eleven or twelve o'clock ; but the
obfervers were conftantly on the watch, and as foon as a cer-
tain fignal was given and anfwered, they begun from one
end to the other to move their machines. All the moveable
paits wefe painted of a dark-brown colour, to be more dif-
tinftly vifible when viewed againft the bright &y.

Another line of telegraphs, from Paris to Landau, was
completed in 1796: the firll of them was erefted on a
pavihon of the palace of the Tuilleries. The conftruftion
was more comphcated than the firil. A fixed black bar,
fifty feet long, was fupported horizontally by four uprights.
This bar carried five indicators, fimilar to the fmaller indi-
cators of the machines before defcribed. Two of the up-
right pofts which fupported the horizontal bar, carried each
a fimilar indicator : in this way the centres of the indicators
were all ftationary, inftead of having the long indicator with
fmaller ones at the extremities. Thefe feven indicators were
moved by puUies, in the ufual way ; and there was none of the
difficulty of conveying the communicating cords through the
hollow axis of the central pulley. Each of the indicators
could take feven diftinft pofitions ; -uiz. for thofe which
were fupported by the horizontal bar,- two vertical, four
inclined, and one horizontal ; and for thofe indicators which
were fupported by the upright pofts, one vertical pofition,
four inclined, and two horizontal ones. The number of
combinations which fuch a conftruftion can make, is
7x7x7x7x7x7x7, which gives the ailonifhing
number of 823,543 fignals. This number, which is eight
thoufand times larger than that of the fignals of the firft
telegraph, is doubtlefs more than fufficient : it, however,
allowed them to abridge confiderably the telegraphic lan-
guage, and to tranfmit whole phrafes at a time.

The Engl'tjli Telegraph. — M. Chappe's machine was known in
England not long after it was fet up, and two working models
were made at Frankfort, and fent to England, by which the
plan and alphabet became known ; and its advantages were fo
obvious, that the Britilh government tried various experiments
on telegraphic communication, and at length lines were efta-
bli(3ied from the Admiralty -ofiice to Deal, Portfmouth, and
other points of the fea-coaft. Thefe machines are upon the
conftruftion reprefentcd v\ fig- 3, not being made with indi-
cators, like the French, to move upon centres into different
pofitio;is, but with fix oftagon boards, each poifed upon an
horizontal axis, and fupported in a frame in fuch a manner,
that each can be placed vertically, and will then appear of
the full fize ; or if they are placed edgeways, as fliewn at d,
the naiTOw edge alone will be prefented, and this at a fmall
diftance will be invifible. The boards are turned by means
of cranks, r, upon the end of the axles, and from thefe, lines
defcend into the cabin below, where each has a handle, which
is confpicuoufly marked with the letter or charadler which
will be indicated when the handle is drawn down.

By the changes in the pofition of thefe fix boards, thirty-
fix changes may be eafily exhibited, and the fignal to repre-
fent any letter may be made. By certain pofitions, a variety
of other things may be fignified, according to the will of
the two perfons employed at the two extreme pofts in
jiiaking the fignals. Thus, one board being in a horizontal

Vol. XXXV.

pofition, and the others fhut, or in a perpendicular fituation,-
may denote the letter a ; two boards only being in a hori-
zontal pofition may give tiie letter h ; ilirec in the fame
manner, llie letter c, and fo on. As theve may be made as
many changes with thefe boards as with the fame number
of bells, the letters of the alphabet may be made with eafr,
and a fufficient number of fignals may be formed for extra-
dinary purpofes.

This number of changes is fufficient ; for as this telegrapli
is intended to convey information by reprefenting the fuc-
cefTive letters of each word, a greater number of changes,
than would cxprefs all the effential letters of the alphabet,"
the numerals, and three or four more lignals, to fignify at-
tention, repeat, period, error, &c. would be only em-
barralfing, and liable to error. It is a good fyftem to fpell
every word, rather than attempt to communicate entire word»
or fentences, as by keeping always to one fyftem, mif-
takes are avoided. The communication is in itfclf fo rapid,
that it is more important to attain certainty in the operation,
than to make any facrifice for the fake of difpatch.

This telegraph was judicioufly contrived to have a fufTi-
cient number of combinations, without having more tlian
necefTary. Five boards would have been infiifhcient, and
feven more than were necefTary. But there are feveral
ferious objeftions to it : the form renders it too bulky
to admit of being raifed to any great height above a build-
ing ; and after all, the boards are lefs evident to the eye
at a diftance than the indicators of the French machine.
The ftations muft, therefore, be nearer together, to ren-
der the bars of the frame vifible as well as the boards.
Neither can this telegraph be made to change its diredion,
but it can only be feen from one particular point. It was
found necefTary to have two telegraphs at the Admuralty,
one for each line, and alfo at any point of the line where it
branched off.

To enable the telegraph to be ufed at night, the flrll
French telegraph which was fet up was furnilhed with
Argand lamps, but the Englifli was never ufed in that man-
ner. It would have required a great number of lamps ;
becaufe it would have been necefliiry to have fixed lamps to
indicate the points of the frame in which the boards work,
as well as the boards themfelves.

Thefe two forms of telegraph, the French and the Eng-
lifh, continued in ufe for fome years. The French made
frequent changes in the details of their fyftem, though for
a long time they preferved M. Chappe's machine ; and when
Buonaparte alTumed the fupreme command in France, the
original machines were taken down. A number of machines
were fet up on various parts of the French coaft, and were ufed
in fome of their campaigns : they were of a very temporary
nature, and compofed of the fimpleft materials, of marts
and yards, with large balls at the end ; the yards were in-
clined by cords, fo as to cffetl the fignals on the fame prin-
ciple as M. Chappe's original machine. About 1806 a new
fe't of telegraphs was cftabhfhcd on the whole extent of
the coaft of the French empire, of which the following de-
fcription is given by captain C. W. Pafley, in the Philo-
fophical Magazine. Sce^^j. 5 and 6,

Modern French Telegraph. — Every telegraph confifts of
an upright poll, R, to which are attached three arms,
A, B, and C, exaftly fimilar to each other, and each mov-
ing upon its own diftinft fpindle or axis. The axis of one
of thefe arms. A, is near the head of tlie poft R ; and the dif-
tance between the centres of motion of either of ihc two
uppermoft arms, and the centre of the one immediately be-
low it, is rather lefs than double the length of one arm.
The higheft of the thiec arms, A, can e.'thibit ftvcn dif-
E e tinft

TELEGRAPH.

tina pofitions, as is fticwn by the dotted lines A i, As,
A 3, &c. ; but the other two arms, B and C, can only ex-
hibit fix pofitions each, becaufe they are hidden by the poft
when in a vertical pofition. The total number of combina-
tions, or of dillina fipials, which can be made by this tele-
graph, will conftaiitly'be three hundred and ninety-one ; but
a« the arm A, when in the vertical pofition A 4, may appear
to be part of the poft, R, it is not fafe to employ that
pofition, and this will reduce the number of fignals to three
hundred and forty-two. As only three bodies are employed
in this telegraph, it appears very fuperior to the Ad-
miralty telegiaphs ufed in England, which, by the combina-
tion of double that number of bodies, can only make fixty-
three diftind fignals. Captain Pailey obferves, that the
mechanifm of the French telegraphs jull defcribcd, muft
be either imperfeft, or the men employed in working them
muft have been very unlkilful, for the fignals were made and
repeated in an awkward manner, with what feemed to him
much unneceffary lofs of time. But thefe defefts, it will
be evident, detrad nothing from its merit as an invention.
In regard to the mechanical conftruftion, he could only ob-
ferve that the arms, which were painted black, and appeared
folid at a diftanee, were made in the fafliion of a Venetian
blind, in order, it may be prefumed, to diminifh the aftion
of the wind in bad weather. Each arm had a counterpoife
of thin materials painted white, which, unlefs the obferver
be very near the telegraph, becomes invillble.

Fig. 5. fhcws the telegraph in a Hate of reft, the dotted
Knes marking the feveral pofitions in which the arms can
be exhibited. Fig. 6. is a fpecimen of the telegraph
at work. Fig. 7. (hews the conltruftion of one of the arms
on a larger fcale, D E being the part which is fafliioned
like a Venetian blind, and E F the counterpoife.

Sir Home Popham's Telegraph at the yidmiralty. — The
original telegraphs at the Adrniralty, with the fix boards,
have been lately taken down, and a new kind fubilituted.
It is on the fame principle with the French, being an upright
maft with two indicators, which move upon centres one
above the other, in the manner of the laft defcribed. The
maft is made to turn round on its vertical axis, fo as to pre-
fent its arms fucceffively to all quarters, when required.
The mechanifm, which is the invention of fir Home Pop-
ham, is the bcft which has ever been contrived, the move-
ments being very fimple, and efi^efted by iron fpindles and
endlefs Icrews, fo that the indices below are certain to ac-
company the indicators exaftly in their movements, and
place them precifely in their required pofitions, which cannot
be done by the old machinery with cords, becaufe they are
liable to expand and contraft by wet or dry weather. The
machinery for this fet of telegraphs was conftrufted in the
moft fubftantial manner by Mr. Maudflay in 1 8 16. (See
^^j. 8, 9, and 10. ) L M is a tall maft of an hexagonal form,
framed up from fix fir planks put together at the angles,
and bound by iron hoops at different places, fo as to be
hollow within. The lower end, L, terminates in a pivot,
and the maft is retained in a vertical pofition by a circular
collar at O, which embraces it, and is fupported in the roof
of the building. The two arms, P M and Q R, are move-
able upon centres, one at the top of the maft and the other
half way down. When the arms are placed in a vertical
pofition, they fhut up within the hollow of the maft, fo as
to be entirely concealed ; and for this purpofe, two of the
fix fides are cut away at the upper part, fo as to leave an
opening through the maft of fufiicient width to admit the
two arms to work in it. To communicate motion to the
arms, a fmall toothed wheel is fixed upon each arm at the
centre of motion, and clofe to the fide of the arm. The
10

teeth of thefe wheels aie aftuated by endlefs fcrews or
worms, formed on the upper ends of the long fpindl'\s d eanA
fg, which defcend down to the bottom of the hollow maft,
and have fmall bevelled wheels upon them, which are aftuated
by wheels of fimilar fize, fixed on the ends of ftiort horizontal
fpindles, which have handles, p, q, applied at the extremities.
( See Jig. II.) By turning thefe handles, motion is given
to the vertical fpindles d andy"; and by means of the endlefs
fcrews upon the upper ends of them, the wheels at M and R,
on the centres of the arms, are turned round, and the arms
are put into any required pofition. But in order that the
people below may at all times know exactly what pofitions
the arms ftand in, two dials, m and r, are formed on the
lower part of the maft, the upper one, m, being for the upper
arm M, and the other, /-, for the lower arm R ; and each dial
has an index or Iiand, which turns round with a motion ex-
aftly correfpoiiding to the motion of the arms. For pro-
ducing this motion, the axle of each hand or index has a fmall
toothed wheel, ,f or /, (Jig. 1 1 .) fixed upon it in the middle ; and
an endlefs fcrew is formed upon the upright fpindle to work
in the teeth of the wheel. The wheels upon the centre of
the arms, and thofe upon the axes of the indices, have the
fame number of teeth ; and as every turn of the fpindles and
fcrews will move the wheels round one tooth, the angular
motion of the arms, P M and Q R, and the hands, m and r,
will in all caies be the fame.

The dials are each divided into eight, correfponding with
the eight pofitions in which the arms are to be exhibited :
viz. pointing vertically ; ift, upwards ; and 2d, downwards :
pointing horizontally ; 3d, to the right ; and 4th, to tlie
left : pointing upwards at an inclination of 45 degrees ;
5th, to the right ; and 6th, to the left : pointing downwards
at an inclination of 45 degrees ; 7th, to the right ; and
8th, to the left. But of thefe eight pofitions, only the four
laft are made ufe of to reprefent characters ; becaufe, in the
two vertical pofitions, the pointers enter within the maft,
and cannot therefore be feen whether they are pointing up-
wards or downwards : the horizontal pofitions of the arms
are referved for -the neceflary fignals of preparation, &c.
Each arm, then, has four pofitions, in which it will exprefs
different fignals ; and thefe pofitions are all made with the
pointer, at an inclination of 45 degrees from the horizontal
line.

Thefe fignals either exprefs the letters of the alphabet,
or the numeral charafters, according to previous arrange-
ment, which muft be made known by exhibiting a prepara-
tory fignal, before the commimication is begun. The fignal
to prepare for receiving letters is the lower arm extended
horizontally to the right ; and for the nimierals, both armt
are extended horizontally to the left.

The upper pointer, P M, ufed by itfelf, at an elevation of
45 degrees, denotes,

A, or I, when pointing upwards to the left.

B, or 2, when pointing downwards to the left.

C, or 3, when pointing upwards to the right.

D, or 4, when pointing downwards to the right.

The lower pointer, Q R, ufed by itfelf, at an elevation of
45 degrees, denotes,

E, or 5, when pointing upwards to the left.

F, or 6, when pointing downwards to the left.

G, or 7, when pointing upwards to the right.
H, or 8, when pointing downwards to the right.

It is eafy to conceivej that, by repeating all thefe pofi-
tions with both arms exhibited together, inftead of one
fingly, various com.biuations inay be made, which are fuf-

ficient

TELEGRAPH.

ficient to exprefs all the remaining letters, and fome otlier
neceflary iignals.

The dial for each arm is double ; that is, a dial is fixed
at each fide of the mail, and the axles of the indices or
hands proceed quite through the mall, fo as to have a hand
at each end. Thefe dials are not numbered cxaftly fimilar
to each other, but are reverfed ; and the two indices on tlie
oppofite ends of the fame axle, though tliey point in one
diredlion, do not indicate the fame numbers on the two dials ;
becaufe each dial is adapted to indicate the meaning which
the different pofitions of the arms will have, when the tele-
graph is viewed on that fide to whicli the dial faces.

For when a fignal is made, tliat arm vvhicli projcfts from
the right-hand iide, if the telegraph is examined on one fide,
will projeft on the left hand, when the telegraph is viewed
on the other fide.

It was before flated, that the telegraph can be turned
round, fo as to prefent its arms to any direftion. This is
done by the pivot, L, at the lower hand ; but to hold it fad
in the defired dii'edtion, a circular iron plate is placed on the
floor, with holes in it ; and a bolt, W, is fitted into two
eyes, which are fixed to the axle of the mail. The point of
this bolt drops into any of the holes in the plate, and thus
holds the mall firm ; but if the bolt is lifted up, to draw its
point out of the holes, it can be turned round. The arms
are made with boards, like Venetian blinds ; and each has a
piece of calt-iron at the oppofite end, to coimterpoife the
weight, and make the arm move freely into all pofitions.

Since the telegraph has been brought into aftual ufe, its
great utility has been obvious ; and many ingenious perfons
have ftudied the means of fimplifying the methods of repre-
ienting the fignals, with a view to obtain the greater facihty
and rapidity of communication. This would enable us to
avoid the danger of miftakes, by being able to repeat the
whole communication feveral times, which at prefent is
tedious. Many of thefe contrivances difplay great in-
genuity ; but it appears to us, that the defeA or difficulty
'of communicating detailed intelligence by means of tele-
graphs, arifes from the complicated conflruftion of all the
languages at prefent in ufe, rather than from any defedls
in the machines, which have been propofed to exhibit the
fymbols ; and that to perfeft telegraphic communication, it
would be neceffary to invent a new and more perfetl lan-
guage, which would be a moil valuable acquifition, to faci-
litate all other modes of communicating ideas.

All languages originated in a very rude ftate of fociety,
and were at firft limited to the exprefiTion of very fimple
ideas. As men advanced in civilization, they found the ne-
ceflity of increafing the number of their words ; and to
enable them to exprefs more complex ideas, compound
words were occafionally introduced ; but, in all cafes,
knowledge mull have made a confiderable advance, before
any arrangement or claffification of words was imagined :
becaufe the necefiity of any grammar would not be dif-
covered, until the number of words were fo multiplied, as
to render the ufe of them troublefome, and hable to con-
fufion. Before a fyftem of grammar was eftablifiied, no
improvements could be made in a language, except by the
addition of new words ; and every fuch addition mud have
introduced new difficulties in the ufe of the language.
Even when a fyftem of grammar is completely eftablifhed,
as is now the cafe in all the languages of civilized nations,
the number of words which were invented, or introduced
without any fyftem, is fo confiderable, as to prevent that
perfedlion of expreffion which might be obtained, if the
language had been wholly conftrufted in an advanced ftage
of fociety. There is no doubt but a new language might

be contrived, which, with .i very fmall number of words,
compared with any of the known languages, might exprefj
all ideas in a much more expeditious and definite manner
than they do. In oral communication, this defeftive con-
ftruclion of language, and the want of precifion, is little
experienced, unlefs by thofe who begin to learn a foreign
language ; becaufe the extreme rapidity of expreffion en-
ables us to amplify and enlarge upon any fubjeft, fo as to
elucidate any words or phrafes which are not direftly ap-
plicable to the expreffion of an idea to be communicated, or
which are at all indefinite. In writing or reading, the de-
ficiency of language is more obfervable, from the greater
difficulty of expreffion and communication. But when we
attempt to converfe by fignals, we experience in its full
force the great complexity of language, and find tliat it
becomes a tedious operation to rcprefent a fcntencc clearly
by fignals, which is fpoken or written in a moment ; and
this muft continue to be tlie cafe, even if the mechanical
operation of exhibiting the fignals is reduced to the utmoft
poifible fimi>hcity. As no fucli fcientific language as that
wiiich we hint at has been perfefted, we muft content our-
felves to find the beil means of communicating our ideas by
fignals, which ftiall indicate the letters and words of our
prefent languages : and this may be done in two ways ;
firft, by charadlers or fignals, which fliall either exprefs the
letters of the alphabet, or words, or, in fome cafes, com-
plete fentences. Tiie other method is to exhibit fignals,
which fliall indicate numbers ; and thefe numbers can be
tranflated into words, by means of a diftionary in which
every word is numbered. The telegraphs which we have
defcribed are of the former clafs, and we have explained the
manner of ufing them ; but the latter kind requires a greater
variety of fignals, becaufe they muft be capable of making
as many fignals as there are words in the language in which
the communication is intended to be made. There is fome
difficulty in making a telegraph fo univerfal as this requires,
otherwife the numeral method has decided advantages, in
the convenience witli which it can be carried on by means
of a common diftionary, alphabetically arranged, and in
which every word is regularly numbered from one end to
the other. In this any word can be inftantly found, by its
place in the alphabet ; and the number correfponding to it
being exhibited by the telegraph, and obferved by the op-
pofite party, he can as quickly find out the fame word in
the diftionary by means of its number.

The numeral method is perliaps the eafieft of all others,
and may be exhibited by fire and fmoke in the fimpleft
manner, without any telegraph or compUcated apparatus
being made for the purpofe.

The meaning of a fignal is afcertained by the continuance
or difappearance of fire and fmoke at a different place. In
the day-time, the fmoke on a particular iiill may give notice
to an obferver on the next liill, tliat a communication is to
be made : he of courfe will anfwer it by fmoke, to ftiew
that he is upon his watch. The fmoke will then difappear
on both hills, by a cover being placed over the fire ; which,
being taken off and put on again repeatedly, will fhew a
fucceffion of clouds of fmoke rifing at proper inter>als in
the air. The obferver notes the number of times that the
fmoke rifes without a confiderable interval, fuppofe three
times; and he then writes down the number 3. After a
more confiderable intcrvid, determined on by the parties,
the fmoke rifes again, we will fnppofe four times ; he writes
down the number 4. He lias now the number 34 to com-
municate by fignals to the next poft. At night this is done
by a fucceffive appearance and difappearance of fire.

As the number denoted by the fucccffive appearance of
Ee 2 fmoke

TELEGRAPH.

fmokc or fire, or firing of guns, may, if it i3 a large number,
be liable to miftake, a learned profeffor in Germany propofed
to (horten the numbers employed, by ufmg a quaternary
inftead of the decenary arithmetic. Thus, according to his
fyftem, the units were to be placed as in common arithmetic ;
a figure in the next place, to the left hand, inftead of denot-
ing the number of tens, was a niHltiple of 4, denoted by the
figure, that is, it denoted the number of fours to be exprefTed ;
in the third place, the figure denoted the number of fixteens
inftead of hundreds ; and the fourth place of figures would
be fixty-fours inftead of thoufands ; and fo on. £. gr. To
write down 95, he placed his figures thus: 1133 ; the 3
in the place of units denoted 3, the next 3 denoted
3 X 4, or 1 2 ; the third figure, i , denoted 4 x 4, or 1 6 ; the
next figure, I, denoted 4 x 4 x 4, or64; confequently 1133,
in the quaternary arithmetic, was equivalent to 64 + 16 +
12 4- 5 =: or ill the common decimal numeration. The

advantage propofed by thus changing the figures was, that
in making the fignals 95, there muft be fourteen firings, or
appearances of fmoke, which, in the other mode, is done by
eight firings. In this arithmetic, a greater number than four
never appears ; and there is kfs danger in mifcouiiting fo
fmall a number. Some of the numbers in the diftionary muit
be devoted to the fingle letters of the alphabet, as it is by
means of them alone that proper names can be made out.

Mr. Edgeworth, who, we believe, firft introduced the nu-
meral fyftem of communication, gives the following account
of its advantages, in point of fecrecy, over the alphabetical
method, which is a great objeft in telegraphic communication.
Although the alphabet may be varied at pleafure, and any
arbitrary figns employed, yet thefe are poffible to be deci-
phered by rules which depend upon the ufual arrangements
of letters : thus, for inftance, a fingle charafter being exhi-
bited as a word, muft, in the Englilh language, be either A
or I. The proportion which exifts between the number of
words of one, two, three, or any greater number of letters,
can be clafted in catalogues, and from thefe the monofylla-
bles of any cipher are eafily obtained ; and from the letters
of thefe monofyllables, the letters of longer words are dif-
covered. By fimilar rules, fome of which are very ingenious,
and depend upon the phllofophy of language, any alph.ibetical
cipher may be eafily unfolded. (See Cipher. ) But thefe
rules, excepting a few of them, are ufelefs, when ciphers
are employed to denote entire words ; and the moft obvious
mode of difcover)' may be avoided, by omitting thofe common
words which occur fo frequently in every lajiguage, as ihe,
and, that, to, &c. ; and even fuppofing that, from its frequent
recurrence, any word ftiould be difcovered, no progrefs can
be made from fuch data, for the cipher of any word is an
ifolated fa£l which leads to nothing farther.

Suppofe the knowledge of any particular vocabulary ftiould
fall into hands for which it was not intended, a flight change
in the numeration, without any aftual change of the figures,
would prevent difcovery : for inftance, fuppofe it is fettled
between the parties, that 6, or any other number, is to be
added or fubtraftcd from the numbers which are exhibited
before referring them to tlie vocabulary. The advocates of
the numeral fyftem ftate, that a letter can be communicated
much quicker by fignals which exprefs words, than by fig-
nals which exprefs only letters. Words may be forwarded
as faft as they can be looked out in a didlionary, and even
fafter, whilft only an equal number of letters could have been
communicated by the alphabetical mode. Another alleged
advantage refulting from the ufe of words in the telegraphic
correfpondence is, that the words of the fame meaning in
different languages having the fame number attached to each,
a correfpondence could be carried on from one language into

9

another, which, though not grammatically corrttt, yet would
be fufficif^tly intelligible. Proper names muft be fpell,
which may eafily be done, every letter having a correfpond-
ing number. , '

Mr. Richard Lovel Edgeworth, in the Tranfaftions of the
Royal Society of Ireland, vol. vi. p. 125, has delcribed his
telegraph, which is fimple, and admits of very numerous com-
binations : it \', intended to reprefent numbers to which words
may be referred.

The machinery confifts of four indices or pointers, each
capable of revolving on a centre or axis, fo as to affume dif-
ferent pofitions. The ftiape of each pointer is that of an
ifofceles triangle, of wliich the bafe is rather lefs than half the
perpendicular. The four pointers are placed in a row, as
jhewn hy Jig. 12, and, as in common numeration, the right
hand reprefents units ; the fecond from the right, tens ; the
third, hundreds ; and the fourth, thoufands. It is eafy to
diftinguifti whether a hand moving vertically, points perpt-n-
dicularly downwards or upwards, horizontally to the right or
left, or to any of the four intermediate fituations : tliis pro-
duces eight pofitions, which can be made by each pointer ;
but of thefe eight pofitions, feven only are employed to de-
note figures ; the upright pofition of the hand or pointer
being referved to repreicnt o, or zero. The figures thus in-
dicated refer to a vocabulary, in which all the words are
numbered. Telegraphs of this kind, which are to be fixed
at.permanent ftations, which may be feen clearly with tolerable
glaflijs at twenty miles diftance, are to be mounted on ftonc
or wooden pillars, fixteen or twenty feet high ; four of which
muft be folidly erefted in a row ; and on the top of each a
moveable circle or platform turns horizontally upon a centi'e,
in the manner of a moveable windmill head. Acrofs the plat-
form an axis lies horizontally, and carries the arm or pointer,
fixed vertically at one extremity of the axis, whilft, at the
other end, are eight handles to turn the pointer round by.
The handles are fixed in their different pofitions by a catch or
alidad. By means of the platform, the pointer may be turned
to any part of the compafs ; and as one fide of it is painted
black, and the other white, either fide may be employed, as
the colour of the clouds, or the fituation of the place, may
require.

In managing a correfpondence by thefe machines, it is
neceflary to have certain fignals eftabliftied ; nor are thefe
fignals merely arbitrary ; it is abfolutely neceflary that they
{hould be made by the two external pointers of the row, viz..
units and thoufands ; or by the two internal pointers, i-i-z.
tens and hundreds ; elfe they could not be repeated by the
intermediate ftations without confitfion ; becaufe,in the middle
ftations, that pointer which reprefents thoufands, when con-
veying a meiTageeaft wards for inftance, muft, when an anfwer
is returned to an oppofite direftion, reprefent un-its. The fame
change will take place between the pointer that denotes
hundreds and tens.

When any com.munication is to be commenced, the
pointers that denote thoufands and units are to be whirled
round till the fame is done at the correfponding ftation.
When this fignal has been anfwered, the perfon wlio gave it
proceeds to fend his intelligence. As foon as he begins, the
pointer of hundreds at the oppofite ftation is turned to 2,
and kept in that pofition till the word is made out from the
vocabulary ; the pointer is then turned round to o, or zero.
The perfon who is fpeaking, when he perceives by this
fignal that he is underftood, turns all the machines to o,
which is always to be done at the end of every word.

Wiien aU his machines are in this pofition, his correfpondent
again turns his pointer belonging to the place of hundreds
to 2, to ftiew that he is ready to receive tl»e intelligence, and

it

TELEGRAPH.

it is to remain there till he receives aiiotlicr wor J, and fo on,
till all that is meant to be i;ud is iiiiiflied : the pointers of
thoufands and units are then to be vibrated backwards and
forwards, with the points downwai-ds, like pendulums, till
the fame is done at the oppofite ftation.

if any interruption takes place on either fide from a cloud,
or fhowcr, or any accident, it is to be indicated by vibrating
thovfands and units, with their points upwards ; which fignal
muft be repeated from the oppofite ilation ; and whoever lias
madfe the fignal of interruption,, muft make the fignal of
recommencement, when he is ready to proceed. This fignal
is by vibrating hundirds and /raj-, with their points upwards,
and when this is anfwered, (hut not before,) the bufinefs
may proceed. It fliould be obferved in general, that every
iignal (liould be acknowledged by the party to whom it is
addreffed.

The vocabulary con'efpo;iding with the numbers denoted
by this rnachinery is conipofed of a large book, Jig. 13,
with mahogany covers, framed, to prevent them from warp-
ing. Its fize, when opened, is 47 inches by 21 ; it confifts
of 49 double pages, that is to fay, each flieet is folded in
the middle, and when it is opened forms one page.

Tiie book is divided into feven parts by^ thin flips of
mahogany, which ferve to open it eafily at each of thefe
divifions, every one of which contains feven pages, and
each page forty-nine words. No more than forty-nine
words are contained in each page, becaufe the numbers
8 and 9, and zero, are not admitted. This omiffion arifes
from the ftruclure of the machinery, which points only to
feven numbers, refcrving o for a point of reft, at which
point the hands indicate nothing. In every hundred, there-
fore, only forty-nine numbers are ufed ; and in every
thoufand, only feven hundreds are counted. Each divifion of
the book, feparated by the mahogany rulers, contains all
the efficient numbers in feven hundred. Each of thefe
rulers projedts beyond the fides of the pages, and is num-
bered in fucceffion from i to 7 ; and they are fo placed

below one another, as to permit ihc numbers on all fides of
them to be leen at once, as in llie figure.

When any number of thoufands is pointed out, it can
by means of thefe rulers, be immediately feleded : the feries
ot feven pages, which one of thefe rulers opens, is cut, like
the alphabet of a ledger, at the edge in feven divifions. By
thele means, the page containing the iiundrcd whicli i«
wanted is inftanlly found. In the page thus obtained, the
tens, from 10 to 70 inclufive, are divided from each
other, fo as to be inftanlly diftinguifliable, and the units
under, each divifion arc in like manner eafily felcfted.

The following is a fpccimcn of feveji lines of the firll
page, and tliougli it is but one-tenlh of tjie real fize, it is
iufficienlly dlftiiift. Its contents arc divided into eight clafies,
the words in each clafs being numbered downwards, from
1 to 77, omitting all cyphers, or zero, and all eights and
nines. Wlien once the clafs required is afcertained, any
number in the page can be found iminediately. As f6r
inftance, the reader will eafily felect Clafs VII. N°li,
Clafs IV. N° 15, and fo of the reft. Nothing remains to
be explained but the manner in which the clafs in each page
is pointed out by the machinery. For this purpofe, before
the pointers are turned to any fet of figures, the pointer that
reprefents thoufands is turned to the clafs that is wanted, and
as foon as the correCpondent anfwers this fignal, thoufands is
returned to o. Then all the pointers are moved to the
places which denote the figures required for any word or
fentence. When the clafs is thus afcertained, an index,
which flides on the maiiogany cover of the book, is fet to
the column belonging to this clafs. When an obfervation is
made, tlie number of thoufands can be opened by the ruler.
As foon as it is read off' by the telcfcope, the number. of
hundreds is opened by the pages, where they are cut away,
and the number of tens and units is feen on the page. As the
pointers are moved in fucceflion from thoufands to units,
the different divifions of the book can be opened as faft, as
the pointers are moved.

Specimen of the Vocabulary belonging to Mr. Edgeworth's Telegraph,

Commnn
Words. ■
Clafs 0.

Wonls lefs
CiitniTinn.
Clafs 1.

TcclinicalTerms

0, n, m.

Cl.lb II.

Perfons.
CUs III.

Officers.
Cliifs IV.

Places.
Clafs V.

Navy ami Mer-
chant SItips.
CIdfs VI.

Phraffs and Sentences.
Clafs VII.

[U. A.

1-2. Ab.

13. Ac,

I 14. Ad.

1 .s Ae.

I16. Af.
17. Aa.

11. Aliafe.
\}. Abate.

13. .'\hbcv.

14. Ahbcis.

15. Abliut.
Ifi. Abdicate.
17. Abed, Abet.

11. Aback.

11. Abacus.
1-J. Abaft.

14. .Ab.itis.

15. Al)d(inicn.

16. Abdutftur.

17. Abeal.

11. Abbot.

12. Ackland.
l.S. Acftini.
14. Achefiin
1 i. Adams.
10. Adamfoii
17- Adair.

11. Academy of Infcript

12. Acad, of B. L. Paris
1 3. Academy.

14 Account-Office.

15. Admiralty.

16. Af;ent to the.

17. Admiral.

I 1. Abbeville.
12. Aberdeen.
1.3. Aberj;avenny.

14. Abinglon.

15. Abydos.
1(5. AbylTinia.
1 7 . Acadia.

11. Alias.

12. Ajjx.

13. Albion.

14. Africa.

15. Audacious.

16. •.Agamemnon.

17. America.

, Attend to day

la.-

14. -

15. -

16. .

17.-

- to-morrow

- to night

- to-niorrotv nig

- on Monday

at A.M.
.iP. M.
at A.M
at P.M.
at P.M.
at P. M.
at A. M.

The principal objcftion to Mr. Edgeworth's machine is,
that it would be of a vaft fize, and each pointer would require
a man to work it. He defcribes, at the end of his paper,
a portable machine, which is made of fpars and poles jointed
together, and braced by cords. We think the fecond kind
of French telegraph, which was fet up between Landau
and Paris, would anfwer the purpofe very well : it has five
indicators, and the movements are made by machinery in the
houfe below.

Major C. Le Hardy, in the Tranfatftions of the Society
of Arts for 1808, vol. xxvi. has defcribed a telegraph which
is well adapted for exhibiting fignals which fliall indicate
numbers. It has four indices or pointers, each confifting of

a long arm, carrying a fquare index-board or pointer at the
extremity. One of thefe pointers reprefents units ; the
fecond, tens ; the third, hundreds ; and the fourth, thou-
fands. All the four indices move on a common centre by
the machinery ; and to diftinguiih them one from another,
each board is placed at a different diftance from the centre,
of motion, fo that in their motion they defcribe four circles
of different radii. The pofition of the arm, with refped to
the horizon, is made to iiKlicate the numbir which is to be
exprcffed by each index refpeftively, and there arc ten dif-
ferent poClionsfor each, anfwering to the numeral charaflers.
To identify thefe ten pofitions, a large frainc is fixed dole
behind the pointers, parallel to tiic plane of their motion ;
• .-.nd

TELEGRAPH.

»nd this frame fiipports ten radial bars, which diverge from
the common centre of motion. Tlie radii arc again inter-
fected by other bars, forming four concentric arcs of
circles, each correfponding in radius with the length of one
of the four pointers or fignal-boards. By means of the
radii, the pofitions of the pointers, and their correfponding
numbers, are read off, wliilil the arcs ferve to diftinguifli
the different pointers of units, tens, hundreds, and thoufands,
becaufe they always (liew the length of the arms from the
centre. By this machinery, 10,000 can be exhibited ; and
for higher numbers, there are two fquare fignal-boards,
which can be turned fo as to be inviCble or vifible at pleafure ;
one reprefents 10,000, and the other 20,000, and both toge-
ther 30,000, either of which numbers is to be added to the
number (liewn'by the arms, according as thefe fignal-boards
are exhibited. By this addition, this telegraph can exhibit
as high as 40,000.

The frame with radial bars is a good method of reading
off the exact pofition of the arms ; and it is fo much more
certain than trufting to the eye alone, that by its aid the
arms may be fliewn in a much greater number of pofitions ;
ftill, if each arm is diftindly capable of exhibiting ten fignals,
it will be fufficient for the numeral method. Mr. Edge-
worth's pointers, as we have feen, were only capable of
eight pofitions for each ; and this obliged him to mutilate
the fyllem of numbers, by taking away all the eights, nines,
and zero.

The dial-plate of a clock has been propofed as a model,
and would make a mod excellent telegraph, as it might
exhibit 144 figns, fo as to be vifible at a great diftance.
The dial fhould only be divided into fix divifions inftead of
twelve ; and this being raifed twenty or thirty feet above
a building, and the indices and the dial being painted with
very diftinft colours, would be clearly vifible. The dial,
if fupported on one port, might be always turned to the
direftion in which the information was to be conveyed.

In the Supplement to the Gentleman's Magazine for 1 794,
a telegraph is defcribed, which confifl:s of a femi-circle
placed in a vertical pofition on a flrong ftand. The circum-
ference is divided into tvs'enty-four divifions, which are ren-
dered vifible by circular holes cut through the femi-circle.
In the centre is an index, which can fucceffively be brought
to point out any divifion, very much in the manner of the
dial of a clock. In the night-time each divifion is to be
furnilhed with a lamp, and the index is made fufiiciently
broad to eclipfe or hide any of the lamps at pleafure to
which it is turned, and by this means the letters of the
alphabet are to be defignated.

Mr. Garnet's Telegraph Of all the propofals for making

a variety of fignals by the different pofitions of an index or
pointer which moves on a centre, the following is the moll
certain as to the identity of the pofitions, and hence it admits
of the ereateft number of fignals from each pointer. It has
alfo a farther advantage, that tliere is no neceflity for any
frame or dials, like the three laft defcribed machines, which,
as their divifions are intended to be obferved at, a diftance,
muft be exceedingly large. The pointer or indicator of
Mr. Garnet's machine is i\\t fame as the foregoing, and its
different pofitions reprefent different charafters or letters :
its length fhould be two and a half or three feet from the
centre, for every mile of diftance. The diftant obferver
can find out, and exaftly read off thefe pofitions by a wire
fixed acrofs the eye -piece of the telefcope with which he ob-
ferves, which eye-piece turns round on the end of the tube of
the telefcope, fo as to bring the wire to be parallel to, or cor-
refpond with the diftant pointer. This is as eafy to do as
to look through the telefcope.

The index or pointer has a fmall circle fixed on its axis
of motion, and turning round with it. This circle is divided
into twenty-four divifions, or even more, and each divifion is
lettered with a letter of the alphabet. A fixed index is alfo
provided, to wliich any letter on the divided circle can be
brought by turning the pointer round, and this determines
the pofition of the pointer. Or, inftead of an index, the
divided rim of the circle may be concealed in a box, with a
hole at one fide juft fufficient to fee one letter or divifion at
a time, and then there can be no miftake in fetting the
pointer. The eye-piece of the telefcope is to be made to
turn round upon the end of the tube, and is to have a circle
fixed upon it fimilarly divided and lettered. A fine wire
is alfo to be ftretched acrofs the centre of the eye -piece in the
focus of its lenfes ; and there muft be likewife an index or
mark on the telefcope, to read the divifions of the circle on
the eye-piece. If this circle be likewife enclofed in a box,
having a hole to fee only one letter at a time, there will be
lefs danger of miftake.

The inftrument being correctly adjufted, it is obvious
that (the eye-piece of the telefcope being turned round till
its wire covers or becomes parallel to the diftant pointer)
the index on the telefcope will point out the fame letter on
the divided circle of the eye-piece, as is indicated by the
index and circle of the diftant pointer : hence the two parties
have the fame letter or charafter prefented to them by their
refpeftive inftruments.

The idea of reading the fignals by means of wires on the
eye-piece of the telefcope is very valuable, and promifes
many advantages. In intermediate ftations, there is always
danger of confufion in making fignals to parties in both di-
reftions ; becaufe an arm which inchnes towards the right
when the telegraph is viewed in one direAion, in an op-
pofite direftion vrill appear to incline to the left, and
indicate a different thing : hence it is always neceffary for
the parties to be informed, by a previous fignal, in what
direction the communication is to be made, that the ob-
fervers, when they fee a iignal made, may know whether it
is intended for them, or for the next ftarion beyond. Now
when the telefcope is ufed, if the circle of each telefcope be
figured to correfpond with the circle of the pointer which is
to be obferved with it, all fignals will become intelligible to
any party who obferves them.

The Rev. John Gamble fuggefted a form of telegraph,
which confifted of four arms, each ten feet long, and fur-
nifhed with a circular board .it the end. All the four moved
upon a common centre of motion, and independently of each
otlier, fo that one, two, three, or four, could be exhibited
at different degrees of elevation with refpeft to the
horizon, or with refpeft to each other, fo as to afford a
great number of fignals. One of thefe was erefted in 1 803
upon one of the towers of Weftminfter Abbey, but has long
been removed. About the time when telegraphs were firft
ufed, this gentleman publifhed a fmall pamphlet, entitled
" Obfervations and Telegraphic Experiments," which
contains fome good ideas.

Nodurnal Telegraphs. — In 1801, Mr. John Boaz of Glaf-
gow obtained a patent for a telegraph, which effefted the
fignal by means of twenty-five Argand lamps. Thefe were
arranged in five rows, with five in each row, fo as to form a
fquare. Each lamp being provided with a blind, with which
its light could be obfcured, the lamps could be made to
exhibit letters and figures, the fame as Dr. Hooke's charac-
ters, by leaving fuch lamps only vifible as were neceffary to
form the charafter. The mashine is defcribed in the
Repertory of Arts, Firft Series, vol. xvi. p. 223 ; and in the
Philofophical Magazine, vol. xii. p. 84.

TEL

T E L

In the Pliilofophical Magazine, vol. xxix. Capt. Paflcy
has defcribed a telegraph, which is nearly the fame as
Mr. Boaz's, but with fix lights only; alfo what is called a
Polygramic telegraph.

The Chevalier Edelcrantz has defcribed a machine in the
Tranfaftions of the Society of Arts, which is for working the
vanes of a telegraph with boards, like^^f. 4, fo that by merely
preffing keys, like an organ, and then turning a handle, the
required fignals fhall be made. The telegraph was propofed
with nine boards infteadof fix ; but as we confider tiiis form
of telegraph decidedly inferior to thofe with arms moving
on centres, we fliall not enter into any further defcription
of it.

To conclude, we clufs the telegraphic art amongfl thofe
which are not carried to fuch a ftate of perfection as to be
incapable of farther improvement : it is much to be wifhed
that it could be fo fyltematized, that the communication of
intelligence could be cffefted with the fame eafe and cer-
tainty as by writing. We are confident of the pofTibility of
this, from having obferved the abbe Sicard converfing with
his deaf and dumb pupils by making figns of the fimplell
nature with the hands, in which manner he could communi-
cate his ideas on any fubjeft with more rapidity than by
writing.

TELEM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Paleftine, in
the tribe of Judah, towards the extremity of this tribe, along
the frontiers of Edom.

TELEMANN, Gio. Philip, in Biography, one of the
greateft and mofl voluminous mufical compofers during the
firft fifty or fixty years of the laft century, in Germany.
He was born at Magdeburg in 1681, and preceded Keifer as
opera compofer at Hamburgh, for which city he produced
thirty-five operas. His compofitions for the church and
chamber are fuppofed to be more numerous than thofe of
Aleflandro Scarlatti. In the year 1 740, his overtures on
Lulli's model amounted to fix hundred.

This compofer, like Raphael and fome other great
painters, had a firft and fccond manner, which were ex-
tremely different from each other ; in the firft he was hard,
fliff, dry, and inelegant ; in the fccond, pleafing, graceful,
and refined. Teleniann, who lived to a great age, drew
up a well-written narrative of his own life, in the early part
of which he was an intimate acquaintance and fellow-
ftudent with Handel.

The lift of Telemann's printed works, inferted in Wal-
ther's Mufical Lexicon in 1732, amounted to twenty-nine ;
and in Gerber's Continuation of Walther, fifteen or fixteen
more are fpecified. But ftill double the number of thofe
printed were long circulated in manufcript from the mufic-
fhops at Jjeipfic and Hamburgh.

The beft account of Telemann's profeffional merit as a
compofer, was publiftied at Hamburgh immediately after his
deceafe at 85, in 1767, by profefibr Ebeling, an excellent
mufical critic, a friend of Emanuel Bach, a man of a refined
taite, found judgment, and a perfeft acquaintance with the
merits and various ilyles of the great muficians of his
country.

TELEMBO, in Geography, a river of South America,
which joins the Patia, 8 miles N.W. of Baracoas.
TELENGUTES. See Teleutes.
TELENTO, a town of Perfia, in the province of La-
riftan, on lhe fea-coaft ; 10 miles S.W. of Congo.

TELEOLOGY, formed of TtXo;, end, and \oyt.c, dif-
courfe, the fcience of the final caufes of things. This is an
ample and curious field of inquiry, though pretty much
aeglefted by philofophers.

TELEPHANES, iu Biography, a celebrated performer

on the flute in tlie time of Philip of Macedon. Accprdinp
to Paufanias he was a native of Samos, and had a tomb
crefted to him by Cleopatra, the fiftcr of Philip, in the
road between Megara and Corinth, which was fubfifting in
his time. The epitaph upon this mufician, which is pre-
ferved in the Anthologia, equals his talents to ihoft of the
greateft names in antiquity.

" Orpheus, whom gods and men admire,
Surpafs'd all mortals on the lyre :
Neftor with eloquence could charm.
And pride, and infolence difarm :
Great Homer, witii his heav'nly ftrain,
Could foften rocks, and quiet pain : —
Here lies Telcphanes, whofe flute
Had equal pow'r o'er man and brute."

Telcphanes was clofely united in friendfliip with Dcmof-
tlienes, who has made honourable mention of liim in liis
harangue againft Midias, from whom he received a blovr
in public, during the celebration of the feaft of Bacchus.
As this was a kind of mufical quarrel, we fhall relate the
caufe of it.

Demofthenes had been appointed by his tribe to furnifli a
chorus, to difpute the prize at this feflival ; and as this cho-
rus was to be inftrudled by a mafter, Midias, in order to
difgrace Demofthenes, bribed the mufic-mafter to negleA his
funftion, that the chorus might be unable to perform their
feveral parts properly before the public, for want of the ne-
cefTary teaching and rehearfals. But Telcphanes, who had
difcovered the defign of Midias, not only ehaftifed and dif-
mifted the mufic-mafter, but undertook to iuftrutt the chorus
himfelf.

TELEPHIASTRUM, in Botany, Dill. Ekh. 375, fo
called by Vaillant, from its refemblance to Tekphium. Sec
Talinum.

TELEPHIOIDES, Toum. Cor. 50. t. 485. DilL
Elth. 377. t. 282. See ANnRACHNE.

TELEPHIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Greater Armenia, fituated in the vicinity of the river Phafis.

TELEPHIUM, in Botany, a name adopted from Diof-
corides, whofe teAv.J'ioi' the plant we are about to defcribe
was fuppofed, by Imperato, Clufius, and moft authors, to
be. Dr. Sibthorp however fatisfied himfelf that the plant
of Diofcorides was Cerinthe minor, and pofTibly alfo the
afpera of Willdenow. To this conclufion he was led, firft,
by the authority of the famous old manufcript with draw-
ings, at Vienna ; and next, by obferving that C. minor is
particul:u-ly common in Greece among vines in the fpring,
as well as iu other cultivated ground,' as Diofcorides relates
of his TiXtiiTiof. The yellow colour of the flowers alfo an-
fwers to his defcription, which our Tekphium, in that point,
does not, nor did Dr. Sibthorp obferve the latter in any
part of Greece. — Linn. Gen. 149. Schreb. 201. Willd.
Sp. PI. V. I. 1506. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4. Ait. Hort.
Kew. V. 2. 173. Juft". 313. Toum. t. 128. Lamarck
Illuftr. t. 213. Gxrtn. t. 129 — Clafs and order, Petilan-
d/ni Trigynia. Nat. Ord. Hohraced:, Linn. Portulacee, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five oblong, obtufe,
concave, keeled leaves, the length of the corolla, permanent.
Cor. Petals five, oblong, obtufe, ere6\, tapering downwards,
inferted into the receptacle.- Stam. Eilainents five, awl-
fhaped, fhorter than the coroUa ; anthers incumbent. Pifl.
Germen fuperior, triangular, acute ; ftyle none ; ftigmas
three, acute, fpreading. Pcric. Capfule fliort, triangular,
of one cell with three valves, and a central unconnetted re-
ceptacle, half as long as the capfule. Seeds numerous,
roundifh -kidney (haped.

' E(r.

TEL

Eff. C!i. Calyx of five leaves. Petals live-, inlerted into
the receptacle. Capfule with one cell, three valves, and many
feeds.

1. T. Impetati. Green Orpine. Linn. Sp. PI. 388.
Willd. n. I. Ait. n. 1. (T. legitimum ; Cluf. Hill. v. 2.
67. Ger. Em. 520. Tilcpliio di Diofcor.ide ; Irapcrat.
Hift. Nat. 662.)— Leaves alternate.— Native of Switzer-
land, Italy, and the i'«uth of France. A hardy perennial,
kept in our botanic gardens, flowering in fumnier. Nu-
merous decumbent, round, herbaceous, leafy Jli-ms, a fpan
long, but flightly branched, fpring from the crown of the
root, fpreading in all dircftions. The leaves are fcattered,
nearly fcfiile, obovatc, entire, fmooth, ghiucous, rather fuc-
culent, an inch long, more or Icfs. Cymes terminal, foli-
tary, convex, of numerous {moolhjlo'wei-s, with white, or
pale flefli-coloured, petals.

2. T. oppofitifoUum. Barhary Orpine. Linn. Sp. PI.
388. Willd. n. 2. (T. myofotidis foliis, amplioribus, con-

jugatis ; Shaw Afric. n. 572. f. 572.) — Leaves oppofite.—
Found by Shaw in Barbary. Nothing is known of this
fpecies but from his rude figure, and (liort defcription. The
leaves arc elliptic-oblong, above an inch in length ; the lower
ones ftalkcd. Tops of the flowering brnnches recurved, as
in the Hellotropium. Petals fmall. Capfules of three valves,
with many feeds ; fo that there feems no doubt of the
genus.

Telephium, in Gardening, furnilhes a plant of the fmall
hardy perennial kind, of which the fpecies ufually cultivated
for garden ufe is the true orpine (T. imperati).

Method of Culture. — This plant is increafed by fowing the
feeds in the autumn or fpring, in dry light mould, either
where the plants are to remain, or in beds to be afterwards
planted out. They appear in the fpring, when they fliould
be kept clear from weeds, and they will flower the follow-
ing year.

It is alfo capable of being increafed fometimes by offsets,
flips, or cuttings, planted out in the fpring feafon.

It likes a dry light foil, in which it grows beft and lafts
longeft. The plants afford variety in the common borders
and clumps when placed in the fronts of thofe parts.

Telephium, a mahgnant dangerous ulcer. The term
is derived from Telephus, who was wounded by Achilles,
and whofe wound, it is faid, became before he died a difeafe
of the above kind.

TELEPHORUS, in Entomology, the Necydalis Ca-
rulefcens ; which fee.

TELESCOPE, from T)l^:, at a d'ljlance, and o-xott/d, /
fee, is an optical inftrument that enlarges the vifual angle
fubtended by a diftant objeft, and thereby is faid to magnify
it, fo as to render it vifible to the eye of an obferver. This
property of niifking diftant objefts appear clofe to the eye,
never fails to excite the furprife of every one who looks
through a telefcope for the firft time ; but few, compara-
tively fpeaking, have their curiofity fully gratified, as' it re-
gards the means by which this wonderful phenomenon is
effefted. They are told, that the tube through which they
look, contains magnifying glaffes, or polilhed ijiecula, which,
by a pecuhar arrangement, produce the furprifing effeft they
witnefs, and there the explanation ufually ends ; but it is
our province to give our readers a better account of this
aftonilhing inftrument, which we propofe to do in a fyf-
tematic manner, firfl; by giving a fliort hijlory of its inven-
tion and improvements ; fecondly, by givmg a popular ex-
planation of the theory of the dioptric conftrudion, includ-
ing the doftrine of aberrations ; thirdly, by explaining the
theory of the cata-dioptric conftruftion ; fourthly, by de-
fcribing the jnoft approved infliniments, with reference to

TEL

the drawings that reprefent their figures on their refpeftive
Hands ; fifthly, by fliewing how their magnifying poiuers may
be meafured by dynametcrs, and varied by different arrange-
ments ; and lallly, by exemplifying their iifcs in meafur-
ing fmall angles and their correfponding terreftrial diftances.
But before we proceed further with this fubjeft, we muft
requeit our readers to perufe the articles Aberration,
Catoptrics, Dioptrics, Lens, Mirror, Reflection,
Refraction, and Speculum, in the preceding volumes
of our work, in order that we may not have occafion to
repeat what would otherwife have been neceffary to be in-
troduced in this place, to render our account fufficiently
full, particularly in that part of it which relates to the
theory of fingle lenfcs.

I. The Hijlory. — The invention of the telefcope, which was
one of the nobleft that modern ages can boaft of, has ena-
bled man to raife his eyes far above the furf.ice of the globe
he inhabits, in fearch of worlds that v.-ere invifible to the
unaffiited eye ; and the more perfeft his inftrument is made,
the more celeftial bodies he difcovers fcattered through the
infinitude of endlefs fpace. Whether this invention, was
cafual, or the offspring of ratiocination, cannot perhaps be
pofitively affirmed from any exift^ing document ; but the pro-
bability is, that it was in a certain degree cafual : lenfes of
both the concave and convex formation were ufed feparately
to affift the human eye, antecedently to the conftruSion of
any telefcope ; and the general belief is, that fome accidental
placing of two lenfes, one convex and the other concave, of
different focal lengths, at fuch diftance from each other,
that the rays tranfmitted through them formed a pifture on
the retina of the eye, led to the difcovery that they poffeffed
the wonderful property of rendering a diftant body appa-
rently more large, and confequently more near, than it will
appear to the unaflifted eye, or to an eye ufing any fingle
lens whatever : this difcovery, once made, would obviouily
lead to the conftruftion ot an inftrument, in which this fimple
combination of two lenfes would be the bafis.

The honour of having conftrufted the firft telefcope,
which was no doubt of the dioptric or refrafting fort, ( from
JioTTT^o", a perfpeciive injlrument,) has been attributed to va-
rious inventors, feveral of whom may have been equally en-
titled to the claim of originality, though only one can be
confidered as the Jirjl inventor. We profefs not to be in
poffeflion of better information on this fubjeft than our pre-
deceffors were, and therefore fliall fatisfy ourfelves with the
enumeration of thofe perfons who appear to us worthy of
being put on the lift of competitors for the honour of this
noble invention. Mr. W. Molyneux has alferted, in his
" Dioptrica Nova," that our countryman Friar Bacon well
anderftood the nature of all forts of optical glaffes, and
how to combine them fo as to form fome fuch inftrument as
the telefcope ; and Samuel Molyneux, the Ion, has affirmed,
that not only the invention but conftruftion of a telefcope is
fairly attributable to Bacon, as may be collefted from various
Latin phrafes in his Opus Majus; and Dr. Jebb, who edited
this work, adduces a paffage from Bacon's maiuifcript, to
prove that he aftually applied telefcopes to aftronomical
purpofes fo long ago as in the 13th century ; the friar hav-
ing died in the year 1294.

The paffages to which Mr. Molyneux refers, in fupport
of Bacon's claims, occur in his Opus Majus, p. 348, and
P- 357- Jebb's ed. 1733. The firft is as follows: " Si
vero non fint corpora plana, per quje vifus videt, fed fphae-
rica, tunc eft magna daverfitas : nam vel concavitas corporis
eft verfus oculum vel convexitas :" whence it is inferred,
that he knew what a concave and convex glafs was. The
fecond is comprifed in a whole chapter, where he fays, " De

rlfion?

TELESCOPE.

vlfione frafta majora funt ; nam de facili patet per canoiios
fupra-dklos, quod maxima pofTuiit apparere minima, et e
contra, et longc dillantia vidcbuntur propinquiffime, cte con-
vcrfo. Nam pofl'umus iic figurare perfpicua, et taliter ca
ordinare refpeftu uoftri vifus ct rerum, quod frangentur ra-
dii, ct fledtentur quorfumcunque voluerimus, ut fub quo-
cunque angiilo voluerimus, videbimus rem prope vel longe.
Sec. Sic etiam faceremus folem et lunam et ftellas defcen-
dere fecundum apparentiam hie inferius, &c. :" i.e. greater
things than thefe may be performed by refrafted vifion ; for
it is eafy to underftand by the canons above-mentioned, that
the greatelt things may appear exceeding fmall, and on the
contrary : alfo that the moil remote objefts may appear juft
at hand, and on the contrary : for we can give fuch figures to
tranfparent bodies, and difpofe them in fuch order with rc-
fpeft to the eye and the objefts, that the rays fhall be re-
fra&ed and bent towards any place we pleafe ; fo that wi-
fhall fee the objeft near at hand or at a diftance, under any
angle we pleafe, &c. So that thus the fun, moon, and
ftars, may be made to defcend hither in appearance &c. Mr.
Molyneux has alfo cited another palTage out of Bacon's
Epillle ad Parifienfem, of the Secrets of Art and Nature,
cap. 5. to this purpofe : " Poffunt etiam fic figurari perfpi-
cua, ut longiffime pofita appareant propinqua, et e contra-
rio : ita quod ex incredibili diftantia legeremus literas minu-
tiflimas, et numeraremus res quantumque parvas, et ilellas
faceremus apparere quo velleraus ;" ;. e. glafles or diapha-
nous bodies may be formed, that the moll remote objefts
may appear juft at hand, and contrarily ; fo that we may
read the fmalltft letter at an incredible diftance, and may
number things though never fo fmall, and may make the
ftars appear as near as we pleafe.

Dr. Smith, however, who muft be confidered as having
been a competent judge of this fubjeft, was unwilling to
allow the inference, that Bacon actually made a telefcope,
and conjeftures that he only conceived in liis mind how fuch
an inftrument might be conftruftcd ; which, by the bye,
is ftlll allowing the invention, though not the conftruftion,
to have been his. But be this as it may, we find no
further notice taken of any fuch inftrument as a telefcope
until about the year 1560, when John Baptifta Porta, a
Neapolitan, is faid by Wolfius to have made a telefcope ;
but the defcription he gave of his invention in his Magia
Naturalis is fo defeftive, that Kepler declared it unintel-
ligible ; neither does it appear that this telefcope was ufed
in any celeftial obfervation. Soon after this time, -viz. in
the year 1579, according to the account of Thomas Diggcs,
in his Stratifticos, his father, Leonard Digges, had learned
from a manufcript book of the learned Bacon, how to dif-
cover objefts at a diftance, by perfpeftive glafles fet at due
angles, when the fun fhone upon them ; but it is not evi-
dent whether the conftruftion refembled that of a telefcope
or of a camera obfcura, nor whether it was of the dioptric
or catoptric kind.

According to Defcartes, .Tames Metius, while amufing
liimfclf with making mirrors and burning-glafles, happened
to look through two lenfes, one concave and the other con-
vex, placed by accident at a proper diftance from each other,
and thus difcovcred the property that fuch a combination
of glaftes pofleftes of (hewing objefts at a diftance ; this
difcovery is faid to have been neat the end of the i6th cen-
tury. The fame difcovery has been alio attributed to John
Lipperftieim, a maker of fpeftacles at Middleburgh ; but Bo-
rellus, in his book entitled " De vero Teleicopii Invcntore,"
makes Janfen, or Hanfcn, (Zacliarias Joannidcs, ) another
maker of fpeftacles at the fame place, the real inventor of
the telefcope in the year 1590; and there feems to remain
Vol. XXXV,

little doubt but that Janfon was entitled to the honour.
The account is, that after having arranged the glalTcs in a(
tube, tliis ingenious mcctianic haftened to prefe?it it to prince
Maurice, under a perfuafion that it would benefit him in his
wars ; but the fecret foon became public, and Lipperlhoim
immediately copied the invention. This firll telefcope mag-
nified about fifteen or fixteen times, and its inventor vifwed
with it tlie fpots of the moon, the body of Jupiter, and
even faw fome fmall ftars above and below his difc, which
appeared to move round him, and which therefore muft have
been his fatellites. From this fource, it is fuppofed that
Metius gained his information, as well as Cornelius Drcbell,
of Alcmaer in Holland, who afterwards made fimilar mftrii-
ments. We may alfo mention Francis Fontana, an Italian,
as one who claimed the honour of this invention in the )ear
1608 ; but from what we have already faid, of Janfen par-
ticularly, he cannot be confidered as the firft inventor,
though it is poffible that the report of fuch an invention
having taken place might incite him to devife the means of
eft^ecling a fimilar contrivance. This, it is generally undcr-
ftood, was the cafe with the famous Galileo, who, when
profeftbr of mathematics at Padua, heard it reported at
Venice, in the year 1609, that a Dutchman had prefcntcd
count Maurice of Naftau with an optical inftrument, whicli
had the property of making diftant objetfs appear as
though they were near ; but notwithftanding about twenty
years had elapfed fince the invention, the means ufed for
producing the wonderful effeft were not known ; and Galileo,
on his return to Padua, in a very few days not only contrived
but conftrufted a telefcope, which he prefented to the doge
Leonardo Donati, and to the fenate of Venice, together with
an account of the conftruftion and ufes which the inftru-
ment might be apphed to, both by fea and land ; for wlii^i
fervice it is well known that his ftipend as profeftbr was
thenceforth tripled. Among other difeoveries that were
made with Gahleo's telefcope in the heavenly regions, the
four fatellites of Jupiter were found by him to revolve round
this planet in their refpeftive periods, and were called tlie
Medkeanjlars, in honour of the houfe of Medici. This dif-
covery took place early in the year 16 10, and Gahleo, pur-
fuing his favourite ftudy till March, pubhftied at Venice his
" Nuncius Sidereus," containing an account of all his difeo-
veries, and dedicated it to Cofmo, the grand duke of Tiif-
cany, who, in a letter written by himfelf, invited the aftro-
nomer to quit Padua for an increafed ftipend, without the
labour of a Icftureftiip. The firft telefcope which Galileo
conftrufted had only a power of three times ; liis fecond was
fix times more powerful ; and his third magnified thirty-
three times, which, at fo early a date, was no contemptible
inftrument.

Hence Galileo, though evidently not the firft maker of
a telefcope, has been confidered as entitled to all the merit
that is due to fuch a noble invention, feeing he had no model
before him, nor inftruftions how to proceed in the accom-
pliftiment of his ingenious work. But though Gahleo was
fuccefsful in the conftruftion and ufes of his telefcope, which
was of the refrafting fort, with a concave eye-glafs, as we
(hall ftiew prefently, vet it remained for that fagacious ma-
thematician Kepler to explain, on philofophical principles,
the ratioihilr of that conftruclion. It was he who firft ex-
plained the nature and effefts of both the converging and
diverging rays of light, after pafting through the refpeftive
lenfes, and who demonftrated the principles by which new
arrangements might be made in the glaftes, that would pro-
duce a fupcrior inftrument. He ftiewed that in fmall obli-
quities of incidence, the angle of incidence exceeds the angle
of refraftion about three times.

Ff He

TELESCOPE.

He alfo firft proved, that in a plano-convex lens, parallel
rays are made to converge to a point which is iliftant from
the lens jult the diameter of the fpherc of convexity ; and
that, if both fides of the lens are equally convex, this point
will be at the centre of the circle of convexity. It remained
however for Cavalheri to dilcover and to prove, in cafes
where the radii of curvature of the two fides of a double-
convex lens are unequal, that as the fum of both the diame-
ters is t« one of them, fo is the other to the diltance of the
focus: and it may be proper to notice here, that the fame
rules are applicable to concave lenfes, except that the focus
is at the contrary fide of the glafs.

It is reinaikable, however, that Dcicartcs, tlie pupil of
Kepler, makes no mention of his tutor's improvements, in the
art of conllrufling a telefcope, having been carried into exe-
cution for feveral years after Gahlco's was brought into ufe.
It was not till the year 1630, that Scheincr delcribes, in his
" Rofa Urfina," the plan of fubftituting a convex inilead of
a concave eye-glafs, as fuggelled by Kepler, to be ufed for
aftronomical purpofcs, where the inverfion of the objeft is a
matter of no importance, but where the increafed field of
view is of material confequence. The iame mechanician
foon after adds a fecond convex glafs to his eye-tube, by
means of which the objefts become ereft, which addition was
no improvement to the vifion, but rather a detriment ; and
after him, Rheita gave an ereft pofition to objefts, by uiing
three fimilar lenfes in the eye-tube inilead of two, whicli
greatly improved the vifion, without other detriment than
the lofs of a little light : and becaufe Rheita's telefcope
was adapted for viewing objeAs on the earth, as well as in
the heavens, it was diflinguiflied by the name of the ter-
rejlrial telefcope, by way of diftinftion from Scheiner's
aflronomical one. In both thefe telefcopes, as well as in
Gahleo's with a concave eye-glafs, the power is eftimated
from the focus of the objeft-glafs divided by the focus of
tlie eye-glafs, as will be feen hereafter.

The iludy of dioptrics now became general, and feveral
improvements were offered by different individuals in die
conftruftion of the refrafting telefcope ; but among the real
improvers muft be placed the very ingenious Huygens, who,
being well acquainted with the aberration of tlie rays of
light arifing from the fpherical figure of the glaffes, con-
trived a better arrangement of the eye-glafles than had before
been devifed. It was however very foon found, that the
power of a telefcope of any of the preceding conftruftions,
could not be increafed by fhortening the focus of the eye-
glafs alone, beyond certain limits, without introducing great
indiftinftnefs, arifing from the fpherical aberrations ; and
that the beft mode of gaining power, without diminution of
light and diftinftnefs, is an increafe of the focal length, with-
out much increafe of aperture of the objeft-glafi ; and a
little experience (hewed, that it is neceffary to increafe this
length in the duplicate ratio of the propofed increafe of
power : i. e. in order to magnify fwlce as much, the focus
of the objeft.glafs muft be made /our times as long as that of
another telefcope that has the fame light and dittinftnefs ;
and for any other power in a fimilar proportion. The con-
fequence of this difcovery was, that different makers began
to vie with, each other, with refpeft fimply to the length of
their telefcopes : among thefe may be mentioned Euftachio
Divini at Rome ; Campani at Bologna ; fir Paul Neille,
Mr. Reive, and Mr. Cox, in England; and in Fiance,
Borelli and Auzout. The laft-mentioned mechanician fuc-
ceeded in grinding an objea-glafs of the aftonifhing length of
600 feet ; and it is faid, that Hartfocker made them even
longer than this.

It will here occur to the reader, that tubes of this enor-
10

mous length, if pradicable, could not be manageable by an
obferver ; and hence we find, that tlicfe very long objeft-
glaffes were fixed on the top of long poles, or to growing
trees, and fo contrived as to be capable of adjuilment for the
axis of vifion when turned to different altitudes, agreeably to
the required pofition of the remote eye-glafs.

But while the length of the telefcope was thus inconve-
niently increafed, and the trouble of making good obferv-
ations therewith proportionably augmented, it became a
queftion to determine in what proportion the aperture might
be enlarged with the increafe of focal length of the objeft-
glafs. Auzout wrote a paper, and delivered it to the Royal
Society in the year 1665, in which he affirmed, that the
diameter of the objedl -glafs ought always to be in a fub-
duplicate ratio of its focal length, or nearly fo ; and accord-
ingly drew up a table of apertures fuitable tor all focal lengths,
from 4 inches to 400 feet : upon which Dr. Hooke very
properly remarked, that the fame glafs may have its aper-
ture advantageoufly enlarged or diminifned, according to the
quantity of light proceeding from the objeft viewed.

While powerful telefcopes were thus obliged to be un-
manageably long, and obtained the name of flfWa/ telefcopes,
from thecircumilance of their having no tubes to be inclofed
in, the immortal Newton had his penetrating mind occupied
with meditated improvements on the figure and airangement
of lenfes, and proceeding, as he always did, on rational prin-
ciples, difcovered, from the elongated and coloured fpec-
trum formed by rays of light palfing through a triangular
prifm, and from experiments calculated to inveftigate the
caufe of fucli an oblong form and coloured appearance, that
light is not homogeneous, and that different rays are dif-
ferently refrangible, when tranfmitted through the fame
medium. This grand difcovery prefented difficulties
Handing in the way of tlie improvement of the refradling or
dioptric telefcope, apparently much greater than tliofe which
had previoufly been difcovered, as arifing only out of the
fpherical figure of the glaffes ; and all hope of fuccefs in
making (hort telefcopes of great power, and yet with fuf-
ficient light and diftinftnefs, but without an admixture of
coloured rays, was given up.

Yet to a mind like Newton's, it natur.ally occurred, that
what could not be praftically effetled by refradlion, might
probably be accompliihed by refleftion of the rays of light
into a focus, where, as there would be no feparation of the
colorific rays by a refrafting medium, there would be ne
colour nor elongation of the focal point, arifing from any
other aberration, than w'hat might be caufed by the figure of
the reflefting furface ; he therefore abandoned his propofed
plan of grinding lenfes after the figure of fonie of the conic
feftions, (for which fir Chriftopher Wren contrived a
machine,) to avoid the efFefts of fpherical aberration in
dioptric telefcopes, and turned his mind to the improvement
of catoptric or rather cata-dioptric telefcopes, which had
been previoufly propofed to Defcartes by Merfenne, and
aftually conilrufted by James Gregory of Aberdeen.
The compofition for the bell metal for refleftion, and the
mode of grinding an(J polilhing, as propofed and praftifed
by Newton, we have already detailed under our article
Speculum ; but as reflefling telefcopes have been con-
ftruftcd differently, we will here introduce a fhort account
of the refpeftive differences, before we refumethe remaining
narrative of the improvenj- nts in dioptric telefcopes. The
firft conftruftion of the refiefling telefcope was the Grego-
rian, and moil of the portable refleftors continue to be of
this conftrudtion at the prefent day : its large fpeculum is
concave, perforated at the centre, and placed at the interior
end of the large tube ; and the fmall rellettoris alfo concave,

placed

TELESCOPE.

placed oppofite the central hole of tlie larcre one, in fuch an
adjuftable manner, that the rays, after a fecond rcflcftion,
crofs one another, and come to the eye-glafs in fuch a way,
that an ereS pifture of the objeft, or rather of the image of
the object, is formed on the retina of the eye. In this con-
ftruftion, it has been fuppofed that the figure of tlie large
concave fpeculum ought to be truly parabolic, bccaufc this
is the figure recommended by Newton for his conllruilion ;
but this conclufion is erroneous ; for it is the joint effeft of
both the fpecula that muil be adverted to in tlicirrefpcftive
figures, fo that the rays may come without aberration to the
eye-glafs after bolh reflexions ; and in order to produce this
joint effeft, the curve of the large fpeculum muft be fome-
what more than parabolic, ■u/'z. approaching to hyperbolic,
becaufe the finall fpeculum is alfo concave, and has its fepa-
rate aberration.

In the Newtonian conftruAion, the large fpeculum is, or
ought to be, truly parabolic, and the fmall one plane, fet
diagonally at an angle of 45° ; fo that the rays, after the
fecond refleftion, come to the eye-tube on the JtJe of the
large tube, and near its aperture : the rays do not crofs
here, but come to a focus at the eye-glafs, where the objeft
is reprefented inverted and well defined, as well as bright ;
for when the rays fall obliquely on the fmall refleftor, they
are almoil all reflefted without difperfion, which is an ad-
vantage that this conftruftion has over the Gregorian.
When the Newtonian telefcope was propofed to Huygens,
he had the candour to acknowledge, which proved to be the
faft, that there would not be that limit to the apertnre of a
refleftor, that is prefcribed by natural neceffity to that of a
refraftor, and that the power as well as light may be made
far to exceed thofe of the latter.

The next conftruftion of a reflefting telefcope was that
of Caflegrain, defcribed in the Philofophical Tranfaftions
of the year 1672. This differs from the Gregorian only in
this particular, that the fmall fpeculum is convex, and the
focus of the large or concave one may be longer than is re-
quired in the other, for the fame length of tube ; the rays
do not crojs after the fecond refleftion, and confequently the
objeft is feen inverted, as in the Newtonian : but here the
curve of the large fpeculum is lefs than parabolic, in order
that the joint effedl of both the refleftions may be an ex-
emption from aberration. Tliis adjuftment of the figures of
the metallic furfaces is beft underilood and accomplifhed by
the firft-rate opticians, and is but little known to mere
theorifts.

Of the Herfchelian telefcope we (hall only fay, in this
place, that it differs from the Newtonian in no other refpeft,
except in its fize and powers, and that the fecond refleftor
is difpenfed with, the length of the tube being equal to the
focal diftance of the large fpeculum, and the head of the ob-
ferver being confequently placed at the upper end or aper-
ture of the tube ; fo that, in this conllruftion, as little light
as poffible is left from the fingle refleftion, the principal lofs
being that which is intercepted, on its entrance into the tube,
by the head of the obi'ervcr. The parabolic curve for the
face of the fpeculum is equally proper for the Herfchelian as
for the Newtonian telefcope.

From thefe fhort hiftorical notices it will be feen, that
Merfenne firft fuggefted the hint for conftrufting a reflefting
telefcope, which muft have been before the year 1651, when
his Catoptrics were printed ; or, according to Defcartes'
third and twenty-ninth letters, written in 1639, though not
pubhfhed till 1666, before thefe letters were written. Gre-
gory, who might or might not have feen Merfenne's fug-
s;eflion, publifhed an account of his conflruclion in his
" Optica Promota," in the year 1663 ; but as he was not

a fkilful mechanic himfelf, it is undcrllood that his telefcope
was but an indifferent one, and that the theory of his con-
ftruftion was not completely reahzed to his wifh. At this
junrtn-e, fir Ifaac Newton, who was a good mechanician,
as well as mnthematician and experiment.il philofopher, took
the fubjeft into his confideration, and, by his fucccfsful
labonrs, prevented tlie invention from faUing into oblivion.
His proceedings met with interruption from the occurrence
of the plague; but about the end of the year 1668, he be-
gan his experiments on fpeculum metal, and, in the year
1672, produced two fmall refleding telefcopes. I:i thefe,
the large fpecula were ground into a fpherical concave fur-
faccj as being the cafieft to execute ; but he was aware that
the p:i: ibolic curve, recommended by Gregory, would be
preferable, when it could be accomplifhed by mechanical
contrivances, which he judged to be within the reach of
human ingenuity. The refult of thefe 'abours was communi-
cated to the Royal Society of London ; and, through tlie
medium of their fecretary, Mr. Oldenburgh, to the in-
genious Huygens, who teflified liis approval of this con-
ftruftion in an account which was pubhfhed in the Journal
des S9avans for the year 1672 : and in this way, nearly the
whole of Europe became acquainted with the Newtonian con-
fi:ruftion. In the mean time, Caffegrain, a Frenchman, who
had varied Gregory's conflrudtion, by iubflituting a convex
inilead of a concave fmall fpeculum, as we have already
ftated, in the fame journal (des Sgavans, 1 672), contefted
the honour of having been the firfl improver of the original
Gregorian telefcope ; which claim drew from Newton fe-
veral objeftions to Caffegrain's conftruftion, that will indeed
apply equally to the Gregorian. We have, however, re-
cently witneffed in captain Kater an advocate for CafTe-
grain's telefcope, in preference to that of Gregory, (fee
Phil. Tranf. of London, 1813 and 1814,) principally with
refpeft to the brightnefs and diflinftnefs of objects refpec-
tively feen by them ; and his conclufion is, that much of the
light is difTipated by the crojftng of the rays in the focal point,
which is a doftrine waiting for confirmation. In Caffe-
grain's telefcope, the pifture of the objeft itfelf is viewed
by the eye ; but in Gregory's, the pifture of the image
reprefenting the objeft at the point of croffing is only
viewed ; which circumftance coiiititutes the effential dif-
ference in the two conflruftions : and it is very probable
that the light proceeding from tlie image of an objeft may
not be fo vivid as that proceeding from the objeft itfelf, of
which the image may be confidercd as a lefs enlightened
reprefentation.

It is remarkable that no improvement was made on New-
ton's fmall telefcopes till about the year 1723, when Hadley
prefented to the Royal Society a reflefting telefcope of
Newton's conftruftion, in which the focus of the fpeculunn
was 10 feet ^\ inches. Though Newton's were only
fix inches long each, they were compared to the fix-feet
refraftors, fuch as were made at that time ; but what muft
have been the public feeUng, when Hadley produced his
enlarged inftrunient ! This was found at leait equal in power
to the famous Huygenian refraftor of 123 feet ; at leaft, its
power and diflinftnefs were equal, though the light was not
quite fo bright.

Since Hadley's time, the reflefting telefcope has ex-
perienced confiderable improvements from the labours of
Mr. Short, Mr. Mudge, the Rev. John Edwards, Dr.
Herfchel (now fir William Herfchel), and others who are
our own contemporaries.

But while reflefting telefcopes were undergoing their

various improvements, and were fuperfcding the ufe of the

long refraftors, the idea of concfting both the fphericnl and

F f 2 prifmatic

TELESCOPE.

prifmalic aberrations was not abawloned. We tiave already
alTertcd, under our article Circle, that Cheftcr More
Hall, efq. of More Hall in EfTex, fo long ago as in the
year 1729, conilrudcd telefcopes of different glaffes ; fome
of which have been prefervcd, and found, on examination, to
be of the achromatic kind, though not known by this de-
fignation. But as we are not in pofTcffion of any record
refpefting the invention and mode of conltrufting fucli
telcfcope, we do not prefume to fay that this was the arche-
type of the modern achromatic inftrument ; and, therefore,
\vc do not conlider it as detradting from the merit of the
philofophic optician, who afterwards deduced the principles
of the invention from accurate and ingenious experiments,
and made known his fuccefsful application of them at a time
when his claim to originality might have been difputed, if
the prior invention had been then divulged.

It was not till about the year 1747 that Euler, not
knowing what had been done by Hall, and profiting by a
hint that had been fuggefted by fir Ifaac Newton, conceived
the plan of conftrutting an objeft-glafs of two iuch ma-
terials, of different refractive powers, as might counteract,
by repeated refraSions, the- diiperfioii of the differently re-
frangible rays, and thus bring all the rays into one focal
point, fo as to admit of a highly magnifying eye-piece.
Accordingly two objeft-glaffes were fo incloied in a box, as
to include clear water between them, to be ufed inilead of a
fingle lens ; and though the experiment failed of fuccefe,
the memoir, written by Euler on the occafion, attracted
the attention of the late Mr. J. DoUond, mathematical-
inftrument maker of London, who foon after fet about
making experiments, as Newton had done, to afcertain if the
refraflive and difperfive powers of various tranfparent fnlj-
ftances are in a conftar.t ratio, with the view of compound-
ing, which he at length effefted, an objed-glafs that would
bring the rays of light tranfmittcd through it to a focal
point, without the prifmatic aberration.

In the memoir which Euler had written, and which was
publjfhed in the BerHn Memoirs of 1747, he affumed that
the indices of refraftion might be expreiTed by the powers of
a certain invai-iable root, and that the exponents of thofe
powers are proportional for the different rays of lisrht pafling
through different media. This paper coming to the hands
of the ingenious DoUond, excited his attention ; and in the
year J753 he addreffed a letter to James Short, " concerning
a miftake in M. Euler's theorem for correfting the aber-
rations in the objeft-glafTes of refrafting telefcopes ;" which
letter was pubhfhed in the Philofophical Tranfaftions of the
fame year ; the objeA of which was to prove that Euler had
affumed an hypothefis, as the bafis of his calcuLations, which
was contrary to both realon and experiment, or, as Short
obferves in his accompanying letter, " contrary to the efta-
bhfhed principles of optics." To this Euler replied, and
maintained that his optical principle was a true law of na-
ture ; but the practical tcfl of its truth was wanting, the uje
that it was intended to be put to.

In 1754, the Swedifh geometer KHngenfliema took up
the fubjeft, which now attrafted the attention of various
mathematicians, and attempted to prove that the Newtonian
principle, oppofed to Euler's, is in fome extreme cafes irre-
concileable with natural phenomena, and tlierefore ought not
to be received as a law of nature. DoUond, therefore, thus
oppofed, had recourfe to aftual experiment, agreeably to
Newton's plan of philofophizing ; and, rejefting the pro-
pofal of putting water between two menifci, with a view of
<;orredling the prifmatic aberrations by a number of refrac-
tions, proceeded to inflitute a regular feries of experiments,
■n order to determine what could be done by the oppofite

refratlions of different diaphanous media; and as tliefe ex-*
periments were the foundation of all the improvements that
have followed in the conllruCtion of colourlefs, or what Dr.
Bevis denominated achromatic, objedl-glafTes of a refracting
telefcope, we fhall here introduce a fummary account of
them.

In the iirft place, DoUond contrived to form a hollow in-
verted pyramid with two oppofite fides of glafs, asinjff. I,
Plate XXIV. yljlrotwtmcal Inftruments, and placed in an in-
verted pofition, within a triangular and equilateral prifm of
glafs, to reft as reprefented in the figure. The veffel was
then filled with clear water, and a ray of light made to pafs
through both the water and glafs prifm : the angle at the
junction of the glafs plates, clofing the veffel, was capable
of enlargement or diminution ; and the glafs fides were made
to recede or approach, until an objetl feen through the water
and glafs prifm was in its true place, i. e. until the refrac-
tion of the water balanced the oppofite refraction of the
glafs. The refult of this experiment proved contrary to
what had been expetted from Newton's experiments, I'/'z.
an external objeft feen through this compound prifm was
fringed with colours. But to be quite fure that there was
no deception in the appearance, a glafs prifm, formed to an
acute angle of only 9 degrees, was fubftituted, which was
alfo more convenient for the experiment, and then the
veffel was clofed, as in Jig. 2, until the oppofite refradlions
balaiiced each other as before ; but ftill the objeft viewed
through the compound prifm was tinged with the prifmatic
colours. The mean rays in thefe trials proceeded in a
flraight hne, after quitting the iecond wedge of water ; but
the extreme rays were deflefted, or turned refpeftively out
from exaft parallelifm.

After having thus afcertained that equal and oppofite re-
fractions of glafs and water will not dellroy the colours, the
author varied the experiment, by altering the wedges of
water, till he found that the refraction occafioned by the
water muft be to that occafioned by the glafs as 5 : 4, be-
fore the colours will difappear. The next ftep was to purfue
the proportions thus alcertained, in the conflruftion of an
objedl-glafs containing water ; but after uniting a deep and
double convex lens of pure water with a concave one of
glafs, the objeft feen through the tclefcope with this com-
pound objeft-glafs was indeed free from colour, but by no
means fo diftinft as was defired, and confequently the
fpherical aberration yet remained. This tclefcope was made
in 1757, and ferved to prove that the feparation of the ex-
treme rays, or what has fince been called the difperfive
poiver, in the cafe of an union of glafs with water, is not
proportioned \.o the viean refradion ; as fir Ifaac Newton had
afferted it to be, in the fame experiment (fee Newton's
Optics, p. 112, 3d edit.): confequently the idea muft now
have occurred of trying other diaphanous fubftances with
different refradtive powers, to fee what the difperfion would
be in them. After an interval of fome time, during which
different kinds of glafs were procured, the ingenious and
perfevering artift found, for the firft time in the year 1757,
that the difperfive power of the cryftal or white JUnt-^^Ss
was greater than that of the Enghlh rrown-glafs, and alfo
that the power of the latter was very fimilar to that of the
Venice ftraw-coloured glafs. He determined, therefore, to
try a wedge of flint-glafs, and another of crown-glafs,
formed to different angles, as '^^ Jig- 3, until, when reverfed,
their oppofite refraftions were equal ; which equality took
place, when their angles were refpectively 25 degrees and
29 degrees ; in which cafe, the fines of half the angles, or
the indices of their refraftions, were 216 : 250, or nearly as
19 ; 22. But though the direftion of the pencil of light

TELESCOPE.

was now u-nclianged, as was expefted, the compound rays
had not all ti.e fame divergence. The fhape of the wedges
was then modified, fo that the colours difappcai-cd by a due
oppoCtion of their refpeftive difperilons ; and when this was
effeiited, the refraftive powers of the two wedges were
four.d nearly 2:3; and, confequently, the fines of half
their angles, 19 : 33 ; which ratio is nearly 4 : 7. In this
fjtuation of the wedges, the rays which enter parallel emerge
alfo parallel, while they are equally deflefted from the points
of emergence. Thefe refults may be obtained very (Irikiiigly
by d.n union of four wedges, or pair of compound wedges,
as reprefented in Jig. 4, where tlie crown receives the rays
firft, and where the rays, at equal diftances from the central
line of union, meet always at the fame point. This, (here-
fcre, pointed out the conftruftion of a double objciil-glafs,
fuch as is reprefented in Jig. 5, in which the convex curve
of the crown-glafs is to the concave curve of the flint of
given qualities nearly as 7 : 4, or nearly in the ratio of their
refpeftive difperfive powers. But to avoid the too great
cffeft of fpherical aberration, arifing from the quick curves,
the fingle convex lens of crown-glafs was made into a double
convex, with double the radius of convexity ; and alfo the
fingle concave might be made double, with a fimilar increafe
in its radius of concavity, to anfwer the fame purpofe as the
combination laft defcribed. But, in this cafe, the con-
vexity of one glafs would not fit the concavity of the other,
fo as to come nearly in contadf throughout : it appeared ne-
cefTary, therefore, that while the internal faces fitted each
other, the external concavity of the flint-glafs Ihould be
eight times lefs, or of longer radius than before propofed,
in order to maintain the balance of oppofite difperfions ; or
otherwife, as in Jig. 6, if the double concave faces of flint-
glafs remain as above ftated, the front convexity of the
crown-glafs muft be five-fevenths of the due curvature, as
propofed above ; while the inner furface remains in perfeft
contaft with the concavity of the other. In thefe com-
binations, the fuperior refraftion of the convex lens, being
diminiflied one-third part by the oppofing refraftive power
of the concave lens, required this convex to be ground and
poliflied to a focus three times fliorter than would be required
for the fame lens ufed fingly ; and the option, that is af-
forded the artift:, of varying the curves at pleafure, provided
the combined effedf of the compound lens fliall produce a
proper effeft in banifliing the colours, admits of a modifica-
tion that will correft the fpherical aberration alfo, in a great
meafure. Telefcopes on this achromatic principle were firft
conftrufled in the year 1758, and when their merit was
once acknowledged, the great number that the inventor and
his fucceffors have had occafion to make, both for fale
among their cuftomers, and for exportation, have afforded
them the eafy means of trying a variety of concave and con-
vex glaffes together in fuccelTion, before they were finally
paired ; fo tliat their fuccefs not only originated in, but has
been continued by, the aid of experiments, which no one
but the Dollonds has had the power of executing to fo great
an extent. See Dollond.

Nor was J. DoUond's fuccefs confined to the manipula-
tion of objedl -glaffes alone ; he had previoutly contrived and
conftrudfed the improved fyftem of eye-glaffes, in which
object he was followed by his fon-in-law, Ramfden.

This improvement confifted in extending the ufual number
of eye-glaffes to five, fo fyftematically arranged, that by
dividing the errors of fpherical aberration, they reduced
their amount to an inconfiderable quantity.

The value of this arrangement will be befl underftood
from his own words, which we will extraft from his
letter, publifhed in the Pliilofophical Tranfaftions of the

year 1753. " If any one," fays he, " would have the
vifual angle of a tclefcope to contain 20 degrees, the ex-
treme pencils of the field muft be bent or refradcd in an
angle of 10 degrees; which, if it be performed by one eyc-
glafs, will caufe an aberration from the figure in propor-
tion to the cube of that angle; but if two glaffes are fo
proportioned and fituated, as that liie refraaion may be
equ.illy divided between tlicm, they will each of them pro-
duce a refradion equal to half tlie required angle; and,
therefore, the aberration being in proportion to the cube
of half tile angle taken twice over, will be but a fourth
part of that, which is in proportion to the cube of the
whole angle ; bccaufo twice the cube of one, is but one-fourth
the cube of two ; fo the aberration from the figure, where
two eye-glaffes are rightly proportioned, is but a fourth of
what mull unavoidably be, where the whole is performed
by a fingle eye-glafs. By the fame way of reafoning, when
tlie refraiSion is divided between three glaflcs, the aberration
will be found to be but the ninth part of what would be
produced from a fingle glafs ; becaufe three times the cube
of one, is but one-ninth the cube of three. Whence it
appears, that by increafing the number of eye-glaffes, the
indifKnftnefs which is obferved near the borders of the field
of a telefcope, may be very much diminithed, though not
entirely taken away."

We have given this quotation at full length to fhew, that
in liis adoption of feveral glaffes in an eye-piece, the inge-
nious mechanic was not entirely indebted to his experiments,
unafTifled by reafoning and mathematical inferences, and
accordingly the Royal Society rewarded his fkilful labours
with Copley's medal. John Dollond was fucceeded in his
bufinefs by his no lefs ingenious and induftrious fon, Peter
Dollond, who improved the achromatic objeft-glafs IHII
further, by placing a double concave flint-glafs between two
convex ones of crown-glafs, as in ^g. 7. and by enlarging
the aperture to 31^ inches in a 45-inch telefcope ; of thefe,
a great number has been manufaftured, and feveral of five-
feet focal length. His calculations of the radii of convexity
and of concavity were never pubhcly made known ; and
perhaps conftituted a fecret, on which the continuance of
his celebrity depended, when the time of his father's patent
had expired. The bufinefs is now fuccefsfuUy condufted
by G. Dollond, the nephew, to whom we are indebted for
much liberal information ; but at no period had any of the
Dollonds an agent in Paris, as is faid in the new Supple-
ment to the Encyc. Britannica. For feveral years from the
time of the eldeff Dollond's death, the foreign TranfaAions
were crowded with differtations and memoirs on the combi-
nations of achromatic lenfes mathematically determined, and
tlie fubjeft afforded ample fcope for the geometrical and
analytical refearches of an Euler, a Clairaut, and a D'Alem-
bert, as well as for Bofcovich, Klingenflierna, Ksftner,
and Hennert : but in this, as in fome other fpeculative in-
vefligations, the labours of the profound mathematician
have not much benefited the practical advancement of the
art to which thefe labours have been direded ; nay, they
have tended to keep at a diflance from each other the mathe-
matician and the mechanic.

Bofcovich's eye-piece, however, may be confidered as
conflituting an exception to the preceding remark, and de-
ferves here to be particularly noticed. According to one
of his theorems, an eye-piece free from colours may be
compofed of two fimilar lenfes of the faine glafs, provided
they be placed from each other juft one-half of the fum of
their focal diftances ; which is very fimilar to the eye-glafs
now commonly adopted, in preference to a fingle lens, ia
the common allronoinical rcfrafting telefcope, the only dif-

fcrcnce

TELESCOPE.

ference being, that in Bofcovich's the lenfcs are of equal
convexity ; whereas, in the common improved aftronomical
rye-piece, the iinier lens has a longer focus than the outer
one, in the ratio of 3 : i, and being both plano-convex, they
both have their curved faces turned towards the objeft-
glafs.

From the preceding experiments of the Dollonds, have
refulted all th- advantages that the achromatic refrafting
tclefcopes pofTefs over the long telefcopes with fimplc
objefl-glafTes, and wliich have put them in competition with
the beft refleftors in the eflential quahtics of power, light,
and diftinclnefs of vifion. There is, however, an iniper-
feflion, notwithftanding Dollond's great n<ill and perfever-
anco, which remains yet to be overcome, if it is not in-
vincible, which is, that while the colours occafioned by the
extreme rays are correfted with fufficient accuracy by the
compoinid objeft-glafs, yet the intermediate rays are not
perfeftly corrcfted ; and if any media can be fo modified as
to correft all the rays that fall on every point of the furface
of the objeft-glafs, fo as to make them unite at the fame
point in the hne of the axis ; then, and not till then, will
the objeft-^lafs be quite perfeft. Peter, the fon of John
DoUond, who, we have faid, fucceeded to his father's bufi-
ncfs, purfued this fubjeft after his father's death ; and in
the year 1765, communicated to the Royal Society by letter
the rofult of his experiments. He remarks, that when
his father had made objeft-glafles of one convex lens of
crown-glafs, and of one concave of flint-glafs, to be ufed
with convex eye-glaffes, it was found that the excefs of
aberration was in the convex portion of the com.pound
objcdl-glafs, and that the equaUty of the counterafting
aberrations could not be carried to any great diftance from
the centre of the glaffes ; he therefore attempted, about the
year 1758, to make {hort objeft-glafles of the fame fort,
to be ufed with concave eye-glafles ; but it was found, that,
as the field of view, in ufing a concave eye-glafs, depended
on the aperture of the objeft-glafs, the limits of the aper-
ture were too confined with a double objeft-glafs. This
trial led the fenior DoUond to a conclufion, which the
fon took up, and profited by ; namely, that the excefs of
fpherical aberration, occafioned by one double convex lens
of crown-glafs, might be diminifhed by fubftituting two
plano-convex lenfes of fimilar glafs and curves, placed one
at each fide of the double concave of flint-glafs. The
fenior Dollond had fucceeded with this conftruftion when
a concave eye-glafs was ufed, and when the compound focus
was fhort ; but it remained for the fon to complete a long
objeft-glafs of this conftruftion, to be ufed with convex
eye-glaffes ; which he fucceeded in doing, firft with a tele-
fcope of 5-fcet focus, and 3! inches aperture, and afterwards
with a 3H-feet one of the fame aperture, which he invited
the Royal Society to fee, and which was the prototype of
the numerous achromatic telefcopes of the fame dimenfions,
which have been fince conftrufted and difperfed by fale
through all the regions of the globe.

Among the firft achromatic telefcopes made by P. Dol-
lond, was one purchafed by the due de Chaulnes, who ex-
amined very minutely the radii of the refpcftive glafles, and
publiftied an account of them in French meafures, which,
converted into Enghfti inches, will ftand thus ; 32.4 and
40.8 for the outer convex of crown-glafs j 22.2 and 30.6
for the double concave of flint ; and 30.6 with 35.5
for the inner convex of crown-glafs ; but as the gunlities
of the refpeftive glafl'cs are not fpecified, no ufeful in-
ference can be drawn for the conftruftion of another tele-
fcope, in which the glafs of each lens may be of another
quality. This telefcope, we learn from the prefent Mr.

G. Dollond, had a focal length of 46 inches : and the five-
feet telefcopes fubfequently made, have each an aperture of
four inches : but the largeft and beft telefcope of the achro-
matic kind ever made by P. Dollond, is that of ten-feet
focus, and five inches aperture, lately converted into a
fuperb tranfit inftrument by Mr. Troughton, and placed in
Greenwich Obfervatory. See Transit In/lrumsnt.

Soon after Peter Dollond's telefcopes began to be in re-
pute, namely, in the year 1759, Benjamin Martin, at the
fame time a mathematician and a mechanic, who had long
turned his attention to the conftruftion of telefcopes, and
defcribed various conftruftions, publifli:d his " New Ele-
ments of Optics," a book now, like Edwards's Treatife,
extremely fcarce, in which he has entered more minutely into
the doftrif! ' of both kinds of aberrations, as they relate to
praftice,'.han any other author ha", done, cither before or fince.
He not only followed the fteps of J. Dollond in determin-
ing by glafs wedges or prifms the relative refraftive and dif-
perfive powers of different fpecimens of glafs, but ground
fingle objeft-gkfles of feveral kinds of glafs, v/ith tools of
the fame radius, and then compared the geometrical foci of
each with the refrafted or real foci, by nice meafurements :
by this means he afcertained the difference between the focus
determined theoretically from t'ne known radius, and the
real or praftical focus of the refrafted rays in each glafs by
meafurement, confidering at the fame time the diftance of the
radiant point : and thus he gained, as we ftiall have occafion
to fliew more particularly hereafter, the ratio between the
fine of the angle of incidence and of the angle of refraftion
in each feparate fpecimen, which ratio, in a ray pafllng from
air into glafs, had been aflumed in all former optical theo-
rems as 3 : 2 in all kinds of glafs, and confequently the
focus for parallel rays had been put equal to radius in dou-
ble convex lenfes, and alfo equal to the diameter in fingle
convex, without regard to the quality of the glafs, with re-
fpeft to its refraftive power. The reS'tJication of the old
theorem, founded on the conftant ratio 3 : 2, formed the
bafis of the " New Elements of Optics," in which one half of
the difference between the old theoretic and the refrafted, or

"p

praftical foci was called a, and then — = F with parallel

z a

rays became the bafis of the reftified theorems, which we pro-

pofe to give prefently in their proper place. According to

thefe new elements, and from a meafurement of the angles of

difperfion, or of the coloured fpeftra contained between the

extreme rays, as given by a prifm of flint, and another of

crown-glafs refpeftively, the ratio of which he determined

to be as 5 : 3, he calculated that " the radii of the lenfes

muft have the fame proportion as the differences of the fines

of incidence and refraftion in red and violet rays, in prifms of

equal refrafting angles of white and crown glafs ;" and that,

therefore, " the radii [or foci] of the lenfes muft have the

fame proportion as the angles of diffipation in refraftions by

fuch prifms ; and, of courfe, the fame proportion as the lengths

of the coloured fpeftra produced thereby." From thefe

eonfiderations the author concludes, that " hi all cafes of a

compound lens for producing vifion without colours, the

ratio of the radii, r and R, of the concave and convex lenfes

(when two only are ufed) muft be that of 5 : 3 ; and that

then the ratio of their focal diftances for parallel rays will be

that of 3 : 2 nearly. The ratio of the foci of two lenfes

being thus determined that fhall make the colours vanifh, the

longitudinal aberration arifing from the refpeftive curves

was next confidered ; and in doing this, care was taken that

the comparative foci of the two lenfes was not to be altered

by an alteration in the curves now to be reftified. By Huy-

gens's

TELESCOPE.

gens's general theorem, the aberration arifing from the curves
of any lens may be determined and compated ; and it being
known from this theorem, that the longitudinal abeh-ation is
equal to ':ds of the thicknefs of a double convex lens of
equal radii, a double concave was determined from an equa-
tion of this aberration fuch, that its contrary aberration
might counteract the aberration of the alTumed convex lens
of equal radii ; and the numbers thus produced for tlie radii
of the double convex of crown-glafs, and of tlie double
concave of flint refpcclively, were 8.36, 8.36, 10, and 23
inches, in which the focal diltances of tlie two lenfes are faid
to be nearly as 2 : 3. In this combination, the compound
focus is ftated to be 23.3 inches, and the radius r = 22
is contiguous to the convex glafs. Other calculations were
alfo made where the radii of the convex lens were unequal,
as well as thofe of the concave, but we do not learn that
a good achromatic objeft-glafs, put together agreeably to
Martin's calculations, was ever yet conftrudled. In the in-
ftance before us, it is evident that the curve 8.36, coming in
contaft with the concave 23, muft touch it in the middle,
and therefore the proportions are imprafticable.

While thefe various improvements in the conftruftion af a
telefcope were going on, we muft. not omit to mention that
different kinds of micrometers were applied to it fucceflively,
by different ingenious men, for the purpofe of meafuring
fmall angles ; by which addition, the fcience of aflronomy
has been greatly promoted. Among thofe promoters of this
noble fcience, may be enumerated|Auzout,Gafcoigne,Hooke,
Le Fevre, Kirchius, Caffini, Fouchy, HoUman, B. Martin,
Savery, J. Dollond, Dr. Maflcelyne, Ramfden, Dr. Her-
fchel, Smeaton, Rochon, Kjcftner, Cavallo, Troughton,
and Arago, the prefent aflronomer royal of France.

But it remained for the ingenious optician of Iflington,
C. Tulley, to whom we are indebted for much valuable in-
formation on the fubjeft of our prefent inquiries, to calcu-
late and manufafture, from any two given fpecimens of
crown and flint glafs, a double objeft-glafs that fhall, gene-
rally fpeaking, be found both achromatic, and alio as free
from the effects of fpherical aberration as art can make it.

After this artiil had made himfelf mafter of Martin's
propofed plan of compounding cm achromatic objeft-glafs,
he found that the curves calculated for this purpofe woidd
not produce their defired effeft with any fpecimens of glafs
that could be procured ; but ftill he thought that a careful
repetition of Martin's experiments might lead to refults fa-
vourable to his views, when fome modification was made in
their application. He therefore, in the year 1800, obtamed
fix forts of glafs, differing in fpecilic gravity, and ground
them all to the fame radius by a toolof fpeculiim metal, that
did not much alter its figure by attrition in grinding, and in
giving a partial polifh : thefe lenfes were fitted fucceflively
to one cell, that was received by a tube having an eye-piece
at the oppofite end, in order that the folar focus of the re-
frafted rays might be the more accurately meafured with
each glafs ufed as an objeft-glafs of a telefcope ; and though
the pohfh was imperfetl in thefe lenfes, ground and partially
polifhed by the fame tool, yet the image of the fun was
clearly defined by them. Thefe focal diflances, limited by
the folar image, were in the next place meafured carefully by
a nicely divided fcale, and were found to differ from one an-
other conliderably, as we fhall hereafter have occafion to
Hate more particularly : the radius of curvature of the tool
was alfo afcertained with equal care, and ft,und to exceed in
length the longeft of the focal lengths of the ref rafted rays.
The radius of the tool was then divided by each of the re-
frafted focal lengths, and the quotients were called fo many
divifors or multipliers, accordingly as tlic geometrical was

to be determined from the rcfrafted focus, or the contrary.
Thefe quotients, therefore, bore the fame proportion to
unity, that the geometrical focus bore to the refrafted focus
of each lens, and turned out to be very nearly the fame quan-
tities that Martin had determined with glaffes of fimilar
qualities, and th.it he denoted by the exprefTion : n in his
reftihed theorems. In faft, they were the numbers from
which the ratio of the fines of tlie angles of incidrnce to the
fines of the angles of refraction were accurately determined,
as will be explained hereafter. The fpecific gravities of the
different lenfes were then taken with a good liydroftatic
balance, and were found to iiicreafe with their correfpond-
ing divifors, but not in a regular proportion. From thefe
experiments a fet of tables was conftrufted, containing in
parallel columns, both for crown and flint glafs, tlie fpecific
gravities, varying from 3.466 to 2.428, together with the
correfponding ratios of the lines of the angles of incidence
and of refraction ; and alfo the ratios of the two curves,
that fhall produce an alTigiied longitudinal fpherical aber-
ration in any lens ; all which calculations are extended from
the ratios 1:1,1: i.oi, i : 1.02, &c. in fucccflion, up
to 1:6, where the aberration is a minimum, as was long
ago determined by Huygens : and wliat is worthy of re-
mark, the French plate-glafs, wliicli had the fpecific gra-
vity lowefl, and its divlfor only 1.004, '""^ which, confe-
quently, had its refracted focus nearly equal to its geometri-
cal focus, was, in all probability, fimilar to the glafs manu-
factured at the time when the experiments of fir Ifaac New-
ton were made, from which the original optical theorems
were framed. From thefe tables, our Ikilful optician takes his
curves by infpeftion fuitable for glafs of any given fpecific
gravity, fuch as will fuit his tools for telefcopes of difl"erent
lengths ; and having as it were the command of the whole
range of varying ratios, he can immciliately fix on fuitable
curves for any glafs, and for any compound focal length, or
even afTign a fellow that fhall match any practicable lens, con-
vex or concave, that has been previoufly poliflied. Such is
the faciUty which this ingenious and perievcring optician has
attained in the highcfl branch of his art, whilll, at the fame
time, his fliill in grinding, pohfhing, and centering his glalfes,
is not exceeded by any other artifl. The principal deviation
from Martin's rules, that Tulley found it neceflary to adopt
in his practice, is the application of a corrt-iling number to the
calculated or tabulated aberration arifing from the figure of
the fiint-glafs, on account of its difference of refractive power,
as compared with that of the crown-glals : in order to gain
which correcting number in all different cafes, he firR reduces
the geometrical foci of the two feparate lenfes into the re-
fraCted foci by his divifor = Martin's 2 a, and extr.iCts the
fquare root of the cubes of thofe refraCted foci refpectively ;
then dividing the root of the flint-glafs by the root of the
crown-glafs, he gains the correSing divifor, by which the
calculated aberration of the flint-glais is divided, to pro-
duce the corrected aberration for the concave lens ; which lens
mull now have its radii determined agreeably to this cor-
rected aberration from the general theorem, or may be
taken from the tables to be fubflituted for the radii that
would have been requilite, if the proportional aberration had
remained uncorrected. And lallly, that the foci of the fepa-
rate lenfes may be fo proportioned to each other, and to the
compound focus of both the lenfes, which is ulually given
when a telefcope is to be made, the ratio between the tocus
of the crown-glafs and of the compound glafs, having been
calculated by an appropriate theorem, as will be explained,
is tabulated to fuit different forts of glafs agreeably to
their fpecific gravities ; fo that Martin's conflant ratio
of 5 : 3 is varied according to the variation of the fpe-

ciiic

TELESCOPE.

cific gravity, wliicl. is afTumcd as bearing a due propor-
tion to the difperfivc power. Tluis, wlaii a piece of crown
and a piece of flint glafs are produced for an achromatic
obiea-glafs, the fpecific gravity is firft taken, and then
the tabulated numbers, corrcfponding to thcfe gravities, are
taken from the columns of the tables, and the work is put
in hand as foon as fuitable tools are felefted for producing
the curves : or rather, wlien tlie relative foci are determined,
the curves are fixed on in the tables that will fuit the aber-
rations in queftion, and that can alfo be produced by fuch
tools as are in ufe ; for the formation of a new grinding tool
is a ferious undertaking, that the optician will wiih to avoid.
But after all, the chierpra<ftical difficulty remains ; the fame
curves cannot always be worked to be exaftly fimilar, even
in the fame glafs, with the fame tools, and by the beft work-
men ; which circumftance leaves the nice calculator, in fome
rocafure, under the controul of his materials, and renders final
adjuftments indifpenfable. Thefe obfervations are corrobor-
ated both by the candid acknowledgment of TuUey, and by
the fubjoined extrafts, which we beg leave to tranfcribe from
the letters of our eftimable correfpondent Mr. G. DoUond.

" The perfeftion of our objeft-glaflTes," fays Mr. DoUond,
*' is in a great degree promoted by the great pains we take
in feleding thofe glaffes that fuit each other the beft ; and
alfo in adjufting them very carefully : yet that is not every
thing that is necefTar^' to produce good objeft-glafles ; they
muft be correftly worked, and the glaffes be of perfeft and
proper quality.

" With re{pe&. to the furfaces ufed in our various objeft-
glafTes, it would be almoft endlefs to enumerate them, as they
depend upon, and \ary with almoft every piece of glafs that
is ufed in their formation ; and there are fome nice points in
the method of working them, v.hich I (hould not wifti at
prefent to difclofe. Our ufual mode of proceeding is, in the
firft place, to calculate the proportions that are requifite for
the kinds of glafs that are to be ufed, and then to feleft from
our great number of tools thofe that come the neareft to the
furfaces determined upon ; and it frequently happens that
we have not any that will anfwer, particularly for the fphe-
rical aberration. We do not enter into thofe very nice cal-
culations that would be fatisfaftory to a theorift ; we only
aim at fomething near to what is required ; for to practical
men, it is always more eafy to produce what they wifh by
praftical methods. Mr. Short, the celebrated maker of
reflecting telefcopes, ufed to proceed by firft making his
large metal as nearly correft or parabolical as he could,
and then, from a number of fmall metals, to felect, by trial,
that which correAed the large one in the beft manner.

" In all matters relating to the praftice of optics there is
much uncertainty, and it frequently happens that, with the
very beft endeavours, we cannot produce by the fame means
the fame effeft, where extreme correftnefs is required ; fo
that you may very readily conceive, that very exaft calcula-
tions, however requifite, will not always anfwer. In a rough
way of taking the focal lengths and furfaces of an achromatic
objeft -glafs, compofed of crown and flint glafs of the ufual
denfities, we fhould fay crown i : 3 and flint 2:3; the outer
furface of the crown fliorter than that which is next to the
flint, and the ftiorteft radius of the flint next to the crown ;
and the nearer it can be brought without touching in the
middle, the more perfeft will be the perform.ance ; though
this will in a great degree depend on the aberrating powers
of the glafles ufed ; for fometimes we find it neceffary to
make the crown nearly of equal radii. The French opti-
cians make ^he radii of the convex lens very unequal, and
place the ftiorteft radius next to the flint ; and inftead of
rrown they ufe Bohemian plate, which is nearly of the fame

rcfrafting power, but of a different colour, their flint-glafs
being of a much lefs fpecific gravity than the Englifh.

" The great barrier to further improvement, particularly in
the extenfion of the aperture, is the want of good glafs, which
circumftance has ever been lamented ; and from the excef-
fively increafcd duties, which aft againft the improvement
of every manufaAure, a prohibition is now likely to take
place altogether."

In this hiftorical account of the invention and fucceflive
improvements of the telefcope, we have faid nothing about
the ingenious experiments of Dr. R. Blair, profefTor of aftro-
nomy in the univerfity of Edinburgh, which were made,
with a view to afcertain the difperfive powers of different
liquids, about the year 1787, and for this reafon, that we
confider any telefcope of which a hquid forms a conftituent
part, to be a temporary rather than a permanent inftrument.
Neither have we given Dr. Herfchel's labours fo prominent a
place in our narrative as they deferve, becaufe we fhall have
occafion to defcribe his reflefting telefcope, with reference
to its appropriate plate, in a fubfequent feftion of our
article.

Befides the preceding improvers of the telefcope, feveral
pcrfons, chiefly amateurs, have taken out patents, either for
alterations in the appendages of this inftrument, or for pe-
culiar modes of ufing them for particular purpofes, with a
fliort notice of which we fiiall conclude this feftion of our
article. On the 4th of April, 1 79 1, Mr. Robert Blair, a
furgcon in the navy, took out a patent for fecuring to him-
felf the advantages to be derived from ufing a fluid medium,
in conjuiiftion with glafs, to correft the prifmatic aberration
in an objeft-glafs of a refra&ing telefcope, agreeably to the
experiments previoufly made on this fubjeft by Dr. Robert
Blair, as we have juft ftated. On the 26th of January, in the
year 1799, Mr. Cater Rand, of Lewes in Suftex, took out a
patent for " an improved military and naval telefcope, for
afcertaining diftanccs, and the fize and extenfion of objefts, at
fight, by means of a new micrometrical adjuftment." This
micrometrical telefcope, however, was nothing more than the
parallel wire micrometer, applied to a common pocket achro-
matic telefcope, in which a vernier fcale projeftcd from the
eye -piece, and indicated the quantity of the meafured angle
to the profeffed accuracy of 6"; but how the inftrument
was kept fteady enough without a ftand for the ufe of fuch
a micrometer, is not explained. Mr. Dudley Adams, of
Fleet -ftreet, optician, took out a patent, on May 30, iScwD,
for rendering telefcopes more portable ; the objeft of which
was to fecure the advantage to be derived from ufing tubes,
with flits made in fuch a way as to make them move fmooth-
ly, and yet without fliake, within one another. Mr. G. H.
Brown, fecretary to the Weftminfter fire-office, in Bedford-
ftreet, Covent-Garden, has defcribed, in the I ith volume of
the Repertory of Arts and Manufattures, a reflefting tele-
fcope, that always lies in a horizontal pofition ; and, receiv-
ing the rays of hght on an inclined plain mirror, having a
central perforation, and placed near the infertion of the eye-
tube, reflefts them to the large concave fpeculum, which, by
a fecond reflection, forms the image in the eye-tube. Benja-
min Martin conftrufted a reflefting telefcope in this way,
which he ufed in a vertical pofition for terreftrial objefts ;
and the only difference in the two conftruftions feems to be,
that in Martin's, the main tube was reclined when viewing
elevated objefts, fuch as the heavenly bodies, whereas
Brown's plain mirror has a vertical motion independently
of the main tube. They have neither of them come into
common ufe.

Mr. Manton, gun-fmith, of Davis-ftreet, Bcrklcy-fquare,
London, took out a paterA on the 23d of January, 1810,

for

TELESCOPE.

for fecuring the ufe of an exliauftcd tube, on a fuppofition
that tiieic would be more light wlicn the rays were rcfraftcd
to a focus in vacuo. Mr. Cornelius Varley, artift, now of
Nevvman-ftrect, London, took out a patci.i for a grapliic
tclefcopc, for the purpofe of delineating drawings from
nature, on the principle of Dr. Wollallon's camera lucida,
the date of which is April 5, 181 1. And on the zill of
May of the fame year, Dr. Brcwfter of Edinburgh, and
Mr. Harris, optician, of Holborn, London, jointly took
oyt a patent for a micrometrical, double-image, and coming-
up glafs, &c. which has its fcale of meafurement running
longitudinally along the tube. This telefcope, being on
a new conftruftion, will be particulai'ly defcribed here-
after.

2. Theory of dioptric Tclefcopei. — Before we can properly
defcribe the various conftruftions of either the refrafting or
reflefting telefcope, it will be neceffary to explain the prin-
ciples on which thofc conftruftions are founded ; and for the
fake of order, we will confine ourfelves, in the firft place,
to the confideration of the elementary principles of dioptrics,
fo far as they ai-e connefted with the theory of the refrafting
telefcope. Among the various writers who have confidcred
this fubjeft, in both a fcientific and praftical manner, Ben-
jamin Martin ftands firft in our eftimation ; and as his " New
Elements of Optics," publilhed in 1759, are but little
known, by i"eafon of the fcarcenefs of this work, notwith-
ftanding it contains the refult of all his theoretical and prac-
tical inveitigations, we ihall make no fcruple in avaihng
ourfelves of his labours, as often as they contribute to the
purpofe of either illuftration or praftical application : our
aim being, in this article, as in fome former ones connedled
with it, to bring the mathematician and the mechanic into a
ftate of mutual underftanding.

We propofe, therefore, to avoid as much as poffible all
abftrufe calculations, that have no tendency to produce
pradlical advantages, but to introduce, in as familiar a man-
ner as poffible, thofe mathematical inveftigations only, which
are eflentially explanatory. The firft and fundamental prin-
ciple in dioptrics is this, that in all uniform media, fuch as
air, water, glafs, &c. " the fines of incidence are in a con-
ftant ratio to the fines of refraAion" of any homogeneal ray
of light, incident on the furface of fuch refrafting medium ;
which principle was firft difcovered by Snell, when Huygens
had gone no further than to aflert, that in fmall obliquities
of incidence, the angle of refraftion was about one -third of
the angle of incidence. In the glafs which fir Ifaac Newton
nfed, the ratio of the fine of incidence to the fine of refrac-
tion was found to be 30 : zi, or nearly 3 : 2, in paffing out
of air into glafs : and had all kinds of glafs been found equal
with refpeft to their refraftive powers, the radius of convexity
would, in all cafes, have been equal to the focus of a double
convex lens of equal radii ; which equality may be confidered
as the bafis of all the geometrical theorems in optics, that take
no account of the difference of the reJraSive pomers. But
fince the difference of the refraftive powers of various fpeci-
mens of glafs has become an objeft of indifpenfible examina-
tion to the optician of modem times, it has become neceflary
to introduce into each theorem the ratio between the fine
of incidence and fine of refraiftion, whatever it may be found
to be by experiment, before the refraded focus of any indi-
vidual lens, depending on the quality of the glafs, in fome
meafure, can be determined from the georrutrical focus de-
pending on the radius of convexity or concavity. As we
have demonftrated, under our article RkfrACTION, the con-
ftancy of the ratio between the fines of the angles of incidence
and of refradlion of a mean refrafted ray ; and have alfo ex-
plained how the geometrical focus of any lens may be detcr-

VoL. XXXV.

mined with converging, parallel, and diverging rays, under
the term Lkns ; we will proceed to apply the doftrinc
arifing out of ihcfe dcmonftrations and explanations to our
prcfent purpofe. " Let DC (y/a/cXXIV. ^Jironomical
Jnjlrumnits, fig. I.) be a ray of lip\: ii.cidfiit out of any
medium X, upon the furface, H O, of another medium Y,
which we will fuppofe to be more dcnfe than X ; and from
the point of incidence C, let it be refradcd to F, out of its
firll direftion D C M. This refraftion may be confidcred as
arifing out of the attrafting power at the furface of the
medium Y, and as afting upon the ray in a p rpendiculav
diredtion, by which, on mechanical principles, it will ac-
quire fome additional force and velocity <jf motion through
the medium Y. Now upon the centre C defcribe the cu-cle
A O P H, cutting the incident ray in D ; and ilrawing the
diameter ACP perpendicular to HO, let DL fall pcr-
pendiculai- thereto, and it will be the fine of incidence. Let
DC or C E reprefent the fpace described in a given time
in tlic medium X ; and from E draw E F parallel to A B,
to denote the acquired force in C : then the motions in the
direftions C E and E F, in the fame time, being com-
pounded, will produce a motion in the direftion found by
joining C F ; for C F will be the fpace defcribed in tlie
medium Y, in the fame time that DC ( = C E) was pafTed
over in the medium X, and confequently will be the ref railed
ray ; and G I, perpendicular to A B, will be the fine of
refraftion.

" Through F draw N M parallel to H O, and draw K E
perpendicular to A B ; then will BF=KE = DLbe
the fine of incidence; and in the fimilar triangles C I G,
C B F, we have C G : C F :: G I : B F. Hence it ap-
pears that we have the fines of the angles of incidence and
of refraftion B F or D L, and G I, as the velocities C F
and CD (=CG) in the different media inverfely, and on
this fuppofition they are in a conflant ratio; becaufe the velo-
cities are invariable, being produced by the uniform opera-
tion of nature. And on the contrary, if the ray F C be
confidered as pafGng out of a denfe medium Y, into a rare
medium X, it will be deflefted by the fuperior force of the
medium Y, into the direftion C D ; making D L : I G ::
C F : C D, as before.

" Let us now conceive AMD, infig. 2, to be the curved
furface of a refrafting medium Y, and B a radiant point in
a more rare medium X, from which two rays proceed, and
fall upon the curve in the points M and N indefinitely near
to each other : thefe rays will be fo refrafted as to crofs each
other in a certain point F ; to determine which from the
given equation of the curve, the diftance of the radiant, and
the refraftions of the media, is that problem in dioptrics, on
which the various calculations and inferences depend. That
we may render the folution of this problem intelligible to
our readers, let us make the lines C M and C N the radii of
curvature, and confequently perpendicular to the curve at
the points M and N ; upon M F and N F let fall the per-
pendiculars C G and C^^ cutting F M in S : alfo upon the
incident rays B M, B N, continued, let fall the perpendi-
culars C E, C c ; and on the centres B and F, defcribe the
fmall arcs R M, MO; and put B M = d, M E = a,
M G = i ; the arc M R = s, and the arc M O = / ; and
laftly, the fine of incidence C E to that of refraftion C G,
as m to n, the radius of curvature being C M = r. Then
the triangles M E C, M R N ; M G C, M O N ; M B R,
Q B f, are Cmihir, as is thus evident : if from the right
angles R M E, C M N, you fubtraft the angle E M N,
there remains the angle R M N = E M C ; and if from the
right angles F MO, CM N, you take th^ angle Y M N,
there wiU remain the angle O M N = G M C. Thcfe tn-

Gg

glcs

TELESCOPE.

angletwe, therefore, cqu'iangukr, and confequently /m:/<7r.
Hence we derive the foUowing analogies for determining the
refraded ray MF; ^.,•=. M E : M C :: M R : M N ;

that is, a : r :: J : — = MN.

a

" Again, from the triangles M G C and M O N, we have

rt
MG : MC :: MO : MN; that is, i : r ::/:-- =

M O :: M F - G F (or M G) : M F ; that is, in fymbols
bmds — aans — ands it , mdbb

<.db

nda

— .•. sb =■ at ; and io a : b :: s
a

/, or — = MO.
a

And in the triangles B M R, BQ,r, we have BM : Bf
(= BE) :: MR : Q-r; that k, d : d ^- a :: s -

^i±-ii = Q,-. But C^ : C^ (:: CE : CG) :

m : n :: C<:-CE : C^-CG :: Q^ .: S^ :

ds + as nas + nds
d m d

= Sg.

" Laftly, the fimilar triangles E MO, F S^, give MO
S^ :: MF : SF or GF; therefore, M 0 - S^

am d a

= M F, the focal diftance required.

" As the right angles at E and G arc both fubtended by
the fame hypolheniife, Or right line M C, it is evident that
this line is the diameter of a femicircle, M E G C, paffing
through them, as in Jig. 3 ; and if the curve AMD be a
circle, then C will be its centre ; and when the point M is
extremely near to the vertex A, there will be M E = M G
= M C, or a = i = >-. In this cafe, the theorem becomes

— ; ' • = A F — f; and the point F, or focus

md — nd — iir

of refrafted rays, is then in the axis B C produced."

From this original theorem for finding the finiple refraftion
of a pencil of diverging rays out of a rare into a denfe medium,
may be derived other theorems for finding the fimple re-
fraAion out of a denfe into a rare medium, and for the
refraftion of lenfes of any of the common fliapes, either at
the firft or fecond furface. We will fubjoin a fmall tabic
of fuch of thofe theorems as apply to glafies of the ordinary
conftrudlion.

Theorems for one fimple Refraftion.

Out of Air into Glafs

Rays.

Convex.

Concave. 1

Diverging

m d r

— m dr

-/•

m d — n d — n r

m d — n d ■{■ nr

ParaUel

m — n

- '"'• _ J

m — n

Converging

m d r

— m dr

-/•

m d — n d -\- n r

m d — n d — n r

Out of Glafs into Air.

Diverging

— ndr _
md— nd+tnr

ndr

= /•

m d — n d — tnr

Parallel

- "'■ . f

'"' - f

m — n

m — n •'

Converging

—^ndr _

ndr
md — nd + mr

= /•

md— nd— mr ''

Hitherto we have confidered the refraftion of a ray at
only one furface of a lens ; but as every lens has two fur-
faces, or radii, r and R, it is neceflary to carry our invefti-
gation farther, ancf fee what theorems can be obtained for
finding the foci of glaffcs of the different fhapes, when double
refraftion takes place, which is the cafe in all inftances of
complete traiifmiflion. By way of diftinftion, we will con-
fider r as the radius of the firft furface, or that which re-
ceivei the rays from the radiant ; and R as the fecond fur-
fice, or that which is fuppofed to be turned from the
radiant, in all our fubfequent theorems. We muft now

confider a ray, as M N, in ^g. 4, coming out of a denfe
medium Y, after proceeding in a direftion towards F, into
the rare medium X ; but meeting with a Ipherical furface
N D, on quitting the denfe medium, is relrafted into the
direftion N_/, to interfeft the axis Dy", in the focal pointy.
When two Ipherical refrafting furfaceB are near to each
other, as A M, N D, in Jig. 5, they conflitute a lens
A M N D, of which the radius of the curve A M is r,
when the radiant is on that fide, but that of N D is denomi-
nated R ; and the hne B A D F, paffing at right angles
through the middle of the Icbs, is called the axis. Now to

find

TELESCOPE.

fifld the point /, or foca! diftai'.cc D/, of the ray D M,
coming from tlie radiant B, after being twice refrafted,
viz. at M and N, the points of ingrefs and egrofs, is the
general problem of d'uiplrics.

In folving this problem, our original theorem for fimple
refraftion gives us m df — m d r - n rf + n df, ( making
M F=; (?,) from which equation we deduce this expreflion ; viz.

■h d

whxh

gives

thi

_ j3^ _ B C A F

T ~ o'^r ^ 7" ~'C F ^ A B'

verfal canon : viz, "the ratio of the fine of incidence to the fine
of refraftion, is compounded of the ratio of the dilLinces-of
the conjugate foci B and F from the centre C, and of the
ratio of their diftances from the vertex A." This rule be-
ing general, finds the focus /, after the fecond refraftion
at N : for let Df = f, the radius G D = R, and the thick-
nefs of the lens A D = / ; then we have for the refraftion

out of a denfe medium into a more rare one, - — • = — --

m /G

/D (p+R-/ / <• ,

X ■t._ = i^ — X -^ — : irom whence we jret

FD I + R (? — I

f =: = D /", the focal diftance

m 1(5 — m ^ + m R — B 9 + » /

required. If we omit the tlu'cknefs of the lens /, as be-
ing inconfiderable, we may reduce the equation into a more

fimple form ; for we fliall have

this will

give ip =!

»jip -(- ni R

■ n?

= /; and

= /•

n R -)-«_/"— m/ md—nd-
which equation reduced gives

ndrK

mrd — nrd + mdR — ndR. — nrR
But to reduce the number of fymbols, let us put

= a, and confequently m — n = a, when n is unity,

drR

and then this equation becomes

■=/'

ard \- aRd— rR

and this may with propriety be called the vniverfal dioptric
iheorem, by which the refraSed focus of a ray may be deter-
mined after paffmg through any lens of a given denfity, or
refrafting power.

The theorems in the fubjoined Table I. are all derived
from the univerfal theorem thus determined, and will be
of great ufe to the optician to determine the refraSed focus
of any lens, and for any diftance of the radiant, which re-
frafted focu», with parallel rays, will be always equal to

the true, or nicely meafured/war/oiru/, where d is infinite ;
vvhereas the focus determined from the old tht-orems in
Table II. where the value of a is omitted, is always the
geometrical focus, determined on a fuppofition that the fine
of incidence is to the fine of refraftion in all glafles as 3 : 2,

in which cafe ,1, e. =

= \ invariably, and \ r.

in a double convex lens of equal radii, of whatever rcfrac
tive power, ;=/. In order, tiicreforc, to dl(lingui(h the
focus determined from the theorfms in Table 1., from thofe
arifing from the theorems in Table II., we will always call
the firll the nfraSed focus ; which is that from which the
powers of a telcfcope or of a microfcope are derived ; and
the fecond we will denominate the fiomf/nW focus, which
is that arifing from the fimple confidcration of the radii of
curvature, without reference to the refraftive power of
the glafs, otherwife than as we have ftated ; but is not-
withftanding ufeful to opticians in the formation of the
curved faces of their grinding and polifhing tools ; for when
the curves of a lens of a given refraftive power are to be
formed, to produce a given refraftcd focus, as is frequently
required in the nicer optical inftruments, the rcfrafted
focus mull firfl be converted, by means of the value a of
its refraftive power, into the geometrical focus, and then the
radii of curvature belonging to this calculated geometrical
focus, will be proper for the tools of the Ions of a given re-
fraftive focus. Hence we confider it as a matter of great
praftical importance, to give, in the fame place, two tablet,
one for finding the refraSed, and the other for finding the
geometrical foci of fuch Icnfes as are ufually applied in either
a telefcope or microfcope of the refrafting conftruftion.
In all cafes where the glafs has two radii, the firft, as we
have faid, will be douominatcd by r, and the fecond by R-

But before we proceed to tabulate our theorems for both
refraSed and geometrical foci of fingle lenfes, we wifii it to be
clearly undcrllood by our readers, that the praftical appU-
cation of thofe theorems, and of others to be derived from
them, to the purpofe of aftual conftruftion of achromatic
objeft-glaffes, and of achromatic eye-pieces, is intended to be
the leading feature of our article ; for while volumes have
been filled with abftrufe calculations, derived from formulae
of the moft celebrated mathematicians, the refults of thofe
calculations have never produced proper data for the ufe of
opticians ; more particularly with rcfpeft to achromatic
objcft-glafTes, which cannot be conftrufted from any calcu-
lations but what are grounded upon experimental examin-
ation of the identical Ipecimens of glafs that are intended to
be ufed. And we flatter ourfclves, that the information we
have to lay before our readers on this interelling fubjcft,
will be ihejirfl that has yet been publifhed in fuch a praSical
form as will facilitate the labours of the working opticiai;.

Gg I

Tabie

TELESCOPE.

Table I. Theorems for finding the rtfraded Foci of Lcnfts.

Lenl'es with unequal Radii.

Kiys.

Diverging

Parallel

Converging

Convex.

(/R;

<j</c + fl^R — /• R

= /•

R

flR

= /•

- rfrR

— adr — a^R — r R

/•

Concave.

rfR,

— adr — atiRr— Rr

= /•

R

— ar — a R

= /•

- </rR

flf/r + ad'R — rR

= /•

Lenfes writh equal Radii.

Diverging

2 ad ■

= /•

- dr

2 ad + r

■I-

Parallel

r.=/-

Converging

- dr

— 2 ad — r

= /•

2 ad + r

= /•

Lenfes with one Radius (R) infinite.

Piano-convex.

Plano-concave.

Diverging

dr

id-

= /•

- dr
ad + r

= /•

Parallel

■■/■

~-f-

Converging

- dt

ad -

= /■

- dr
a d — r

-/•

Lenles with one Radius (R) negative, or Menifci.

Unequal.

Equal.

Diverging

drK

adr — adR + rR

= /■

d=f.

Parallel

,R

- aR

■/■

~^=f-

Converging

drR

adR — adr + rR

= /■

d^f.

Lenfes with both Radii (r and R) negative, or double concave.

Diverging

Parallel

Converging

drR

— adr — adR — rR

= f, always negative.

R

aR

■zz. f, always negative.

drR

ad r + adR — rR

= /•

TELESCOPE.

Tabli; II — Theorems for finding the geomdrical Voci of Leiifcs.

Lenfcs with unequal Radii.

Kays.

Convex.

Con 1*3 ve.

Diverging

2dKr

2 ,/ R r
-dR-dr- 2Rr~-^'

dR + dr-zrR~-^'

R + r J

2Rr

- R- r-^-

Converging

2dRr

2 J R r

dR Jr dr + 2Rr~-^'

dR - dr - 2Rr "■'■

Lcnfes with equal Radii.

Diverging

.4-, = /

'''■ f

-d-r-J-

Parallel

-.,=,

t>f-

Converging

^.=/-

.^;=/-

Lenfes with one Radius (R) infinite.

Diverging

2dr

~ 2dr ^
d + 2r ~-''

d- 2r~-''

Parallel

'^-f-

~ 2dr

d ~^'

Converging

./ + 2 r ^

2dr
2r-d = J-

Lenfes with one Radius (R) negative.

Unequal.

Equal.

Diverging

-2dRr

- 2 ^ R r

2R. == '-f-

dR - dr + 2Rr ~'-^'

ParaUel

-2Rr_
R-r -■^^

- 2 Rr

Converging

2dRr

2^>R , ^

,/R _ </,■+ 2Rr "■'■

Lenfes with both Radii (r and R) negative, or double concave.

Diverging

2dRr

d^ ..r

-dR-dr-2Rr~-''

- d- R-'-

Parallel

2Rr

-d -f-

- R-r-^-

Converging

- 2dRr

d-R ^

dR + dr- 2Rr~^'

TELESCOPE.

As we explained how Table I. is dcriwd from an uni-
verfal dioptric theorem, we (hall explain how the theorems
in Table II. are deduced from one fundamental equation,
on a fuppofition that the fines of incidence and refraaion m
glafs are always as 3 : 2. Let L N, in fg. 6, reprefent
a convex lens, Of its axis, O a radiant point therein, O A
a ray proceedinjr from thence to A, a point m the furface
LBN; then if C is the centre of convexity of that furface,
C G, drawn through the point A, will be perpendicular to
that furface in the point A ; C A or C B is the radius. A/
the refraaed ray, and / the point where it meets the axis
after the firft refraaion. Let D B ; f/, C A = R, E B
= /, the thicknefs of the lens ; and let the fine of the angle
of incidence 0 A G be called m, and the fine of the angle
of refraaion C A/ or GAH be called n. Now, fince
the point A is luppofed to be very near to the vertex B,
OA may be confidered equal to OB = D, and in the
triangle C A O, we (hall have A O to AC as the angle C
to the angle O ; that is, rf : R :: C : O. Alfo O B + B C
= D + R will be as the oppofite angle CAO or O AG,
the fines of both being the fame. Then as m ; n :: rf + r :

^ " "*" ^ ", which will be as the angle C A/; this, taken
m

from the angle ACQ = d, leaves the angle A/O

= D'"- R" - D". Laftly, as the angle/ : O :: A O
m

Dm — Rn — Dn

we multiply the equalioii by t, md add thereto rm, we fliall
have dm -^ rm — dn

DRmi — Tibtb + Rnth + Dbrm — Rnmr

or OB : A/ or B/; that is, as
RDm

R

D

Dm - Rn — D»

= B/, the diftance of the point/

in the axis, after the firft refraaion. But fince there is a
fecond furface L E N of the lens, there muft neceffarily be a
fecond refraaion of the ray A O to fome other point in the
axis, as F, in f?. 7. In this cafe, the refraaion being out
of a denfe into a rare medium, the fine of incidence will
be to that of refraaion the rcoerfe of what it was before,
v'tz. as n to m ; that is, the fine of I af is to the fine of
I a F as B to m, which, in the cafe of fingle refraaion, was
as m to n. Here let K a be called r, and E/ — d ; then
there will be ^ : ,• :: K : /, and E/ + E K = af + r,
which will be as the angle /a K, or its complement I a/;

therefore n : m ;: </ + r : , which will exprefs

n

the angle I a F. Then I a F - a K F = '^"' "^ ''"' -d-

rm — dn

= aKF. Now, as F : K :: Ka or

KB : a F or E F ; that is, as • : d :: r :

n

^-^—=EF. EutB/-BE=^ ^^'" ^
dm+ rm — dn ■' D»;— R« — D«

— t =. d = E/; therefore, putting m — ff = 3, we fhall

, , DRm URm-'Dbt + rnt

have a = =r-r -— — t — —

D3 - Rb

Alfo dnr —

DR.

D3 - R«
Y> btnr + rtnnr

D5- R«

Again, dm -f rm — dn — D* + rm; if, therefore,

D4 - R»

Then

dm

dm + rm -
T) Kmnr

dn
- Hbttir + Rtnnr

= EF-

DRmb - Dbtb T Rntb t I>brm — Rnmr
This laft equation may be abridged, by fubllituting p for

-, , that is, for , then we (hall have

b m — n

= EF.

pDRmr — pDblr J- Rtnrp
DRm - Di/+ Rnt + Tirn — pRmr

Laftly, if we take n ■=. ph vn p'Qblr; and m — n = 3 in
Tibt \ this equation will be finally reduced to this funda-
mental equation, wi.

pYiRrm — Dtrn + Rtrpn VV— f

D Rm — Dim + D/n+ Rtn + 'Drm—pRrm~ ~^'

The ratio of «i to n being taken in glafs as 3 : 2, we (hall

have-

» 3-2
equation will then ftand thus ; w'a.
6DRr - 2D<r + 4tR'-

2 =j» for a glafs lens, and th#

3DR-3Dr-D<+2R*-6Rr~^^ ~^'

and when t, the thicknefs, is difregarded, we have from this
fundamental theorem all the various theorems contained ia
Table II. for finding the geometrical focus under all the
various circumftances that are likely to occur in the pofition
of a fingle lens, where the refraftive power is not adverted to.
To illuftrate the refpeaive ufes of the theorems con-
tained in the two preceding tables, we muft fuppofe the
ratio between the fines of the angle of incidence and of re-
fraaion known by fome of the ufual modes of determining it
experimentally ; and then, when the ratio of m : » is fo

determined, there will be = a, the fymbol intro-

n

duced in the theorems of the firft table ; when d is equal to
the diftance of the radiant, r the radius, and / the proper
focus determined by real refraaion through the glafs ufed,

dr — rf

2df

For inftance, Martin ground a piece of white flint-glafs
with a tool of 21.5 inches radius, into a double convex lens,
and when a lamp was placed at the diftance of 417.25 inches,
the refraaed focus was meafured accurately, and found to
be only 18.75 inches; whence, according to the theorem,

the theorem for finding the value of a is

we have 4i7-^5 x 21.5 + 21.5 x .8.75
2 X 417.25 X 18.75

= 0.599 = a

1-599
I

; and if we put n — 1, then m will be 1.599, ^°'"
■ = 0.599. When the fun is the radiant, then

d becomes infinite, and the theorem becomes, as in the firft
f 2 X. 7

table, — , which gives, in this cafe, ^ =. 17.94 for the

2 d 1 . 1 90

refraficd

TELESCOPE.

rcfrafted yo/ar focus; whereas, by Table II., the geome-
trical focus is -7 = >• = 21.5. If the refra&ive power
a

of the glafs, and confequently the value of a, had been given,
and it had been required to determine the radius of the tool
that will grind the given glafs into fuch equal radii as will
give the refrafted folar focus exaftly 17.82 inches, then

f
the theorem — = _/" becomes, hy tranfpofition, 2 a/ = r,

and 1.298 X 17.94 = 21.5, as before. In a fpecimen of
crown-glafs ground to the fame radius, where d was 4I4>75

inches,

dr + rf

gave « = 0.5318, and confequently m : n

IS 1.531!:
21.5

: I, with which lens the true folar focus was
20. 2 1 4 ; and if the lens had been a fingle convex*

1.0636

the true folar focus would have been

40.428,

r 21.5

a ".5318

or double the length of the former, while the geometrical
focus for parallel rays, by Table II., would have been

— — = 2 »• = 43.0 ; fo that for many praftical purpofes,
a

where m — n is known in the particular glafs ufed, the

advantage of the theorems in Table I., over thofe in

Table II., muft be evident

Again, let us fuppofe that the ratio of wz : n is afcertained

by a prifm of any fpecimen of glafs, or by Dr. WoUafton's

or Dr. Brewfter's inftruments for this purpofe, and that it

is known to be 1.599 • ' > then we know that .599 = a,

as before ; and let it be required to find the refrailed focus

■with diverging rays, when the radiant is as before at the

dillance of 417.25 inches, and the radius of curvature

of each furface 21.5: in this cafe the theorem is

dr J- • 1 417-25 X 21.5

= /, or, m numbers, —

2ad- I- 2 X 0.599 X 417.25 — 21.5

= 18.75, ^^ before; and in this way the terms given may

be varied at pleafure, and the theorem made applicable to

the cafe in queftion. If the rays had been converging in

— dr

the laft calculation, the theorem would have been r—

— 2ad— r

■= f; or, changing all the figns, (which are here negative,
becaufe the diitance is more than infinite, that is, the rays

more than parallel,) the fame may be taken = f,

■zad -^ r

417.25 X 21.5

or ^^—^ — = 17.204, which IS lefs

2 X 0.599 X 417-25 + 21.5

than the folar focus by 0.74 of an inch. In this cafe the rays
muft have pafled through fome other glafs, in order that
they may proceed in a ftate of convergence before they enter
the lens in queftion, and the focus of that other glais is here
confidered as the radiant point from which the rays proceed in a
ftate of convergence ; and this confideration leads us naturally
to inquire into the nature of a focus when two glaffes are
employed jointly to produce it, under the different circum-
ftances of tigure and diftance.

Suppofe the parallel rays A N and B M, mjlg. 8, to fall on
a plano-convex lens M N, with the curved face turned to the
radiant, and to be refrafted to its focus at F ; then if another
plano-convex lens be placed in the line of its axis, at any dif-
tance lefs than Cr,fo as to intercept the converging rays, tliey
will be refrafted ftill more, and will now converge into the

7

(hortcr focuey, which it therefore called the eompound focut of
both the Icnfes. The angle fubtcnded at/, where the eye is
fuppofed to be placed, and which is called the optic angle, is
now larger than that formed at F by the fuft lens, and it
equal to what would be formed by the imaginary double
convex lens E E, the focal diftance of winch would be
y/- Now let C F be put = F for the fi.cal diftance of
the lens N M ; OP :== ji for the focal diftai.c of lens G H J
^""^ Q/ — * ^°^ llic focal diftance of the imaginary double
convex lens EE : alfo let Of, the compound tocal diftance,
be = /; and CO, the diftance between the lenfes NM and
G H, be = D. As tile rays, which tend to the point F,
after leaving the lens NM, fall on the Iciis G 11 converging,
let us call O F = ^, and then, by common opticB, we Ih^

yf

have d = = F — D ; from wliich equation we get

¥ + y — D : Y — D :: y :f; and from this analogy the
compound focal diftance O/ is calily obtained. In like
manner, the parallel rays LG and SH are rcfradted by the
lens GH, now fuppofed to bo the firft lens, to the Icn*
NM, as they proceed towards the point i ; but are refrafted
to the nearer point (f, which is the compound focus on the

other fide ; and now we have Cy ^= ■= — ^ := _y — D :

whence F + y — D : y — D :: F: <^ = C<!>, which ig
therefore known again, becaufe of the fimilar triangles F N C,
FGO, and/Eg,/GO; and becaufe EQ = NC, we
have CF : OF :: NC (^ EO) : GO :: Q/: O/; that

IL
F-D

is, F : F — D :: K -./; and, therefore, p— ^ = «• E"t

F — D X y
we had above :;:; ;^ — f; which being fubftituted

for_/", will give —

F+^- D

Fy

= X ; from which theorem ow

F+^-D

problem for finding the compound focus of two lenfes, or
rather the focus of one lens, that fliall have the fame focal
diftance and vifual angle as two given ones placed at a
given diftance (hall have together, may be tlius found : wi.
" divide the produd of the two focal lengths of tlie given
lenfes by their fum, leflencd by their diftance, and the
quotient will be the focal length of tlie fingle lens, as re-
quired." By way of exemplification, let the focus of N M
be put = 6 inches, and that of GH = 4; and then, fup-
pofing the curved furfaces turned to the radiant, which
is called the beft pofition, as will be foen hereafter,
and the diftance z=. 2, we fliall have, by the theorem for

this purpofe.

6 X

24

= 3 for the focus in quef-

6 + 4 — 2 8
tion ; but if the diftance had been = 3, then the refult

would have been

6x4 24 , _ .^

^ — = —, or 3.42 nearly. But if

6+4-3 7

the diftance had been made 4, equal to the focal diftance
of the lens G H, the compound tocus would have been 4
alfo ; and if 6, equal to the focal diftance of the lens N M,
the compound focus would ftill have been 6, without any
gain of magnifying power in either cafe, over what would
have accrued from the refpeftive fingle lens ; alfo if the
lenfes are brought into contadl, that is, if D = o, then we
ftiall have the compound focus the ftiorted poflible, viz.

6x4
6 + 4-0

24
= — = 2.4.

But dlJimSrefs is an objeft
of

TELESCOPE.

of as much importance ai magnifying power ; and it will / _!_^ vvhen the rays fall diverging on the faid lens.

be feen hereafter, that there is a certain d.ftance between y - J - r)
the Icnfcs that promotes this quality the moll poflible,
whatever be the radii of the two lenfes. This condition is

wnaievcr oe iiic lauu ui mv .."« ---

fulfilled when .v is = i F, that is, when the focus of the
imaginary lens EE is jull o,,. lialf ot that of the outer lens
N^?; in which cafe the compound focus /will be in the
middle of the line OF, and the lens G H placed at half the
focal di (lance of the imaginary lens. But it is not necei-
fary that the objea, or image of an objeft u v, fliould be
fituated in the exterior compound focus i? : this tocus
may be fuppofed negative, that is, the image may be
between the two lenfes M N and G H, as B A in Z^-. 1 1,
which wUl always be the cafe when D is greater than y ;
or, IB other words, when the diftai.ce between the two lenfes
exceeds the focal diftance of the inner lens G H ; for let

6X2

F = 6, D = 4, and y = 2, and wc (hall have -—

— = «, as in the ftrft isllance. Neither is it neceffary that
4

both the lenfes be convex or planoK:onvex, nor yet with the
fame face outwards ; for fuppofe N M concave, when its
focus will be negative, or virtually on the oppofite fide of it, and
muft be expreiTed by — F ; in this cafe the theorem becomes

— — — ^ — = X, for the focus of the imaginary lens E E
j,_ F- D

that (hall have its focus equal to the compound focus, which
vnU always be pofitive while F + D is greater than y, but
when lefs, then negative ; and when j ^ F + D, the rays
proceed parallel, and the focus is faid to be infinite. The

— Fx - Dx

compound focal diftance in this cafe is — = f,

and muft be affirmative when x is fo ; but when D = o, then
f =■ X. As an example, let the concave N M have a nega-
tive focal diilance — F — 3, and let y = 2, while D = i ;
then the focal diftance of the imaginary or equal lens will be

, or - — - = 3 = X, and the compound focal diftance

2 — 4 — 2

See Table II.

Our general theorem may be rendered more extenfive ia
its application, by varying it according to the data ; thus.

will be

3x3

I X 7,

Fx-xD

r X— X JJ

if F, X, and D be given to find y, it will be — = = J" »

to find F with the others given, it will be

D

X- y

= F;

F>-

=■ ±=z f. Whence, in

3 - 3

this cafe, /o is equal to 2 F O, whereas when N M was con-
vex, we had the reverfe, FO = 2/0. When — F = jj,
and "D =- 0, i. e. when a concave lens and convex one are
placed in contaft, with their feparate focal diftances equal,
then X becomes infinite, or, in other words, the rays emerge,
and proceed in a parallel direftion ; but if the focal lengths
are unequal, there will be a pofitive focus and magnifying
power, vvhen the convex has the rtiorter radius; for fup-
pofe - F = 3, j» = 2, and D = o, then by the theorem

F X V n ,1 1 — 6

p— — , we (hall have — - = 6 = x, and in tliis cafe x =

/= 6 hkewife. From thefe inftances it will be feen, on
examination, that the compound fecal dijlance Of, of the com-
bined lenfes, is nothing more than the focal diftance/, found

by the common geometrical theorem of optics, ■ — f

d — r •''
adapted to the conftant lens G H, where O F = r, and
0P = /, when the rays arc diverging; or Of— — /

and to find D, there will be F + v = D. From

X

thefe analogies we may further obferve, that we have
alfo the ratio of the two compound focal diftances to each
other, 0/andC/,thus; as/: ?> :: F-Dx^ : .r - U x F;
and, therefore, vvhen / = <p, then F = ^ ; or the faid focal
diftances can never be equal, but when the lenfes are equal.
Laftly, we may obferve, that fince the parallel rays L. G,
S H, refrafted through both the combined lenfes, interfeft the
axis in the fame point, (f, as it would do if it were refrafted
by the fingle lens E E, as is evident by continuing it to R ;
therefore, (ince G O — R Q, it will follow that the diameter
I K, of the principal pencil of rays K C I, diverging from the
focus v", will be the fame as it would have been, if it had
proceeded direftly to the fing'e lens E E ; and, coniequent-
ly, this combination of lenfes makes no alteration in that
refpctl.

Having now explained how the focal point of any lens, or
pair of lenfes, differently circumftanced, may be afcertained
by one or other of the dioptric theorems, derived from the
refratlive power of glafs agreeably to certain laws cf nature,
it will be proper to explain the different fenfcs in which the
word focus is applied by optical writers under different cir-
cumftances, that our readers may not be at a lofs to know
in what fenfe it is to be taken, whenever it occurs in oiu>
fubfequent details. The principal or Jolar focus of a lens, is
that which is produced by parallel rays coming from an
infinite diftance, which that of the fun may be confidered,
and when the epithet refralled is added, it has reference to
the particular glafs by which the rays are refradled ; but
when geometrical is exprefted or underftood, then glafs in
jreneral is meant : the virtual, refratled, or geometrical
focus, is that which, in a concave glafs, would be formed by
the diverging rays continued to a point backwards through
the glafs till they meet, and is imaginary rather than real,
and generally called negative : the focus arifing from con-
verging rays pafling through a convex lens is (horter, or
nearer the lens, than the folar focus, and the radiant is fup-
pofed to be at a greater than an infinite diftance, if fuch an
exprelTion is allowable ; but as no fuch diftance is in nature,
converging rays can only be produced by their palTage
through a firft lens before they fall on a fecond, which is
often the cafe in the conftruftion of optical inftruments : but
the focus from diverging rays is always more remote than
the folar focus from the lens that produces it ; and, in con-
fequence of the reference it has to the fituation of the radi-
ant or illuminated objed, is denominated the proper and fome-
times the relative focus ; for as the radiant approaches the
lens, the proper focus recedes in the fame line, and vice verfJ,
as we have more fuUy explained under the article Lens, Be-
caufe the radiant and conefponding focus may change places
at any time, the two points where they are placed, at oppo-
fite fides of the lens, are called the conjugate foci, from their
being fo dofely allied, that one cannot move without the
other. When the radiant is placed therefore in the pri,nci-

6 pal

TELESCOPE.

pal or folar tocus of a lens, the rays will emerge and con-
tinue parallel, on account of the other conjugate focus being
at an infinite diftance ; and for the fame reafon, when an ob-
jeft, viewed by a fingle lens, is placed in its principal focus,
the rays will enter the eye in a parallel ilate, and will be
converged to a point on the retina by the humours of the eye,
and a number of thefe rays crofling will form a pitlure be-
hind the eye of the objeft viewed : for, what is one of the
mod remarkable properties of refrafted rays coming from
a luminous objeft, they bring with them not only the figure,
but the colours of the objeft viewed, and form a pifture or
image of it, in the place where the different pencils of rays
crofs one another ; and, what is equally remarkable, this
pifture is not vifible until all extraneous light is excluded.
We- will not pretend to explain this wonderful property
of a lens, that direfts the tranfmitted rays fo as to form
a pifture of a diftant objeft in its focus, but merely mention
here, that, without it, no telefcope, microfcope, camera
obfcura, or magic lantern, ceuld be conflrufted on dioptric
principles.

After having (hewn, by our foregoing theorems, how any
focus, folar, proper, conjugate, or virtual, may be determined
of a fingle lens, or of a combination of two lenfes w ith the
intermediate diftance given, the fame might be done for any
number of lenfes, by confidering the compound focus of the
firft two lenfes, as the focal diftance of a fingle lens, to be
combined with the third lens, and fo on till all the lenfes are
included. Dr. Smith has given, in his Optics, chap. v.
the application of Cotes's theorem " for determining the ap-
parent diftance, magnitude, fituation, degree of diftinftnefs
and brightnefs, the greateft angle of vifion and vifible area of
an objeft feen by rays fuccefTively reflected from any number
of plane or fpherical furfaces ; or fuccefTively refrafted
through any number of lenfes of any fort, or through any
number of different media, the furfaces of which are plane or
fpherical, with an application to telefcopes and microfcopes ;"
which account our readers may confult with advantage :
hut as the illuftrations and demonftrations demand more
plates than can be given to this article, in addition to the
eight we have had occafion to introduce, we have been
obliged merely to refer to them in this place.

We propofe, however, to fubftitute fome praSical theo-
rems, derived from our tables, which we have been favoured
with by Mr. Tulley, that will be found extremely ufe-
ful to the working optician, who muft be fuppofed, gene-
rally fpeaking, unable to transform the theorems vvhich we
have given in our tables, for the purpofe of finding the focal
diftance of a lens, or of a combination of lenfes already con-
ftrufted ; and which tabulated theorems arc principally ufeful
for determining the powers, and for explaining the conftruc-
tionofTm inftrument to which they are apphcable.

Prad'ical Theorems.

I . When r, the radius of one face of a lens, is given, and
r, its principal geometrical focus, to find R, the radius of

the other face, the theorem is

rY

R for a double

2r— F
convex : thus, let r = 9, and F = 10.3 inches, and the cal-

, . ... , OX 10.5 02.7 , ,

culation will be — — = -— - = 12 nearly, the

9x2- 10.3 7.7

truth of which may be proved by our theorem for parallel

2 r R

fays with a double convex lens, in Table II. tx'z. _ ,or

' R + r

Vol. XXXV.

9 X 12 X 2 216 , r I

= = 10.3, as before very nearly, for the

9 -h 12 21 ^ ^ '

required focus ; and when the refraftive power or ratio be-
tween the fines of incidence and of rcfraftion is given, this
geometrical may be converted into the refrafted focus by
the quantity 2 a, ufcd as a divifor ; or, on the contrary, the
refrafted focus may be turned into the geometrical focus by
ufing 2 a as a multiplier.

2. With a menifcus lens, where r, the convex fide, is given,

r F -

together with F, the theorem is .= for finding R, the

concave fide.

3. But when the concave fide of a menifcus is given
with the focus, to find the convex, the theorem becomes

-^ = ^-
2r-f F

4. When the focus of a double convex lens, and the ratio
between its two radii, are given, to find the aftual radii rand

2 r R

R refpeftively, firft our theorem in Table II. = ■=. F,

R + r

will give the focus, on a fuppofition that one fide is unity,
and the other any given quantity that forms the other term

of the ratio ; fuppofe as i : 4 ; thus

1x4x2

= 1.6, the

'+4

rational focus ; then fuppofe the focus given ^12, and
there will be this analogy, as 1.6: i :: 12 : 7.5 = r; and

1.6 : 4 :: 12 : 30 = R, or otherwife — ^ = 7.5, and

alfo

will be the refpeftive

1.6
radii r

and R, as

7.5 X 4= 30
before.

5. When the compound focus of two convex lenfes, and
the feparate focus of one of them, are given, to find the fepa-
rate focus of the other, that fhall be fuitable to form the
combination ; if we puty"= the focus of the lens given, F =:
the combined focus, and x — the focus of the lens required,

/F

for

the theorem for this ufeful purpofe is

example, let f= 36, and F = 15, then ^- ^ = 2^.7

nearly, for the focus of the lens required, which is a pofitive
focus, becaufe both lenfes are double convex, and might be
plano-convex, or one double convex and the other plano-
convex, or even menifcus, as the ratio of the radii r and R
may be difregarded when the focus only is the objcft of con-
fideration. But whatever be the forms of the curves rela-
tively, F, the compound focus of two lenfes, or more, will,
in praftice, be the refrafted focus ; and, therefore, in this
theorem, y and .v will alfo be the refrafted foci of the fepa-
rate lenfes, and, confequently, when the geometrical focus
ofyis given, it muft be converted into the refrafted focus
by the divifor 2 a, before the calculation is entered upon ;
it being necelTary that all the terms be of the fame deno-
mination.

6. If F, the compound focus, be longer than /, the
focus of the given convex lens, as is the cafe in the conftruc-
tion of a double achromatic objcft-glafs, then the lens re-
quired will be concave, of which the focus x is fought, and

/F

the theorem becomes — .=

F-/

Hh

Let us, in this example,
rcTcrfe

TELESCOPE.

reverfc ihe numbers of/ and F, as taken above, by making
/ = 15, and F = 36 ; and then, as before, there wiU be

^5 X 36 _ 2- _ _ X, the negative focus of the concave
36 - 15 "

lens required, which may alfo have any ratio of its curves,
or be a plano-concave, provided its focus be that which has
been here determined. .

Likewife it mull be iccolleaed, that when a pofitive
focus is required from an union of two lenfes, one convex
and the other concave, the focus of the convex muft be
fliorter than that of the concave ; or, in other words, the re-
fractive power, depending on tlie thicknefs of the lens, when
the fame glafs is ufed for both lenfes, muft predominate in the
convex ; for it is the difterence of tlie oppofite refraftions
t!iat brings the rays finally to a focus : confequently, if the
foci are alike, the rays, being refraded alike in oppofite di-
rottions, will become parallel, or have what is called an
infinite focus : and alfo, if the focus of the concave be made
the fliorter of the two, the rays, after oppofite refradions,
will abfolutely diverge by the ditference of thefe refraftions,
and have an imaginai-y focus, called a virtual or negative
focus, at the other fide of the compound lens.

7. If the lens given be concave, and a convex one be re-
quired to produce a given compound focus, which is another
cafe in the formation of an achromatic objeft-glafs, the

theorem will be J- „ = .v, where / is the focus of the

F +/
concave, and might be put — /, to denote its being a nega-
tive focus, and * the focus of the convex lens. Let us
put / = 25.7, and F = 36, as above, and then there will

b^ ^^'^ ^ 3 r= i_i!_ = 15, very nearly, for the focus x
36 + 25.7 61.7

of the convex required ; which, as we have faid, muft be the
refrafted focus, and alfo /of a like denomination, in order
to make the refrafted compound focus fuitable for a tube of
thirty-fix inches.

8. If tlie compound focus fhould be required to be nega-
tive, or to have the refraftion of the concave lens to predo-
minate, when the convex lens is given with the compound

/F
focus, the concave may be found by this theorem

= w, as in the laft ; but then x here is the focus of the con-
cave lens, which therefore will be 15 when that of the con-
vex is 25.7, and the negative focus, as before, 36.

9. But if the given lens be concave, and the compound
focus be required negative, the focus of the convex fought

fT

will be had by this theorem ~ ^ = x, as in the fixth

} Y-f

theorem ; the focus x is here, however, that of the con-
vex, which in the other was that of the concave ; fo that
when / = 15, and F = 36, x will be again = 25.7, but
negative.

In all thefe cafes, the two lenfes are fuppofed to be in con-
taft with each other ; but if D, the diftance between them,
which is a variable quantity, were given, fimilar theorems

/F

iniffht be formed from our general theorem - — 4;; — -

" ^ / + F — D

aboye explained, where, in any pofition of two convex glafles,
/ is the focus of one lens, F the focus of the other, and D
the diftance between them, with a pofitive compound focus ;
hut if one of the two lenfes be convex, and the other concave,

the general theorem becomes ■

/^ or /^
7 -"F^ITD F-/-D'

accordingly as F, put for the concave, or/, put for the con-
vex, is the larger: the former theorem being the *' produfl
divided by the fum of the foci, leftened by the dijiance," and
tlie latter the " produR divided by the difference of the foci,
leflened by the dijiance.^' Hence, by a tranfpofition of one
or other of the forms of this general theorem, the data and
poftulata may be varied as occafion may require. The firft:
form is applicable in cafes where Aiding eye-pieces, or a
Aiding fecondary objeift-glafs, are ufed in a telefcope, which,
plans have been recommended and adopted by Dr. Brewfter,
as we fliall fee hereafter.

In confidering the theory of a telefcope, (of either the
refrafting or reflefting fort,) our attention muil be diretlcd
to two effential particulars, the image of an external objeft
formed at the focus of the objeft -glafs, or of the large fpe-
culum, as the cafe may be ; and the means by which this
image is rendered vifible to the eye of an obferver : and ac-
cordingly as the dimenfions, (hape, quality, arrangement,
and number of the lenfes and fpecula vary from each other,
may the conftruftions be faid to differ, though the efFe£t
to be produced be intended to be the fame. That telefcope,
of whatever conftruftion, muil be confidered the moft per-
fect, which exhibits to the eye an image of diftaat objefts
the moft diftindlly, as to light, colour, fliape, and propor-
tion ; and which, at the fame time, amplifies this image fuf-
ficiently to afford a minute examination of it, in a field of view-
that is proportionably large to contain it. That quality,
which appai-ently amplifies the objeft, or rather the image of
the objeti, by enlarging the angle fubtended at the pupil of
the eye, therefore called the vifual angle, is denominated
the poiucr of the telefcope ; and in all telefcopes, whatever
their other qualities may be, the light is diminijbed as the power
increafes, fo that in every telefcope there is a limit to its ufe-
ful power, which depends on the quantit)^ of light emitted
or refledled by the objeft to be viewed ; and it would anfwer
no good purpofe to increafe the power fo much, that a cor-
refponding deficiency of light may render the objeft invifible.
Hence different powers may be applied, with advantage, to
objefts differently illuminated ; and hence different eye-pieces
are ufually appropriated to the fame telefcope, particularly
when it is deftined for celeftial, as well as for terreftrial ob-
fervations. But we propofed to explain firft the theory of
thofe telefcopes which are uftially called refraRing or dioptric,
and afterwards of cata-dioptric, or thofe that magnify by the
aid of reJleBion.

Under our article Lens we have faid (in feftion 5.) that
" the images of objefts, oppofed in any manner to a cpnvex
lens, are exhibited invertedly in its focus," and that " they
will be reprefented diilinaiy, and in their natural colours,"
on a paper held at the oppofite fide of the glafs, at nearly
the diftance of its proper focus, efpecially if the room be
darkened ; and in feftion 7. we have faid, that " the diame-
ter of the image of an objctt delineated beyond a convex
lens, is to the objeft itfelf, in the ratio of the diftance of
the images to that of the objeft ;" fo that the more diftant
an objeft is from the lens, the fmaller is the image of that
objeft ; and alfo the fhorter is the focus of the lens, until
the diftance is fuch, that the rays fall on its furface parallel,
or nearly fo. Likewife (in fedtion 8.) we have (hewn, that
" if the eye be placed in the focus of a convex lens, an ob-
jeft viewed through it appears ereft and enlarged in the ratio
of the diftance of the objeft from the eye, to that of the
eye from the lens, if it be near ; but infinitely, if remote :"
and what is faid of an objeft itfelf, when viewed through a

TELESCOPE.

convex glafs, is equally trus of the imagf of an objeft fo
viewed. It is eafy, therefore, to conceive, how two Icnfes
of different focal lengths may be fo arranged as to make a
telefcope that will at the fame time invert and amplify, as to
fenfe, a diftant objetl : for, firll, a lens of a long focal dif-
taace will form a large image of the objeft oppofed to it,
which image, by the eroding of the rays at the focal point,
will be inverted a httle beyond the folar focus : and fccondly,

viewed through the outcrmoll or firlt cyc-glafs, in the fame
manner as the firft or inverted image was viewed tlirongh
the original cye-glafs. This telefcope was denominated the
terrejfrial telefcope ; and while the foci of all the three eye-
glades were fimilar, its power and field of view remained
the fame as in the aftronomical telefcope.

The theory of thefe three conftruftions will be more
clearly underflood by a reference to Plate XXV. of yijlro-

an eye applied to a lens of (liort focal diilance, which is nomical Injlrumetils, in which fg. i. (hews the arrange
held fo that its focal point may coincide with that of the ment of the glafles in the aftronomical telefcope ; Jig. 2
larger lens, will receive parallel rays, and will fhew the faid '■'""' -'" -' v ,y- • , ^ ,.. , ., . .

image in an amplified or magnified ftate, and in the fame
inverted pofition in which it is exhibited ; which image, by
being enclofed in a darkening tube, appears with all its natu-
ral colours. The power of fuch a telefcope, which is the
fimpleft that can be made, is afcertained by finding how often
the focal length of the fmall or eye-lens is contained in
tlie focal length of the larger or objeft-lens ; the quotient of
fuch divifion will reprefent the power. But if the eye-lens
be made concave, and placed within the focal point of the
objeft-lens, as much as is equal to the virtual focus of the
concave lens, then the converging rays will become parallel,
and afterwards, on entering the eye, which may be ccnfi-
dered as a lens of fliort focus, wiU converge, and form a di-
re6l image on the retina ; and though the total length of the
telefcope will be (hortened by this latter arrangement, by
twice the focal length of the eye -lens ; yet if the virtual
focus of the concave eye -glafs be the fame as the focal dif-
tance of the convex lens, the power will be the fame, and
may be afcertained by the fame procefs. With a convex
eye~glafs, the inftrument ariCng out of the firll arrangement
is the original ajlronoviical telelcope, and that arifing out of
the fecond is the Galilean. The field of view in the former
conftruiSion is direftly as the efFeftive breadth of the eye-
glafs, and inverfely as the interval between the lenfes ; but in
the latter, the field is direftly as the diameter of the pupil of
the eye, and inverfely as its diftance from the lens.

In both thefe conftruftions, the fmalleft power, or, which
is the fame thing, the fhorteft focus of the objeft-glafs is
■with parallel rays ; and as the diftance of the objeft, or ra-
diant point, decreafes according to the principles of optics
laid down under Lens, the focal diftance of the objeft-glafs
increafes : and thus the power increafes as the rays become
more and more diverging, from a gradual decreafe of dif-
tance ; fo that, in faft, the fame telefcope magnifies a near
objeft confiderably more than it does a diftant one ; for
wliile the focus of the objeft-glafs increafes after a certain
law, inverfely as the diftance decreafes, the focus of the
eye-glafs remains unaltered ; and, confequently, the power
varies inverfely as the diftance, or direftly as the variable
focus of the objeft-glafs.

To remedy the inconvenience of inverfion of the objedl in
the aftronomical telefcope, and alfo of the contrafted field of
view of the Galilean, two more glafles were added to the
eye-tube, as we before ftated, to render the image of the
fjbjeft ereR, or rather to form a fecond image in a contrary
pofition. The primary intention of thefe two additional
eye-glan"es was not to alter the power, but merely to give
an ereft pofition to the apparent objeft ; the original lens

that of the glafles in the Galilean, and alfo in the com-
mon opera-glafs, except that in it the objea-glafs i<
ufually achromatic ; and jig. 3. exhibits the fyftem of
glafles that compofe the original terreftrial telefcope, or
pcrfpeftive frlafs, before the fubfequent improvements took
place. In all thefe figures the fame letters denote the fame
parts, as tar as they extend ; and the magnifying power of
each may thus be demonftrated to be as we ha\-e before
ftated it. Let A E reprefent the objeft-glafs, and C D the
cye-glafs oi fig. i ; and let H F I and G F M be confidercd
as two pencils of light, proceeding in ftraight lines from the
oppofite ends of a diftant arrow, and crofnng each other at
the centre F of the faid objcft-glafs ; alfo let the dotted
line be a pencil coming from the middle of the arrow, and
falling perpendicularly on the fame central point, fo as to
pafs along the axis of the glafles F L E. Lender thefe cir-
cumftances, the angle G F H = I E M, the oppofite angle,
is that under which the arrow appears to the natural eye at
F ; but the angle I E M = C K D, is that under which
the image I M of the diftant arrow is viewed, when magni-
fied by the eye-glafs C D. But the angle I E M is to the
angle I F M, as L F to L E, or as the focal diftance of the
objeft-glafs to the focal diftance of the eye-glafs ; therefore

LF

Y-^ = the power, as before ftated ; and as the lenfes C D,

N O, and T U, in^^f . 3. have equal foci, the fecondaij direft
image P Q is equal to the primary inverted one I M, and
appears under the fame angle.

Novv if all the rays of hght had been, as they were fup-
pofed to be before fir Ifaac Newton's experiments, homo-
geneal ; and if a double convex lens, of equal curvature on
both fides, had been found to refraft all thefe homogeneal
rays into one focal point, without any aberration, either
lateral or longitudinal ; then the telefcopes, we have juft
noticed, would have been fufiiciently perfeft for all the pur-
pofes of exhibiting a well-defined pifture of the objeft
viewed in a magnified ftate ; and the power might have
been increafed to almoft any extent, by varying the ratio
between F L and E L ; that is, by incrcafing the focal
diftance of the objeft-glafs, or by leflening the focal diftance
of the eye-glafs, or by both ; but it was foon found that
the rays which enter a lens at or near the edges, arc re-
frafted to a point nearer to its furface than the rays that are
tranfmitted near the centre ; and alfo that the rays of dif-
ferent colours are differently refrafted, even from the fame
point of the lens, fo as to meet in the line of the axis at dif-
ferent diftances from the nearcft furface of the lens. The
former of thefe deviations, being occafioned by the fphcrical

therefore remained as before, and was called the/cW-glafs, as figure of the lens, is called \.\\e fpherical aberration ; and the
being neareft to the field of view of the old arrangement of latter, arifingoutof the nature of folar light itfelf, is called the
two glaffes, while the next glafs was called the fecond eye- prifmatic,chrotnatic, or Newtonian aberration. The indiftinft-

glafs, and was placed at double its focal diftance from the
field-glafs, fo that the rays might be parallel, and that it
might form another image in its focus : this being the image
of an image, was denominated the fecondary image, and
became erefl by a fecond croffing of the rays, and was then

nefs in the formation of the image, occafioned by thefe aberra-
tions of the rays of light, became an objeft of fir Ifaac New-
ton's attention, and he foon difcovcred that, whatever mechani-
cal means might effc61 in the ihape of the curve that might
reftify the fpherical aberration, the prifmatic aberration would
Hh 2 remaic.

TELESCOPE.

fc-inaiii io long as one jubilance only remained to be the me-
tliam of refraction. The ingenious Huygens, however,
fuppofing that the diminution of the fpherical aberration
would contribute greatly to the improvement of the tele-
fcope, in-llituted lome experiments and calculations, which
greatly promoted the fcience of Dioptrics. He found, that
Sie lengthening of the radius of convexity of an objeft-glafs
Ihortened the verled fine of the curvature, or lefl'cned the
thicknefs of the glafs, on which, with equal apertures, the
fpherical aberration feemcd to depend ; and alfo that, in a
limple eye-glafs, the aberration from the figure was greateft
in a double convex lens, when the curves of the two faces
were from the fame radius ; and alfo that it increafed as the
radius (hortened. The ratio l : l being found to have the
greateft aberration, and I : 2 to have lefs, an inveftigation
was inftituted, from which it was at length proved, that the
aberration in a double convex lens is the fmalleft poffible,
when the radii of convexity are to each other as i : 6 ; the
face I being turned to the radiant or objedt to be viewed.
From thefe experiments originated the famous Huygenian
telefcope of 123 feet focal diilance, and a table of apertures
correfponding to the refpedlive focal lengths of the objeft
and eye glafles, that would exhibit an image equally well
defined : which calculations were the bafis of all the long or
(Kr/'a/ telefcopes that were in repute for a whole century ; but
which are now fuperfeded by the (hort achromatic refractors.

The fame ingenious author of dioptrics difcovered, that the
aberration arifing from the curved figure of a lens might be
Itill further diminiftied, by fubflituting two lenfes in the eye-
piece of a telefcope inilead of one ; which difcovery was the
foundation of all the improved eye-pieces that have been
fince adopted, under different arrangements of intermediate
diftance, and with different degrees of curvature. But
before we can explain how the indiftinftnefs arifing from
both the fpherical and prifmatic aberrations of mixed rays,
may be in a great meafure counteracted, (on which im-
portant confideration, the excellence of modern improved
telefcopes depends,) it is neceflary to examine this fubjeft
further, and to (hew how the circle of aberration of mixed
rays arifing from their unequal refrangibihty, and alfo the
lateral and longitudinal aberrations arifing from the fpherical
figure of refracting and reflecting furfaces, may be mathe-
matically determined. In doing this, we (hall avail ourfelves
of Dr. Smith's propofitions, which are at the fame time per-
fpicuous and conclufive.

Prop. I.

Aberrations. — " Let the common fine of incidence be to
the fine of refraCtion of the leajl refrangible rays, as I
to R, and to the fine of refraCtion of the mojl refrangible
rays, as I to S ; and the diameter of the leaft circulai- fpace,
into which heterogeneal parallel rays can be coUeCted by a
fpherical furface, or by a plano-convex lens, will be to the
diameter of its aperture in the conftant ratio of S — R to
S -t- R- 2 I."

For let an heterogeneal ray P A ( Plate XXVI./^. i.)
fall upon a fpherical furface A C B, and let it be feparated
by refraCtion into the rays A F, A/, cutting the axis E C,
drawn parallel to FA, in F and /. Take the arc C B
equal to C A, and let another heterogeneal ray P B, coming
parallel to P A, be refraCted into the lines B F, B/, cutting
the two former rays in R and S. Join R S, and produce it
till it meets the incident rays produced in I and K, and the
perpendiculars EA, E B, to the refraCting furface at the
points A, B, in H and L. And when A B, the breadth of the
•iperture or of the pencil, is but moderate, and confequently
the refractions at A B but fmall, the angles of incidence and
10

refraCtion HA I, HA R, HA S, or the arcs th.it mea-
fure them, or their perpendicular fubteules H I, H R, H S,
will be to each other very ne;u-ly in the fame given ratios as
thofe of the fines I, R, S, of thofe angles. And disjointly,
the dilTerences of thofe fubtenfes will be proportionable to
the di(fcrences of thofe fines ; that is, the fine R S : R I ::
S — R : R — I, and doubling the confequents, R S :
2RIorIK-RS :: S-R : 2R- 2I; and con-
jointly, R S : I K, or A B :: 6 - R : S + R - 2 I.
From this given ratio of R S to A B, in which they increafe
or decreafe together, it appears that all the intermediate
rays which fall upon A B, will pafs through R S. And
when parallel rays fall perpendicularly upon the plane fide of
a plano-convex lens, they are refracted only at their emer
gence from its convex furface ; and fo' the aberrations are
the fame in both cafes. Q. E. D.

Carol. I. — Hence the diameter R S, of the circle of prif-
matic aberrations that contains all the incident rays, is a
55th part of the diameter A B of the aperture of a plano-
convex glafs, whatever be its focal diftance. For fuppofing
with Newton the prifmatic ipeCtrum divided into feven
colours, and AR and A S to be the outermoft red and
violet rays, their fines of incidence and refraCtions I, R, S,
are to each other as- 50, 77, 78. Whence S — R is to
S -t- R — 2 I, as I to 55.

Carol. 2. — The diameter of the leaft circle that can receive
the rays of any fingle colour, or of feveral contiguous colours,
is alfo determinable from the proportions of their finei.
Thus all the orange and yellow is contained in a circle,
whofe breadth is the 260th part of the breadth of the aper-
ture of the plano-convex glafs ; the fines of the outermoft
orange A R, and yellow A S, being to the common fine of
incidence, as 77^ and 77-i- to 50.

Carol. 3. — In diftercnt furfaces, or plano-convex glaftes,
the angles of prifmatic aberration R A S are as the breadths
of the apertures A, B, diredtly, and as the focal diftances
C, F, inverfely ; becaufe any angle, as R A S, is as its fubtenfe
R S direCtly, and as its radius A R or C F inverfely.

Lemma. — The verfed fines A B, AC, of very fmall
arcs B D, C D, {Jigs. 2. and 3.) of unequal circles B D G,
C D H, that have the fame right fine A D, are reciprocally
proportionable to their diameters B G, C H, very nearly ;
that is, A B : AC :: CH : BG.

For fince the reCtangles under BAG and C A H are
each equal to the fquare of A D, and confequently to each
other, their fides are reciprocally proportionable ; that is,
A B is to A C as A H to A G, or as C H to B G very
nearly, when the verfed fines are incompai'ably lefs than the
diameters themfelves. Q. E. D.

Prop. II.

" When homogeneal parallel rays N A, EC, {Jig. 4. )
fall upon a fpheric:! furface A C, whofe centre is E,
the longitudinal aberration F T, of any refraCted ray A T
from F, the focus of the pencil, is to the verfed fine of the
arc A C, intercepted between the point of incidence and
the axis E C F, in the given ratio of the fquare of the fine of
refraCtion, to the reCtangle under the fine of incidence, and
the difference of the fines very nearly ; and the aberration is
the fame when the rays fall perpendicularly upon the plar»e
fide of a plano-convex lens."

For when the refraCtion is made in the paffage of a ray
N A from a denfer to a rarer medium, then the interfeCtion
T, of the refraCted ray A T, with the axis E C F, lies be-
tween the refracting furface and its focus F. With the
centre T and femi-diameter T A, having defcribed the arc
A D, cutting the axis in D, draw the fine A P of the arcs

AC,

TELESCOPE.

A C, AD, and alfo E N and E M, the fines of incidence
and refrailion, for which put ii and m ; then bccaiife the
triangles E T M, ATP, are fimikr, it will be as E T :
TAor TD :: (EM : APorEN ::) EF : FC; and
disjointly, T F : E F :: (F C - T D or) T F - C D :
F C J and alternately, T F : T F - C D :: E F : F C ; and
disjointly, T F : CD :: ( E F : E C ::)»«: m - n. Again,
fince (P D : P C :: C E : D T or F C and conjointly) C D
:CP:: (EF: FC::)m:n; by compounding this and
the foregoing proportion, it will be as T F : C P :: ??/ m :
m — n, n. Q. E. D.

Carol. I — The fegment ACBPA may be confidered
as a plano-convex lens ; and when rays fall parallel upon its
plane fide, the longitudinal aberration of the extreme ray
falling upon A is equal to ^ of its thicknefs P C, as appears
by putting 3 and 2 for m and « refpeftively.

ffi ffj A P'*

Carol. 2. — Alfo this aberration FT = ^r^=^ x -^rp^

m — n,n 2 EC

AP'

r^^' 2CF

A P'
For P C = — j:^-^ very nearly, and

EC

X CF.

Corol. 3 Let the refradled ray ATG produced, cut

the line F G, perpendicular to the axis, in G, and the lateral

, . T-^ mm APJ mm A P3

aberration F G = — x — Fr-;v = .-_ x

2 EC
FG:TF :: AP : TP, orCFor

2CF'

For

X CE.

Carol. 4. — When the femi-diameter of the convexity or
the focal diftance is given, the longitudinal aberrations arif-
ing from the figure are as the fquares, and the lateral aber-
rations as the cubes, of the linear apertures of a plano-
convex ler.s.

Prop. III.

" When parallel rays Q A, E C [Jig. 5. ) are rejle6led from
a fpherical concave A C B, whofe centre is E, and vvhofe
aperture, A C B, is but fmall, the longitudinal aberration
T F, of the extreme ray A T, from the geometrical focus F,
is equal to half the verfed fine C P of the femi-aperture
A C very nearly."

In Jig. 4. imagine E M, the fine of refraftion, to be di-
minilhed to nothing, and then to become negative and equal
to E N, the fine of incidence, and the refraftion of the ray
to be changed to refleftion, as ^njlg. 5 ; and by the former
propofition it will be, as T F : C P :: »n m : — m — n, n ::
/in: 2 H « :: I : — 2.

But the particular proof is this : By the laft lemma, the
verfed fine C P nearly equals half the verfed fine P D of the
arc AD, whofe centre is T, and femi-diameter TA or
T E, or half the femi-diameter of the arc A C very nearly.
But2TF = 2TE-2EF=:ED -EC = CDex-
aftly, or C P nearly. Therefore T F = i C P nearly.

Corol. I.— We had 2 T F ^ C D exadly, which is the
excefs of the fecant E D of the arc A C above its radius
E A. For joining A D, the angle D A E in the femi-circle
D A E is a right one.

A P'

Corol. 2. — The longitudinal aberration T F = -ttv--

4 C ii

A P*
For C P = — i=rF nearly.

2C£.

A P'
Corol. t. — The lateral aberration F G = —

2CE'

For

F G : F T :: A P : P T, or ' C E nearly.

Corol. 4 — When tlie diameter of the concave or its focal
diftance is given, the longitudinal aberrations are as the
fquares, and the lateral ones as the cubes of tlic diameters
of tlie aj)ertures.

Pitoi". IV.

" When parallel rays of any one fort are refradled by a
plano-convex objeft-glafs, or when rays of all forts are rc-
flefted by a fpherical concave, the diameter of each circle
of aberration caufed by the fphericalnefs of the figures, is
equal to half the lateral aberration of tlie extreme ray in
each, and therefore is given by tlie former propofitions."

Let a Y T be any refrafted or reflefted ray, cutting tlie axis
E C T in T (Jigs. 6 and 7.), and the extreme ray A T G,
that comes from the contrary fide of the axis, in Y. Draw
Y X perpendicular to the axis ; and fuppofing tlie line
A T G immpveable, as the point of incidence u moves from
the vertex C, the perpendicular X Y will firll incieafe, be-
caufe the angle Cra continually increafcs, and afterwards
will decreafe, becaufe the line Tt continually detreafes; and
when X Y is the greatell, it is evident tliat all the rays, in-
cident upon the lame fide of the axis as itfelf, will pafs
through it. To find its greateil quantity, let tlie incident
ray qa cut the chord A P B in B, and fuppofing the variable
aperture F 13 = v, the variable T X ~ x, and the given lines
PA =«, PT =/, TF =i; by Cor.4. Props. II. and
III. the aberration F t is to the aberration FT (b) as ■ktj''
or Pp^ (vv) to PA- (<Ja).

Wherefore F t = — i, and thence TF — Ft^Tt
a a

= — Xna ~vv. Again, P T (/) : P A (n) :: T X

(.v) : XY = y; alfo^«(^) :

PT (/) :: XY

r-f") : X T = — . Hence again, T t, or X t + X T =

—1 -fK = — X aa ~~ -uv found before ; or — x a + v
•u aa 11

: — X a 4- -u X a

a a

Whence x = — -u x a — v,
aa

and therefore x or T X is the greateft poifible when tlie
reftangle •uxa — ■u, orP(3x/SBis greateft, that is, when
its fides PiS, /S B, are equal, or when v — ^a. Subftitute
this value for -v in the laft equation, and it gives the greateft
value of .V = ^ l>, or the greateft T X = ^ T F ; and there-
fore the greateft X Y = A F G, becaufe T X : X Y :: T F
: F G ; and this X Y, turned about the axis P X, defcribes
the circle of aberrations through which all the rays falling
upon A B will juft pafs. Q. E. D.

Prop. V.

" The circle of aberrations caufed by tlie fphericalnefs of
the figure of the objeft-glafs of a telefcope, compared with
the circle of aberrations caufed by the unequal refrangibility
of rays, is altogether inconfiderable."

For if the objedt-glafs be plano-convex, and the plane fide
be turned towards the objeft, and the di.imeter of a iphere,
whereof this glafs is a fegment, be called D, and the femi-
■liameter of the aperture of the glafs be called S, and the

fine

TELESCOPE.

mm
nn

whofe diameter is '^^ x ^rir: very nearly, if they were all

fine of incidence out of glafs into air be to tlie fine of re-
fraftion as n to m ; the rays which come parallel to the axis
of the glafs ftxall, in the place where the imago of the objed
is moa diftindly made, be fcattcred all over a little circle,

?1
DD

equally refrangible. As for inftance, if the fine of in-
cidence n be to the fine of rcfraftion m as 20 to 31, and
if D, the diameter of the fphere to which the convex fide
of the glafs is ground, be loo feet, or 1200 inches, and
confequently the telefcope about 100 feet long, and S, the
femi-diamcter of the aperture, be two inches ; the diameter

, . m m S^ -111

of this circle of aberrations, that is x =r^, will be

nn IJL)

3' ^ 3' X ^^ tttSj'Aw parts of an inch.

20 X 20 X 1200 X 1200

But the diameter of the little circle through which thefe
rays are fcattered by unequal refrangibility, will be about
the 55th part of the breadth of the aperture of the objeft-
glafs, which is here four inches. And therefore the aber-
ration arifing from the fpherical figure of the glafs, is to
the aberration arifing from the different rciiangibility, as
TTs'AVo-o to ^f , that is as l to 5449 ; and therefore, being
if) comparifon fo very Uttle, defervcs not to be confidered in
the theory of telefcopes. If we fuppofe the little circle of
aberrations arifing from unequal refrangibility, to be 250
times narrower than the circular aperture of the objeft-glafs,
it would contain all the orange and yellow, and would per-
mit the other fainter and darker colours to pafs by it, which
perhaps may fcarcely affeft the fenfe; yet even in this cafe, the
aberration caufed by the fpherical figure, would be to the
aberration caufed by the unequal refrangibility, in a loo-feet
telefcope, but as tttVtWtj- to -^, or only as I to 1200,
which fufSciently proves the propofition. Q. E. D.

Carol. I. — If the focal diftances and apertures of arefleft-
ing concave and a plano-convex glafs be both the fame, the
diameter of the circle of aberrations, caufed by their figures,
will be above 30 times lefs in the refleftor than in the re-

fraftor. For thefe diameters are ^ -^_- and =— - X

16 CF' T^^iry-

which

to =

,31 X 31
II X n'

Hence, if the length of each telefcope be 100 feet, the
lateral aberrations in the refleftor wonld be 30 x 5449, or
163470 times lefs than the lateral aberrations caufed by un-
equal refrangibility in the refraftor.

Carol. 2. — The number of pencils, fome of whofe rays
are mixed together in every point of a confufed pifture, is
as the area of the circle of aberrations of the rays in any one
pencil ; and confequently the mixture of the rays of dif-
ferent pencils, caufed by the fphericalnefs of the figure of
an objeft-glafs, if they were all alike refrangible, would be
to their mixture caufed by their unequal refrangibihty, as
1 to 5449 X 5449, or 29691601 in the prefent inftance. For
conceiving any point in the confufed pidlure to be a centre of
a circle of aberration, it is manifeft that all other equal circles
of aberration, whofe centres fall upon the firft-mentioned
circle, will cover its centre, that is, fome rays of as many
pencils will be mixed in this centre as there are points in the
circle iti'elf ; or, which is the fame thing, the number of
pencils mixed in this centre is as the area of the circle of
aberrations."

Double achromatic OljeH-glaJfes. — From thefe five propoji-
t'tons, and the corollaries deduced from them, in all of whicli
tlie ratio of the fines of the angles of incidence and of re-
fraftion out of air into glafs :s taken as 3 : 2, (which
anfwers nearly to the French platc-glafs,) our readers will
fee, that when any fingle lens is ufed as the objeft-glafs of a
refrafting telefcope, there will be not only fringes of colour,
but indiftinftnefs in the image formed at its focal point,
arifing rcfpeftively out of tiie two kinds of aberration, the
prifmatic and the fpherical. But Dollond has Ihewn, that
thefe aberrations are not the fame in all forts of glafs : the
former depends on the difperfive power of the glafs ufed,
and the latter on the ratio of the radii of curvature of the
two furfaces of the lens. The difperfive power of a prifm
of any fpecimen of glafs will be to that of another like prifm
of a different fpecimen, as the lengths of the prifmatic
fpeflra, formed by them, are refpeftively to each other ;
and if the foci of two lenfes of different difperfive powers;
one convex, of crown-glafs for inftance, and the other
concave, of flint, be made direftly as their difperfive
powers, and be placed contiguous, fo that the convex lens
may receive the rays firft, and be of the (horter focus, or
thicker, its difperfive power will be fo counterafted by
the oppofite difperfive power of the other thin lens of
longer focus, that the extreme or prevailing colours of
the primary fpcdlrum, being reverfed, will both difappear ;
and a fecondary fpeftrum, compofed of the remaining in-
termediate colours, will be very inconfiderable in a good
achromatic objedl-glafs thus compofed. If the refrafted
focal diftances of the two lenfes remain unaltered, when
duly proportioned, as i : 3, or nearly fo, the proportion
of the radii of the furfaces may be altered at pleafure, fo as
to produce their due proportions of fpherical aberration.
To effedt the defirable purpofe of baniftiing the fpherical
aberration as much as poflible, the optician is obliged to
calculate the aberrations belonging to convex lenfes of dif-
ferent unequal radii, in order to make the contrary aberra-
tions of the concave as equal thereto as may b* ; and for
this purpofe the general theorem of Huygens is peculiarly
adapted, which we (hall, therefore, introduce and ex-
emplify here, before we proceed to the conftruftion of an
achromatic objeft-glafs. According to this theorem, if we
put r for the radius of the firft furtace of any lens, or that
which firft receives the incident rays ; R for the fecoud fur-
face ; and T for the thicknefs of the lens : then the aberra-
tion arifing from the figure of any lens, concave or convex,

•ill, 27>-'-h6rR4- 7R' T • fii /o
will be = — ^ , X 1 univerfally. ( See

6 X rT^'

Martin's New Elements of Optics, part vi. chap. iii. and

Dr. Smith's Optics, book 2. chap, xiii.) When the

centres of the curves are on oppofite fides of the lenfes, the

figns are as here put down ; but if thefe centres are on the

fame fide as in a menifcus, then the fign of r, or of R, muft

be negative, as the cafe may require. For inftance, let us

firft put r and R equal, and each = i ; then, as unity is

not altered by multiplication or divifion, we (hall have the

27 4-6-4-7

fimpleft cafe, viz. — ^^ = 44 = !, or 1.66 of

^ 6x2x2

T, for the longitudinal aberration, and it will make no dif-
ference which face of the lens is turned to the radiant.
Secondly, let us take r = i, and R =: 2, in which cafe

-2 = ^4, or 4 of T, very nearly.

0x9 '

But if we reverfe the fides in pofition, by making r = 2,

and

we (hall have

TELESCOPE.

nJ R = I, then the refult will be different, viz.

108+12+7

= tV> or nearly ^^ of T. The aberration

6x9

Jiere is more than in the former pofition, in the ratio of
127 : 67 ; and this is, therefore, called the woijl pofition ;
that being always called the iejl, where the firft furface has
a fhcK-ter radius than the fecond. If we fuppofe Icnfes of
unequal radii to have their focal diftances, their breadth,
and confequently their thicknefs the fame, it will be found,
by a fimilar procefs, that their aberrations will diminifli, as
R continues to exceed r, until /■ is to R as I : 6 ; in which
cojiftruftion of a lens, placed in its beft pofition, the aber-
ration will be a minimum, i<iz,. 44 of T ; but in its reverfcd
or woril pofition, the aberration will be ',V of the fame.
A fingle convex lens, in its bell poiition, has its aberration
only J of T ; but with the plane fide turned to the radiant,
in which r may be faid to be infinite, the aberration will
be 4 of T. Alfo a double convex, when its radii r and R
are to each other as 2 : 5, has the lame aberration as a fingle
convex in its beft pofition, and has lefs fpherical aberration
than any menifcus whatever ; but there is no proportion of
tlie radii of any one lens that will do away the fpherical
aberration altogether. If the refraftive power of any glafs
be fuch, that the fines of incidence and of refraftion are not
exaftly in the ratio 3:2, the calculated longitudinal aber-
ration will differ a little from the true one, fo as to require
a corredlion. And with refpeft to the lateral aberration,
if m be the fine of incidence, and n the fine of refraiftion zz: i,
where two lenfes have equal apertures and radii, then the
errors arifing from obliquity of incidence wall refpeftively
be as m ■ in one, to 'm ' in the other.

Likewife, we derive from the foregoing demonilrations of
Dr. Smith the following general and important conclu-
fions : firfl, that in lenfes of equal apertures, the longitu-
dinal aberrations, arifing from figure, are inverfily as the
focal diftances (fee Cor. 2. of Prop. II. above quoted);
and fecondly, that under hke circumftances, the lateral
aberrations are inverfely as the fquares of the faid focal

diftances (fee Cor. 3. oi the famr Prep.); and, on the con-
trary, that when the focal diftances arc the fame, and the
apertures differ, then the longitudinal aberrations are a» the
fquares (fee Cor. 4.), and the lateral as the cubes of thofe
apertures. The utility of thefe proportions will more fully
appear in the fequel.

We proceed now to the moft important part of our
article, vi%. to fliew what means have been not only dcvifcd,
but praftically applied, for remedying the defeds arifing out
of thefe two different kinds of abeirations, and for rcndeniig
the apparent objctl, as viewed through a refra^ing telefcope,
at the fame time diftina and colourlcfs. Telefcopes of
what are called the acbromatic, (from a, priv., and x?="^.
colour,) or colourlefs kind, are compofed, hke other tele-
Icopes, of two parts requiring fcparate confideration ; a./z.
tiie objeft-glafs and the eye-tube : the former being that
which produces an image free from colours and miiUnefs;
and the latter that which either renders this image vifible, or
produces a fecondary one to be viewed, without the repro-
duftion of colours. But our prefent confideration is that of
the objeft-glafs.

Before the working optician can proceed to prepare hit
tools for making an achromatic objeft-glafs, he mull know
the refraftive and difpcrfive powers of his glafs. Various
methods have been propofed for determining thefe qualities
with accuracy ; but it will be fufficient for our purpofe to
explain thofe which have been found moft prafticable. As
the ratio between the fine of incidence and the fine of refrac-
tion is conftant in the fame glafs, though not the fame ratio
in different forts of glafs, the moft certain method of deter-
mining this ratio in different fpecimens of glafs is, to grind
a piece of each of thofe fpecimens by the fame tool, as
Martin and TuUey have done, and then to compare their
refracled folar foci with the radius of curvature ; and thofe
which have the (hortefl refrafted foci, will have the grcateft
refraftive power ; and the contrary. We have already ex-
plaine'd, in the firft fedion of our article, how this operation
was condutled by Tulley in particular ; and we will now ilate
the refults of his experiments in the fubjoined little table.

Refults of praftical Experiments on the refraftive Powers of different Specimens of Glafs, by C. Tulley.

Kinds of Glafs.

R

Radius of
Tool.

F
Focus of re-
fraaed Rays.

R

a Divifor.

Ratie of tlie c„ -c
t, specific

Ratio of difperfive
Powers .

Kinds of Glafj
ufed together.

Flint I.

33-7

28.13

1.198

1.599: 1

3-466

1.757: 1

ufed with crown.

Fhnt 2.

33-7

29.38

1-147

'•5735:1

3.192

1.524: 1

ufed with crown.

Ratcliffe crown

33-7

31-91

1.056

1.528: I

2-527

1:1.757

l: 1.524

ufed with flint 1.
ufed with flint 2.

Dutch

33-7

32.12

1.049

1.524: I

2.519

not known.

Plate 1.

33-7

33-43

1.008

1.504: 1

2.450

I : 1.65

I : 1.623

ufed with flint 1.
ufed with flint 2.

Plate 2.

33-7

33-56

1.004

1.502 : I

2.428

1.195
1.167

ufed with flint i.
ufed with flint 2.

If we explain how the numbers in the horizontal column of grinding and partial polifhing, which was all that the

of flint I. were obtained, the reft of the table will require no glaffes required for viewing the fun, and for adjuftment to

further explanation. The tool on which the fix fpecimens the folar focus. The firft flint-glafs, after being thus formed

of glafs were ground at the fame time, was of fpeculum to a curvature on both fides of 33.7 inches radius, equal to

metal, and did not vary its fhape much during the operation that of the tool, was put into a tube and made into a tcm-

4 porary

TELESCOPE.

porary U-lefcope, wlioii tlie principal or folar focus, from
adliial refradioii of the rays, was found to be 28.13 inches,
wliicli is thrrcfore called the rcfratied folar focus, the geo-
metrical focus derived from tlie radius of curvature being
33.7. This is the fpecinien of glafs of the greatcft denfity
as well as of the greateft refradive and difpcrfive powers,
its fpecific gravity having been repeatedly afcertained to be
3.466 with different hydroftatic balances of the mod deh-
cate conllruftion. Now if the radiant had been at a near
diflance, inllead of the fun being ufed, Martin has (hewn

that the value of <7 = may be had from this theorem,

n

>u\^. -—J-= a (where d, r, and/, are as in our Table I.

2 df

of Theorems), which is demonftratcd in his Philofophia Bri-
tannica ; and from this theorem he determined the focal dif-
tancPs and quantity a of his fpecimens of glals ; but when
the fun is ufed as the radiant, the diftance becomes infinite ;
and then, neglefting rfss infinitely fmall, the left-hand term

becomes — y , and the theorem, by ejefting d from the
2df

r

numerator and denominator, is reduced into the form — =: /,

2a

as in our Table I. for parallel rays with a double convex of
equal radii. TuUey, therefore, very properly preferred tak-
ing the folar focus at once, inftead of taking a meafured
dillance for the place of the radiant, and of calculating
from a long theorem, and from data that might not be per-
feAly correft ; his refults, therefore, muft be confidered as
being more fatisfatlory than Martin's. The reduced theorem

— =/, by tranfpofition becomes — = 2 a, and alfo/ x

2 (J = ;■ ; hence 2 a may be either a divifor or multiplier,
accordingly as r or /is given to find the other. Tulley has
called this quantity a divifor, becaufe, having the radius or
geometrical focus of a glafs always, from the known radius
of his grinding tool, he can get the refracted focus by the
proper divifor and a fimple calculation at any time ; which
mode, as we fhall fee prefently, is very ufeful in the calcu-
lation of the compound focus of an achromatic objeft-glafs.
Now to get the aftual quantity of 2 a in figures, there will

3 3.7
be -„ — taken from the third and fourth vertical columns,
28.13 '

R r

which may be called z=- or — = z a = 1. 1 98 for the faid

divifor, one half of which is .599 = a. Put now m, as
before, for the fine of incidence, and n for the fine of re-

fraftion, and we have feen above that

n-= I, and then m = 1.599 > f^"" —

1.599 — I
= 1-599' a™ -^^ = -599

= a. Let

I +a

a ; therefore the fine

of incidence is to the fine of refraftion in this firft fpecimen,
ifi the ratio of 1.599 = ' ; and in like manner the horizon-
tal columns for all the other fpecimens are filled up with very

R
little trouble, when - is afcertained by fimple divifion of

the tabular or experimental numbers With refpeft to the

vertical column of difperfive powers, thefe powers are bed
afcertained by making fix equal prifms of the fame fpeci-
mens of glafs, and by meafuring the coloured folar fpcftra
of each feparately, under exaftly the fame circumftances of
diftance, inclination, pofition, &c. ; and as the angle of dif-
perfion is meafured by the coloured fpeftrum as its fubtenfe,
the angles of difperfion of the different fpecimens will varj-
with the rcfpeftive lengths of their fpeftra ; and if the re-
frafling angle of one of the fpecimens, the firft flint for in-
ftance, be diminifhed by grinding and frcfti poliftiing, until
its fpeftrum is of precifcly the fame length as that of any
other, fay the crown, then the ratio of their refrafting
angles will be inverfely the ratio of their difperfive powers ;
and a pair of analogous lenfes, one convex and the other con-
cave, (fuch as thofe feen in /"/a/^ XXVIII. _/ffj'. 5. and 6.)
will have their difperfive powers fo counteratled, that a
pencil of rays incident on the thick crown-glafs will emerge
from the thin flint colourlefs, and will proceed without colour,
notwithftanding the greater refradlive power of the convex
lens, till, by being refrafted, they finally crofs the axis in
which the focus is formed ; and the focal point will be more
or lefs diftant with a pair of lenfes fo combined, accordingly
as the difference of the two refrafting powers is greater or
fmaller. To explain this analogy between a pair of prifms
and a lens, either convex or concave, we will ftiew how a
pencil of folar rays paffing through a prifm of glafs is dif-
perfed at the fecond furface, fo as to form the folar fpec-
trum compofed of the prifmatic colours : Let a b c, in
Jig. 9, be a triangular piece of glafs, called a prifm, and d a
pencil of folar light, entering the prifm at e, in the line de B>
parallel to the bafe ac : on entering the glafs it will be re-
frafted towards this bafe, and emerge at the pointy, a little
nearer to c than e is to a. At this point of emergence,/, the
pencil will begin to difperfe into rays of different colours,
but whether into feven or any other number, is not our
prefent objedl to enquire. Let A B be a fcreen, receiving
the difperfed pencil in a darkened room, and /^ will be the
ray of mean refraftion, fh will be the red ray, or ray of
leaft refiaftion, and f i will be the violet ray, or ray of
greateft refraftion, h i being the length of the coloured fpec-
trum. Let this prifm be of crown-glafs ; then fubftitute
another of flint-glafs, exaftly in the fame fituation, and the
extreme rays, /; and /, will now be difperfed to H and I, and
the diftance between thofe new points will be the length of
the fpeftrum with flint-glafs. Now the angle ^/B with
both prifms is called the angle of deviation, or of mean re-
fraftion ; the angle ifh is called the angle of difperfion with
the crown, and I /H the fame with the flint prifm ; out
thefe angles of dilperfion are fubtended by the lines ih and
I H refpeftively, which are the lengths of their refpeftive
fpeftra, which therefore are the meafures of the angles of
difperfion of the two different prifms. Martin found thefe
exaftly as 3 : 5, and therefore recommended the geometrical
foci of the crown and flint glaffes to be altuiys in this
proportion ; but Tulley has found that this ratio will not be
accurate with all fpecimens of flint-glafs, and therefore
takes a different ratio, for each fpecimen of glafs that differs
in this quahty, from Martin's. In the fame fpecimen of
glafs, the angle of deviation always bear» the fame propor-
tion to the angle of difperfion, or diffipation as it is fome-
times called ; and it was the opinion of fir Ifaac Newton
that this is the cafe in all fpecimens ; but it remained for
the fenior Dollond to difcover, which is the bafis of all
achromatic conftruftions of an objeft-glafs, that the angles
of deviation may be the fame, when the angles of difperfion
are not the fame, and vice verfd ; and we haive a ftriking in-
ftance in crown and flmt glafs, in which, when the difperfive

powei^

TELESCOPE.

powers are made to balance each other in oppofite direftions,
there yet remains a balance of refraflive power in favour of
the crown, ariiing from its greater thicknefs, which difpofes
colourlefs rays ilill to deviate or be refrafted, but to a more
diftant focus than would have been if the crown had been
ufed alone. This effeft may be fcen injf». lo, where a pair
of prifms, a and i, are infcribed in the double convex lens of
crown-glafs, and the pair c and c within the double concave
of flint : the incident rays de and ilr, at each fide of the
axis go, enter the convex at the points ir and e, and are re-
frafted towards the axis, till they meet with the inverted
prifms c and c of flint, when they are refraftcd in a contrary
diredlion, fo as to prevent their meeting at the point o of
the axis to which they tended, and emerge at tiie points /"
andy colourlefs, in confequence of the oppofite difperfions
which take place in the prifms ; but after emcrfion they
tend to a new and more diltant point O in the axis, and
there come to an achromatic focus.

To render this explanation ftill more intelligible with
refpeft to the oppojition of two counteracting difperfions, let
there be two feparate prifms, placed, as m Jig. il, at a
diftance from each other, and inverted with refpeft to each
other ; let a 3 c be the prifm of crown-glafs, and ABC
a fimilai- one of flint-glafs ; and let two pencils of white
light enter thefe lenfes in oppofite direttions, one d, and the
other D ; then^ and G will be the rays of mean rcfraftion,
h and H thofe of lead, or red ; and «" and I thofe of mod, or
violet. Now as the refraftive power of the flint prifm
A B C is greater than that of the crown a b c, the mean
ray G in the firft will be nearer its prifm, than g, the mean
ray of the fecond, to its prifm ; but the angle of difperfion
fubtended by H I, will be greater than that fubtended by
h i, wliile the prifms have the fame refrafting angles C and
e. Now as the refraftion and difperfion in the fame prifm are
proportionate to the refrafting angle, thefe may be both
reduced to any aflignable quantity by a reduftion of the re-
frafting angle ; then let the fide of the prifm of flint C A
be ground down till it becomes C K, thereby making the
angle B C A, the original refrafting angle, equal B C K, the
new refrafting angle ; and let this fecond angle be to the firft as
the refraftive power of the crown is to the refraftive power of
the flint ; or, in other words, let the refrafting angles C and
f be inverfely as the refraftive powers of the two fpecimens
of glafs formed into prifms ; viz,, as that oi g fY : G F f;
and then the mean ray G will be extended to r, and F c will
be parallel toyC ; that is, the mean refraftion of the two
lenfes will be ahke, the angle G F/= ^ sf^> by being
alternate. In this fif.iation of the refrafting angles of the
oppofite prifms, the rays would both enter and emerge
parallel as to refradion ; but as to difperfion, that of the flint
would ftill predominate a little, or the angle H F I would in
fome meafure exceed the angle h fi : but thelo are the angles
we want to have equal ; therefore, to make the refrafting
angles C and c of the two prifms proportional to the dif-
perfme powers, or to the fpeftra h i and H I in_/ff . 9, let the
fide B C alfo of the flint prifm be groui'.d down a little to /,
fo that the refrafting angle I C i ot this flint, fliall be to the
refrafting angle a c i of the crown in this ratio of the
fpeftra ; and then not only will the difperfive powers of the
two prifms become equal, but, what is equally ntceffary, O
will now fall beyond c ; thai is, the refraftive power of the
flint by this fecond diminution of its refrafting angle, will
become lefs than the refraftive power of the crown, and the
difference of thefe powers will refraft the tranfmitted rays, as
in fig. 10, finally to the diftant point O, as has been ex-
plained, while at the fame time the rays that an-ive tliere
will be without colours. If now we tonceive that the re-

VoL, XXXV,

frafting an^le of each of the flint prifms f and c, infg. to,
infcribed within the concive lens c c, is fo proportioned to
the refrafting angle of the prifms a and b, infcribed in the
convex lens of crown a b, as the refrafting angle / C i of the
fluit prifm u\J!g. n. is to the refrafting angle a c b of the
CBown prifm, then the double objeft-glafs ii\ Jg. lO. will
be achromatic ; its lenfes being analogous to the corrrft-
ing prifms. Thus the theory of a double achromatic
objeft-glafs is within the comprehcnfion of our ordinary
readers ; and as the triple objeft-glafs has two thin con-
vex lenfes of crown, inftead of one thick, to combine with
the flint concave one, a farther explanation is unnecef-
fary, particularly if the thick double convex be fuppofcd
to be divided longitudinally into two plano-convexes, and
to be placed one on each fide of the concave : for when
thefe plano-convexes are formed into two curves, giving
the fame focal diftance each as one of the plaim-couvexes,
then the union of tlie three lenfes will be that reprefented in

fS- 7-

We may now proceed to exemplify this theory, arifiiig out
of Dollond's grand difcovery ; and to make the conftruftion
as familiar as poflible, we will avoid all fluxional calculations,
and explain fuch algebraical ones only, as are indifpenfable, in
the firft example at full length, as they occur, fo that the
abridgments in the fubfequent examples may be clearly in-
telligible. Our aim dift"ers from that of our predeceflbrs in
this refpeft. The illuftrious mathematicians Euler, d'Alem-
bert, Clairaut, Bofcovich, Klugel, and Robifon, have given
formulae for the calculation of achromatic objeft-glaflcs, that
are above the compreheiifion of ordinary opticians ; and Dr.
Brewfter has calculated tables, according to thefe formulx,
of the different curves that fuit a certain fpecimen only of flint-
glafs, and that fuch as is not to be found, at Icaft in Eng-
land ; viz. that which has its fines of the Z. of incidence
and of the L of refraftion as 1.604 '■ '• Befides, the cal-
culations tabulated are not in a praftical form in Table II.,
the radius of the convex being ftiorter than that of its
contiguous concave. On the contrary, we propofe to
take glafs that falls in our way, and to calculate in a
familiar manner the radii of curvature that fliall fuit fpe-
cimens already within our reach. In (hort, our predeceflort
fliew how achromatic objeft-glaffes may be made, if proper
glafs could be obtained ; and we wiU explain how achromatic
objeft-glafles are made, and in the befi manner, vAth glaft
of our own manufafture.

Example i I^et it be required to form a double objeft-

glafs of thirty inches focal length, from the fecond flint-glafi
and crown-glafs given in Tullcy's table of experimental re-
fults ? In the crown-glafs, the ratio of the fines of the
angles of incidence and of refraftion (m ; n) is 1.528 : 1 {
and in the flint-glafs it is 1-5735 : I ; while the ratio
of their difperfive powers are .500 ; ,762, or I ; 1.524.
The firft ftep is to determine the ratio of the geometri-
cal focus of the firft or crown-glafs, to the compound
focus of the propofed pair of glafles, in order that the
radii of this lens may be kuown, before its proper com-
panion, the flint lens, have its focus determined. It will be
convenient to call the radius of the convex I, and as it is pro-
pofed to have it a double convex, the geometrical focus will
alfo be I ; but as the compound focus of both lenfes is
the refraded focus always, the geometrical focus I niuft be
turned into the re frafted focus alfo, in order to have both of
the fame denomination : but to do tliis we want the divifor,
which mav be taken from the table, or derived from

— n . 1.528 — i.ooo

X J ; thus — —

n 1 .000

li

,528 X 2 = 1.056, ih*-
divifor

TELESCOPE.

diTifor of the crown; and 7,^^

l.OOO

= -5735 X 2 =

1.147, the divifor of the flint. In the next place we have

'•°°° = .94697 for the refrafted focus of the crown lens ;

1.056

and becaufe the foci of the crown and flint lenfes mud be in

the fame ratio as their difperfive powers, which we have

Hated to be I : 1.524. ^^^ ^^^11 have ^^ = i.3827forthe

1. 147

rcfraftcd focus of the concave or flint-glafs. Now, having
.94697 : 1.3827 as the ratio of the two feparate re-
frafted focal diftances that fhall banifh all colours by their
equal and oppofite difperfive powers ; we next find what will
be the compound focus correfponding to thefe two when
put in contaft. Let F be the focQs of the convex, and
'F that of the concave ; and by our /raff/ca/ theorem 5. there

Convex.

Concav

r

V

R

'R

F

'F

T

'T

A

'A

m

'm

F X 'F

will be ;= = = the compound focus, which

'F — F

pla

numbers will ftand thus ;

■94697 X

1.3827

.94697

the

1.3827

proportional compound focus required. Now if the prifma-
tic aberration were the only one neceffary to be counterafted,
we have already obtained numbers that would enable us to con-
ftruft an achromatic or colourlefs compound objed-glafs ; for

30

without interfering with the remedy which we have juft pre-
fcribed for the other. In order to mark the diftinftion that
muft be made in the fymbols, as applied refpeClively to the
convex and concave lenfes, let it be underftood, that the fub-
joined notation will be attended to in our inveftigation of the
curves proper for our prefent purpofe ; viz.

means the radius of the firft furface.

means the radius of the fecond furface.

means the focus from folar rays, or geome-
trical, if fo exprefled.

the thicknefs of the lens.

the fpherical aberration.

the fine of incidence.
« 'n the line of refraftion.

* the compound focus.

It may be alfo neceflary to premife, that whatever ratio
of the radii r and R be fixed upon for the convex lens, the
ratio V : 'R of the concave may always be found by proper
inveftigation fuch, that its aberration will countcraiSt that
of /■ : R ; but the reverfe is not true ; the aberration of
'r : 'R may be too great for the aberration of any ratio
r : R to equal ; therefore the ratio r : R is firft alTumed,
as is moft convenient for the optician's tools already
formed ; and 'r : 'R muft be fo calculated, that its aberration
ftiall be in due proportion for correAing the aberration of
the afTumed convex lens. We now have to do with the geo-
metrical foci of both lenfes, when their radii become the

if we multiply F, 'F, and / alike by -^^, or 9.12, the fubjeft of inveftigation ; and we have feen that 9.12 I- j

geometrical focus of the convex lens, we fliould have the
abfolute refrafted focus of F — .94697 x 9.12]= 8.636 ;
that of 'F = 1.3827 X 9.12I = 12.61 ; and the compound
focus = 3.29 X 9.12^ = 30 very nearly ; and it would be
immaterial what the curves were, provided the refratled
focal diftances of F and 'F were as above ftated ; but as
the tools for forming the curves refpeftively tor the fides of
thefe lenfes, muft have regard to the radii of curvature, it
would be now neceflai'y to ufe the divifors as multipliers, to
convert the rjfrac5ted into the geometrical foci, and then the
bufinefs might be put in hand. On this fuppofition, of there
being only one kind of aberration, the conftruftion of a
compound achromatic objeft-glafs would be no difficult
aff"air ; for while the focal diftances only are required to be
to each other in a given ratio, the radii of curvature might
be varied almoft at pleafure, without affefting the focal
diftance. But there yet remains the fpherical aberra-
tions of the two feparate lenfes to oppofe to each other in
fuch proportion, that their tendency to produce indiJlincJnefs
may be completely obviated. Before the time of fir Ifaac
Newton, this was the only kind of aberration that opticians
thought they had to contend with ; and though it ie fmall
in quantity, compared to the prifmatic aberration, yet it is
more difficult to conquer. It is, however, contrary to the
opinion of that great philofopher and mathematician, in the
power of the modern optician to cure this defeft of fpheri-
cal glafles, by means equally fimple, when determined, as
thofe by which the prifmatic colours are made very nearly to
vanifti. As in the annihilation of the prifmatic colours, the
ratio of the focal diftances, made direftly as the ratio of the
difperfive powers, is a cure for the firft imperfeftion ; fo the
ratio of the radii, r : R, of the two lenfes, fo calculated as to
counteraft each other's fpherical aberrations, is the cure for
the fecond imperfection ; and this cure we have yet to apply,

10

is the geometrical focus of the convex lens, therefore
1.524 X 9.12 = 13.9 is the geometrical focus of the eon-
cave, their ratio being ftill as their difperfive powers,
very nearly. Let us now aflume r = 7.5, or any other
quantity at option, and fee by the proper theorem what R
will be, to have a focus of 9. 1 2 inches : to do this we have, by

No. I . of our praSical tl>eorems, before given,

R,

or, in figures.

IS X 9-12

2 X

= R

1 1.63 ; hence

7.5 - 9.12

)• : R :: 7.5 : 11.63, o"" ^^ ^ • I-55- I" ^^^ "^"^ place, we
muft determine what is the longitudinal aben-ation arlfing
from the figure of a lens, where the ratio r : R is 1 : 1.55,
which is moft conveniently done by the general theorem of
Huygens, which we have before exemplified, and which

ftandsthus; ^-l^^L^^^i^' X T = A = 1.3614 x T.

^^ =

r-i-Ri'= 1 + 1-55
multiplied by
value of deno-1

rmnator

6.5025
_6

39-015

Then

53-1175

.3614 X T = A.
39.015

Having now found 1.361 X T = A of the convex lens,
the value of T, which is the fum of the verfed fines of the
two interfering curves of its furfaces, may be calculated by
the fquare root, or by plane trigonometry, and will be
found = .252, when the femi-diameter of the lens is 1.5,
confequently 1.361 x .252 = .3429, is the abfolute quantity
of the fpherical aberration of the convex lens ; but 'T of the

concave

TELESCOPE.

concave is by calculation .1653, and '. T^" = 2.074. is it«

.1653

proportional aberration. But as the thickiiefs, breadth, and
geometrical focal length of every lens, of whatever form,
mull, from the properties of the circle, be in proportion to
each other (fee Martin's New Syftem, art. 705.), 'F may
be taken at once, inftead of ufuig T and 'T with tlieir cal-
culated values (which require fome operations), and then
the work will be greatly facihtated ; thus 1.361 x T x
1.524 = 2.074 X 'T = 'A. Now, as this quantity 2. 074
bears the fame proportion to 1.361, as the focus of the con-
cave does to the focus of the convex, it might be concluded
that this would be the proper aberration to correft tlie aberra-
tion 1. 361 of the convex lens; but this is not the cafe, for,
firft, the longitudinal aberrations ariling from the figure are
not in ihe Jtmple proportion to the foci of the lenfes refpeft-
ively, neither is the quantity the fame with the flint as with
the crown glafs. Martin afferts that the fpherical longi-
tudinal aberrations are to each other, in like lenfes of dif-
ferent focal lengths, inverfely dL?,\.\\e fquares of tiie foci refpeft-
ivcly ; confequently, in our example, thefe aberrations would

• 2C7C 'A

- ■ = .883 =r z, the correfting divifor, and alfo — =
.2914 •' ° »

^■074
.883

= 2.348 = 'A corrcdcd.

Having now afcertaincd the aberration 2.348 x 'T of the
concave lens, that will balance the aberration 1.361 x T of
the convex, we muft proceed to determine the ratio 'r : 'R
of the concave, that Aiall have exaftly thie aberration : to
be able to do this without a table of aberration, requires an
acquaintance with quadratic equations ; for the proportion
of the radii '/• and 'R muil be invciligated from the correded
aberration which we have now afcertained.

27'-' + 6rR + 7R'

X T = A (by

I ft. We have

6 X rr^"-

the general theorem) = 2.348 x 'T, as before found ; but
we make no diilinftion between r, R, T, A, and V, 'R,
'T, 'A, that we may fimplify the fymbols : this equation,
by evolution of »- + R.1^ in the denominator, becomes

27 r^ -I- 6rR -I- 7 R'

be inverfely as F' -. 'F^ ; or as 13.9 x 13.9^: 9.12 x 9.12'!; r^ + 2 r R -j- R'

X g- = 2-348

X T : now by put-

that is, as 193.21 : 83.174, or as •) , _ « f ! '^"'^ *'"S R — i, there will be

27r^ -f 6r + 7

X — = 2.348

when TuUey took 0.585 ^ 'A, this aberration was found
much too little ; for when he had gronnd tke lenfes with
curves to produce this aberration, he found that the eye -tube
required to be drawn outwards more than inwards by the
fcrew, from the true focal point, before the image difap-
peared, which is a proof that the concave had lefs than its
fhare of aberration ; it being confidered as a tell of good
correftion, when the image difappears at points of the tube
equally diftant from the point of diftinft vifion, accordingly
as the tube is pulhed in or drawn out from its focal point.
And here was probably the difficulty that Martin experi-
enced between his theory and praftice. Neither was
the aberration thus obtained in due proportion, when cor-
refted by the fimple ratio of the two divifors 2 a : 2'a, or
1.056 : 1.147, for the difference of the refraftive powers;
for as 1.147 : 1.056 :: 1.161 : 1.253 ; but 1.253 X 'T ^ 'A
was ftill too little for due corredlion. Though the telefcope
was achromatic by virtue of the ratio of the foci of the
crown and flint lenfes, yet there was a want of perfeft dif-
tinSnefs, owing to the deficiency of aberration attaching to
the concave lens. After a multiplicity of inveftigations,
calculations, and praftical trials, TuUey at length difcovered
a method of balancing the oppofite aben-ations, which he
has continued to pradlife with fuccefs for years, and which
is therefore no new projeft. The method is this : the value
of 'A (2.074 X 'T) being firft determined from A, in the
ratio of F : 'F, as above explained, the correQing number is
thus obtained ; if we call the fquare root of the cube of the
refrafted focus of the convex r= x, the geometrical focus
being taken = i ; and put alfo y for the fquare root of the
cube of the refrafted focus of the concave, when its geo-

metrical?focus is = i ; then — = z is the correfting number,

X

by which the proportional aberration, before determined,
muft be divided, to gain the proper or correded aberration,

'A
now exprelfed by the fymbols — . In the inftance before

us, the calculation will be .947' = .8492781, and its fquare
root = .2914 = x; and ^/ .872' = -2575 — y ; then

+ 2r -f I

T

X T ; or, dividing both lidts by — , 6 x 2.348 = 14.088,

27r^ -f- 6r + 7 . , . , . . .

or 1 4. 1 = _, ; and multiplymg both by tJie

* -r 2 i -f- I

denominator, 14. 1 r^ 4- 28.2 /■ 4- 14. i = 27 /•' -(- 6 r + 7 :
then fubtradling equal quantities from both, there remains
22.2 r -f- 7.1 =; iz.gr^i and by tranfpofition, I2.9r'— 22.2
r = 7.1 for the quadratic. Now to find the root, we have firft

12.9

7-1
12.9

; and adding the fquace of half the

_ . , 22.2 ii.il'

co-emcient, r r 4-

12.9 12.9

7.1 II. IP

h ; there-

12.9 12.9

fore the root r —

II. r

\/

12.9
II. I

= x/

7-1 _^ iJj^V
12.9 12.9'

and r =

4-

have

7.1 II. ii
12.9 12.9 12.9
Laftly ; to colleft the aggregate of the values of r, we
7.1 1 1 . iV

12.9

•55'

^/i.29= 1. 135;

12.9

likewife

.74, and V -55+^74) =

I T

860 ; therefore 1.135

12.9

-r .860 = 1.995 ^^ '"' which was defired ; and the ratio
r : Ri, which we now put ag.iin 'r : 'R =■. 1.995 • ' > ''"'1
which in TuUey 's Table ftands 2:1. After having thus
determined the ratio of the radii 'r and 'R to be 2 : i very
nearly, we muft now find the rational geometrical focal dil-
tance of this concave by the fourth of our pradical theorems

above exemphfied ; viz,, from ^„ , we firft have

r -f- K

= 1.333 ! •'""'' *' *'''■ geometrical focus is known

2x2x1
"14-2

to be 13.9, we

1 3.0
have alfo —^-^ = 10.428 = 'R, and 10.42S

••333

I i 2 X 2

TELESCOPE.

V = 20.856

* = 30.04

X a = 'r ; fo that tlie four radii of the faces and the cor-
refponding foci will ftaiid thus ; viz.

r = 7.50 7 and F = 9.12, the geometrical focus of the
R = 11.63 J convex lens.

'R = 10.428 1 and 'F = 13.9, the geometrical focus of the
concave lens,
the compound refrafted focus of the tele-
fcopt', according to the proper theorem.

We have now brought the calculations of our firft ex-
ample to a conclufion, accompanied by fuch explanatioRS
as may render it unnecedary to dwell fo minutely on the
following examples ; and when we liave gained thefe radii
for a telefcope of 30 inches focus, we have the means of
making a telefcope equally achromatic and dillinft of any
other length; for the ratios r : R and V : 'R, being once de-
termined for crown and flint glafs of given refraftive and
difperfive powers, require only to be increafed in equal
quantities to fuit the foci of the propofed telefcopes, as in
the fubjoined table ; and it may be proper to notice, that
though 'the fpcciiic gravity has not been taken into the ac-
count in the calculations of this example, yet it is ufeful as
an index to point out the ratio of the fuies of incidence and
of refraftion, and of the difperfive powers to be ufed,
when the fpecimens of glafs are feledled by their fpecific
gravities only, without an experimental trial by gnnding.

The fubjoined table is fuitable for achromatic double
objeft-glaffes of various lengths ; where m : n in the crown-
glafs is as 1.528 : i, and in the flint as 1.5735 : i ; their
difperfive powers being i : 1.524.

Table I Radii of double ObjeA-glaffes in Inchei.

*

r

R

'R

V

6

1.50

2.326

2.086

4.171

12

3.00

4.652

4-171

8.342

18

4.50

6.978

6.256

12.513

24

6.00

9-304

8.342

16.684

30

7.50

11.630

10.428

20.856

36

9.00

13-956

12.512

25.027

42

10.50

16.282

14.598

29.198

48

12.00

18.608

16.684

33-369

54

1 3-5°

20.934

18.770

37-540

60

15.00

23.260

20.856

41.712

72

18.00

27.912

25.025

50.054

84

21.00

32-564

29.196

58.396

96

24.00

37.216

33-368

66.738

108

27.00

41.868

37-540

75.080

120

30.00

46.52

41.712

83-424

In this table, R and 'R arc the faces of the two lenfes
which come in contaft, and r and 'r the external faces; and
it will be feen that R, being a little longer than 'R, the
convex face, will approach the concave one very clofely,
but will not touch it, which is a neceflary practical con»
difion. When the aberration exceeds 1.666, which is
that of /- : R when they are each =: 1, or alike ; then r
exceeds R, and the lens muft be reverfed, or put in its
worft pofition ; which is the cafe in all our tables for double
objeft-glaffes with the flint-glafs ; otherwife the concave
would not have had fufficient aberration for the convex.

In our next example it will not be necefiary to do the
work at full length, but only to give fuch an abridgment as
will be intelhgiblc to the reader who underftands the procefs
minutely explained in the preceding example. The denfity of
different forts of crown-glafs feldom varies ; but two fpeci-
mens of flint can feldom be found to be ahke. The greater
the denfity of flint-glafs, the more fuitable it is for the pur-
pofe of making a concave lens of an achromatic objeft-glafs,
becaufe the radii of both the lenfes may be longer for the
fame compound refraftcd focus ; and, confequently, the
fpherical aberration will be lefs than in glafs that requires
fliorter radii to produce the fame compound focus. If the
form of the concave had been given, the convex would have
been determined by a reverfed operation, where the muU
tiplier 1.524 would have been a divifor, and z a multi-
plier. Sec.

Example 2. — Let it be required to form a double objeA-
glafs of 30 inches focal length, as before, with the fame
crown-glafs for the convex, but with the denfeft flint, in
which the ratio m:n n as 1.599 • '> ^""^ ^'^^''^ difperfiva
powers I : 1.757 ?

In this example we have 1.056 = 2 a, or the divifor for

thecrown, asbefore, and 1.599 — 1x2= 1.198
I

divifor for the flint ; then

= -94697 ■■

1-757

- = 1.466

1.056
'F, alfo refrafted ; and alfo

2 a, or
F refrafted, and
F X 'F

1. 198 "" ' ' 'F - F "~

2.67, the ratio of the compound focal length, or what we
called the rational compound focus ; confequently, the
ratio between F geometrical and the compound focus is
in this example i : 2.67 ; and the ratio between the re-
frafted foci of the feparate lenfes, to correft the colorific

rays, is •! ^ ^^ [ • With refpeft to the fpheri-

' (-94697 : 1-4663

cal aberrations, which are next to be confidered, we may
in the firfl: place determine the quantities x and y, and »
the correaing divifor, which is derived from them, thuB ;

.834, &c.

{

.}'

V. 946973 = .2914 = .r I ' '"" 1. 198

gives the refrafted focus of the flint or concave lens, (F geo-
metrical being = 1 in this cafe,) ^ .834^ = .2408 =_)>, and

— = 1-i — = z = .826, the correBixg divifor required for
X .2914

this refraftive power of the flint-glafs.

In the next place.

-2— = 11.23 = ^ (geometrical), and 11.23 ^ '-757 =
2.67

ig.73 ^ 'F (geometrical alfo). Let us here alTume r = 9

r F

-^ = R, we get

inches, and then by the theorem

R := 14.92, and confequently

9 : 14-92, or I : 1.66 in its loweft term*.

zr — F
the ratio

r : R will be

A double convex
lens

TELESCOPE.

lens ground with its radii in this ratio, will have its fpheri-
cal aberration = 1.325 x T ; to counteraft which, the con-
cave miift; have its proper aberration determined ; and then the
ratio of its radii muft be invclliaaled, that (hall make a lens
■with this determined quantity ot aberration. We have fcen
alrcadythat A — 1.325 x T, therefore 1.325 x i.757=z 2.328
X 'T — 'A, the proportional aberration for F, confidcred
as having the fame refrac\ive pov\'er as F ; but the correH-

ing divifor muft now be applied, and — = -7> :r = 2.818

a .820

is the correfted aberration, for which the radii 'r and 'R are

now to be inveiligated. By putting 'R = i, as before, and

by working out the root of the quadratic arifmg from

27r' + 6rR + 7R'

ratio 'R

Table II. — Radii of double ObjcA-glaflcs in Inches.

r +

Rl^

2.818, we fliall have tiie

3-075-

And, laftly, for the aftual radi
of the concave, we get, by our praftical theorem

r +

= F,

2 X I X 3.075

= 1.51 = 'F rational, and

R

'9-73
1.51

+ 3-075

= 13.06 = 'R; asalfo 13.06 X 3.075 = 40-15 = 'o the
fecond fide of the concave. Whence we now have

r
R

'R

* =

9.00
14.92

13.06
40.15

29.81

[■ and F = 11.23 geometrical.
> and 'F = 19.73 geometrical.

according to the proper theorem.

It, may be fatisfaftory to prove, that the geometrical

quantities F and 'F, which we have here determined, will

make <J>, the compound focus of the telefcope, = 30 inches.

But it will be requifite firft to turn the geometrical foci

F and 'F into the refrafted foci, by their refpeftive divifors,

1 1.23
denominated 2 a and 2 'a, viz.. 1.056 and 1.198 : thus,

:= 10.634 = F refrafted, and
frafted ; then by our theorem

1.056
-^-^ = 16.479 = F' rf-

1.198
F X

'F- F

= *, we ha

= 29.

! I = * : and if

10.634 ^ '6-479 _ 175-237686
16.479 - 10.634 ~ 5-845
the decimal had been carried farther in the geometrical foci,
the compound focus would have been quite 30, as required.
It may be for the benefit of praftical men to fubjoin a
table fimilar to our preceding one, derived from the radii of
curvature determined in this fecond example. And let it be
underftood by our readers, that in all our tables for the radii
of curvature, the length of the telefcope in inches is de-
noted by the figures in the firft vertical column ; and that
the numbers in the fame horizontal column with any given
length, fhew the proper geometrical radii of curvature for
convex and concave lenfes to conftruft fach telefcope.

The following table is fuitable for double achromatic ob-
jeA-glafTcs of various focal lengths, where m : n in the crown-
glafs is as 1.528 : i, and in the flint as 1.599 : 1 ; and their
iiifperfive powers as i : 1-757-

<I>

r

R

'R

V

6

1.80

2.98

2.61

8.03

12

3.60

5-97

5-22

16.06

18

5.40

8-95

7-83

24.09

24

7.20

•1-93

10.44

32.12

30

9.00

14.92

13.06

40.15

3(i

10.80

17.91

15.67

48.18

42

12.60

20.89

18.28

56.21

48

14.40

23-87

20.89

64.24

54

16.20

26.85

23-49

72.27

60

18.00

29.84

26.12

80.30

72

21.60

35.82

3'-34

96.36

8+

25.20

41.78

36.56

112.42

96

28.80

47-75

41.76

128.48

108

32.40

53-7'

46.98

144.54

120

36.00

59.68

52.24

160.60

Example 3. — We fliall now take the fame crown-glafs,
with a flint-glafs between the two extremes, wiiich we have
ufed, •viz. in which m : n is as 1.584 : i, and their difpcr-
five powers as I : 1.59; and let it be required to calculate
a double achromatic objeft-glafs of 30 inches focal length,
as before ?

Having already the divifor (2«) of the crown equal
1.056, we begin with getting that of the flint thus,

1.584— 1x2= 1.168 = 2 'a, or proper divifor; thea

— = .04607 = F refrafted, as before ; and — '-^^r

i.o;6 1-108

F X 'F
— 1-3613 = 'F refrafted. Alfo ——— = 3. in, the

rational compound focus ; and I : 3.111 is the ratio between
F geometrical and *. We have x = .2914 from our former

examples, and to get y, we have — — = .856 = 'F re-

frafted, when 'F geometrical is = I ; therefore / .856*

V , .2512 „.

= .2f 12 = y ; but — = 2; hence -^ — = .b62 = %,
■> ■' ' X -2914

the correding divifor. Again, - — ^ = 9.643 = F geo-

metrical, and 9.64 x 1.59 = i5-3?7 = 'F >" t'le fame
denomination. In this example we will take r = 8 inches ;

then, by the proper theorem =, = R, we luve

Jl2<_?i64 _ ^ ,,.„ ^ ,F, and i^ = 1.515 ; con.
2 X 8 — 9.64 9.04

fequently the geometrical ratio r : R = 1 '• i-5'S- A"°i

from

TELESCOPE.

frotn the gweral theorem of Huygens, we find A = 1.374

X T.and 1.374 X 1.59 = 2.184 x 'T = 'A ratioual, which

2.184 'A .

is yet to be corrcded ; then -~ = — = 2.535, the cor-

X 2 = J a = 1. 147, or a divifor for the flint ; sdfo

1.623

reded aberration. By getting the root of the quadratic arif-
ing from this aberration agreeably to the general theorem, as
before, the ratio of the radii '11 : V comes out i : 2.375.

-— = .002 = F refrafted ; and

1.088 ' 1-147

1.415 = 'F

2r R

2 X I X 2.375

Laftly, by the tlieorem ^^-^ we get , ^ ^^^^

= I.A07 = 'F rational, and i^^^ = 10.89 = 'R, and

^^' i'407

alfo 10.89 X 2.375 = 25.864 =.V. We have, therefore,

R = ^IT.} -^ ^ - 9.643-
Hence the next table is fuitable for double achromatic

F X 'F
refraded. Again, — — — = = 3.318 = <P rational; alfo

V' .992' = X = .3124, and ( = -872 ) V -872'

V1.147 /

= y-

wife — =^—

47
V . 2 c 7 c
2575 ; whence — = — ^-^ — .824 = z. Like-

•3124
= 9.03 = F, md 9.03 X 1.623 = 14-65 ='F.

>-F „ , R

2r -F = ^ = ■'•34. and —

= 1.51, or r : R ;: i : 1.51 ; hence A, by the general
theorem of Huygens, =: 1.376 x T, and 'A ^1.376 x 1.623
= 2.233 X 'T = the aberration of the concave correded

3-318
Put r = 7.5 ; then

obiecl-glaffes of various focal lengtlis, where m : « in the for tlie difference of refradive power. The root arifing from

crown-glafs is as 1.528 : i, and in the flint as 1.584 : i ; a quadratic equation of this aberration is 'r = 2.78, when

and their refpedive difperfive powers as I : 1.590. _^ ^ , 2rR

Table III Radii of double Objed-^glafles in Inches.

*

r

R

'R

';-

6

1.60

2.42

2.18

«-i7

12

3.20

4.84

4-36

10.34

18

4.80

7.27

6.53

15.52

24

6.40

9.69

8.71

20.69

30

8.00

12.12

10.89

25.86

36

9.60

14.54

13.06

31-03

42

11.20

16.97

15.24

36.20

48

12.80

19.38

17.42

41.38

54

14.40

21.81

' 19.60

46.55

60

16.00

24.24

21.78

51.72

72

19.20

29.08

26.14

62.06

84

22.40

33-93

30-49

72.40

96

25.60

38-77

34-85

82.75

' 108

28.80

43-63

39.20

93.J0

120

32.00

48.48

43-56

103.44 1

'R = I, confequently =; 1-47' = 'F rational, and

— — - =: 9.96 :=; 'F geometrical ; alfo 9.96 x 2.78 ;=
27.68 = 'F geometrical. Thus,

R = 1 1^34 I ^ ^ 9.03 geometrical.

>r = 27!68 } 'F = 14-65 geometrical.

Table IV Radii of double Objed-glafles, with Lenfes

of Plate and Flint, in Inches. •

Example 4. — Let us next take an example, in which
plate-glafs is fubftituted for crown, and let the fines of the
angles of incidence and of refradion in it be as 1.504 : I,
while m : n in the flint is as 1.573 : i, and their difperfive
powers I : 1.623 ; and let the length of the telefcope be

required to be 30 inches, as before ? Then — ^^^— x 2

n

= 2*7 = 1.008, is the divifor for the plate-glafs; and

*

r

R

'R

'r

6

1.50

2.27

1.99

5-54

12

3-00

4-54

3-98

11.07

18

4.50

6.8 1

5-97

16.61

H

6.00

9.08

7.96

22.15

30

7.50 .

11-34

9.96

27.68

36

9.00

13.61

11.95

33-22

42

10.50

15.88

13-94

38.76

48

12.00

18.15

15-93

44-30

54

13-50

20.42

17.92

49-83

60

15.00

22.68

19.92

55-36

72

18.00 27.22

23.90

66.44

84

21.00 31.76

27.88

77-.5I

96

24.00

36-30

31.86

88.59

108

27.00

40.83

35-85

99.66

120

30.00

45-36

39-84

110.72

Exatr.pli

TELESCOPE.

Example 5 Let the ratio of the radii of the convex lens

be I : 6, in which tlie fpherical aberration is a m'inimum, and
let the crown and flint glafs be as in the iirfl example for a
telefcope of 30 inches ? '

Then, b-y the fame procefs, there will come out

R =3l!92} ^ = 9-12. as before.

'R = I2.6ol ,T- , r

''■ = 15-50 J ^ '^■^' '"

Tiiis table is proper for glafs of the fame refraftive and
difperiive powers as in Table I., but with the fpherical
aberrations the leaft poflible.

Table V — Radiiof double Objeift-glafTes in Inches, where
the Convex has a Minimum of Aberration.

Table VI. — Radii of double Objeft-glalTes in Inches.

*

r R

'R

V ■

6

1.06 6.38

2.52

3.10

12

2.12

12.77

5.04

6.20

18

3.18

19.15

7-56

9.40

24

4.25

25.54

10.08

12.50

30

5-32

. .31-92

12.60

15.50

36

6.38

38-30

15.12

18.60

42

7-44

44.68

17.64

21.70

48

8.50

51.07

20.16

24.80

54

9-57

57-45

22.68

27.90

60

10.64

63.84

25.20

31.00

72

12.76

76.61

27.72

37.20

H

14.88

89.38

30.24

43-4^

96

17.00

102.15

32.76

49.60

108

19.14

1 14.91

35.28

55.80

120

21.28

127.68

50.40

62.00

In the preceding example, where the ratio of the two
radii of the convex lens were given, r comes out =: 5.32 in
a thii-ty-inch telefcope ; and in like manner, when the aber-
ration only is given, the ratio of the radii may firft be de-
termined by a quadratic equation, and then the other curves
may be determined as they have been here, without any af-
fumption of r in the convex lens. But in all cafes the re-
lative refraftive and difperfive powers muft be known pre-
vioufly to the calculations fuch as we have exemphfied.

Example 6. — In this example let us take the fame crown
and flint glafs as we did in the fecond example, atid put
r = 7.5, as in our firft example ; and then the radii will be
as in the following table.

1

r

R

'R

V 1

6

1.50

4-47

2.94

6.12

12

t

3.00

8.94

5.82

12.24

i 18

1

4.50

'3-4'

8-73

'8.35

24

6.00

17.88

11.64

24.47

30

7.50

22.34

14.56

30.58

36

9.00

26.81

"7-47

36.70

42

10.50

■31.28

20.38

42.82

48

54

12.00

35-75

23.29

48.94

13-50

0.242

26.20

55-05

60

15.00

44.68

29.12

61.16

72

18.00

53.62

34-94

73-40

84

21.00

62.56

40.76

85.64

96

24.00

71.50

46.58

97-88

108

27.00

80.44

52.41

110.12

120

30.00

89-37

58.23

122.32

Example 7 Let us take in this example the crown and

flint glafs as in the firft example, and put ;• = 9, as in our
fecond example, and then the radii will come out as in the
fubjoined table.

Table VII — Radii of double Objea-glaffes in Inches.

*

r

R

'R

'r

6

1.80

1.85

1.83

5.86

12

3.60

3-70

3-66

11.72

18

5.40

5-54

5.48

17.58

24

7.20

7-39

7-31

23-44

30

9.00

9.24

9-13

29.30

36

10.80

11.09

10.96

35-'6

42

12.60

12.94

12.78

41.02

48

14.40

14.78

14.61

46.88

54

16.20

16.63

16.43

52-74

60

18.00

18.48

18.26

58.60

72

21.60

22.18

2I;92

70.32

84

25.20

25.88

25-57

82.04

96

28.80

29-57

29.23

93-76

108

32.40

33-27

32-87

105.48

120

36.00

36.96

36-52

117.20

TELESCOPE.

In this and the (Ix preceding tables, the radn are calcu-
lated for an aperture of three inches for a focal diftance ot
thirty inches ; and the optician who may ufe any of them,
with fimilar glafs, may incrcafe or diminini his aperture
accordingly as the focal length is greater or lefs than thirty
inches. ..

If we examine and compare the refpeftivc radn r and K,
and alfo V and 'R of the convex and concave lenfes m the
preceding tables, whlcli are all calculated by the fame pro-
cefs that ii ufcd by TuUey, and feveral of which have been
ufed in pradicc, we {hall' perceive that a difference in the
quality of the glafs, as to difpt-rfive and refrafltve powers,
makes the curves of the lenfes widely different ; and that a
fmall alteration in the affumed value of ;•, the firft face of
the convex lens, alfo produces a great alteration in the
curves of the three other faces of the compound objeft-
glafs. For inftance, if we compare the radii in Table I.
with thofe in Table VI., where r is affumed equal, toz. 7. J,
in both, and where the fame crown-glafs is ufed, and the
fint-glafs alone taken different, the former being No. 2.
and the latter No. I ; the radii in the former are /- = 7.5,
R = 11.63, 'R = 10.43, ^"^ ''' = 20.86, in a telefcope of
thirty inches focal length ; whereas in Table VI. there is r =
7.5, as before, but R :^ 22.34, 'R = 14.56, .-mdV= 30.58;
vhich curves are very widely different. And if we compare
Table II. with Table VII., in both which r is again
affumed equal, as well as the crown, wiiilc the two flints are
rei'erfed, viz. the former having No. I. and the latter
No. 2, the comparifon will ffaiul thus in telefcopes of
thirty inches focal length : in Table II. there is r — 9.00,
R = 14.92, 'R = 13.06, and'r =r 40.15; but m Table VI I.
r = 9.00, as before, while R is — 9.24, 'R = 9- 1 3) aid
'/• 1= 29.30. Hence it is maiiifcft, that it is not only u/ele/s
but detrimental to copy the radii of a double objeft-glafs of
even the beft telefcope that ever was made by any artift,
unlefs the refraRi'ae and difperfme powers of both forts
of glafs be precifely the fame, in the given and propofed
telefcopes intended to be equally good : but when different
fpecimens of glafs are neceffarily ufed by different artifts, it
is hardly to be expefted that both the requifite qualities of
each piece of glafs will be found alike, or even fufficiently
near a perfcfi: fimilarity, to authorife the copying of the
radii of a ftandard telefcope, even if thofe radii could be
meafured by mechanical means with fuflicient accuracy ;
but the meafurement from the folar focus of a lens, as is
ufual, does not afford data for obtaining the geometrical
focus, and from it the radii of curvature, unlefs the quantity
2 a be previoully known ; though the converfe operation,
we have before feen, is not difficult to a praftical optician.
We have no hefitation, therefore, in condemning the praftice
of analyfing a telefcope for the purpofe of copying it ; for
it is the certain guide to irrational conilruftions ; and
feldom will an inftrument fo made be free from either
colours or indiftinftnefs.

Neither is it fafe to copy tables, fuch as thofe publifhed
by Dr, Brewfter, in his edition of Fergufon's Leftures, of
which the forms are alfo given under the article Achro-
matic Telefcopes, (in the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia,) until
the fpecimens of glafs to be ufed are afcertained to have
the^ fame refraaive and difperfme powers, as thofe from
which the tables are calculated. On comparing thefe tables
with the refults of profeffor Robifon's calculations, given
in the Encyclopxdia Britannica under the article Tele-
scope, we find not only that the bafis of thefe tables is
derived from this fourcc, but that the calculations them-
felves are adopted, without further modification than what
ii neceffary for adapting them to given focal lengths of the

compound objeft-glafs. As profeffor Robifon's article on
our prefent fubje£t has hitherto been confidered to be the
only article in our language that has difclofed the fteps by
which an achromatic objeH-glafs may be conftrufted direftly
from mathematical calculations ; it will be fatisfaftor)' to
our readers that we fhould try what curves will refult from
TuUey's praftical mode of proceeding, w-hcn the fame data
are taken that Robifon has ufed in one of his examples.
In an example worked according to Bofcovich's formula,
the ratio of m : n in the crown-glafs is taken as 1.526 : I,
and in the flint, fo high as 1.604 : l ; while the ratio of the
difperfive powers, when converted into the proper terms, are

I

only in the ratio i : 1.65, or I : — ; let us fee what

' .6054

will bo the curves of a thirty-inch telefcope, when r is
affumed =z 9.7, and R = 954, according to Dr. Brewller's
Table VI., derived from Robifon's numbers 0.32325 x
30 = 9-6975. a"d 0.31798 X 30 = 9-5394-

As r is greater than R in this affumption, the convex
lens is in its worft pofition, and the fpherical aberration, Ai
determined by the general theorem of Huygens, will be
1.682 X T : and as the geometrical foci of the two lenfes
mufl: be direftly as their difperfive powers, and as T and
'T are inverfely as thofe foci, we fliall have 1.682 x 1.65
r= 2-775 ^'"" '^^ proportional aberration 'A uncorrefted ;.
then as the correfting number, for flint of 1.599 : I, which
is the molt denfe that TuUey has met with, is .826, we may
take this without apparent error for that of 1.604 • ' > '^"'i

2.77 ?

= 3.26 = 'A is the correSed aberration of the

then

.826

concave ; and according to this aberration, the root of the

2r R

quadratic will give 'R : V as I : 5.40 ; and by theorem

the rational focus will be

2 X 5.40 X I

+ R

= 1.68S ; then
5.40 X I

having r = 9.7, and R = 9.54, by the fame theorem
we have F of the convex = 9.618, and F x 1. 65 =r
15.8697 = 'F, or focus of the concave. Alfo we have

' = 9.401 = 'R, or fhorter radius of the concave ;

1.688

and 9.401 X 5.4 = 50.76 = 'r, or longer radius of the con-
cave. Lafl;ly, to obtain the compound focus <I), we muft
reduce the geometrical focus of each lens into its refrafted
focui, by the proper divifors i .052 for the crown, and 1.208

for the flint ; then we fhall have =0.14 for the re-

1.052

frafted focus of the convex, and ' — i ^04 for the

1.208

F X 'F

refrafted focus of the concave ; and by the theorem -= •-

'r — r

thefe numbers will give

9.14 X 13.04

= 30-53

*.

13.04-9.14

We have now obtained numbers that will enable us tq
form the defired comparifon ; thus, according to Robifon^

r = 9.7, R = 9.54, 'R = y.54, V = 47.47 ;

but according to Tulley,

r = 9.7, R — 9.54, 'R = 9.4c, V = 50.7.

Alfo, according to Robifon we have F = 9.618 and
'F = 13.25 geometrical, and the compound focus* — 29.1.
But according to Tulley, F :r: 9,618 and 'F = 15.8697
geometrical, while the coropeund focus * = 30'53'

2 Now

TELESCOPE.

r

NowasF :'F:: I : 1.65 (tlierefpeftivedifperfivepon'crs),
let us fee if either of thefe refults will make an achroma-

tic telefcope : thus, as -J , ^„ ^^f-

^ ' li : 1.65 :: 9.618 : 15.8697J

which fiievvs that Tulley's foci are exadly as the Jifpcrfive
poiven, and therefore would be achromatic, if the dlfpctfive
power had been truly proportioned to the refractive power ;
but from long experience he knows, that the difperfive
power of flint-glafs of the greateft denfity, compiu-ed with
that of crown, which feldom varies, is not lefs than 1.759 • '•
Hence Robifon's difperiive power is in the iirft place taken
too low ; and in the next, allowing it to be truly taken, he
has not preferved the two feparate focal dillances in fuch
ratio, agreeably to that of the difperfive powers, as will
nmke an achromatic telefcope. And this is further proved by
the circuniilance, that the compound focus does not come
out exaftly 30, which it will always do by Tulley's procefs,
if the proportions are all rational. If we fubftitute the
ratio 1.759 • '• hiftead of 1.65 : I, for the difperfive power,
which Tulley's table of difperfive powers gives, to corre-
Ipciid with the refractive powers, when m : ?i as 1.599 • ■ •
and if we take the convex lens of Robifon in the worft po-
iition, as before, with r = 9.7, and R = 9-54) the radii of
the concave, by Tulley's mode of calculating, will be
'R = 9.65, and 'r — 68.04, and the compound tocus * =
25.6 ; with which curves and focal length the telefcope
would be achromatic, and truly correBed for fpherical aber-
ration ; but as R comes out a deeper curve than 'R, thefe
furfaces would come in contaft at the centre, and therefore
are not in a prafticable form. Hence we infer that the con-
ftruftion of an achromatic telefcope with Robifon's convex
lens in its -woifl pofition is impradticable, though a concave
might be determined to fuit it in its beft pofition ; w's.
when its faces are reverfed. There is, indeed, no form of
a double convex lens, but a concave may be calculated to fuit
it, provided the curves come out in a prafticable form ; but,
oi) the contrary, a concave may be fixed on that, in its worit
pofition, (which is always its pofition in a double objeil-
glafs, ) can have no convex that will match it. Martin has

ihcwn, that if the aberration of a given concave be — x 'T,

then

'T

whence a : b :.
A.a

6
^ T

6.43

4 a

. = 6.42857 will be a minimum ;

0

4:: i6:tonearly. Therefore, vrhen
is lefj than 6.43, the problem will be impofiible. For

inftance, in a plano-concave lens, the aberration is J- of T,
and -J- X 4 = 4.66 only, which (hould not be lefs than 6.43 ;
and therefore this lens cannot be ufed fingly with a convex
of any defeription ; much lefs can a concave in its befl;
form, where ;•: R :: I : 6, be ufed; for its aberration

4^1

4.284 only. But either of thefe may

-^ X i gives
14 ft

be ufed in their worft pofition, becaufe then either of them
will have aben-ation enough for any convex. And this pre-
vious confideration will enable the Ikilful optici^'.n to fix on a
proper ratio of V : 'R, before he proceeds to his calculation.
Should it be aiked, why we prefer Tulley's difperfive
powers to profefTor Robifon's ? our anfwer is this ; that
Tplley's were not gained fimply by prifmatic meafurement
of the fpeftrum, like Robifon's, where fome errors are ob-
vioufly unavoidable ; but have been correfted by repeated
pomparifon of the focal lengths of the convex and concave
Jcnfes in the very beft achromatic telefcopes felefted for the
Vol, XXXV.

purpofe, where, when a high magnifying power was ufed,
tlie leaft difcolouration would have been obferv.iblc ; and
as thefe foci are always in the fame ratio as the difperfive
powers, no other method of determining thefe powers can
have fimilar pretcnfions to accuracy.

When the convex and concave lenfes are both ground and
poliflicd (fee Glas.s and Gkinding), they require fome care
in putting them properly into the tube, fo that they may
have their common axis coinciding with the axis of the cye-
glalfes, in order that every part of the field of view may
be equally diftinft and free from colour : and as there will
always be fome errors of worknianfliip, and as both lenfes,
but particularly the flint, may not be perfetlly homogeneal,
one of the lenfes muft be turned round in the common
cell, till the faults of one lens are obfcrved to correft
thofeof the other as much as pofiible ; which will be known
when the viiion is moft diftindt, or the objedl bell defined.
Should any colour remain about the edges of tlie objedt,
the prifmatic aberration is not correfted ; and if indif-
tinftnefs does not take place foon, and at equnl diftances
from the point of diftindt vifion, when the eye-tube is moved
in and out, the corredtion for fpherical aberration is not per-
fedt. A double object-glafs is much more cafily adjufted for
a good central pofition, and for the counteradtion of oppo-
fite errors of workmanlhip and imporfedlion of glafs, than a
triple one, and has moreover more light, in confequence of
having but four refledting furfaces ; but as it does not admit
of any change of the faces in the final adjuftment, the lenfes
require to be both truly calculated and nicely worked, in
order to make the pradtice correfpond with the theory ;
which is probably the reafon why triple objedt-glaffcs, that
admit of changes in their pofitions, ai-emo(t frequently made,
particularly for lliort telefcopes : befides, half a dozen of
thefe lenfes may be ground and polifiied at the fame time 5
whereas, for a double objedt -glafs, each lens requires to be
ground and polilhed feparately, and with the greateft
care.

Triple achromatic Ohjed-glaffes After having explained

the theory, and exemplified the conftrudtion of a double
achromatic objedt -glafs with great minutencfs, we come now
to treat of triple objedt -glaffes, that fhall have the achro-
matic property ; but it will not be neceftary to give fo many
examples, nor fuch minute explanation, as feemed requifitc
in our preceding part of this fubjedt, feeing that the cal-
culations for a triple objedt -glafs are grounded on thofe that
we have given for a double one, and do not materially differ
from them. It will, however, be proper to Ihew how the
compound focus of three lenfes is determined, before we
proceed to find the aphromatic proportions of the refpeflive
radii.

Firft, we muft have recourfe to our fundamental theorem,
(of Table I. of theorems for the rcfradtive foci of lenfes,)

11/s;. f = — = — — =-— , where p is the reciprocal of

■' dK -\- dr — p^r -^

the refradting power of the medium employed, or of
, the meafure of that power, r and R the radii, as

before, and d the radiant diftance. To apply this theorem
to a fyftem of glafTes, as B, C, D, &c. which we propofe
doing, it is convenient to fubftitute, for the general expref-

fion — , the letters a, b, and e, as peculiar to each medium

refpeAively. Supp ofing now our three lenfes arranged in
the order B, C, D, with B next the radiant objedt (as in

TELESCOPE.

fg. 12. P/a/?XXVni.). wf firft determine the focus of B,
which becomes in this cafe, if we fubftitute — for p,
drR

a
JrR

F = — X
a

R,

adR + adr — Rr

dR-lr dr-

a

Now /" the focal diftance of B, thus found, is manifcftly

the radiant diftance of the fccond or middle lens C ; and as

the general theorem above referred to involves the radiant

diftance </, we have only now to apply that theorem again

to the fecond lens C, fubftituting, as before, h for — , and

for d, the quantity laft found as the focus of B. This gives
the compound focal diftance of thcfe two lenfes B and C,
which we will call <p ; and this again becomes the radiant
diftance of the lens D : therefore, laftly, the general theorem

is again applied to this lens, fubftituting c for — , and the

laft^ found focus (?>) for «/; by which procefs, we arrive at the
compound focus (*) of all the three lenfes. In the apph-
cation of thefe fucceUive fteps, it will be proper to attend to
the figns of the quantities, where one of them, which in our
cafe is the middle one, has its focus negative with con-
verginsT rays. To exemplify this procefs in a triple objeft-
glafs for parallel rays, let B reprefent the outermoft lens,

. , m — n

which we will confider as a double convex lens witli

n

= a = 0.53, and r and R each = 10 ; let C be the double

concave of fimilar radii 'r and 'R, and with = h

n

-=. 0.6 ; and let D be a plano-convex, and confequently R

. m — n

infinite, but r = 10, as before, and = <•=« = 0.53:

n

then for the focus of B, putting — = a, we have — X

drR drR _ drR

adR + adr— Rr ~ adR— rR

dr

dR + dr

a

{adr being neglefted, when R is infinite)

; and

ad— r

fince d is alfo infinite with parallel rays, the expreffion be-
comes — = F, as in our firft table of theorems for the
a

refrafted foci of lenfes, for the firft lens B. This expreffion
is now put for d, when we come to confider the theorem as

applied to C : here we have — = i, and the expreffion

P

I drR drR
becomes -7- x —^, or — j-~g _;

b . . .„ '■R bdr + idR — rR

dr + dR-

r

then, as r is taken equal to R, it will be

2bd-

'F

of the lens C. Now, if in this expreffion we fubftitute — ,

a

the focus of B, for d, we have for —j—r — x

2bd— r a

2 br — r =

2br — i

2b-

for >?, the compound

focus of B and C, or rather, as the rays fall converging

on C, and 2 3 is more than a, = -. . Again,

— 2 b — a

this quantity will become d for the lens D, and puttf.Tg
the fame fubftitution as before, in the general theorem

for D, where
drR

put for p, we (hall have — x

drR

dr + dR -
dr

R'

:dr + cdR~ rR'

or, when r =^ R^

2cd ■

hence we obtain

2b — a

lex

2b~ a
— *, or

2cxr— 2b— axr 2c — 2b + a

pound focus of all the three lenfes, B, C, and D. Let
us take, by way of example, three lenfes as follow ; Wz.
B, a double convex lens of crown-glafs, with its refraftive
power by experiment =: 0.53 = a, and with equal radii,
where r and R are each =: 10; let the fecond lens C be a
double concave of flint-glafs, with the fame radii, and of a
refraftive power = 0.6 ; and let the third lens D be a plano-
convex of crown-glafs, of a refraftive power of 0.53 alfo,
with R ^ io likewife ; then, according to our laft expref-

fion

10

10

2c — 2b + a

2c

10

2b + c'
= 25.6 = *.

3<r - 2b
In this way

1.59 -1. 2 0.39

the compound focus of any number of lenfes may be deter-
mined, and the courfe of the rays might be traced in a geo-
metrical figure out of one glafs into another, until they come
to their ultimate focus.

For inftance, let us confider S and /, in £g, 1 2, to be
two parallel folar rays incident on the firft lens B, at the
points b and b : thefe rays, on entering, are bent towards
the axis <if^, and then from the points of emerfion tend to
their piincipal focus f; but being intercepted by the double
convex lens C, they diverge, after entering at c and c, in a
direftion which points backwards to the virtual focus $ ; but
in their progrefs, they again become incident on the piano-
convex at the points d and d, and are again refrafted to-
wards the axis, and meet in a diftant point *, which is,
therefore, the compound focus of all the three lenfes. And
if we conceive the parallel rays, S and s, to be pencils of
folar rays, that difpcrfe on entering the convex lens B, they
will difperfe in a contrary direftion on entering the con-
cave C, and will again, on entering the plano-convex lens D,
have the excefs of difperfion of C counterafted by a fecond
oppofing difperfion of D, and, inftead of coming to unite
at the diftant points P and Q, to which they tended on
entering D, ihey will meet, by virtue of the prevailing re-
fraftion of the two lenfes B and D taken jointly, over the
refraftion of C taken fepai-ately, at the compound focus <J>,
where the image of the fun will be formed ; and if both the
focal diftances and radii of curvature of all the lenfes were
achromatically adjufted, as we fhall prefently direft, the
image would be free from colours, and well defined.

The fame determination of the foci f, <p, and *, in any
combination, mayj however, be obtained more conveniently

in

TELESCOPE.

in practice, when r and R are unequal, from our former
practical theorems, thus : let us determine tlie compound

F X F

focus of B and D by tlie theorem =,, as they have

F -t- F

each a pofitive focus, and call this focus = 0 geometrical,

and then — will be $ refra&ed ; and fecondly, let 'F geo-

'F
metrical be turned into — - for the rcfrafted focus ot the
2 b

F X 'F
concave C ; and tlien, by the theorem — — = = *, we

F — F

fhall have * for the compound refracted focus of the triple
objeft-glafs, or length of the telefcope : for example, taking

'•47'5
1.524

= -9655 X T = A of the fubftituted lens E, with

the fame data as before, we ihall firft have

10 X 20
10 + 20

30

= 6.66 = t?, and -^—z, or — = 6.28 = <p refrafted :
1. 06 2 a

and

10 /'F\

— [—,) = ii-33 = 'F refrafted: alfo, by the

(p X 'F
theorem j=^ , becaufe 'F has a negative focus, we get

6.28 X 8.33 ;2-33 . ,

;:; ^r^ = - = 2 ?.!:■? = *, as was required.

8.33 — 6.28 2.05 -^ ^

We (hall ufe this method of finding the compound focus (p
of two lenfes, and alfo *, the focus arifing from all the
three lenfes, where it is to be underftcod that a, the fymbol
for the refraftive power of both the crown lenfes B and D,
is taken the fame ; and that we exprefs the refradtive power
of C, tlie concave, by the fymbol l>, as a fubftitute for 'a.

We mull further premife, that when T, the thicknefs of
each lens B and D, is not confidered, we fhall fliew pre-
fently that the fpherical aberration, arifing from any fingle
lens that receives the rays of light, may be diminifhed as
4 : I, by the combination of two lenfes, to be fubftituted
tor that one. Bearing thefe premifes in mind, we now pro-
ceed to the confideration of a triple objeft-glafs, that fhall
have the due corrections for both the prifmatic and fpherical
aberrations. It will greatly facihtate both our explanation
and exemplification, if we fuppoie the two convex lenfes
B and D, having a compound focus ^^ ^, to be reprefented
by a fingle lens E, with the fame focus <p, but with a Jimi-
nijhed aberration ; for then we may proceed nearly as in our
feven preceding examples ; but reverfing the procefs, when
the concave has its radii given, to find the convex lens.

Example 8. — Let it be required to conftrudl a triple
achromatic objeft-glafs of 30 inches focal length, with the
fame refraftive and difperfive pov.»ers as in the firft example ;
•ui%. with m : n in the crown as 1.528 : I, and in the flint
as 1.5735 : I ; and with the difperfive powers as i : 1.524;
and let the two radii of the concave be each 13.9, fo as to
have 'F, as in the firft example.

In the firft place we have V : 'R :: i : I, and, as we have
feenabove,'A ;= 1.666 x 'T,by the general theorem of Huy-
gens ; in the next place, becaufe the conca-veC is given to find the
convex E, the corredting number z, found as before, becomes
a muhiplier, in a revcrfed operation, and we have 1.666 ('A)
X 'T X .883 (z) — 1.4715 X T ='A correP.ed: we mult
alfo ufe the former multiplier 1.524 (the difperfive power,
or proportional focus) as a divijor, and then we get

a focus = 0 ; but there is no fuch fmall quantity of aberra-
tion in any one lens. Let us however fee what the abfolutc
aberration 'A will be, unconncfted with the fador 'T, which
faftor we iiave determined, from the verfed fines to the radii
13.9 and 13.9, to be z= .1653 ; therefore 1.4715 x .1653
= .2432 =; 'A abfolutcly. Now we have fecn, in the firil
example, that .252 is = T of the proper convex ; let ua

now confider that — ^ = . 1 26 is = T in one of the lenfe»

2

B and D, whicli we propofc to make in every refpcA fimi-
lar, in order to have as few different curves, and confequently
as few different tools, as poffiblc ; then, becaufe .243a is

the ahfolule aberration of C, tlie concave, we have ^

.126
= 1.93 X T = A of either of the convex lenfes; but T
is .126; therefore 1.93 x .126 = .2432 is the abjelule
aberration of each convex lens, exactly equal to the abfo-
lute aberration of the concave. But we have alTcrted, and
fhall demonftrate hereafter, that when the thicknefs of the
lenfes is neglcfted, a proper combination of two lenfes,
placed at a certain diftaiicc from each other, will diminifh the
aberration belonging to one four limes, and even when the
diftance = o, this will be nearly the cafe : now we hare
.9655 X T = A in the lens E of equal focus, let us leave
out A, and multiply by 4, and we have 4 x .9655 = 3.862
very nearly, the fum of the aberrations (without T) of the
two convex lenfes B and D, taken together ; viz. 2 x 1.93
=: 3.86 ; but yet the abfolutc aberration of each feparate
convex lens (T being confidered) is exaftly equal to the
abfolute aberration ('T confidered) of the double concave.
This relation of the refpeftive aberrations being once efta-
bhfhed and confirmed by praftice, which Tullcy affirms to
be the cafe, fimplifies llie complex bufinefs of calculating a
triple objcft-glals : for \.\\c fum of the abfolute aberrations of
the two convex lenfes of like glafs, muft be always equal to
double the abfolute correded aberration of the concave
alone, in order to have a due corre£tion for fpherical aber-
ration, and confequent indiftinctnefs. Hence, when the fo-
cal diftance, ?, of the two convex lenfes B and D is in tlic
fame proportion to 'F, the focal diftance of the concave,
that tlieir feparate difperfive powers are relatively to that of
the concave B, the relative radii of either B or D, or of
both, may be "uar/Vi/ at pleafurc, provided that the_/i/m of
their abfolute aberrations remain equal to double the abfolutc
aberration of the concave C, and provided that ^, their
compound focus, be not altered. But we have not yet ad-
jufted the two focal diftances fo as to make the object -glafs
achromatic, and *, or the compound focus of the three, to
be equal 30 inches. From an equation of the aberration
1.93 X T, or from .2432 abfolutely^ we find the ratio of
r : R in each lens to be as 1.34 : i, which is alfo agreeable
to Tulley's tables, from which this ratio may be had by in-
fpedtion ; alfo the rational geometrical focus for thefe num-
bers is 1. 145. Now according to our firfl example, wc have
feen that when 'F = 13.9 in a telefcope of 30 inches focal
length, F will be 9.12, when there is only one double con-
vex lens ; but here we have two lenfes to produce 9.12 := (?,
and therefore, as both lenfes are to be alike, we have 9.12
X 2 = 1S.24 = F for each feparate focus; therefore

18.24

= 15.93 = Rofeach, and 15.93 '^ '-34= 21.35
K k 2 = r ;

TELESCOPE.

= r ; and the refult of our calculation will (land thus ;

wz.

^. „ w y*- =2i.35l F=j8-24.an'lA= 1.93

F.rft convex B | ^ ^ ^^^ J ^ T = .2432-

-, ^ fV = 13.9 1 'F = 13.9, and 'A =

Concav* C |,j^ ^ ,^_^ I ,.4715 X 'T = .2432.

fr = 21.357 F= 18.24, and A = 1.93
IR == 15.93 J X T = .2432.
fF X F

Second convex

Alfo

= i3

9.12

LF+ F

f'F X (?)
And - - - |,p3-^ = * - 30-0

It is hardly leceffary to obferve, that the quantities T and
'T arc here given in numbers, for the fake of illiiftration ;
but when the quadratic equation is worked, thofe fymbols
mav be externiinated, and their values involved in the
procelb

A t .b:.- of radii for triple objeft-glaires, in which the
two convex lenfes of crown-glafs, and the one of flint, have
rcfpeftively the fame refraftive and difperfive powers as in
Table I. and V = 'R.

Table VIII Radii of triple achromatic Objeft-glafles.

B

Convex.

C

Concave.

D

Convex.

*

r

R

V

'R

r

•R

6

4.27

3-19

2.80

2.80 4.27

3-19

,2 1

8.54

6.38

5.60

5.60

8.54

6.38

18

12.81

9.56

8.40

8.4®

12.81

9.56

24

17.08

12.74

11.20

11.20

17.08

12.74

30

21-35

15-93

13.90

13-9

21-35

;i5-93

36

25.62

19.11

16.70

16.70

25.62

19.11

42

29.89

22.30

19.50

19.50

29.89

22.30

48

34.16

25.48

22.30

22.30

34.16

25.48

54

38-43

28.67

25.09

25.09

38-43

28.67

60

42.70

31.86

27.80

27.8

42.70

31.86

72

51.24

38.22

33-40

33-40

51.24

38.22

84

59.78

44.60

39.00

39.00

59.78

44.60

96

68.32

50.96

44.60

44.60

68.32

50.96

108

76.86

•57-34

50.10

50.10

76.86

57-34

120

85.40

63.72

55.60

55.60

85.40

63.72

ample ; but let the radii of the concave be unequal ; r/a,
'/• : 'R :: I : 1.23, and in the befl pofition ?

In this example we propofc to abridge the work thus ;

fu-ll, 'A - 1.507 X 'T and z = '.883, and '-^ = ^°-^

» .883

= 1.33 X 'T = 'A con-efted ; then — -^^f ,^-^— ) =
^^ 1.524 V'F rat./

.873 X T for the proportional aberration of the fubftituted

lens E, as before ; which is an impoffible quantity. The

focus of this fubftituted lens, as in thelail example, is 9. 1 2,

and confequently 9.12 x 2 = l8.24is again the focus of one

of the two convex lenfes tq be ufed, that of the concayc

13.0

being, as before, 13.0 (for ^is — Q.12) ; whence')-

1.524 '

and 'R will be 12.6 and 15.5 refpcftivcly. T, as before, t:^
= .126, and 'T = -1653 (by calculation) ; hence'T x 1.33
= .2198 is the ahfolute aberration of the concave lens, as
well as that of each of the two convexes of 18.24 focus;

therefore' — ^ = 1-745 X T = A of one of thofe lenfes,
.126

and the root of the quadratic arifing out of this equation of
A, gives the ratio of the radii, where R is unity, thas ; as
R : r ;: I : I.I ; and the rational focus, by the proper theo-

r 1 '8.24 . T, r 1

rem, is 1.048 ; coniequently ^ = 17.401s =: R of each

convex lens, and 17.40 x i.i = 19.1413 = r; fo that
we have now the fubjoined refults ; ti'fx,.

Convex

„ fr = 19.147 F = 18.24, a"<i A = i'747

^ tR = 17-40]" X T = .2198.

p fV = 12.60") 'F = 13-9, and 'A = 1.33

^ I'R - 15.50J X 'T = .2198.

Convex D \' = ^'^•'4 ^ = '^•'+' '"'^ ^ = '-7+7
|R = 17.403

Concave

X T = .2198.

Alfo

fc5 = 9.12 for the compound

focus of B and D.

And

("<!)=: 30.0 for the compound
" I focus of B, C, and D.

The following is a table of radii for triple objeft-glafles,
where the refraftive and difperfive powers are as in the laft
example, but where the radii of the concave are unequal, wsu
'/•:'R :: I : i.l.

Example 9. — Let it be required to conftru^ another
triple objea-glafs of 30 mches focal length, witll^crown and
flint-glafs cxaftly fimilar to what was ufed in the laft es-

Table

TELESCOPE.

Tabi.k

IX.— Radii of

triple ac

hromatic Objeft-glafles.

B

Convex.

C

Coi'C^IVC

D

Giiivcx.

*

r

R

V

'R

r

R

6

3-83

3-48

2.5

3-1

3-83 i 3-48

12

7.66

6.96

5.0

7-5
1 0.0

6.2

7.66 ; 6.96

]8

11.49

10.44

9-3

11.49 {10-44

1 .'+

15-32

13.92

12.4

15-32

13.92

1 ^o

19.14

17.4

12.6

^S-S

19.14 17.4

1
36

22.97

20.88

15.1

18.6

22.97 20.88

42

26.80

24.36

17.6

21.7

26.80

24.36

48

30-63

27.S4

20.1

24.8

30.63 27.84

54

34-46

31-32

22.6

27.9

34.46 31.32

60

38.28

34-8

25.2

31.0

38.28

34-8

72

45-94

41.76

30.2

37-2

45-94

41.76

: 84

53.60

48.72

35-2

43-4

53.60

48.72

96

61.26

55.68

40-3

49-6

61.26

55.68

108

68.92

62.64

45-3

55-8

68.91

62.64

120

76.56

69.6

50.4

62.0

76.56

69.6

Neither is it dofireable, in a };ootl achromatic objc dt-gl^ifs, to
ulc varnifh of any defcripliou, a» has bceu rccommciidrd.

As \vc have iheun tliat profeflor Robifon's data, and the
calculations foinided on them, do not produce curves proper
for an acliromatic double objcdt-j;lafs, we will conclude this
pai-t of our I'ubji tt by examinuig if his calculations for a
triple objeil-t-glafs are any better adapted for praflice. In
Dr. Brewller's Table V. (Appendix to his edition of
Fergufon's Lectures, vol. ii. p. 418.) a thirty-incli triple
objeA-glafs is calculated, according to profeflor Robifon's
report of the radii ufed by the London artills, to have
r= 18.84, (printed by milhike 18.34,) R = 22.47, V and
'R each 17.37, and the fecond convex tlie fame as tlie firll ;
where, as before, the ratio m :.n in the crown is taken as
1.526 : I, and in the flint as 1.604 • '» ^nd the ratio of the
difperfive powers as l : 1.65. If thefe numbers will make
an achromatic objeCl-glafs, we fliall have i : 1.65 :: F : 'F
exaftly ; /'. e. the ratio of the difperfive power will alfo
be the ratio of the geometrical focal diflaiiccs, agree-
ably both to theory and practice ; but we iiave, by the theo-

2 )• R 2 X 18.84 X 22.47 846.6696

'■^" r^TR' • -

In like manner, any number of tables might be com-
puted for tlie focal lengths of a triple objefl-glafs, where
the l^nfes have given refraftive and difperfive powers, and
where the radii aflumcd for one of the lenfes are taken at
pleafure ; but it will be always defireable to fix on a
concave lens firft in a triple objeft-glafs, notwithftanding we
hare fhewn that it is better to affume a convex one firft,
where a double obje£t-glafs is calculated : for by attending
to this direftion, the optician will find that countcrading
aberrations will be within his reach ; and though he may
fix on radii in the affumed lens that will not be the beft in
praftice, yet, by changing the ratio of the afliimed radii, he
will find prafticable lenfes that will anfwer his purpofe.
In our tables of triple objeft-glafTes, the numbers come out
very convenient for praftice ; for in each, both fides of the
convex lenfes have longer radii than either face of the
concave has got, fo that there will be no point of contaft,
in the middle of any of the curves, when they are placed
contiguous to one another ; and in Table IX. there is juft
difference enough, between the radii of each of the convex
glafles, to allow one of them to be reverfed, if it is found
that the errors of workmanlhip, or imperfeftion of the
glafs, ftiould require fuch corretlion, when the objeft-glafs
comes to b^- finally adjufted. Indeed all the furfaces might
be calculated to be a little different from one another, and
then there would be the option of eight changes in the final
adjuftment : but if the glals is homogeneal, and the work
well pecformed, it will always be found beil to adhere to the
pofitions for whicli the lenfes have had their radii calculated.

5

18.84 + 22.47

41-43

= 20.495

for the focus of one convex lens, and therefore — - =

2

10.247 for the compound focus of the two ; alfo we have
tlie focus of the concave = 17.37 in the table, the radii
being equal; hence we have as i : 1.65 :: 10.247 : 16.90,
inftead of 17.37 ; therefore the objeft-glafs is not tluly cor-
reSed for the prifmalic aberration. This conclufion, which
is intelligible by every common reader, corroborates our
former inference reipeCling the want of achromatifm in the
double obje£l-glanes made from Robifon's calculations ;
but let us purfue the enquiry a little farther, and fee what
focal diftancc will accord with thefe numbers : tiie refrac-
tive power of the convex being .604 = a, we have — ^— 5-
=: 9.74 for the refraBcd iocM^ ihtreoi ; and the refradtive
power of the concave being .526

'F X F

17.^7
b, we have —■■•;■ =
2 b

14.38 for its refrafted focus, and by our theorem ,

, 14.38 X 9.74 140.0612 ^

= *, we have — l^^- ^~- = -^—^ = 30.18, &c. for

14.38 - 9.74 4.64

the focal length of the objeft-glafs ; which is much nearer
to the propofed length than the focus of the double objoft-
glafs was wliich we before examined. If we calculate tliis
triple objeft-glafs according to our method, as pradifed by
Tulley, we mull begin with 16.9 as the proper focus for the
concave, of which we difregai'd the negative fign, as of no
importance in our mode of calculating ; we fliall then have as
1.65 : 1 :: 16.9 : 10.247, and this ratio muft not be com-
promifed, on any confideration, as being the achromatic ratio,
on a fuppofition that the rcfradive and difperfive powers, as
above ftated, are in natural proportion ; then as the radii V
and 'R are affumed equal, the aberration of the concave will be

1.666 X T, and z = .826; therefore -■,-> = 1.376 = 'A

.020

correfted; and — ^— = .834 = A of the fubftituted fingle
1.65

lens E, which, as before, is an impolTible quantity to be in
one lens ; but this being doubled, will be 1.668 x T for the
proper quantity of each lens ; or multiplied by 4, will be a

proper

TELESCOPE.

proper quantitv for the fum of both the convex lenfcs ; then
'T being found = ..^,6. and T = .112 in each convex, we
(hM have A = 1.668 x 2 X .112 = .1871 for each con-,
vex, and 'A = 1.376 X .136 = -1871 alfo, for the concave,
and confequently the ratio of r : R as 1. 01 : I ; then by
ulniK the proper theorems, as before dn-eded, thefe radn
W.11 come out r = 20.,". =>"d R = 20.37 m each convex,
while the concave will have each of its radn = 16.9, as
originally affumed ; and if the difperfive was great enough
for the refractive power, as above fpecified, not only vyould
the objea-glafs be acbromalic, but its focal length would be
= 30. But we llnd the geometrical F = 10.24, ^"'^ '■'^'

f,,aed F = ^J = 9-696, and r« = T^"^= "^-'"^ "

, . , , 'F X F ^ . 14.107 X 9-696 _
'F refrafted, and j^—-^^ = *, gives — ^^^ _ 9.696 -

' 3^-78 1 _ J ^.gj.y ^jj^j^. . and hence we infer, that the
4.451
difperfive and refradive powers are irrational in this
calculation, and the excefs in the focal length is double
the quantity with thefe two convex lenfes, B and D,
to what we found it with one, in a double objeft-glafs,
in our former examination. We are not however dif-
pofed to depreciate the mathematical labours of a man,
whofe memory «-ill always be dear to every lover of
fcience, and whofe article Telescope in particular has
obtained tlie enconaium of an eminent contemporary mathe-
matician ; but we have felt it our duty to point out the
fource of inaccuracy, which, by entering into the data, has
affefted the refult of long and tedious calculations, and may
have given much trouble to many, as we know it has done to
fome opticians, who have attempted to copy thofe refults in
praftice. The learned profeffor has indeed ftated, as he
proceeds, that the value of certain appreciable quantities has
been neglefted, to fimplify the procefs ; and if thofe
quantities had affefted the focal diftance more, and the ratio
of the radii r : R, and alfo that of F : 'F lefs, the refulting
prifmatic and fpherical correftions might have been more
perfeft, even with a defeft of difperfive power, than we now
find them. We have not room, however, to enter farther
into particulars.

From Dr. Brewfter's experiments, made in his " Trea-
tife on New Philofophical Inftruments," it appears that
\he green ray is not always in the middle of the folar fpeftrum,
and that with rock-cryllal it is at the oppoiite fide of the
middle from what it is in glafs ; hence TuUey infers, that if
(rlafs could be found of the fame difperfive power as rock-
cryllal has, the intermediate colours might be correfted
as well as the extreme colours ; and that the fecondary
fpeftrum woiJd difappear. To effctl this improvement,
the convex lens of rock-cryflal mull be at one fide of the
concave of flint, and the convex of crown or other glafs,
with equal difperfive power to that of the cryftal, muft be
at the other fide. This objetl is worthy of the optician's
future confideration and purfuit. '

Cekjlial achromatic Eyc-pifces We have already explained,

in the former part of this feftion, how the focus of two
glafles, placed at a gi-ueit dijlance from each other, may be
afcertained, and alio what is the focus of a fingle imaginary
lens that fhall be equal to them both in power : we propofe
therefore prefently to return to the fame figure, {J!g. 8.
Plate'KXlV.) in order to (hew what the advantage will be
in point of diflinclnefs, which is as effential a quality in an
eye-piece as power. But, in the firil place, let us fuppofe
'^^fis- 1°- t^e points I, 2, and 3, fo many points of an ob-

8

jeft, of which the image is formed at F, after pafling
through any lens A B ; then as the point I has rays ilTuing
from it, that fall on every part of the lens, and as thefe
rays are differently refraifted at different diflanccs from the
axis, both towards A and towards B, there will be feveral
iinages of this point at the focus F, lying contiguous to each
other ; but the rays that come to a focus, after paffing in
and near the central part of the glafs, will form their images
very clofely together, fo as very nearly to coincide. The
fame will be true of the points 2 and 3 feparately confidered,
under the fame circuraflances, fo that while the fingle lens
A B continues to produce both prifmatic and fpherical
aberrations, there will be a confufion or indijlindnefs in the
image, arifing from a promifcuous mixture of a number of
contiguous and nearly coincident images arifing out ot the
fpherical figure of the lens, as well as fringes of colour
arifing out of the difperfion of the differently refrangible
rays. This indiftinftnefs is more confiderable in a lens ufed
as an objeft-glafs, than as an eye-piece ; becaufe the image
formed Ijy it becomes an obje<3; to be viewed by means of
the eye-piece, and therefore any diftortion, confufion, or
colouration that exifts in the image, will be magnified by the
eye-piece ; and the greater the magnifpng power, the greater
will be the evil produced thereby. To obviate this confe-
quence, which will exift partially, even when the beft com-
pound objeft-glafs is ufed that art can accompHfh, the fingle
eye-glafs has been laid afide, and a fyftem of glaffes fubfti-
tuted, that will admit of a high power in the eye-piece, with-
out a proportionate increafe of indiftinftnefs or of colour
in viewing the image. The firfl arrangement of two glaffes,
as a fubftitute for one, to be ufed as a celeflial eye-piece,
where invcrfion of the objeft is not material, was calculated
and appHcd by the ingenious Huygens, who, not aware that
the prifmatic aberration could be cured by an oppofition of
difperfive powers, according to DoUond's noble difcovery,
devifcd the method of reducing the quantity of fpherical
aberration by dimjion ; and the refult of his inveiligations
was, that two plano-convex lenfes, (which have each but
little aberration in their befl pofitions,) when placed at fuch
a diflance from each other that their focal points, for pa-
rallel rays, might coincide, would have fuch a compound
focus, as would not only greatly increafe the power, but Hill
more diminifh the fpherical aberration. An arrangement of
this fort was put into the hands of W. Molyneux by Mr.
Flamftead in the year 1686, of which Molyneux determined
the compound focus, depending on the radii of curvature of
the two glaffes and the diftance between them, in the man-
iier we have above explained. But the firfl mathematician
who gave the rationale of the advantage to be derived from
a combination of lenfes, as they have reference to the fphe-
rical- aberration, was fir Ifaac Newton, whofe method of
explaining it Martin has given in his New Elements of Op-
tics, parti, p. 27, thus: " Let NBM {fig. 9.) be the
fpherical furface of a plano-convex lens N G M B ; C the
centre ; C B the radius or femi-diameter taken in the axis ;
A N an incident ray ; and N K the fame refrafted, cutting
the axis produced in the point K. Alfo let F be the focus
of parallel rays which pafs through the glafs infinitely near
to the axis : let F D be a perpendicular to the axis in the
point F, then will K F be the curve or difference of the
focal diftance of parallel rays which are incident near the
axis, and at the diftance G N, the femi-aperture of the
lens. This is called the aberration of the extreme ray in
longitude. Again, let any ray (fln) be incident on the other
fide the lens, at the diftance b G, the refrafted part of this
ray, nd, will interfeft the other refrafted ray ND in the point
Q, at the perpendicular diftance Q O from the axis. This

is

TELESCOPE.

is called the lateral error, or t}ie aberration in latitude. It is
evident from the figure, tliat as the ray {an) approaches the
extreme ray A M, the point of interfeftion Q will approach
the axis ; and when a n coincides with A M, the point Q
will coincide with the point K in the axis ; and it is as ob-
vious that the point Q will coincide with F, when the ray {an),
approaching the axis a B, at laft becomes coincident with
it : therefore there is one pofition of the ray {an), in which
it will cut the ray N D in a point Q, which will make Q O
a maximum, or the greateft of all. If we take the arc
Bm = B «, and B M =;; B N, the rays incident on m and M
will intcrfeft in the point P on the other fide, and fo make
P Q = 2 Q O ; and it is alfo plain, that all tlie rays which
fall on the lens between N and M are refracted through tlie
fpace PQ. Now PQ is the diameter of tlie Icajl circular
fpace poffible, in which all the rays can be congregated, be-
caufe there will be fome ray {an) that will meet the extreme
ray N D, at the dillanoe Q O = i Q P from the axis.
Hence it follows, that the circular fpace is the focus, or
place of the image of an objeft, belonging to parallel rays
incident on the lens N M. Further, by reafon of fimiiar
triangles K O Q, K F D, and N G K, we have Q O : K O
:: D F : K F :: N G : G K. But it is demonftrable, (fee
Philof. Britannica, 3 edit. p. 58. art. 14.) that when Q O is
greateft, then K O = J: K F, and alfo that K F is always ■§.
of G B, the thicknefs of the lens ; fo then K O = 1 G B,
and confequently GK:GN::-g-GB:QO, whence

qGBxGN _,^ , r.^ij- ri

~ — 5-p7-i? ^ O O ; wlience P Q, the diameter of the

circle of aberration, is known for any given lens.

" It has been demonftrated, that the error P Q will always

he proportioned to _^ ; fo that when the radius is given,

the error will be .as the cube of the aiperture direftly : and
when the aperture is given, the faid error will be as the
fquare of the radius inverfely. It has alfo been demon-
ftrated, that v/hen the convex fide of the lens N B M is
turned towards parallel rays, the eiTor K F will be but ^
of the thicknefs of the lens G B, and therefore near four
times lefs than in the other cafe ; for 4 G B : -J G B :: 54
, 14, which is almoft as 4 to i.

" It has been further demonftrated, that the aberration P Q
is as the fquare of the fine of refraftion (the fine of inci-
dence being unity) in all media of different refraftive
powers : thus if a lens of the fame focal diftance and aper-
ture were made of glafs and water, and fuppofe thofe fines
in glafs to be as m : n, and in water as 'm '.'fi; then will P O
in the glafs lens be to the fame in the water lens as w' : '/?;%
or the area of the circles of aberration, and of courfe the
indiftinftnefs of the objeft will be as the refraftions m and 'm
of the media.

" Whatever has been obferved with regard to convex and
plano-convex lenfes, will hold good in concave and plano-
concave ones. And in both forts, it is fuppoied that all of
them have the fame focal diftances, apertures, and thick-
nefles, while we are comparing their refpeftive aben-ations.

" Hence it is very evident, that if rays proceed from any
point, as {a) at an infinite diftance to a lens N M, {Jig. 10.)
the im^age of that point will not be a point, but the area of
a circle, whofe diameter is P Q ; and, therefore, that point
cannot be diftinftly reprefented, but will be rendered in-
diftinft and confufed in proportion to the area of the faid
circle of aberration in the lens, as it is the image of this
circle (or dilated point) that is impreffed on the retina, and
excites the idea of the point in the mind.

" Hence it appears alfo, that the points in the furfaccs or

fubftances of bodiej cannot be pcrfeftly and dillinaiy feen,
as each of them will be dilated into a funfible area ; and
luch as are contiguous, as i, 2, 3, will have their confufed
images all blended together nearly in the fame fpace, viz. in
the circle of aberration, the diameter of which is P Q.

" Therefore the ftars, which as to fcnfe are only lucid
points, \yill appear to have fome magnitude (and not as
points) in the focus of the beft fort of telelcopes, even
fuppofing there were no other caufe of confofion or in-
diftinft vifion, befides what refulted from the fpherical
figure of the lens.

" Now, if tlie error from a fpherical furface, or, which is
the fame thing, the indijlinflncfs of vifion, depending on, and
comnienfiirate witii, tiie fpherical aberration of a lens, is as
the fquare of radius inverfely ; the tli/linclnr/s of vifion, on
the contrai7, will be as ihe fjuare of the radius direllly ;
and, therefore, if, by means of two glaftes, we can get the
view of an objeft, where the radii of the glaffes boar a greater
proportion to their refpeftive apertures, than the radius of
a fingle glafs of equal magnifying power does to its aper-
ture ; it is evident tlie diftinftnefs of that view will be
promoted in proportion to the fquare of that ratio.

" For example, fuppofe (/^. 8. ) F — D = ji, or O F, to
be the focal diftance of the lens G H, fo that the focus of
each of the lenfes N M and G H falls on the fame point
F ; then, by tlic preper theorem, we have >: = i F, <5r
Q/= ^ C F : alfo, fince in this cafe we have F : ji :: * : /,
therefore/^ ijr, or O/ = i O F. Now, fince we liave the
fame optic angle G F O by both the glaffes, as by the
fingle one E E, the ratio of the radius O F to the aperture
G O, or of the radius C F to the aperture N C, is double the
ratio of 0/ to O G, or of the radius Q/to the aperture
E Q, and therefore the diJlinElnefs of vifion by both the lenfes
h, four times greater than that by ihefwgk lens E E.

" The fame thing may be demonftrated from "the confidcr-
ation, that the aberration P Q is, in the fame glafs, glways
proportioned to the cube of the femi-aperlure E Q, or fine
' of half the optic angle E/Q ; and that in fmall angles (as in
the glafles of telefcopes, &c. ) tlie fine E O is nearly as the
angle E/Q. The aberration, therefore, being as the cube
of that angle, it is plain, if we make the fame angle by two
refraftions inftead of one, the quantity of the aberration will
be greatly leffened, fince the fum of the cubes of the parts
will be much lefs than the cube of the whole ; and when the
parts are equal, the fum of the cubes of each will be but a
fourth part of the cube of the whole. Thus, if tlie whole
angle E/Q be as 1, the cube thereof is i ; but the half is
4, the cube of which is ^, and twice that, -J- = -i, which is
as the aberration arifing from the two halves, and is there-
fore but a. fourth part of the whole.

" This is evidently the cafe when the optic angle GfO
( = EyQ) is made by two refraftions, by the two lenfes
NM and G H, fo pofited, that the focus of eacli may fall
on the fame point F ; for then the angle G/O = L G/,
which is compofed of the two angles LGFr=TNF=r
GFO, (byreafonoftheparalleninesTN,LG, and FC,)
which is the part made by the lens N M. Alfo the angle
F Gyis the refraftion of the ray N G, or fecond refraftion
of the ray A N ; and fince, in the prefent cafe, Of = fY,
and Oy in fmall angles is equal to Gy nearly; therefore
the angle G F O is equal to the angle F Gy very nearly,
thofe angles being in the fame ratio with the cqu;il lines Gy
and fY, when they are not large ; and the optic angle
GyO = GF O -I- F Gf; confequently the aberration PQ
is but a fourth part fo great by the two lenfes N M and G H
together, as it is by lens E E alone.

" But to render this theory general for any pofition or form

of

TELESCOPE.

of tl.c lenff s N M and G H, it is evident, fince the aberra-
tion is leffenodbv dividing the optic angle, th-^tthe AJinamJs
of virion wiU be thereby promoted ; and becaufe each of the
angles contribute thereto in proportion to its magnitude,
the ioint effect of both parts, or angles G !■/ and /G t,
will be as tiie prodiia or redangle under both, or as the
redangle of the lines 0/and /F ; but, according to our
former notation, T f = T - B -/; and O/-/; confe-
quently F / - D/"- // will be every v^here as the diftincl-
nefs of vifion by tlic t«o lenfes, above that ot a fingle lens
of the fame magnifying power.

" Let tlie degree of diftinclnefsthus obtained be reprelentcd
by G = F/"— D/" — //; when this is a maximum, or the
greateft poiTible, the Huxions thereof will be nothing ; viz.
Y f— D/— 2ff= o, whence F — D = 2/; or F O =
2 O/; that 's, 0/=/F, or the angle G F/:i=/G F, in
the lijl pofition ot the lenfes, as before demonftrated.

" Confequently, fince in that pofition we have {hewn the
diftinftnefs of vifion to be four times as great as by a fingle
lens, this will be the whole effeft of a combination of two
o-lalTes, and it may be fliewn that tliree glafles will produce
nine times the dillinftnefs, and fo on in proportion to the
fqutire of the mwilifr of gl"/" ; but then if we confider the ev.l
to be remedied is but fmall, and the damage we fufrain in lojs
of //?/'/ and irregularity of refraftion through fo many lenfes,
we may foon make the remedy worfe than the difeafe ; and
every thing confidn-ed, it appears probable that two lenfes
are better than a greater number, particularly for a celeftial
eye-piece."

By fimilar reafoning we may explain the advantage of any
other eye-piece, as Bofcovich's, when we know the radii, the
pofition, and the diftanceof the lenfes that compofe it. The
Huygenian eye-piece, which we have faid has the foci of the
two plano-convex lenfes, as 3 : I, at the diftance of 2, with I
next the eye, and the curves exterior to the eye, is peculiai-ly
adapted for a reflefting telefcope that has only the fpherical
aberration ; but for a refracting telefcope, though achro-
matic, a little deviation from this form was found neceffary
to correct the remaining prifmatic aberration alfo. On en-
quiring of the beft opticians, we leai-n that the final adjuft-
, inent of diftance between two lenfes, in a celeftial achromatic
eye-piece, is made from trials in the tube of the telefcope it
is intended for ; becaufe this diftance, and indeed the ratio
of the radii of the two lenfes, wiU greatly depend on the ftate
of convergence of the rays, when they are incident on the
firft furface of the interior glafs ; and this ftate will depend
on the focal length of the telefcope, conjointly with the
aperture, and acluomatifm of the objeft-glafs : fo that it
would not anfwer any good purpofeto give a table of dimen-
fions, wliich might millead rather than afiift the young opti-
tian in his praftice. The form of an achromatic celeftial
eye-piece, compofed of two plano-convex lenfes, is repre-
fented in Plate XXVIII. _^^. 13, where the diftance exceeds
the focal length of the lens l next the eye, and in which con-
fequently the image is between the lenfes ; which is the ufual
conftruftion when the heavenly bodies are viewed without
any reference to the meafurenient of angles ; but as the place
of the image will vary in fome degree with a change of dif-
tance, in taking terreftrial meafures, there is another fonn,
commonly called Ramfden's, which is more fnitable for
micrometrical meafurements ; becaufe the image, being be-
yond both lenfes, (counting from the eye,) keeps its place,
as it regards any fc;Je, wire, or fpider's line, that may be ufed
in a micrometer : this form is given in Jig. 14. of the fame
plate, and has the pofition of the interior face reverfed, fo
that the plane face may be parallel to the contiguous image
to be viewed : thefe two lenfes are fometimes alike, and

always nearly fo, in focal length ; and the diftance between
them is lefs than the focal length of either by fuch a quan -
tity, that the compound focus falls juft beyond the flat face
of the interior kns 2, where the image and fcale, wire, or
line coincide in due adjuftment "or vifion. This form has
likewife the advantage of reduced aberration, and is fome-
times called the pofitfoe eye-piece, in oppofition to the otlwr
form, which is therefore by fome aftronomers called the wifo'd-
//iii- eye-piece. This pofitive eye-piece is alfo beft adjufted
to the inftrument of which it is deftined to form a part ; and
either lens may exceed the other in focal diftance in a fmall
degree, as circumftances may require.

When this eye-piece is ufed with a tranfit inftrument, ze-
nith fe£tor, equatorial, or circular inftrument for taking alti-
tudes, it is convenient to put a diagonal refleftor between the
lenfes, and to have the eye -lens in the. fide of the tube, for the
purpofe of taking obfervations in high altitudes, or even
in the zenith. This form is feen in Jig. 15. of the fame
plate, and is called a prifmatic eye-piece.

The ierrejlriat eye-tuhe is that which gives an ered pofition
to the objeft, as viewed in a telefcope of the refrafting fort,
to which only it is apphed, though it might be applied to the
Caflegrainian refle6tor with equal advantage. It has been
feen that, originally, this eye-piece was compofed of three
fimilar lenfes, placed from each other relpeftively at the
fum of their focal diftances, as in Jig. 3. Plate XXV. In
this arraugament the magnifying power is not increafed,
unlefs the lens, T U, neareft to the eye has its focal dif-
tance diminiftied more than the reft : but the aberration that
would arife from the figure of the field-lens C D, is dimi-
niftied about nine times, if we difregard their thicknefs, -Dia.
as the fquare of the number of glafles employed between
the image I M, and the eye at K ; confequently, the ad-
vantages derived from this eye-piece of Rheita are two-fold ;
for, firft, it gi%'es an ereft pofition to the objeft ; and, fecondly,
it greatly diminiflies the quantity of fpherical aberration,
and confequently produces a correfponding diftinctnels j
but the power of this eye-piece is /imply that of one of the
three lenfes. To effeft an increafe of power at the fame
time that the two preceding advantages are preferved, various
arrangements of three, four, and even of five lenies, have
been nwde for the purpofe of conftrufting a good terreftrial
achromatic eye-tube ; and the ingenuity of a Dollond and
of a Ramfden has been exercifed fucceifively to accomplilh
the defired objeft. Thefe arrangements, fo far as the dimi-
nution of fpherical, and even of prifmatic aberration was
concerned, have been underftood and explained ; but the
total power arifing out of a number of lenfes differently
ftiaped, and placed at different dijlances relatively to eacli
other, has not been fo clearly explained ; and it fhould
feem, from the manner in which fuch arrangement has been
defcribed by different authors, tha,t the refult has generally
been afcertained practically rather than theoretically ; which
indeed muft in fome degree be the cafe whenever dow^r, or,
which is the fame thing in effect, whenever aftual focal dif-
tance, fimple or compound, is to be accurately determined.
We will not proceed upon the intricate plan of tracing the
paffage of a refrafted pencil of rays through various lenfes
of different refractive qualities, and placed at various inter-
vals, until they arrive at their laft focus, or place of the
image of a diftant radiant body ; neither do we propofe to
follow the more famihar but lefs inftruftive method of fimply
giving in -figures the radii and relative diftances of three,
four, or five lenfes, that fhall compofe an achromatic eve-
tube ; but, avoiding each extreme, we fliall defcribe the
moft improved eye-tube for erecl pofition, upon the princi-
ples of a compound micro/cope, which inftrument this tube

really

TELESCOPE.

really is of itfelf, and lliat of jjie bcft conftruftion. We
have referved an account of the theory of the compound mi-
cro/cope until we arrived at this article, on purpofe to (hew
the intimate conneftion that it has with the refrafting tele-
fcopt', which, it will be feen prcfently, is alfo the cafe with
a compound refleHwg microfcope, that compofes a portion
of both the Gregorian and Caflegrainian tclefcopes. Firft,
let a b {Plate XXV.j^^f. 8.) be confidcred as an objeft to
be magnified for examination by a compound microfcope of
the fimpleft conftruftion ; let .5^/ be the fmall objcft-ffhfs,
of which i is the folar focas; then as the radiant objedl a b
is at a fmall diftance from the lens df, beyond its folnr or
principal focus, the incident rays coming from it will con-
verge flowly after paffing tiirough this lens, and confequently
the conjugate focus at the other fide of the lens will be re-
mote, as at A B, where an inverted image, A B, of the
objeft a b will be formed ; and if the objeft is brought
nearer to the folar focus j, the image A B will recede with
a linear amplification, for it always fubtends the fame angle
at e, the centre of the objeft-lens, that the objeft fubtends
at the fame point ; it is therefore obvious, that the linear
amplification of the image, compared with the length of the
objeft, will be as their refpeftive diftanccs from the objeft-

C e

lens, -aiz. as — ; and, confequently, the farther the miage

recedes, that is, the nearer the objeft is brought towards
the folar focus i, the more it will enlarge, which prin-
ciple is the bafis of both the magic lantern, and folar as well
as lucernal microfcope. Let us call the ratio of the objeft
to its image i : 5, as in our figure ; then if D F be a double
convex eye-gb.fs, placed fo that this image, A B, may be
in its principal focus, the rays of light coming from it, now
confidered as a radiant, will, by paffing through this ler.s,
become parallel, in which ftate they will enter the eye at I,
and after converging to a new focus on the retina, will there
make a pifture of the image of the objeft, but in a reverfed
pofition. The principal pencil of rays coming from d and
/ of the objcft-lens, will meet at C, the centre of the
image, and diverge till they come to the eye-lens D F,
where they are made parallel, and where they define the
fize of the eye-hole in the cap of the eye-piece; while
the angle of vifion will be G E H = B E A. In this
fituation, the image A B is magnified by the eye-glafs in-
verfcly as its focal diftance, that is, as many times as F C
is contained in ^ C ; for the vifual angle B E A, fub-
tended by B A, exceeds the angle B e A, fubtended by the
fame line B A ; and, confequently, its oppofite angle b e a,
fubtended by the objeft, is in the ratio of C ^ : C E ; and
alfo, when C E = r c, in the ratio of C e : c e ; and the
whole amplification wrill confequently be by compounding

C e'

the ratios = pc-= . But in this conftruftion the field

CE X ce

of view is fmall, though the power is great ; and the colo-
rific efFeft of the prifmatic aberrations, as well as the indif-
tinftnefs and diflorfion of the figure of the objeft, are fully
experienced. To do away thefe impediments to a pleafing
view of the objeft, a fecond lens was introduced into the
eye-piece, as M N, in ^^. n. Pto XXIV., the original
intention of which was, principally, to enlarge the vifible
area, or circle of vifion, which it did effeftually, while, at
the fame time, it diminithed the power, and in fome meafure
the fpherical aberration, though the latter advantage does
not feem to have been contemplated ; and in this ftate the
compound microfcope remains in the prefent ordinary con-
ftruftion, one of the three Icnfes, df, being the cbjeS-
Icns ; the fecond being the amplifier M N ; and the third the
Vol. XXXV.

eye-glafs G H. Now if we compare the compound celcf-
tial eye-piece in fig. 8, before difcribcd, at having llic fame
power with the fingle imaginary lens E E in the fame figure,
we fhall fee that the only difference in tlic two arrangements
is, that the image in Jig. 11. is between the Icnles, but in
Jig. 8. beyond them both. We have di-monftratcd the advan-
tages of the co:nl)ination in^"^. 8, and have (liewn that thofe
advantages will continue, if the image be formed between the
lenfes ; and alfo that making th." diftance between the glaffes
to exceed the focal diftance of the eye-glafs, will bring the
imaoje into this intermediate fituation, as is aftually the cafe
in the bcft achromatic telefcopes, with both the celeftial and
terreftrinl eye-pieces ; particularly when the wire, or cob-
web micrometer, is not ufed. If then we confider the ob-
jeft a b mfg. II. to be the fmall m primary image of a dif-
tant objeft, formed in the focus of the achromatic objeft-
glafs, the image A B will become the image of an image,
or fecondary image, in a contrary' pofition ; and this is the
one aftually viewed in the teiTcftrial tube of a teleCcope.
Let us in the next place conceive the terreftrial tube to have
only the three glalTes that compofe the arrangement of the
compound microfcope, and it is obvious that the image a b
will be rendered as diftinft, and as much enlarged in it, as
the objeft a b, of fimilar dimcnfions, would be in the like
compound microfcope. Thus have we a terreftrial eye-
piece with an arrangemer.t of three glaffes, which magnifies
greatly, and, fo far as the pair of eye-glaftes are concerned,
is achromatic ; but with refpeft to the objeft-lens <f/, (which
might indeed have been made achromatic by a balance of con-
trary difperffje powers, on Dollond's plan of an objeft -glafs
for a telefcope), there remained room for improvement ; and
this has been efFefted by the fame principle of divifiwn of
the aberrations, that contributed to the improvement of the
celeftial eye-pieces 'vith two lenfes.

Plate XXVIII. Jig. 15. (hews a combination of two
plano-convex lenfes, that perform the office of one double
convex lens in a compound microfcope, or terreftrial eye-
tube, in which the lens A is placed next the objeft tn a
microfcope, or image in a telefcope, with its plane face out-
wards, and the lens B is placed at a diftance from A, that
exceeds the focal length of either of the two lenfes, and
that is alfo greater than the diftance between the two eye-
glafles i but the proportions vary with circumftances. In
the patent micrometrical telefcope of Harris, in which the
eye-tube is 74 inches long, the locus of the eye-glafs is \i,
that of the field-glafs, or amplifier, li, and the diftance 2^ ;
while the lenfes of the eye-end are both menifci ; the outer-
moft lens having a focus of I,', and the inner lens one of 1.2
or i-r,, at a diftance of 2,^. This novel form of a terreftrial
eye-tube is found very good for a (hort telefcope, and anfwers
equally well for any variable length of focal diftance of the
patent objeft-giafles ; and when the telefcope has its focal
length invariable, the di.Terence between each fcparate pair
of lenfes may b? varied at pleafure, and then the power of
the whole combinntion will vary with the variations of this
diftance. In all other tclefcopes of the refrafting kind, the
two cye-glafFes, as well as the pair of lenfes at the remote
end of the terreftrial tube, near the primary image, are all
plano-convex, as we have fticwn ; and that combination
which fuits a (hort telefcope, will generally fuit a long one ;
but frequently that which is made purpofely for a long one,
will not fuit a ftiort one. A very good 12-inch terreftrial
eye-tube, for a day and night telefcope of two feet length,
that we lately examined, has the proportions in the eye-
tube fomcwhat different from telefcopes with larger power :
the eye-lens has a focus of 2 inches ; the amphfier 3i, at
a diftance of 3 inches; and the thiid and fourth lenfes are
L 1 rcfpcftivcly

TELESCOPE.

rcfpefti»ely 34. and 3, at a diftance of 4^ ; the fourth lens
being that next the primar)- image. The convex portion of
all the four Itnfes is turned to the centre of the tube in
all the terreftrial eye-pieces, except when Ramfden's, or the
poCtivc tye-piece, is fubftituted for the common or negative
one. Another good day eye-tube, of 9^ inches length, has the
firll, or eve-lens, i| ; tlie fecond, or amplifier, 2, at a diftance
of 2i ; the third 3, revcrfed as ufual ; and the fourth 2i, at a
diftance of 3 J. .When d, great power is wanted, the cele/lial
eye-piece does very well for the eye-end of the terreftrial
tube ; and it would be an advantage to every good telcfcope,
if they were fitted for this purpsfe by an adapter, fuch as
we fhall have occafion to dcfcribe in our fifth feftion ; for
then each telefcope would have a great variety of powers ;
and if the celeftial eye-pieces were fcrewed into a feparate
tube, inftead of a iirnplc adapter, the power might be
varied at pleafure, in any proportion, by altering the dif-
tance between the two feparate pairs of lenfes, as we fhall
hereafter Ihew has been done by the writer hereof, in his
micrometrical meafurement of diftances in the laft feftion
of this article.

But to refume the confideration of our compound mi-
crofcope [P/iile XXIV. Jig. II.), we now fee that the
lenfes C D and tif combine in fuch a way, that the objeft
a b, inftead of being a little out of the focus of the fingle
lens df, is a little way out of the compound focus of the
two ; and a circular piece of metal, perforated in the centre,
culled a diaphragm, is fixed in the tube, at the feparate
focus of the lens df, to exclude the coloured rays arifing
from the prifmatic difpcrfion of this lens ; and then the rays
of leaft difpcrfion, that pafs through this hole, enter the
lens C D near its centre, and, therefore, have afterwards
but little fpherical aberration ; on which account it is ob-
vious, that the image in the microfcope, or fecondary image
in the telefcope, will be diflinH and colourlefs ; and it is
Tery extraordinary, that while improvements are daily medi-
tated in every mechanic art, the addition of a fecond lens,
to diminifh the aberrations, is not yet made to the objeft-
end of the compound microfcope, though the fame thing
has been done in the terreftrial eye-tube of an achromatic
telefcope, which not only anfwers precifely the fame pur-
pofe, but is in faft itfelf an achromatic compound microfcope.

After having gone through our explanation of the prac-
tical forms of both the double and triple achromatic objeft-
glalTes, and alfo of the various achromatic eye-tubes, which
we have endeavoured to render intelligible to young opti-
cians, we fhall finifh this long feftion by giving a ftiort ac-
count t)f the different arrangements of the glaffes of an achro-
matic telefcope depending on thefe various forms, as we
have already done with refpeft to the old telefcopes, repre-
fented hyjigs. 1, 2, and 3. Plate XXV. Fig. 4. fhews the
arrangement of a double objeft-glafs in conjunction with a
■egative eye-piece of two lenfes, with the image between
them, the power of which is fimply the compound focal
length of the objeft-glafs A, divided by the compound focal
length of the eye-lenfes B and C. This arrangement is
that of the beft achromatic telefcope with a celeftial eye-
piece, and, being ihorter than the terreftrial telefcope, is
more conveniently managed. When the eye -piece has a flip
of graduated motber-ot-pearl, contrived by Cavallo, and
divided by Mr. Barton, at its diaphragm, it makes an ufeful
micrometer for meafuring fmall angles : and when this eye-
piece is taken out, the wire or cobweb micrometer may be
fcrewed in, inftead thereof ; and then, if the telefcope is of
a good fize, an angle witliin its reach may be meafured
with great accuracy. With this celeftial telefcope the ob-
jeA it inverted, and the light will be direAly as the area

of the aperture, and inverfely z& tlie magnifying power^
Fig. 5. gives the arrangement of the lenfes in a terreftrial
achromatic telefcope with a triple objeft-glafs ; in which A
is the objedt-glafs, B the eye-lens, and C the amphfier, or
field-lens of the eye-piece B C ; D is the third lens, that
diminifties the aberration of the fourth lens E, wliich, in a
compound microfcope, is called the objcft-lens. This is
coniidered the beft conftruftion of a terreftrial telefcope.
The power is equal to the compound focus of the objeft-
glafs, divided by the compound focus of the eye-piece B C,
when the quotient is niultiphed by the firft part of the mi-
crofcopic power of the lenfes E, D, which part will vary
with the diftance between the two pairs of lenfes. The
arrangement injfj . 6. diff^ers from that in Jig. 4. only in the
eye-piece, which has here the image beyond it. Alfo tlie
arrangement in Jig. 7. differs in like manner from that in
Jig. 5 ; and what we faid refpcfting power and light of thofe
lenfes, is equally true of thefe. The eye-pieces of the tele-
fcopes in Jigs. 6. and 7. are thofe of the wire and cobweb
micrometers.

3. Theory of cata-dioptric Telefcopes. — When the image of
a diftant objeft is formed in any telefcope entirely by re-
Jle8ed rays meeting at a focus, this image is properly
catoptric (from the Greek word xztottoov, fpeculum'); but
when it is formed partly by refleftion and partly by re-
fraftion of the rays, in coming to a focus, it is then cata-
dioptric, that is, both catoptric and dioptric ; and as the
image cannot be viewed without an eye-glais, all reflefting'
telefcopes are promifcuoufly called cata-dioptric.

Before we defcribe any of the different conftruftions of
a telefcope where refleftion is concerned, we will explain
the principles on which the catoptric theorems are founded,
and give a fmall table of thofe theorems that determine the
focus tinder different circumftances, as we have already
done with refpeft to the dioptric theorems ; at the fame
time referring our readers for farther information on this
fubjeft to the articles Catoptrics, Mirror, and Spe-
culum. In Plate XXVI. Jig. 8. AJlronomical Injlnments,
let the curve GE be confidered as a portion of a convex
fpeculum, fonned from the centre C, and C A or C E its
radius ; then fuppofe DA to be a ray of light proceeding
from D, the radiant point, in the axis of the fpeculum., and
falhng on the point A, from whence it is reflefted in the di-
reftion of the line A Z, tending in a contrary direftion to a
point F, its virtual focus, in the axis of the fpeculum be-
hind the vertex E : then put DE=</; CAorCE = /-;.
C F = z ; and FE = /-|-z = r= CE. Now if we
fuppofe the point A to be very near to E, a point in the
axis, the angles at D and C will become very fmall, and
will, confequently, have the fame proportion to each other
as their oppoiite fides A C and A D have ; but A C = A E,
and D A may be taken =: D E without any fenfible error ;
hence there will be this analogy, ADC:ACD :: CE :
DE :: r : </. Produce now CA to I, and I A will be
perpendicular to the face of the fpeculum in A, the point
of refleftion ; and, therefore, the angles DAI and lAi?
will be equal. But DAI =: ^AC, and I A? = CAF,
as being refpeftively oppofite, therefore ^AC is equal
CAF: alfo s' AC = ADC + ACD = r -y d, and
confequently the angle CAF =: r + d. Again, in the
triangle C F A, when the point A is near the axis at E, the
angles at A and C will be very fmall, and will have the
fame proportion to each other as their oppofite fides F C
and FA, and the angle FAC : FCA :: FC : FA;
but in this cafe F A may be efteemed =z F E, and therefore
we have FAC : FCA :: FC : FE :: z : /. But we
have feen that the angle at C is as D A or D E, tliat is, as

d, and

TELESCOPE.

d, and alfo the angle F A C as >■ + d; therefore we have as
/ : z :: d : d + r ; and by compoiition of ratios,/ -f 2 :
/:: zd + r : d ; hut f + z = r -.■ r : f :: zd + r : d;
then by multiplying the extremes and means together, we
have the equation dr = 2 r//" -f fr, and dividing by zd + r,

there refults the theorem — ; = f — EF. This may

zd ■\- r ■" '

be confidered as the fundamental theorem in catoptrics, from
which the focus may be determined in any fpeculum, con-
cave, convex, or even plain, whether the rays fall on it
diverging, parallel, or converging ; and from a due variation
of the fymbols and figns, as the cafe may require, we have
all the variety of tlieorems for finding the focus contained
in the fubjoined table.

Table for finding the Focus of Rays refledled by any
Speculum. «

Rays.

Convex.

Concave.

Diverging

2^+ r ^

zd-r ^

Parallel - -

T=/-

^=/-

Converging

-dr

dr

-zd + r"^'

-zd-r ■''

To illuftrate the utility of this little table, let it be re-
quired to determine the refpeftive foci of two fpecula,
both ground and polifhed, on tools of 30 inches radius, when
the radiant objeft is placed at 300 feet diftance, one fpe-
culum being convex, and the other concave ? In the firft
place, as the diftance is lefs than infinite, the rays will come
diverging from a luminous point ; and, therefore, with
refpeft to the convex fpeculum, we muft ufe the theorem

— = /, which m figures will Hand thus, — —

zd ■{■ r ■' ■ ^ 2X 300 -I- 2.5

E= -— — = 1.245 f^^*' °'' '4'94 inches for the required
602.5

foeus ; but for the concave fpeculum, the theorem —

zd — r

^ /"(or — f, becaufe the focus and centre of the curve are
on the fame fide of the fpeculum) will give us thefe numbers,

400 X 2.5 750 r

-^ i — = — i- — = 1.255 leet, or 15.00

2 X 300 - 2.5 597.5

inches for its focal diftance ; and in hke manner may the
proper focus be determined for any other radius and diftance,
however the rays may be circumftanced when they fall on
the fpeculum : whenever they come converging or diverging
from a firft to a fecond fpeculum, the focal point, real or
virtual, muft be confidered as the radiant, and its diftance
reckoued accordingly.

Thefe theorems, however, imply that the fpeculum is
already made, whereas in many praftical cafes, the focus is
firft afllimed, and the proper radius of convexity or con-
cavity is required, or, which is the fame in efieft, the radius
«f the tool is required that (hall be proper for forming the
requifite curve. For inftance, let it be required to form a
tool of fuch a radius, that an image of any very remote
objeft may be formed, by a fpeculum ground and polilhed

to its dimcnfions, at the didance from its rcflefting forface
of juft 18 inches ? In this cafe, the rays muft lie confidered
as parallel, becaufe the objeft is remote ; and, indeed, it i(
always for a remote objeft that the curve of a large fpe-
culum is formed ; confequently the theorems — = /, and

— r

—— = y, or — /, will be fuitablc for the required purpofe,

in both which 2/ = /• ; therefore 18 x 2 = 36 will be
the proper radius of either the convexity or concavity of
the tools to bo ufed. If the ray had been diverging, and
the fucui ajirmallvc, or behind the fpeculum, for a convex
fpeculum the theorem arifiiig from transformation would

have been . = r ; and for a concave — .

d-f f-d

in the cafe of a negative focus, or focus before the fpeculum,

, = r : but

the former would have been
zdf

zdf

'i+f

= r, and the Utter

-—, -J. = r. In like manner, the diftance may be deter-
mined from the radius and proper focus being given ; for,
fuppofing the focus affirmative, with a convex fpeculum, the

transformed theorem for diverging rays will be — — =: d,

r- 2/

and with a concave

fr

z/+ r
negative, the former will be

= d: but when the focus i«

i— . = d, and the latter

r + 2/

2/-

d. Hence, when any two of the terms/, r, and

</are given, the third may be readily determined.

Thus, in the cafe of a convex fpeculum with diverging

/; when

rays,

d =

if we pat d
4- r, then

we ftiall have . —
3

and when d =

i r, thci)

when d

then —
5

/;

r

/: from which refults we

fee, that the points D and F both approach the fpeculum
in a regular manner, till at laft they will coincide at iti
vertex ; and the fame will be the cafe with a concave fpe-
culum, when the rays are converging, except that the focut
is negative, or on the fame fide with the centre of convexity.
Alfo, when a convex fpeculum is ufed with converging rays,
or a concave with diverging, when z d := r, f will be in-
finite ; or, which is the fame thing, the rays will be reflefted
parallel, as is the cafe in reflefting lamps ; and, generally
fpeaking, the focus of any concave or convex IpecuTum may
be made to fall in a given point, accordingly as the radiant
objeft is made to approach to or recede from its principal
focus with parallel rays ; and wlierever the focus is made to
fall, there an image is formed of the objeft by refleftion, ii^
the fame wonderful manner as we have had occafion to men-
tion before, when fpeaking of its formation by refraflion.
Likewife the connexion between D, the radiant point, and
F, the focus, is fo intimate, that they may at any time
change places without error ; that is, when D is the radiant,
F will be the focus ; but if F is taken as the radiant, thea
D will be the proper focus in all cafes.

In order to (hew what proportion the length of an image,

formed in the focus of reflefted rays, will bear to tlie length

LI 2 of

TELESCOPE.

of the objeft which it repref«its, let DE (fig. 9.) be a
portion of a convex fpeculura, C its sentre, V the vertex,
O B an objeft, and I its image ; and let ft be required to
find tlie proportion that the objeft, or line B O, bears to
the image, or line 1 M. From the centre C, let the per-
pendicukr C A fall on the objeft or radiant ; and from its
extreme points O, B, draw O C and B C, to meet the fpe-
culum in the jtoints D and E ; and do the fame in Jii;. 10,
where the curve D E reprofents a concave fpeculum : then
the line A V will be the axis, in fome part of which the
rays proceedine from the points O and B will meet, and the
points of intericftion will be the foci refpeftively. From O,
let a ray O V pafs to the vertex of the fpeculum, fo as to
make the /_ F V A = /I O V A, then will V F be the rc-
flefted ray, which tending to the point I, in the axis CO,
(hall there form the image of the point O of the radiant.
In Lke nranncr, the ray B V will be reflefted in the direc-
tion V G, and interfefting the axis C B in M, will there
depift the point B of the faid radiant ; and thus all the in-
termediate points lying between O and B will be reprefejited
between I and M, and a complete image of O B will be
formed at I M. If we fuppofe the objeft at a great dif-
tance, and confequently fmall, the arc E D of the fpe-
culum will be ver)' minute, and not fenfibly different from a
right line, and confequently will be parallel to the radiant
B O, becaufe C A is perpendicular to both B O and E D.
Alfo, fmce the diftances O D, A V, and B E, are very
nearly equal, from their contiguity, it is plain that the focal
diftances D I, V a, and E M, will alfo be nearly equal ;
and, therefore, the image I M will be very nearly a right
line, and parallel to the radiant O B, as well as perpendi-
cular to C A.

Now from the nature of refleftion, we have ^ B V A =;
Z.AVG= A«VM; therefore, ^OVA + BVA
= Z.aVl + aVM; namely, ^ O V B == I V M ; f o
that the radiant, or objeft B O, and its image I M, are feen
under the fame angle from the vertex of the fpeculum. But
Ihe triangles A V O and a V I are fimilar, for the zL O V A
^= aV 1, and the angles at A and a are both right angles ;
therefore, VA:Va :: AO:aI. For the fame reafon,
VA:Va::AB:aM; andVA: Va::OA + AB:
la + aM :: OB : IM; or, in words, " the diftance of
the objeft is to the diftance of its image, from its vertex V,
as the length of the objeft is to the length of the image."

From the analogy here deduced, it is eafy to form theo-
rems, that ftiall determine either d, f, or the proportion
O : I, when O is the length of the objeft and I of the
image, when the two others are given. For we have given

O : I :: d : f, and confequently — = f; but our funda-
mental theorem was — = y, confequently -pr- =

zd + r

o

2</ +

-, and fo 2 rf I -f I r = /• O : and 2 dl — O r —

r

i r ; confequently for a convex fpeculum, the theorem will

Or-Ir ,

"^ ~T = "; and for a concave, where r is negative,

. ... , If -Or

It will be = — = J, But if the focus be required

2I

to be negative in a convex, the theorem will be

Or-li

= d ; and in a concave, where r and / arc both negative, it

•ill be

Or-Hr
2I

= .d.

If r be required

in a convex

fpeculxun, when d and O
ild

and

in a concave

I are given, the theorem will be
2ld

1-6

2ld

= r ; but if the

O + I

=: r ; and the fecond

O- 1

focus is required to be negative, the firft will be
2ld

Laftly, when J and r are given, to find O : I, we fhall
have this analogy for a convex Ipeculum O : I :: 2 d -{- r : r ;
and for a concave, O : I :: r — 2 d : r. But if the focus
be negative, for a convex, it will beO : I :: — 2d — r : r;
and for a concave, O : 1 :: 2 d — r : r ; {o that, as we have
faid, when anv two of the three terms are given, the other
may be determined by calculation. By way of exemplifica-
tion, let it be required to find the radius of a concave fpe-
culum, that ftiall n;ake the image of an objeft, placed at
100 feet, as I : 60, in front of the fpeculum. Now / being
in this cafe negative, we have the theorem, as before fpe-

... 2IJ .. 2XIX 100 200

ciiied, ^ ^ = r, or, in figures.

O + I

3.28 =:= r, nearly ; or if r be given.

60+1 61

and d required, the

theorem

Or + Ir

2I

= d will give

60 X 3.28 + I X 3.28

2x1

200.08

= 100.04 = ^; sf"^ 'f 3-28 had been the

exaS radius, the diftance would have come out exaftly 100.
If the image and objeft had been given equal, they would
both have fallen exaftly at the centre of concavity of the
mirror ; which coincidence affords a ready method of deter-
mining the radius of concavity of ?ny fpeculum, by means
of a luminous point afed as an objeft, and brought fo that
its image will exaftly coincide with it. It is hardly necef-
fary to add here, that a concave fpeculum forms an inverted
and magnified image ; and that a convex one makes it eredt,
and at the fame time diminifhes it.

We have before fhewn how the aberration of the rays of
light may be calculated, when reflefted to a focus by a fpe-
culura of a fpherical figure, when the rays are parallel be-
fore they fuffer refleftion ; and it has been demonftrated, that
for fuch rays a parabolic curve is the beft fuited for correft-
ing fuch aberration, particularly when the image is formed
by only one reflefting furface ; but when there is a fecond
or fmall fpeculum, either concave or convex, employed in
forming a fecondary image, or in affifting to form the pri-
mary one, a parabolic curve will not be the beft for correft-
ing the aberration of the rays ; becaufe each fpeculum will
have its own aberration ; and the praftical opticiaTa can em-
ploy his ikill in producing fuitable fpecula for counterafting
each other's errors, with refpeft to the united effeft of their
feparate aberrations, better than the calculating theorift can
pretend to direft ; for the moment he fcrews his eye-tube
alternately out and in, beyond and ftiort of diftinft vifion,
he knows the nature of the curves of his fpecula, and whe-
ther the indiftinftnefs jo-ifing from aberration is the confe-
quence of too much or too little curvature at the vertex of the
large fpecnlum, and can make the final alteration accordingly .
This praftical dexterity, arifing out of experience, fuper-
fedes the neceffity of tedious mathematical calculations,
where fome part of the data rauft neceflarily be affumed ;
and it is much to be wifned, that praftical men, v/ho have

excelled

TELESCOPE.

excelled in this particular, and in other praftical niceties,
would initiate their fucceflbrs in the fccrets that promoted
their excellence, that pofterity may benefit from their fuc-
cefsful labours ; which could not have been Mr. Short's
wifli, when he deliberately provided for the deftruftion of
his beil tools, after he no longer wanted them.

The circumftances that led to the confti-uftion of a rc-
flefting telefcope did not arife out of chance, as is fuppofed
to have been the cafe with tlie dioptric, but out of the diffi-
culty of avoiding the indiJlinBncfs produced by aberrations
of both kinds ; and the tirft arrangement that would pro-
bably occur, would be that of a fpeculum oppofed to the
eye of the obferver, whofe head in that cafe would intercept
tlie incident rays, and prevent their falling on tiie fpeculum,
unkfs it were made of an unmanageable diameter. To avoid
this inconvenience, Gregory, who was the firft to undertake
the arduous taflc of a new conftruftion, devifed the ex-
pedient of opening a hole in the centre of tlie large fpecu-
lum, fufficiently large to adinit of tlie rays that came re-
flefted a fecond time from a fmaller fpeculum without a
central perforation : it would naturally occur to him, that
if this fecond fpeculum was not larger in diameter than the
central hole of the large fpeculum, no incident light would
be intercepted by it, when the rays came parallel, but what
would have pafled through the central hole of the fpeculum.
This confideration brought the eye to the fame end of the
tube in which the large fpeculum was placed, and thus freed
the aperture from all obftacles to the free admiffion of light ;
but whether the fmall fpeculum at firft tried was a plain one,
or concave, is not of importance to afcertain ; it is fufficient
for our purpofe to know, that a concave one was ultimately
adopted, and probably from the property which it poflefles
of varying the magnifying power to a confiderable extent.

We have already faid that Gregory's conftruAion of the
reflefting telefcope is the moll ancient, and indeed continues
to be the moft common, even at this time, on account of
the convenience attending its ufe, and therefore we will be-
gin with an explanation of its theory. PiauXXVll.Jig. i.
yljlronomical Iajlrur>icnts, reprefents a fcftion of this mftru-
ment as it was originally made, ixiAjig. 2. is a reprefentation
agreeably to its improved modern conftruAion; in both which
we (hall ufe the ffame letters of reference to the correfponding
parts. A B C D, in each figure, denote the tube of wood
or brafs in which tvfo concave fpecula are contained ; the
large one, B D, is perforated at the centre, and placed con-
tiguous to the interior end of the tube, but in luch a way
as to have a little play when preffed by a circular fpring be-
hind it ; E F is the fmall fpeculum, which is sf (hotter radius
than the fpeculum B D, and has its centre placed exaftly in
the centre of the tube oppofite the central aperture in the
large fpeculum, and is fo adjufted by the fcrews behind it,
that the image of the large fpeculum forms a concentric
circle on its reflefting furface, when viewed by an eye fitu-
ated in the central hole of the large fpeculum. In this in-
ftrument, as in the refradting telefcope, it will be moft con-
venient to defcribe firft the formation of the primary image
of a diftant objeft in the body of the tube, and then the
microfcopic means applied for nrr;dering this image vifible in
an apparently magnified ftate ; for in truth there is aftually
a compound refleHlng micro/cope made ufe of as a confti-
tuent part of this inftrument, in hke manner as the terref-
trial tube of a refrafting telefcope of the beft achromatic
conftruftion, is in itfelf a compound refratilng micro/cope.
In the firft place, agreeably to the laws of catoptrics, which
we have explained, if we confider a b and c d two rays of
light coming from the centre of a diftant arrow in a ftate of
tiivergence approaching to parallelifm, and impinging on the

large fpeculum at the points k and d near the remote edges
of the fpeculum, and at equal diftances from Us axis, they
will be refleftcd inwardly fo as to meet at the point e, in the
common axis of both the fpecula, and will form the image
of the central point of the arrow ; and in hke manner, any
number of rays proceeding from the oppoGte ends of the
faid arrow may be conceived to fall on the fpeculum, and to
be reflcaed to the points h and i, and to all the int.rnicdialc
pomts, fo as to form a perfect image hei in an inverted po-
fition, becaufo the r.iys which enter the tube from the right-
hand end of the arrow, will after refledion crofs the axis,
and form the left-hand end of the image, and -vice verfd.
When an image is thus formed, if it could be viewed, under
fufficiently favourable circumftances, by an eye placed in
the vertex or central aperture of the large fpeculum, it
would fubtend the fame angle as the objea itfell fecn from
the fame fituation, as we have already demonftraled ; and
therefore the length of the image will bear the fame propor-
tion to the length of the objed which it reprefents, as its
diftance from tlie eye, or vertex, is to that of the objea ;
fo that the longer the radius of the fpeculum which forms
the image, the more diftant, and confequently the longer
will this image be, as compared with the objeft ; and lor
the fame realon, the nearer the objeft, the longer will its
image be, until the fituation is at the centre of concavity of
tlie fpeculum, where the objeft and image will coincide, and
appear of like magnitude, but in contrary pofitions.

This formation of the primary image being underftood,
we muft in the next place confider it as a real microfcopic
objeft, placed fomewhcre between the face of the large
fpeculum, and its centre of concavity, which fituation will
always depend on the diftance of the real objeft itfelf, or,
which is tile fame thing, on the degree of divergence of the
incident rays coming from the objeft. Now if the fmall
fpecuUm were fo placed as to have this primaiy image, or
microfcopic objeft, in its folar focal point, the rays coming
from it would be reflefted towards the large fpeculum in a
parallel ftate ; and palling through the central opening of the
large fpeculum, would never converge fo as to form a
fecondary image, in which cafe the conjugate focus would
be faid to be infinite : and if the faid primary image were
nearer to the fmall fpeculum than its folar focus, the re-
flefted rays would diverge fo as not to reach the central
hole of the large fpeculum at all ; but if the diftance of the
primary image h e i exceeds the folar focus of the fmall
fpeculum E F, which is at the point /, then the reflefted
rays coming from the primary image will converge to a
conjugate focus fomewhere in the axis, and form ajeconjary
image, the magnitude of which will incrcafe with its diftance
from the primary image, which we now confider as a real
microfcopic objeft. The place where this fecondary image
will fall, will depend on the diftance of the primary image
from the folar focus of the fmall fpeculum; and a fmall
change of this diftance will caufe a great correfponding
change in the place of the fecondary image, or conjugate
focus ; fo that an adjuftment for a fmall forward and back-
ward motion of the fmall fpeculum, by means of a fcrew
at the end of a long rod placed parallel to the tube, and
reaching to the eye-end, will fufficc for regulating the place
where the fecondary image ftiall moft conveniently fall to
be viewed by an eye-glafs. The fecondary image has its
pofition reverfed, as it regards the primary one, and is there-
fore in the fame pofition as the objeft itfelf, or what is
ufually called enS, in oppofition to inxerud. This fecondary
image was originaDy made to fall within the tube, as at k I,
m the focus of the eye-glafs G H, through which it may
be viewed by a fmall hole at I, where the vifual angle

GIH

TELESCOPE.

G I H is now confidfrably enlarged. In order to explain
the theory of this reflcding compound microfcopc, eom-
pofcd of the fmall fpeculnm E F, and eye-glafs G H, more
particularly, which we purpofely omitted to do under the
term Microscope, let us fuppofe a ray of light proceeding
from the end h of the microfcopic objeft, or primary' image
h e i, and falling on the central part of the fmall fpecalum
at jf, it will return reflefked from this point, fothat the angle
of refledion on the other fide of the axis or line g e, will be
equal to the angle of incidence on this fide, and will there-
fore return in the line g e I, to the place of the conjugate
focu^, where the point h will be depitled at /: alfo a ray
coming from the point t of the fame primary image, and
falling on the point g, will be raflefted in a fimilar manner
along the line g h i, and will form the point ;', at /', in the
•fecondary image, which we have reprefented by a dotted
line. Now as the primary and fecondary images are fub-
tended by the fame angle hgi, or i g /, at the vertex^ of the
fmall fpecuUim, agreeably to the laws of cstoptrics, it is
cvideait that the linear magnitudes of thefe two images will
be direftly as their refpeclive diftances from g, the vertex of
the fmall fpeculum ; therefore, as often as the diftanee g h
is contained in the diftance g i, er the diftance g i in the
diftance^/; fo often will the length of the fecondary image
k /, exceed the length of the primary one b I. But this
fecondary' image i t is viewed tlirough the eye-glafs G H,
under the vifual angle G I H, and is faid to be again
magnified thereby : let us next fee what is the amount of
this amplification ; we have already faid that an eye at the
vertex g of the fmall fpeculum, would view both the primary
and fecondary images under the fame vifual angle hgi or
kg I; but by an eye at I, the vifual angle is G I H ^
i K /, becaufe / K is parallel to H I, and i K to G I ; and
i / is the common fubtenfe of both angles ; confequently, as
the diftance L K, or focus of the eye-glafs G H, is to the
diftance of L g, or diftance of the fmall fpeculum from the
fecondary image; fo Js the apparent magnitude of the
fecondary image, or vifual angle to the eye at g, to the fame
with the eye at I ; and if the diftance ^ L be that at which
an objeft may be beft feen by the naked eye, the whole

gk
power of magnifying of fuch microfcope will be = ^—: x

gL,

j=-|r, provided that f> i be confidered as a real objeft under

microfcopic obfervation. But in a telefcope, the fize of h i
has a reference to the diftance of the objeft which it repre-
fents, and this circumftance muft be taken into confideration
in eftimating the power of the Gregorian telefcope. When
the eye is placed at o, the vertex of the large fpeculum, we
have faid, that the objeft and its primary image are feen
Hjider the fame vifual angle ; therefore, wherever the primary
image may fall in the line of the axis, the angle hoi will be
to the angle G I H, or kK I, as the objeft feen by the
naked eye is to its fecondary image, as feen through the
eye-glafs, and confequently the latter, divided by the former,
will give the power. But the vifual angles h o / and it K L

are to each other in the compound ratio of — x — —,

eg L K
which formula, exprefl"ed in meafured diftances, will be more
convenient for afcertaining the whole power of a Gregorian
telefcope, than the ratio of the vifual angles, which would
require previous calculation. For inftance, let o t, the dif-
tance of the primary image from the great fpeculum, be
given — 24 inches ; and eg, the diftance of the fame from the
fmall fpeculum, be = 3,3 ; alfo let L j-, the diftance of the
9

thing,

fecondary image from the fmall fpeculum, be = 25. y, and
I- K, the focus of the eye-glafs, be = 2.3 ; then we fhall

have, agreeably to our formula, — - x -— , or, which i« the

24 X 25.5 612 n ^ r , r

=^-^ = = 80.0 tor the power ot

Vi X 2-3 7-59
fuch a telefcope, when direfted to an objeft at fuch a dif-
tance as (hall make the primary image fall as we have taken
it. For objefts very near, the focus of the large fpeculum
will be long, and confequently the primary image will
.ipproach the Imall fpeculum as the diftance decreafes ; for
which rcafon, the magnifying power will increafe with
the diminution of diftance, and vice •uerfd ; fo that
the power with parallel rays, or when the telefcope is ufed
for celeftial purpofes, will be the fnialleil polTlble, and yet
this is what is ufually called the power of the telefcope,
which circumftance fhews the impropriety of taking the
power of a large telefcope from a meafure of a near terref-
trial diftance, which mode has been praftifed by eminent
aftronomers, and recommended by men of fcience. If, how-
ever, a correftion is applied for the want of parallelifm in the
incident rays, as we fhall liave occafion to do prefently, then
the power may be as accurately obtained at a ftiort as at a long
diftance. In the old conftruftion, which our Jig. i. repre-
fents, the piece of bent brafs at r, which fupports the fmall
fpeculum, is afted on by the long rod /C, that has a milled
nut at /, and a fcrew cut on the end C, that draws the pro-
jefting part N, of the piece c, along a (lit made in the tube,
while a contrivance in the cock M prevents the rod M N
from advancing or receding as the rod revolves. Hence the
eye-glafs G H remains fixed, and the adjuftment for diftinft
vifion is made by the rod M N moving the fmall fpeculum to
its proper diftance from the primary image h i ; and in this
way the fecondary image may be made to reft in any given
fituation beyond or (hort of the point L, fo that various eye.
glalTes may be ufed with the fame fpecula in fuccelTion ; or
different fmall fpecula may be ufed with the fame large one,
from which changes a variety of powers may be had with
fixed eye-glaflfes ; but if the eye-glaffes be inferted into a
fmaller fliding tube, there will be a third method of varying
the power, by bringing the fecondary image into the Aiding
tube out of the body of the large tube, fo as to increafe the
diftance L g, which is one of the faftors of the dividend in
our formula. Thus, whatever may be the arrangement of
the fpecula, eye-glafs, and diftance of the primary image, when
any three out of the four terms of the formula are given,
together with the whole power, the fourth may always be
had by a fimple calculation, which is a matter of great coHt
venience to the maker. If, for example, we take the power
80.6 = P, and the radius of curvature of the large fpeculum
=: 48 inches, in which cafe the primary image with parallel

incident rays will fall at — = 24 ; and let L ^ and eg be
refpeftively 25.5 and 3.3, to find the focus of the eye-glafs

that fhall produce fuch power ; we fhall have

24 X 25.5

3.3 X 80.6

z= 2.3 for the focus of the eye-glafs ; or for the diftance
eg of the primary image from the fmall fpeculum, when ihq

eye-glafs is given, we fhould have — -i-^ — 3.^, asbe-

' " ^ 2.3 X 80.6 ^ ^

fore. But it was foon found, that a fingle eye-glafs not
only produces fringes of colour near its edges, arifing from
the prifmatic abeiration of the rays coming from the fecond-
ary

TELESCOPE.

ary image, now confidered as a real objeft, but that the field
of view is thereby circumfcribod into a fmall area. For
thete reafons,the Huygonian eye-piece,already explained, was
fuhftitutcd for the fiiigie cye-glafs, whicli fubllitution left
little more to be done, in the way of the improvement of the
Gregorian telefeope, except wliat related to the conilrudion
ot the fpecula, which have now been brought nearly to a
Hate of perfection, as we have explained, at fome length,
under our article Speculum. We have introduced Jig. 2.
for the purpofe of explaining more clearly, than we could by
a mere verbal defcription, the plan of the Gregorian tele-
feope in its mod improved Hate, in which, we repeat, the
fame letters indicate the fame parts as in ^^. i. In tliis
figure we have made the pencils of rays a b and cd to confill
each of three lines, for the purpofe of flicwing how the image
is formed at the jjoints of convergence after refleftion, and
alfo how the inverfion of the image is produced by the erod-
ing of the pencils before they converge to a point at each
end of the image. It may alfo be feen how the rays pafs
through the interior eye-glafs, before they form the fecondary
image between the two glaffes, as in the achromatic altrono-
mical telelcope, thereby conftituting this image a cata-dioptric
one, which before was a catoptric one, according to our defi-
nition. The Huygenian eye-piece is peculiarly adapted for the
Gregorian telefeope ; and when the fpecula have their curves
fo adapted as to counteratt each other's aberrations, as we
before recommended, and are alfo well poliflied, as well as of
fuitable metal, a very high power may be applied, and the
light by refleftion will be to that by refraftion alone nearly
as 5 ; 8, where the apertures are equal ; but as a refleftor is
capable of having a much greater aperture than any refratior
that can be conflrufted, it will have a proportional advan-
tage in the eflential quality of illumination combined with
power, on which union its excellence depends. It will not
be neeelFary to repeat here what we have faid above rcfpeft-
ing the manner of determining a fmgle eye-glafs, equal in
power to the combined eye-glafles in the Huygenian eye-
tube ; but it may be proper to mention here, that fuch a
glafs, when determined, mud be fubftituted for the com-
pound eye-piece, in computing the power of the telefeope
according to our preceding direftions. The diaphragm
that precludes the ftraggliug and extraneous rays from
coming to the eye is put where the fecondary image is
formed, and the aperture at the eye is obliged to be fmall in
this conftruftion of a telefeope, to prevent any other light
being admitted into the eye than what is reflefted from the
fmall fpeculum, and is necefTary for the formation of the
fecondary image. When the diameter of the fmall fpeculum,
and alfo the exaft fituation of the primary image, are known,
the aperture at the eye, that (hall admit the principal pencil,
may be exaftly determined by the fubjoined analogy ; ii/z.
as the dillance of the fmall mirror from the fecondary image,
is to the focal length of the nciu-eft: eye-glafs ; fo is the dia-
meter of the fmall fpeculum, to the necelTary aperture at the
eye. And to find the proper diameter of the fmall fpecu-
lum, or central aperture of the large one, the proportion
will be, as the diftance of the primary image from the large
fpeculum, is to its diftance from the fmall one, with incident
parallel rays ; fo is the diameter of the large fpeculum, to the
diameter of the fmall one, or of its ovin central aperture ;
and Vi'hen this proportion is preferved, all the n fletted light
will enter the fmall tube that contains the eye-glalfes, and
alfo the extraneous light not falhng on the larg- fpeculum,
if any, will be excluded. Lattly, (hould the field of view be
required to be equal to a given vifual angle, inch as that
fubtended by the diameter of the fun, this will depend on
the pDiuer of the inllrument, which for this purpofe mull be

limited, as in the following example : let a reflcAing Gre-
gorian telefeope of four inches diameter of the large fpeculum,
and 17.5 inches focus, witii a hole in the centre i.i diameter,
(which lii confidered in praflice a good proportion,) be
required to have a field of view ju(l 32', when the focus of
the eye-glafs is two Inches ? The thing required is, tlut the
enlarged fecondary image of the fun (liould juil fill the aper-
ture in the centre of the large fpeculum. The fi/.e of the
primary image of the fun depends on the focal length of tlic
large mirror, and mud firil be found : it has been afcertained
tliat, in the focus of a fpeculum (or lens) of fix inches focal
length, the image of the fun is .05586 diameter, when he
meafures 32'; therefore, as it will be proportionably more in
a longer focus, fay as 6 : .05586 :: 1 7.5 : .1629 ; alfo, ai
often as this image .1629 is contained in i.i, the diameter
of the hole in the large fpeculum, which quotient is = 6.75^
lo much docs the fmall fpeculum magnify the primiry
image, in converting it into a fecondary one of 1 . 1 diameter.
Again, if we divide the focus of tlie great fpeculum 17.5,
by 6.75 — I, we have 3.04, the diftance of the primary
image from the fmall fpeculum, which is fomewhat more
than its folar focus ; and alfo if we divide 4, the diameter of
the large fpeculuni, by the fame (6.75 — i), wo (hall have
.695 =: the diameter of the fun's image on the face of the
fmall metal, while the fecondary image will juft cover the
hole of the large fpeculum, as required. Now, laftly, to
find what is the power of the telefeope under thofe limit-
ations, we have 17.5 x 6.75 = 118 for the hrft part of the

, 118 , , ,

power ; then - — = 59 = the whole power, when 2 is the

focus of the fingle eye-glafs. ■ If the length of the focus of
tlie principal fpeculum were iiicreafed to 30 inches, or even
to 30 feet, while the aperture remains as before, no advan-
tage would be gained in this conftnidion from fuch length ;
for in the cafe of 30 inches focus, the primary image would
be .2793, and the power of the fmall fpeculum only 3.93

f ], while the diftance of the primary image from the

fmall fpeculum would be 10.24 ! l'"" diameter of the image
on the face of the fmall fpeculum 1.36 ; and the magnifying

power i-^ = 59, as before. There would, indeed, be

2

this difadvantage, that, as the fmall fpeculum has an increafed
radius here, its diameter will necelfarily be fo much aug-
mented, as to intercept feveral of the beft rays of light,
which are thofe that fall near the centre. The opinion, con-
fequently, that a Gregorian telefeope will be improved by
having a long focus of the great fpeculum, with the fame
aperture, is erroneous. When two refledling tclefcopes per-
form alike, as to light and diftinftncfs, the fquare fquare roots
of the diameters of the fpecula muft be as the cubes of their
foci refpeflivcly. There can always be more power got by
the fmall fpeculum and eye-glafs, in even a (hort tube, than
the aperture will bear.

The theory of Caflegrain's telefeope is very fimilar to that
of the Gregorian, the principal difference being that, in
Caflegrain's, the fmall fpeculum is convex inftead of con-
cave. When the radii ot the two fpecula and the eye-piece
are rcfpecSively the fame in each conftruftion, tlie powtn
will he the faine, though the apparent pofilion of the laft
image, which we have (hewn to be ered in the Gregorian,
is inverted in the Caftcgrainian conftrudtion ; for on exa-
mining Jig. 3, which explains the courfe of the rays in
Caflegrain's telefeope, it will be feen that the incidei.t rays
ab and cd, after being refieiled from the large fpeculum^

arc

TELESCOPE.

are prevented from coming to a point at the virtual image
hi, behind tlie fmall ipeculum, in confcquencc of its mter-
pofition, but are again rtflcftcd towards the eye m a ftate of
lefs rapid convergence, tiU, falling on the lens G H, they are
rcfraaed to a focus at L, and form the real image K/,
which may be coniidercd as the primary image, and is,
therefore, not in the fame pofition as the fecondary image,
which is formed in tlic Gregorian tclefcopc after the rays
have crojfd each other. When the rays fall on the large
fpeculum, they are refleaed in a ftate of convergence to-
wards the fmall fpeculum, becaufc coming from a diftant
objea ; and they enter the tube either parallel or diverging,
accordingly as the objeft is more or Icfs diftant ; but they
fall on tiie fmall fpeculum converging, fo as not to become
quite parallel after the fecond refleftion, but flowly con-
verging ; and the quantity of convergence will depend on
the diftauce of the virtual, or what may be called imagmary
focus, or image h i, from the fmall fpeculum E F, which is
here between/, the folar focus, and the convex fpeculum ;
whereas in the Gregorian inftrumcnt, the folar focus / is
between the concave fpeculum and image hi. In both

conftruftions, — X v-^ is the meafure of the power;
eg L K.

and it is evident that the part .p-^ is the fame in both ;

but it is not equally clear that — is the fame, or in the

fame ratio in both. The diftance og between the two fpe-
cula is lefs in CafTegrain'e inftrument than in the Gregorian,
by twice the folar focus of the fmall fpeculum, and by fo
much may the principal tube be (hotter ; therefore, it re-
mams to be proved that ge is to _g-o in one telefcope as ^e
is to go in the other, though differently pofited. In order
to prove this analogy, let HD {Plats XXVl. jig. ll.)
be a concave fpeculum, and E C a convex one, both de-
fcribed with the fame radius C D, and on the common axis
BCD; and let the point N interfeft the radius, fo as to
become the folar focus of each fpeculum, one really, and
the other virtually. Let F be a radiant point, from which
the ray F H is incident on the concave mirror at the point
H, OP to which the ray K E incident on the convex fpe-
culum is tending : then both thefe rays will be reflefted
from their refpeftivc fpecula to the fame point B in the
axis, and will pafs in the fame line E B. Again, let C F
be an objea, and the image thereof ah, formed by the con-
cave, will be equal to the image A B made by the convex.
This may be proved from our preceding theorems for con-
vex and concave fpecula refpeftively, w'c. — -7 ^ /,

J, when all the figns are changed.

and

-dr

dr

2 d— r r — 2d

For as // = F C, C 3 :=y"in the convex ; fo in the concave,
let F D =: t , and D B i:^ (f ; and then we have in the
former d : f :: 2 d -\^ r : r, and in the latter J : (p :: r —
la : r. But J = (/ -t- r, therefore 2« ^= 2 d -\- 2r, whence
r — 2l=-2d-rr; confequently d : f :: I : <p, that is,
C F : C B :: D F : D B ; alfo the objea and image are to
each other in the fame ratio with each fpeculum ; and, there-
fore, fince the objeft is the fame in both, the image will be
the fame alfo, or AB=:ai, which was to be proved.
After having given this demonftration, it will be unneceffary
to fhew how the powers may be varied at pleafure, agree-
ably to the variation of the radii of the fpecula and lenfes
that compofe the eye-piece, all which we have juft explained
4

with regard to the Gregorian arrangemeot. As the inftru-
ment which is the fubjea of our prefent confideration in-
verts the objetts to which it is direfted, it is feldom ufed
but in aftronomical obfervations, for which it is peculiarly
adapted, feeing that it is capable of having greater power,
with the fame length of tube, than any other telefcope that
has been yet invented ; though with a terreftrial eye-piece, it
might be ufed for the examination of terreftrial objeas.
While we are writing our prefent article, we have before us
a Caffegrainian telefcope by TuUcy, of 36 inches of tube,
and 6i aperture, that will fnnvi Saturn or Jupiter, with
their moons very well defined, with a pov/er of 440 ; and
that will diftinaiy define the words of a page in this Cyclo-
pxdia, at the diftance of 210 yards with a power of 295.

The maker of this inftrument has conftruaed two pairs
of telefcopes, one of each pair a Gregorian, and the other
a Caffegrainian, fo as to match each other exaftly in dimen-
fions, powers, and quality of the metals and glals, in order
to afcertain if one conftruaion has any advantage over the
other in quantity of light, under exaaiy the fame circum-
ftances ; and though feveral fcientific gentlemen, befides the
author of this article, have examined and compared diflferent
objeas as feen fucceffively by eacli of the two telefcopes
of both pairs, yet not the leaft difterence can be difcerned
by any obferver. When the laft glimmering of day-light
remained, the vanilhing objea ceaied to be vifible with
each like telefcope at the fame time, as nearly as could be
afcertained, and that v.'ith both pairs, though they arc
conftruaed with dimenfions greatly different the one pair
from the other, and vary confequently in their powers and
quantity of light. This experiment originated out of captain
Kater's paper on this fubjecl, which was publifhed in the
Philofophical Tranfaaions of London, in the year 1813 ;
and we have no hefitation in faying that the quantity of illu-
mination is the fame in both tonftruftions, when the dimen-
fions and quahties of the conftituent parts are perfeaiy fimilar.
Whatever may be the difperfion of light at the point of
croffing of the rays, in the Gregorian conftruaion, when
the difperfed rays are returned from the fecond fpeculum,
they are colleaed again, it ftiould feem, 'without lojs, cer-
tainly TOlhcut apparent diminution of light. This con-
viaion we put on record, not out of a fpirit of eontroverfy,
but from a love of truth.

The firft account that w?s publiftied of the French re-
fleaing telefcope v/as in the fifth volume of the Philofophical
Tranfaaions of London, in the month of May, in the year
1672, almoft immediately after the account of fir Ifaac
Newton's conftruaion, which was gaven in the fame volume;
and a claim was fet up by Caffegrain as to the priority of
his contrivance, which, however, was not fubftantiated ;
nor was the matter of importance to determine, as the con-
ftruaions are diflimilar, and as Dr. Gregory's inftrument pre-
ceded both. The fuppofed advantages of Caffegrain's tele-
fcope over Newton's were ftated to be thefe : -d/'z. ift. That
the aperture was not limited to a confined number of rays
incident on the large concave fpeculum ; adly. That the
refleaion of the rays will be natural, fince it is made upon
the axis itfclf, and will therefore be more vivid ; 3dly. That
the vifion will be more pleafing, when the face is fcrcened
from too much light by the broad end of the tube ; and,
4thly. That there will be lefs difficulty in difcovering ob-
jeas with the eye facing them, than when turned from them.
If thefe are advantages, they are, however, equally belong-
ing to the Gregorian telefcope ; and we ftiaU prcfently have
occafion to ftate what was Newton's opinion on each of thefe
points. In this, as in the Gregorian conftruaion, the power
can always be increafed farther than the aperttire will bear ;

and,

TELESCOPE.

and, therefore, an increafe of focal diftance of the large fpe-
culum, witliout a proportional increafe of aperture, will
anfwer no good purpofe, but will render tlic tube unmanage-
able. When the aperture of a CaflTcgrainian or of a Gre-
gorian telelcope is to that of a Newtonian as 7.5 to 6, it has
been proved that they have equal liglit witii tlie fame powers ;
the Newtonian having the advantage, in confequence of tlic
obliquity of tiie angle of rcfleftion of the fmall plain fpe-
culum.

Sir Ifaac Newton's conftruAion of the reflefting telefcope
differs from both the Scotch and French in this refpeft, that
the large concave fpeculuni is entire, and that the fmall one
is quite plain, and placed at an angle of 45'', a little (liort
of the focus ; fo that the converging rays come to a focus
between the fmall fpeculum and the fide of the tube near its
fupcrior end, as feen in^_u^. 4. of our lafl plate. Sir Ifaac
had diicovcred, in his experiments on refleftcd light, that
more rays are reflofted in an oblique tlian in a perpendicular
dircdllon ; and thai, confequently, there would be more
liglit returned to the eye by a fmall fpeculum fet at 45"^,
than would be if the angle of reHeftion were greater. In
this inftrumcnt, the theory is much more fimple than in either
of the preceding inilruments, on accoimt of there being but
one image, h i, formed by the incident rays a b and c d,
;iftcr two refleftions, one of wliich takes place at the large
metal B D, and the other when the rays are in a ftate of
convergence, at the fmall plain fpeculum E F ; f o that the
whole length of the focal diftance of the large metal B D, is
B F -)- F f , or D E + E ? ; and this diftance, divided by
the focal diftance of the fmall eye-glafs G H, reaching to e,
gives the whole power. This calculation is as fimple as in
the aftronomical refrafting telefcope above explained, and is
analogous thereto. In the inftrument firft completed by fir
Ifaac, the eye-glafs was a plano-convex, with the plain face
turned to the eye, and ^th of an inch focus, while the focal
diftance of the large fpeculum was 6^ inches, and its

aperture i^; lience its magnifying power was — '—, or

6i

= 38. This was at the time confidered a good propor-

tion between the power and aperture, and a table was con-
ftrufted for different focal diftances upon this radical pro-
portion ; but it would anfwer no purpofe to copy this table
at a time when the reflefting telefcope, in every conftruftion,
is brought to nearly a ftate of perfeftion by the fucceffivc
improvements of different artifts. In this way of pro-
ducing the image, the pofition is inverted ; and the only
mode of increafing the power with the fame eye-glafs, is by
l^gthening the tube and focus of the large fpeculum ; or
with the fame large metal, by ftiortening the focus of the eye-
glafs. In this telefcope, any of the eye-pieces, fimple or
compound, may . be applied at pleafure : and if the large
fpeculum be made of the beft metal, of a proper parabolic
figure, and with a good polifli, the image will be ftiarp and
well defined ; and as there are no colorific rays in a feparated
ilate, the charge, or power of the eye-piece may be great m
proportion to the focal length of the large metal, whicli is
the diftinguiftiing charafter of this conftrudtion, particu-
larly when the fmall fpeculum is perfeftly flat and well po-
lifhed. The principal objeftion to this, as a portable inftru-
ment, is its unmanageable length, which was firft given it
by Hadley, wlio out of a pigmy made it a giant, and afto-
nifhcd the philofophic world. The length of tlic tube was
maae fix feet, in which was included a metal of fix inches
aperture, and 625 focu? ; and Newton's power of 38 was
Voi.. XXXV.

increafed to 230. See Phil. Traiil. vol. xxxii. p. 30J, m
Abr. vi. p. 165.

In fir Ifaac Newton's reply to Caflcgrain'i claim of fiipe-
rior adwinta;ns, he ftates, firft, that tlicre will he more light
loft by refh'tlion from a fmall convex fpeculum, than liiin
a plain fpiculuni of an oval ftiape, and pl.iccd in an obliquj
pofition ; fecoiidly, that the convex fpeculum will not rc-
fleft the rays fo truly as the plain one, unlefs it be of an
hyperbolic figur'^ wliich is diiiicult to form, and even then
will refleft only ihofe rays truly which rcfpcft the axib;
thirdly, tiiat tiic errors of the convex furface will be aug-
mented by tiie diftance tlirough which they pafs before they
reacli the eye ; fourthly, that the errors of the convex furface
will be increafed by tlie difleftion or bending of the figure
from the points where the incident rays ought to fall ;
fifthly, tliat on this account the figure is rcquirtJ to be more
perfect than art can make it ; fixlhly, tliat the errors of the
laige metal, which is confidered to be fpherical, will be fo
augmented by rcfleAion from the fmall convex metal, that in-
diitinclnefs will enfue, fucli as will not allow either a great
aperture, or a high charge ; and laftly, that as the fm j11 B-.etal
contributes to increafe tnc power, an over-charge of power,
compared with the aperture and focal length of the large
fpeculum, will be unavoidable, fo as to produce very ob-
fcure and confufed vifion ; for if the fmall metal be made
with a laiger radius, in order to diminiih the power, tpo
many of the incident rays will be intercepted ; and if the
charge of the eye-glafs is diminiftied, the area of the field cf
view will be fo far diminiflicd, as to render a fm.ill objefl
only vifible, and that diflicult to find. Thefe might be ob-
jeftions a century and a half ago ; but moft of them have
yielded to fubfequent improvements in the nice ait of carting,
grinding, and polifliing of fpecula, which we explained under
the word Speculum, and in the formation and arrangement
of the Huygenian eye-piece, which we have faid is pecu-
liarly fuited to refiefting tekfcopes ; though fingle Icnfrs
will do very well wlien the fpeiftator confines the axis of his
eye to coincide with the axis of the lens, fo as not to pro-
duce diftorfion in the figure of the image viewed. It may
be proper to mention further here, that the fmall telefcope
called the finder, attached to telefcbpes of confiderable
power, was firft propofed by fir Ifaac Newton, to remedy
the dilliculty of finding the objeft with his reflcfting tele-
fcope ; and Defcartes hath defcribed it in his " Dioptrics" as
anfwering the fame purpofe when applied to his beft telefcopes.
Indeed objedtions well founded and rationally ftated have led
to various improvements in the mechanical arts, and are never
to be difregarded, unlefs they are obviotidy futile. Had fir
Ifaac Newton lived to have a peep at the inftrument which
next claims our attention, he would no doubt have been
highly gratified at the progrefs which the art of conftruftinc
telefcopes has made fince his fix-Lnch reflcftor, with its ball
and focket, was mounted over a candle-ftick, or a fmall
pillar greatly refembling this domeftic utenfil ! And yet, to
do juftice to his inventive genius, if we may apply figurative
language to fuch a fubjeft, the feeds of all the fruit that has
fince been matured were contained in Iiis primitive little ker-
nel ; and we are proud to claim the Newtonian as the Eng-
Vijh produftion.

" Though laft not leaft," the Hcrfchclian telefcope now
offers itfelf to our confideration, which we might with fome
propriety call the Gc«-man telefcope, inafmuch as the cele-
brated contriver of its llupendous mcchanifm is a native
of Hanover : it was hov.-ever conftruftcd in England, and
by Englifti workmen, except fo far as the ingenious
knight of the Royal Hanoverian Guclphic crdcr lent his
M ni powerful

TELESCOPE.

powerful affillance, partly in the execution, but chiefly in
the contrivance of the mechanical appendage?. The work
was immenfe, but royal means furniflied the power that
overcame every obftacle. In magnifude, as in power, the
forty.feet reflcAor at Slough exceeds every inilrument that
human indullry has yet put togetiier, and ftands as a proof
of great mechanical (kill diredcd by an enterprifnig mind.
Wc trull that we cannot be underllood to derogate from the
merit of Dr. (now llr William) Hcrfchel, when we Hate tiuit
the idea of giving a fmall degree of obliquity to the large
fpeculum of a rcflefting telclcope, fo as to bring the image
formed in the focal point out of the body of the tube,
at its aperture, originated with Le Maire (fee Ma-
chines Approuvees, par I'Acad. vi. p. 6i.) about the year
1728 ; for as we know not that this fuggeftion ever met the
eye of this illuftrious aftronomer and mechanic, previoufly to
his undertaking the Herculean labour of conftrufting a tele-
fcope with a fpeculum of forty feet focal diftance, and four
feet diameter, it would be unfair not to allow him the credit
of the invention as well as of the conttruftion. We men-
tion the name of Maire in compliance with our fyftem of
tracing, or attempting to trace, from hiflorical evidence, the
origin of each mechanical invention that has contributed,
immediately or remotely, to the promotion of the mechanic
arts. The theory of this conftruftion is eafily explicable,
by a reference iofy- 5. of our plate of the Theory of Refiell-
ing Tehjcopes, in which, as before, A B C D is the tube,
and B D the large fpeculum of the immenfe weight of
21 18 lbs.; the incident ra^'s a h and c d, which would have
come back to a focus at the point c, in the centre of the
aperture, if the axis of the fpeculum had coincided with
the axis of the tube ; in confequence of a fmall inclination
of the fpeculum, given by fcrews behind, come to a focus
near A, at the edge of the tube, where the image of
the object is formed by only one reflection, which is the
leading feature of the conllruftion. This fimplicity of prin-
ciple is very convenient wlien a large aperture is wanted,
becaufe the head of the obferver may be placed entirely
at one edge of the tube, fo as not to intercept any of the
rays at the time of making an obfervation ; but as the eye
iooks down the tube in erery ftate of elevation, not only
muft the back be turned to the object viewed, but the ob-
ferver muft be mounted nearly as high as the fuperior end of
the tube, in order to make his obfervations : hence various
pullies, ladders, fcaffolds, &c. became neceffary to enable the
obferver to adjuft both the inflrument, and at the fame time
his own pofition, all which will be bed underllood from the
drawing, when we come to explain the particulars of the
ronJirnSion hereafter. The power of the Herfchelian, as
that of the Newtonian telcfcope, is obtained from the ratio
between the focus of the fpeculum and tlie focus of the eye-
glafs, which in this inftrument is not very (hort, though
the image is formed by limple refleftion. The mode of va-
rymg the power is the fame, therefore, as in the Newtonian
refledlor, and requires no further explanation.

4. The Conjlruflicn of Tele/copes As we have now given both

the hiflory and iht-ory of telefcopcs at confiderable length, we
fhall not be under the nccefllty of dwelling long on each of
the feveral conllruftions ; particularly as a reference to the
drawings which wc have given, and which are moftly original,
will exhibit to the eye more precife information on this part
•f our article, than any the minuteft detail would do, unac-
companied by fuch vifible reprefentations. Now that the
long aerial telefcopcs are no longer in ufe, we fhall not fill
our pages by defcribing the different kinds of mechanifm
that were applied for rendering them ufeful in obfervations,

6

by Huygens, Perrault, Scbaftian, Mairan, and others ; mofl
of which are defcribed in vols. i. v. and vi. of the " Ma-
chines Approuvees par I'Academie, &c." to which we
beg leave to refer the curious reader who wi(hes to know the
particulars. All the fupports for long telefcopcs had necef-
farily one property, which is dehrable alfo in ftands that are
made for modern telefcopcs, hut which is frequently ne-
glected ; and that is, that the objeft-end of the telcfcope was
Iteadily fupported by fome point of reft near the remote ex-
tremity, where the rays were incident. Indeed various
Hands or mountings, as they are fometimes called, have been
contrived for the convenient fupport of a telcfcope, when it
is too heavy for the pocket, and incapable of Aiding by con-
centric tubes into a portable form ; but in every ufeful
ftand the following properties ought to combine : firft, the
inilrument held by it (hould be kept firmly in its place, if of
the refracting fort, fo that the image may have no vibratory
motion unfavourable to diftindt vilion, occafioncd by an
unfteady polition of the objedt-glafs ; but if it be of the re-
flecting kind, then it fhould be fo fufpcnded, that tremulous
motions arifing from compaftnefs of the materials, ftich as
eafdy tranfmit vibratory impulfes, may be avoided : fecond-
ly, a motion in azimuth, and another in altitude, are indif-
penfable ; and if the inftrument be bulky, or have great
power, in each of thefe refpefts there (hould be both a
quick and a (low motion, the former to fave time, and the
latter for the fake of accuracy : thirdly, when the inftru-
ment is pointed to the required objeft, it (hould not be
liable to be eafily moved by any accidental touch of the ob-
ferver's hand or body ; unlefs it is managed in a ftate of fuf-
penfion, as is the cafe with the larger reflectors : fovirthlv,
the parts of the ftand (liould be ftrong enough to bear the
fuperincumbent weight, and not liable to get out of repair ;
and fifthly, its pofition (liouId be in a lituation not eafily
/haken, or moved by the obferver's weight, or that of a by-
ilander. When thefe properties are attended to, the exaft
fhape and external appearance become matters of fecondary
confideration, and each artift may purfue his own fchemes in
the conftru£tion ; but in this, as in feveral other depart-
ments of the mechanical arts, that work is beft and quickeft.
performed, which is done from approved patterns.

liefraSing We will firft defcribe the refrafting tele-
fcopcs reprefented in Plaie XXIX., and (hall then proceed
to the reflefting inftruments contained in Plates XXX. and
XXXI. ol AJlronomical Injlruments, omitting thofe portable
inftruments that are in the hands of every reader^ fuch as
opera-glalfes, &c. and that belong more properly to the
head of Optics.

One of the beft ftands for a thirty-inch refractor, by which
we always mean an achromatic refraiftor, is that exliibiced in
Plate XXl^. Jig. I. ; in which. A B is a tube of brafs,
mounted on the tripod ftand of the fame metal C D, and
fixed by means of the fcrews Q and R. In the common
conftruflion, the horii;ontal motion is at C, at the top of the
ftem or cylinder, and the fyftem of tubes Y, E, P, is not ap-
plied, fo that there is neither the flow adjuftable motions,
nor is the inftrument fteady in any given pofition ; but here
the horizontal motion is at D, at the lower extremity of the
cylinder, where there is a long bearing for the pivot, with a
tightening fcrew underneath the jundtion of the feet, and a
clamp S to fix the inftrument in any given direftion. Alfo
the handle mjig. 5, with a Hooke's joint, taking the fquared
axis of the fcrew at D, gives the flow motion in azimuth,
while the Aiding and adjuftable tubes F, E, P, keep the angle
of elevation unaltered. Thefe tubes turn on a joint at P ; and
when a due elevation is given by the quick motion, occa-
fioncd

TELESCOPE.

fioned by tlie freedom of flkling, one within another, a
clampinjf fcrew at E (jxcs them, and the flow motion pro-
iluccd l)y the fcrew F, hniflies the obfervatioii inaltitiule, as
tlie liandle '\n fg. 5. does in azimuth; and both flow mo-
tions can be maiiajijed, one with each liand, at the faine time.
In the prefent reprefcntation, the ctlcllial eye-piece H is
fcrewed into its fmall tube, which bears a concealed rack,
that is afted on by a pinion on the axis of the thumb-piece
G, which maybe made more or lefs tight by a fcrew in the
"middle of its plane, and which adjulls the eye-pieces for dif-
tinft vifion. There may be any number of various celellial
eye-pieces, but two or three are as many as are ufually de-
livered with an inftrimient of this fi7.e. The objjd-glafs
fcrews into the mouth of the tube at B, and is fo lixed by
trial, that the moil dillinft view of an obji rt is had when the
fcrew is carried home, in which fituatioii the receiving fockct
is fixed by tiie maker ; fo that unfcrewirig the objed-glafs
at any time does not injure the inllnmient. The centre of
motion in altitude is at a joint above C, and the iteadincfs of
the tube A 15 will depend on the dillance of this joint from
the fyftem of concentric tubes F, E, P, which may be more
conveniently placed towards the eye-end than towards the
obje6t-cnd of the main tube, and with equal effeft. When
the cylindrical piece beyond the joint of the lowed tube at P,
is withdrawn from its hole in a cock, attached to the vertical
cylinder, the tubes will pack into one another, and the cylin-
drical end-piece will enter the hole of the cock T, under the
main tube, and remain out of the way of injury, parallel to
this tube. The tube I K, in Jig. 2, fcrews at the end I,
into the fame place that the celeftial eye-piece H now occu-
pies, and is called the terreflrial tube, or terrellrial eye-
piece, becaufe objefts are feen in their diredl pofition through
it, which through the celeftial eye-piece are feen inverted.
Near the end I, a pair of glaffes, called thc^^iW-glaffes, are
fcrewed, and the end K contains the pair of glafles which is
denominated the eye-piece. We have already fhewn that
thefe two pairs of glafles conftitute an achromatic eye-piece, at
the fame time that they erett the inverted image formed by
the objeft-glafs in the fmall tube between H and A ; and
when this image is confidered as a real objeft, then the ter-
reftrial tube is a compound microfcope of the beft conftruc-
tion. This mode of defcribing the arrangement of glafles, it
is prefumed, will be more eafdy underllood by thole readers
who underlland the conftruftion of a compound microfcope,
than any other explanation that can be given. The tube L,
'".Af- 3> '^ ^" open tube, which is fometimes made, by par-
ticular defire, to receive at its end L the eye-piece, now
fcrewed into the tube I K at K ; and then, as the empty tube L
Aides in the tube I K, the diftance between the pair of field-
glaffes and pair of eye-glafles may be varied at pleafure ; and
as the magnifying power of the coinpound microfcope varies
direftly with this diftance, it is evident that the power of
the telcfcope thus conftrufted will vary in like manner.
But we have fliewn above, that the power of the telefcope
may be varied alfo by varying cither the pair of field-
glafles, or thepair of eye-glaffes ; hence, when a great variety
of powers is dcfired for the fame inftrument, different pairs
of field and of cye-glafTes may be adapted to the fame ter-
teftrial tube with very little additional expence ; and mjig. 4.
we have given three different pieces of fliort tube, containing
male or female fcrews, or both, which are called adapters,
by means of which the celeftial eye-pieces may be adapted
as eye-pieces to the terreftrial tube, fo as to gain a great
increafe of power for particular purpofes. When the
adapter M, in_/f^. 4, which has both a male and female fcrew,
is fcrewed into the end K, of the terrellrial tube mjig- 2, the
celeftial piece W.,Jig. l, may be fubftituted for the pair of

eye-glaffes belonging to this long tube, whenever occalioii
may require ; or the pair of terrellrial eye-glalfes may be
made a celeltial pair, on occafions when a low power and
enlarged field arc wanted. The adapter O, in f>g. 4, has
two dlffimilar female fcrews, the fmaller one of which
fcrews upon the long tube at the end I, while the larger end
receives the outer end of the celellial ej-e-piece H, in_/f^'. 1,
and converts it into a pair of field-glaffes, for which it may
be fubftituted, to get the great-'ft jKjflible jiower, with a high
magnifier alfo at the end K, or rather at L, with the fliding
eye-tube ; and in this way the power may be increafed fo
much, that all light will difapjiear, and tlie inftrument, con
fequeiitly, will tlien become iifelefs : but it is better to have
.idditional ])alrs of proper rKld-glan"es, than to fubftitute
eye-glaffes for this purpofe, b.-eaufe the arrangement of the
focal diftanccs of the lield-glafl'es is different from that of the
eye-glaffes, when they arc arranged in the beft manner, as we
have explained under our laft feition. The adapter N hai
two male fcrews and a female fcrew, one of which male fcrews
will lit the tube at H,/?^. I, and the other the tube at K,/[f. 2,
or \.,Jig. 3, and the fcm-ile fcrew will receive Troughton's
micrometer in either place, or any eye-piece having a mother-
of-pearl micrometer, even though it may belong to another
teleleopc. Thus the adapters, which are limple in their con-
llrui^'tion, of little expence, and very portable, afford a
variety in the ufe of a telefcope, that is at the fame time
both ufeful and entertaining ; and we have been the more
minute in our defcription of them, becaufe they have never
before been brought into public notice. The powers of this
telefcope ufually vary from 25 to 100 without the adapters,
as they are made by opticians ; and opticians are no advo-
cates for adapters that increafe the powers tao much ; but
for certain purpofes the power may be .lugmented to about
120 with diilinftnefs and tolerable light ; but then it muft
be recoUefted, that the field of view will admit of only a
fmall object, as well as little light, when the power is aug-
mented out of due jiroportioii.

Fig. 6. is a reprefenlation of a live-feet achromatic refrac-
tor, mounted in the moll ufeful and convenient manner for
making either celeftial or terreftrial oblervations, and has all
the appendages which we have juft defcribed as belonging
to the thirty-inch refraftor, when made in the beft manner.
A B, as before, denote the main tube, which has a dia-
meter of 4-I inches ; and inftead of one fet of fliding con-
centric tubes, here are two, inferted into the cocks P and P,
of a three-legged Hand of mahogany, of which two legs
only are feen in the figure, and thefe Ihortened, fo as to fall
within the room allotted them in the plate. The conftruc-
tion of this ft and has been defcribed under the article
Equatorial Stand, with a reference tojfj. 5. Piatt XIII.
of our prefent feries of jjlales ; therefore we ihall fatisfy
ourfelves with fuch a fliort defcription of the conflituent
parts here, as will limply enable the reader to underftand
their ufes. The nulled nuts (J and R, attach the main
tube A B to the wooden ftand ; and the tubes A P and A P
keep it Heady from vibratory motion : the femi-circlc of
brafs between Q and R, moveable about its centre, is racked
at the concave part of its circumference, fo .is to fit the
fcrew on the axis of the handle U, which we have m.ide
fhort, to avoid confufion in the figure ; therefore, when the
fcrew is preffed clofe into the notches of the rack-work, a
revolution of the handle U, in either direclion, will produce
a correfponding motion, in elevation or deprcflion, in the
telefcope borr« by this fcmi-circle, while the vernier and
divifionsoii the face of the femi-circle indicate the quantity
of elevation, when zero is properly adjufted. The manner
in which this mcchanifm adis, and alfo the method «f
M m 2 producing

TELESCOPE.

DroancinE Wi/ontal motion, will be bed underftood
Ln, an cxumination of /^ 7. --h.ch t"e parts^e en
larged, and in wl.icl. the fame letters denote the fame
thines. The thumb-fcrew V, concealed m /^. 6, when
turned round, prttTcs on the fixed meta3 under .t and
draws up the frame Y, of wh.ch one fide is feen, that holds
the aNis of the fcrew U, and that turns on two pivots at its
remote end X ; and in this manner the fcre^v is brought into
contaa with the notches of the racked femi<ircle, or is de-
tachcd from it by a contrary motion. In the former cafe
there is a now motion in altitude, and in the latter a quick
one Again, the axis S, of another horizontal and parallel
fcrew, receives the handle, like/^. 5, for giving the motion
in azimuth. This fcrew is alio prclTed into contad with a
horizontal racked wheel, that lies fixed between S and W,
and gives the flow motion. The fcrew of prefTiire is leen
above" S, and when the axis of the handle has its fcrew de-
tached from theracked circle, the telefcopeis at liberty to have
a quick motion in azimuth. The chamfered plate, on which
the racked circle rcfts, is graduated, and the vernier at W
reads the hours and minutes of time : but in order that this
circle may be parallel to the equator in the heavens, fo as to
indicate time truly, it is ncceffary to turn the upper half, C,
of the block half round, and to turn the whole ftand fo
that the plane of the graduated circle may be parallel to
the plane of the equator, which it will be when the upper
point of the axis of motion is direfted exaftly to the north
pole, in which fituation the hour-circles will coincide with
the horary circles of the heavens, or miift be made fo by
an adjullmcnt, which the graduated circle is capable of re-
ceiving, by means of an elongated hole, into which the fcrew
enters that fixes it to the block. This block, vve have faid
before, is called Smeaton's block, and anfwers the purpofe
of giving an equatorial motion to the telefcope, when fol-
lowing a heavenly body by night, and is ufeful for finding
one by day, from a knowledge of its right afcenfion and
declination ; for what was altitude in the horizontal pofi-
tion, becomes declination in the equatorial elevation. This
telefcope is one of the four of which we propofe to ex-
emphfy the ufes in conjunftion with Troughton's micro-
meter ; and therefore we have had the micrometer put into
its place at K, when the tcrreftrial tube 1 K is ufed ; but
it might have been at H in place of the celeftial eye-piece,
where the value of the revolutions of the micrometer fcrew
would have been as we have tabulated it in our laft feftion.
The two terreflrial eye-pieces in j?f . 8, and one not given
there, are made to fcrew into the terreftrial tube at K,
in addition to all the four celeftial eye-pieces, w-.ich have
an adapter to firt them to the fame place fucceffively ; which
variety affords the choice of feven terreftrial powers with
one pair of field-glaffes ; and as there are three pairs of ficld-
glaftes, the variety becomes 3x7 = 21 different powers
with a fixed eye-tube ; but as the eye-tube alfo Hides, the
pov.-crs may be varied in fmall quantities at pleafure between
the two extremes. In this inftrumcnt, the end I of the ter-
reftrial tube does not fcrew into the celeftial tube that bears
the rack, but into an intermediate fliding-tube, which is
here marked H, the ufe of which is to allow an adjuft-
ment for vifion at very ftiort diftances, which adjuftment re-
quires a great length of tube to be drawn out. For the
conftruftion of Troughton's and other micrometers, we
miift refer to our article Micrometer.

The fcrew G of adjuftment for diftin£V vifion, is concealed
in our drawing by thejiniicr or fmall telefcope attached, over
A, to the ir.ain tube, the ufe of whicli is to bring the ob-
jeft readily into the field of view of the large telefcope ;
which is not an eafy matter, when tbe power is great ; for

a

as the field of view increafes with a diminution of the power
of the telefcope, and i)/V.» vcr/il, the fmall telefcope faves much
time in fearching for any objetl that is vifible in it. But
the micrometer would be of little ufe in the night for mea-
furing fmall angles, except when the moon is the objed,
unlefs fome mode of illuminating the wires, or fpider's
lines, ufed in making the meafurement could be adopted.
Formerly this objeft was effefted by a piece of brafs, faced
with card paper, attached to the objeft-end of the telefcope,
as mjig. 15, and turning on a pivot, A, to any angle of in-
clination or reclination that the pofitfon of a lamp, or
candle, might require, of which the light was to be re-
fledlcd into the tube ; and an oval hole, in the middle of
the refle£ling plate, admitted the incident rays coming from
the objeft to be viewed : this plan, however, is attended by
the inconvenience, that cither the lamp muft be fufpended
by the objeft-end of the telefcope, fo as to rife and fall
with it, or otherwife the angle of inclination or reclination
of the reflefting piece muft be altered in every new pofition..
The firft perfon who, we believe, laid afide this apparatus,
and introduced a diagonal refleftor into the body of the
tube, was the Rev. Dr. Ufhcr of Dublin, who brought
the light within the axis of motion of his tranfit telefcope,
as is now commonly done ; which method has ihe advantage
of giving light irt the fame manner at all elevatiohs, while the
place, where the lamp is placed, never varies. (See the
Tranfaftions of the Royal Irifli Academy, 1788, vol. ii.
p. 13.) This method, however, was not confidered as appli-
cable to an ordinaiv telefcope, where the axis of motion is
below the tube ; but Mr. Troughton has vei-y lately applied
this principle with fucccfs in the telefcope before us, and in
others of the fame conftruftion. At Z, over the centre of
motion, a hole is made in the tube, of about one half the
diameter of the tube, into which a covering cap of bvafs
fcrews, when extraneous light is not wanted ; then an ellip-
tical plate of brafs, rough gilt, with an elliptical hole in
the middle, is reclined in an angle of 45°, within the main
tube, in fuch a way as to rec^vc the lateral light of a lamp
or candle, which it reflefts along the tube-tothc eye-piece
of the micrometer ; and the light thus reflefted is not only
mild and pleafant to the eye, but may be modified, as to
quantity, by the pofition of the lamp, and will remain the
fame in all altitudes, if the lamp be in the fame horizojital
line vs'ith the reflefto% and ftand at a proper angle with the
plane of the refleflor. In ufing the telefcope before us,
we found that fome of the rays falling on the extreme parts
of the objeft-glafs were loft in the tube, and that confc-
quently either the diapiiragm was too fmall, or that the
oval aperture of the inclined refleftor was not fufficiently
large ; but the diftinfinefs of the image is no doubt pro-
moted by fuch exclufion : and, indeed, it is the praftice oi
fome opticians, when they find the longitudinal aberration
arifing from the fpherlcal figure of the convex glafs not
well compenfated by the concave one, to fiiut out the ex-
treme rays on purpofe, by the ufe of a fmall diaphragm,
for which aflertion we have Mr. DoUond's authority. In
the inftance before us, we have afcertained by a dynameter,
that the reduftion of the aperture is in the ratio 30 : 25.6,
namely, from 4.5 to 3.84 inches: but our intention is to
have the original aperture reftored.

When a refrafting telefcope exceeds five or fix feet iu
length, it requires to be fupported at both ends, and then
the nearer fupport muft have adjuftments for both altitude
and azimuth, while the remote one may be a point of reft.
Fig. 8. Plate XXX. fhews a fupport for the eye-end of a
long telefcope, which we believe was contrived by Snieaton,
and v.'hich anfwers its purpofe fufficiently ; A B C D is a

mahogany

TELESCOPK

mahogany light frame, four feet fix inches liigh ; the crofs-
piece, A B, is fifteen inches long, and the piece C D feven-
teen, at the diftance of eighteen from the other ; another
frame, E F G H, with parallel fides, nine inches apart, and
more flender than the other frame, pafTes through the crofs-
bars of the former, in fucli way, as to have an eafy motion ;
a cylinder or rod of brafs is fcrewed by its head-piece to the
crofs-bar E F, and defcends from M to N, through a wooden
fcrew L O, which is hollow within, and cut into a fcrew
round its circumference : this wooden fcrew terminates
above with a brafs focket and ihumb-fcrcw, which ads as a
fcrew of prcffure againft the interior brafs rod : the thick
wooden piece L has a female fcrew, a6\irig with the male
fcrew of the hollow wooden cylinder L O, but is fo made
fall to the crofs-bar A B, by a circular plate of brafs
above, that though it will turn round, it will neither .ifcend
nor defcend ; confequently will produce an afcending or de-
fcending motion in the wooden cylindrical piece L O, aud
alfo in the brafs rod M N, held by the fcrew K, attadied to
It. The concave piece of brafs I has two ' motions in its
ilem, one iiorizontal, and the other vertical, like thofe in
the ftem of a fmall telefcope, and receives the eye-end of a
long telefcope, to which it is fcrewed, while the remote end
is fupported by the branch of a tree, the block of a pulley,
an opening in the roof of a houfe, or other elevated part of
a building. The adjiiihnents are thus managed ; when the
elevated end of the telefcope is made to reft on its bearer,
the eye -end adapts itfelf to the inclination by the joint in its
rtem under I ; then the whole frame is turned to face the ob-
jeft, when the circular motion of the fame fmall ftem yields,
and allows the long tube to remain quiet ; and if the tube is
not exactly pointed in azimuth to the objeft, the brafs piece
P, into which the ftem I is made faft, Aides along a groove
made in the front face of tlie crofs-bar E F, until the adjull-
ment for azimuth is; complete. This Aiding motion, being
manual, may be either quick or flow, as the obferver de-
fires ; therefore, when a body in motion is once in the field of
view, it may be followed without difficulty, by puibing the
fliding-piece P in a proper direSion. The quick and flow
motions for adjuftment in altitude are feparate, and are thus
produced ; firft the thumb-fcrcrv K is turned back, fo as to let
the rod M N afcend freely, till the altitude is nearly right, when
it is fixed, and then the piece L is turned, backward or for-
ward, as the cafe may require, with the right hand, while the
left flowly Aides the piece P, until the objeft is in the middle of
the field ; and when diftinft vifion has been properly obtamed
by the fmall tube at the eye-piece of the telefcope, the pieces
L, and P, held refpeftively in each hand, will always afford
the means of keeping the objeft in the proper part of the
field ; and though the fupport has but tw6 legs, yet its con-
neftion with the fupport at the objeft-end, through the
heavy tube of the telefcope, will always keep it in its place
when the adjuftments are fettled. It will not be ncceftary to
defcribe any more ftands, of which a great variety might be
produced, that have been devifed for refrafling telefcopes,
becaufe we prefume that our readers will be able, after
what we have faid on this fubjeft, to feleft fuch as may beft
fuit their refpeftive purpofes.

We come now to defcribe the portable patent achromatic
telefcope, without a ftand, that v/as invented by Dr. Brcw-
fter, and is fold under the patent by Mr. Harris, optician,
m Holborn, London. The conftru6lion of this telefcope, of
which we have already explained the theory, is two-fold,
and maybe explained by _/?fj. 4. and 5. Ptez-XXX. In
Jig. 4. the tubes are fuppofed to be tranfparent,or otherwife
fo divided, that the interior parts may be feen in tlicir rc-
ipeftive fituations ; A B C D is the outermoft tube, of ma-

hogany, with brafs ends, containing an »cIiromEUc objefi-
glafs, A D, at its exterior end ; E F G H is the next tube
of brafs, fliding fmoothly into the mahogany one, without
lateral Oiakc, and may be called the fccoiid lube : into this
tube the third tube I K fcrews ; and in its turn receives the
fourth, or tcrrellrial eye-lube L O, containing the pair of
field-glafTes L M, and pair of cye-glafles NO; all whicli
tubes Aide into the fpace of twelve inches, (including the
cap,) to fit the pocket. The principal objeft-glafs, A B, is
an inch and feven-cighths in diameter, and has a lolar focus
of 1 8. J inches ; and if there were no other glaffes but the
four contained in the terreftrial, or fourth tube, tills w^iild
be nothing more than an ordinary portable or pocket «ciiro-
matic telefcope : but at I, in the fecojid tube, is fcrcwrd a
fecond obiedt-glafs of the acliromalic fort, the diameter of
which is One nich and three-eigiillis, and its folar focus
14 inches. When the fecond tube, E F G H, is puAied into
the wooden tube A B C D, the fecond objecl-glafs, I, ap-
proaches the principal »bjet\-glafs A B ; and when the tiiird
tube, 1 K., is alfo puAied in, the two objeil-glafles con-.e
nearly in contail at the end A B of the telefcope : in this
fituation, the compound focus of the two objett-glalles, by

F X /
the theorem = j, is about tight inches, wliich 13 the

fhorteft poffible ; and in this ftate of the tubes, when the eye-
glaAts are adjulled for diftlnft vifion, the power is the
fmalleft pofTible ; but when all the tubes are drawn out, the
diftance. between the objcft-glaffes, and confequently the
power, will be the greateil poilible, becaufe the converging
rays coming from the principal objeft-glafs A B, will nave
paffed througli one half of the lubes before they fall on t!ic
fecond obje6t-glafs, and undergo a fecond refra<Sion, fo as
to come to a Aiortencd focus. In every intermediate pofi-
tion of the objeft-glafs I, the power of the telefcope, that
is, the compound focus of the two objeft-glalFes, will be de-
ternujied according to their intermediate diftance, by the

F X /"

theorem = -z^ — -,. Thus in every new pofition of the

F -h/— a

fecond objeft-glafs I, the telefcope will have a new power,
and thefe powers might be marked by a fcale running length-
wife along the fecond and third tvibes which feparate the two

obieft-elalTes ; but the inventor has made another ufe of this
... ... 1 ,

property, by convertmg it mto an opitcal micrometer : tie tias

fixed two parallel wires in the focus of the eye-piece, and alfo
two points of metal, to include a larger angle, in a direftiou at
rin-ht angles to the former ; fo that when one pair includes a
horizontal angle, the other will include a vertical one ; r.n
experiment is then made by aftual meafurement, of a divided
fcale, placed at a mcafured diftance, to afccrtain what is the
angle mcafured by the points in the eye-piece, when the ob-
jeft is feen between the parallel wires in each of the extreme
pofitlons of the fecond objeft-glafs I, and ftrokes are
marked accordingly, as the boundaries of the intended fcale,
the end of the next contiguous tube being the index ; thus in
the inftrument before us, the extreme points or ftrokes of the
fcale a b, in fig. 5, meafu.e no' and 218' refpeftively, at
an interval of iji inches; and as it has been determined,
both from theory and praftlce, (fee Dr. Brewfter's Trca-
tife on New Philofophical Inftruments,) that the fcale of
meafures is a fcale of equal parts, thefe 15^ inches are di-
vided into 108 (218 - no) minute fpaces, while eaclt
minute fpace is blfefted into fpaces of 30", which might
again be bifefted by the eye, if the adjuftment for vilion
could be made fo nicely as to admit of fuch cftiination.
Hence it is eafy to conceive how this telefcope will mealure
any angle fubtcndcd by a diftant objcA of unknown dimcn-

fions,

TELESCOPE.

fioiis, between no' and 218', witliin tla- accuracy of 30":
it is alfo cafy to conceive, that, tin- anRlc iiicrcaiuig as we
approach an objcd, the fame objert may be made to fill the
iield between the meafiiring points in a new ftation, provided
the dillance between the two olijcdglalTes be fo altered, by
trial ai\d adjuftments, that the exad power is found fuch as
will command this condition, and the new angle at the fecond
ftation will be indicated, as the old one was at the firft ;
and when the diihince between llie llations is meafured
in a right line leading directly to or from the objed, the dif-
ference of the angles will afford data for determining the
dillance of the objed from either Ration. For example,
fuppofing the tangents of fmall angles to be equal to the
angles tliemfelves, whicli they are very nearly, let us call
the greater angle m, the fmaller angle n, and the diftance be-
tween the ftations <i ; then, as the dillances of the objeft
from each ftation will always be inverfely as the meafured
angles, we have n : m (of tiie angles) for the ratio of the dif-
tances, and the real difference of the fame diftanccs by mea-
furement of the interval ; therefore, by one of the funpleil

theorems in algebra, we have

the greater dillance.

and

= the fmaller diftance : thus, if we fuppofc the

firft, or fmaller angle = 46', and the fecond, or nearer = -68',

120 X 68'
with the interval 120 feet, we mail have

8106
22

68'-

r , j-il 120 X 46'

370.9 tor the greater dutance, - -^

68' - 48'

=: 250.9 for the fmaller, and the difference, as before, 120.
But it will be feen in a fubfequcnt fedion of our article, that
to determine diftances from fmall angles with great accuracy,
the value of a fingle fecond ought not to be neglefted ; and
that a correftion for want of parallelifm, at fliort diftances, is
neceffary for obtaining the true angle, whenever that is wanted.
The author, however, has ftiewn, that the correftion in quef-
tion will vary nearly with the varying length of the tele-
fcope, and will not affeft the ratio of the angles meafured,
on which the refpeftive diftances depend ; but this coinci-
dence of the correftion with the length or power of the
telefcope, does not obviate our objeftions where real mea-
fures of angles are required, and where extreme accuracy is
neceffary for the fuccefs of the operation. But we have faid
the conftruftion is twofold : it is extremely difficult, if .it all
poffible, to hold the telefcope fo fteady without a ftand, that
the angle, contained between the two fixed points in the
focus of the piece, can be meafured with precifion ; and this
difficulty probably led to the fubftitution of the divided
objeft-glafs, feen in fig. 6, and edgewife in Jig. 7, for the
fecond objeft-glafs I, which we have defcribed. If this
divided objeft-glafs, fcrewed into the fecond tube at I, had
precifdy the focal diftance as the entire one, and had the
centres of the femi-lenfes brought exaftly into contaft, the
fame fcale and the fame mode of taking tiie meafure of an
angle, would apply with it as with the one we before deno-
minated I ; likewife the points in the eye-piece would be
neceffary. But to do away the ufc of fuch points, and to
render the inftrument equally ufeful without as with a ftand,
the fecond objeft-glafs that we have now to defcribe, as con-
flituting the fecond conftruftion of the telefcope, was divided
in the centre diametrically, and had its centres removed from
each other, fo that each femi-lens forms a ftparate image of
the objeft viewed. In this conftruftion, two points may be
fixed on in any objeft, and when the tubes are fo drawn out,
that point a in one image coincides with point b in the other,

as in DoUond's objeft-glafs micrometer, then the angle fub-
tended by a line connefting the points a and b will be indi-
cated on the fecond fcale, or fcale c J, in fig. 5. This fcale
in our inftrument begins with 11', and ends with 75'; fo
that the length of l^\ inches, being divided into 64 (75 —
1 1 ) fpaces, admits of tliefe minute fpaces being fubdivided
into three of 20" each ; and if the adjuftment for diftinft
vilion would allow thefe to be bifefted by eftimation, the
fmalleft quantity to be meafured would be 10" on this fcale,
which is indeed as fmall a quantity as the power of the tele
fcope is capable of diftinguifliing ; and therefore a longer
fcale would have been of no greater ufe. The peculiar ad-
vantage of this conftruftion is, that, as in Hadlcy's fextant,
a motion in the inftrument does not injure the accuracy of the
obfervation, or impede the operation of taking it, but
affords the opportunity of re-examining the exaftnefs of
the apparent contaft. Hence the ufe of this inftrument
affords a pleafing exercife, and the neceffity of a ftand is en-
tirely obviated. We have the authority of Tulley, the only
maker, to fay, that his grace the duke of Wellington had
one of thefe telefcopes, with filver tubes, prefented to him by
a friend, and there is reafon to infer, that his ufing it as a
coming-up glafs gave him the advantage of afcertaining, better
than any of his ftaff, in what direftion the enemy was
moving on certain critical occafions. For when it is afcer-
tained by obfervation, whether the angle fubtended by a
man in motion is increafing or dinjinifliing, it is eafy to
infer whether the man is approaching or receding, though
the exaft meafure of the angle be difregarded. And at fea
it is equally eafy to afcertain whether a fhip is gaining or
lofing ground in a chafe, when two points in a maft can be
diftinguillied. Wlien this patent telefcope has the divided
objeft-glafs as the Hiding one, the two images appear exaftly
finiilar to thofe in Dollond's divided objeft-glafs micrometer,
but the range of fcale is much greater : if Dollond's has
any advantage over this, it is, that the power of his telefcope
is ufually greater, and that the meafures taken at different
ftations do not depend on two adjuftments of the tubes longi-
tudinally, though it is neceffary always to have diftinft
vifion, when the edges of the images are brought into con-
taft. We confider that ncitlier of the conftruftions of the
patent telefcope, on its prefent fcale, is competent to the
meafurement of diftances from one ftation with fufiicient
accuracy ; neither has it a range of fcale fufficient to make
it generally ufeful for all angles. The writer of this article
has had the divided objeft-glafs made to have their centres
adjuftable to different diftances from each other, fo as to be
cap.ible of meafuring all fmall angles from i' up to 75', and
to be eftimated by the fame fcale in the different pofitions,
the value of the firft and laft pofitions of the tubes being
determined experimentally tor each pofition of the femi
lenfes, and the marks for the pofitions being fo made, that
when the fcale runs out in the firft pofition of the femi-lenfes,
the fame value ftiall begin the fcale at their next pofition ;
and thus a fucccflion of minutes is continued from unity to
the extreme end of the fcale at the laft pofition of the glaffes ;
confequently one fuch inftrument is capable of doing as much
as feveral inftriiments with different pairs of femi-lenfes
can do, when put in a fixed pofition according to the pa-
tent. But after all, the initial and final values of a fcale of
a given length muff depend on the difference of the focal
lengths of the principal and Aiding objeft-glaffes ; and, there-
fore, to obferve the nice variations in the diameter of the fun
or moon, it would be defirable, that the whole fcale ftiould
meafure only about 5', -viz. from 28' to 33' ; and then, if
the telefcope had power enough, the fubdivifions of the
fcale might afcend by fingle feconds. Indeed it is yet a

defi-

TELESCOPE.

defideratum in aihonomical iiillriinn.Mits to obtain an unobj(?c-
tionable, and at the fame time an cal y metliod of mcafuring,
by a micromctrical tclefcope, the diftance between two very
fmall ftars, fo near to each other as to be called double ilars ; for
when fo much extraneous light is admitted into the tclefcope
as to fliew the fpider's lines, or fcalcs of a mechanical micro-
meter, the minute ftars vanifli ; and, when optical micro-
meters with double images are ufed, the light is fo divided
between the images, that tlic ftar alfo vunillies, in this cafe,
from want of light. Dr. Malkelvne's prifmatic micrometer .
is, perhaps, lefs liable to this objeftion than any other, but
is not yet brought into common ufe.

Before we difmifs this part of our article, we beg leave
to ftatc, that about a hundred years ago, De la Hire con-
trived a method of giving different values to a pair of wires
fixed in the focus of the principal object -glafsot a tclefcope,
by means of another moveable objed-glafs ; and alfo that
about the year 177 I, Mr. James Watt, celebrated for hi» im-
provements on the fteam-engine, not only contrived the fame
thing, but aftually made the meainremcnt by a longitudinal
fcale marked on his tube, nearly as done by Dr. Brewiler.
Mr. Watt's claim to originalily, we believe, is undifputcd,
and may be proved both by his letter on the fubjeC\ to Mr.
Smeaton, written near that time, which letter is lull in exiR-
ence ; and alfo from the circumftance of his having about
the fame time defcribed his nevi- inftrument to the late Mr.
Ramfden. With thefe prior inventions, however, we are well
affured Dr. Brewfter was not acquainted at the time of his
taking out a patent, in conjunftion with Mr. Harris, the prc-
fent vender of the patent telefcope ; and therefore he alfo is
entitled to the merit of originality ; and moreover appears to
have the fole right to the idea of converting it into a gene-
ral micrometer, of applying it to the divided objetf-glafs,
and of converting a Gregorian or Caflegrainian teleicope
into a micrometer, without any additional lens or mirror.
Mr. Watt never made much ufe of this micrometrical tele-
fcope, the impreflion on his mind being, that the fcale ought
not rigidly to be a fcale of equal parts, which Dr. Brewiler
has fince demonftrated to be the cafe, and his line of bufinefs
not leading him to finifh all the adjuftments for real ufe.

This ingenious gentleman had previoufly, ik'z. in the year
l770,conftru(3;ed a micrometer, with a pair of parallel horizon-
tal wires, crolTedby a fingle wire at right angles, in the prin-
cipal focus of an ordinary telefcope, which afted as a micro-
meter for determining diftances at one ftation thus ; a twelve-
feet rod had a circular difc of wood, eight inches in dia-
meter, painted white, that was crolTed by a red horizontal
line of an inch in width, which difc was made to Hide along
the rod, while another fimilar difc was fixed fall about a
foot above the ground, when the rod ftood in a vertical
pofition ; then, at any unknown diftancc, the fllding difc
was lowered till one wire of the teleicope covered its red
line, while the other wire covered the red line of the fixed
difc ; and then a fcale upon the rod, graduated by experi-
mental meafures, indicated the dijlance by infpeftion to
within fi, part of the whole. This inftrument was ufed
with a telefcope of only twelve inches focal length, and an
eye-glafs of an inch and a half focus, fo that the magnify-
ing power was only eight times with this inftrument.
The furvey of the intended canals of Crinan, Gilp, and
Tarbert, was made by Mr. Watt in 1772, as well as the
furvey of the canal running from Invernefs to Fort William,
called the Caledonian canal, in 1773. This contrivance
was fhewn to feveral friends, and amongft them to Mr.
Smeaton, though an account of it has never before been
publiftied. In the year 1778, a Mr. CJreen applied to the
Society of Arts in the Adelphi for a premium for a fimilar

invention ; on which occafion, Mr. Smeaton advifed Mr. Watt
to attend at the Society's rooms, to Itate the priority of hit
claim, which was accordingly done ; but as Green's telefcope
had more magnifying power than Mr. Watt's, riz. 40, and
was fuppofed on that account to be more accurate iii de-
termining diftances, the claim of priority was ceded in Green's
favour, and Mr. W.att's invention was fuffered to go wn-
noticed by the Society.

A double-image micrometer was alfo invented by Mr.
Watt in the year 1 77 i , which, as it has never been defcribed,
we fhall make no apology for introducing here, in corapany
witli his other ingenious inventions. This inftrumer.t con-
fifted of a circular difc of glafs, whofe plane fides were not
ftrictly parallel, but formed with each other an angle of one
or two degrees, fay a wedge or prifm of one /\ s
or two degrees. "This difc or prifm w;ls cut ( _ \
by a diamond, at right angles to the Hope of \^ ]

the prifm, into two unequal fegments thus; \^ /

The lefl'er piece. A, was fixed, while the Larger piece, B,
was moveable upon the diamond-cut line, as . j.
upon an axis or hinge, as leen in this plan, in IWi--, — =3
which the dotted lines Ihew one of the pofi- X;.

tions into which B may be moved. When the
two fegments remain in the fame plane, they refraft all the
rays,«^)ichpafsthrough them equally ; but A remaining lixed,
and B moving upon a centre, as drawn in dotted lines, the rays
which pais through B, will be more refrafted than thofe
which pafs through A, and thus will vary with the angle
which B makes with A. This divided prifm being fixed in
the focus of (or before) the objcft-glafs of a telefcope, two
images are formed of every objeft by which its diameter may
be meafured. An ind<'X and divided feftor of a circle fervc to
meafure the comparative refraftions. This inftrument, how-
ever, has the fault, that the divifions arc not equal pans for
equal angles, and moreover the prifms would require to be
achromatic, where high magnifying powers are required.

It was not till the year 1777, that the abbe Bofcovjch
publilhed ail account ol the prifmatic micrometer of the abbe
Rochon made of rock-crylfal, with double refraction, and
alio of his own improvement, or fubftitulion of glafs prifms,
where one of them revolved round ail axis of motion like
Mr. Watt's; nor was it tiil the fame year that Dr. Maf-
kelyiie publiftied his account of a prifmatic microir.etcr, that
meafures a fmall angle by the refracting angle and the dif-
tance of the prilnis from the focus of the objeft-glafs con-
jointly ; where the length of the telefcope was the fcale of
meafurement. See Phil. Tranf. 1777.

Refletling. — We proceed in the next place to defcribe the
conftrudlion of reflefting telefcopes. Fig. 1. Plate XXX.
(hews the figure of a refletling telefcope of either the
Gregorian or Caffegrainian kind, for their external appear-
ance and mode of ufing are the fame, though we have
fhewn that their fmall fpecula are differently formed. After
the minute defcription that we have given of the ftands for
achromatic reflefting telefcopes, we may avoid prohxity, by
giving a lefs minute account of t'lofe that have been appro-
priated to reflcftors, where the ufes of the fame parts are
the fame : A B is the main tube of a refletling teleicope of
moderate fize, which may be either with or without a finder,
as the power may require, mounted on the tripod G F ; at
A is the open aperture, and a little fliort of it, within, is the
fmall fpeculum, drawn in or out by the fcrew C, which is
connedlcd with a longitudinal bar of metal, into which the
heel-piece of the ftem of the fmall fpeculum Aides, fo as to
be taken away or put in at pleafure ; within the interior end
B of the large tube is the perforated large fpeculum,
always concave, and of a proper figure to fuit the face of

the

TELESCOPE.

the I'mall fpcculum. Tliis large fpeculiim is put in with
fome liberty, as is alfo the Iniall one in a box containing a
fpiral fpring atting agaiiill it to prevent tremors ; B is the
eye-piece of tlic Huygcnian kind, of whicli there are ufually
two or three, according to tlie C/.e of the inftruijient. The
femi-circle D is racked, and the handle H turns the fcrew
that gives elevation, while the handle I gives the horizontal
motion, by its fcrew driving the racked hurizontal plate E ;
both which are cleai-ly feen in the figure. The vertical
motion takes place at the centre of gravity of the tube at
the top of the frame between E and D, and the horizontal
motion is from an axis in the centre of the racked plate E,
which axis has a long bearing down a tube to G, under tiie
junction of the three legs. The three-barred bracing piece
F has a joint at each leg, and alfo at the circular brafs plate
in the centre, fo that a little force applied under this plate
will raife it, and allow the legs to come together into contaft,
as well as the three arms that keep the legs open when the
iland is ufed. This mounting is very portable and fteady,
particularly when the tube- is fliort, and is every way con-
venient for ufe, except that botli the vertical and horizontal
motions are flow motions, the former of which is tedious
when a great change of altitude is wanted in a given time,
but the latter is in lome meafure remedied by the portability
of the ftand, which may be eafily turned altogether, to face
any particular objcft.

When the length of the tube is three feet .and upwards,
and proportionably wide, jig. 2. reprefents a ftand that is
greatly to be prefen-ed to that reprefented by jig. i . We
(hall put the fame letters of reference to the fame pails,
though there is a difference in the conftruftions that may
require explanation. This ftand was contrived and firit
made by Tulley, who, we underftand, claims aifo the inven-
tion of the three-armed brace F, in /f^. i, above defcribed.
The contriver has evidently contemplated all the requifites
for a good conftruftion, and has fucceeded in the execution
of his plan : A B, as before, is the main tube, B one of the
eye -pieces, C the adjufting fcrew for diilinft vifion, hid in
our drawing behind the tube ; but in place of it is feen the
finder, attached above the eye-end of the. main tube. At D
is a (liding-piece of metal with a cyhndrical hole, through
which the round rod H D palTes, and to which it may be
fixed, by the prefTmg fcrew D, in any given elevation ; to
this fliding-piece D, two rods D K, D K, are attached by
two Joints, and two other joints attach them below to the
fiame E K, fo that thefe rods K, K, are at liberty to rife
and fall as the tube is elevated or depreffed, but not until
the fliding-piece at D has moved along the rod H D. When
the piece D is fixed to the rod by the fcrew of prefTure, it
forms a point of bearing for the tube at a diftance from the
centre of motion, ^^hich is at the centre of tlie tube's oravity
above the frame of brafs work, feen in the figure ; thus the
telefcope is kept fteady by two points of bearing in every
degree of elevation, though thefe points will recede from
cai:h other gradually as the telefcope is depreiTcd towards an
horizontal pofition. When the fcrew at D is tnrned back,
the motion is fufficiently quick ; but when it is faft, the
flow motion is produced by the handle at H ; for while this
handle turns the rod, a fcrew cut on its interior end works
m a fixed cock, near H, tliat has a female fcrew within it,
and draws the fliding-piece and rod together towards the
eye, and thus elevate? the tube, while the joints of the rods
K, allow a correfponding elevation in them ; fo that, with-
out undomg the fcrew at D, a flow motion up or down is
produced by merely turning the handle H, which motion,
hemg free from jerks, is very pleafar.t. Between the brafs
»ame bearing the ttlefcope and the large wooden frame E F,

are three circular plates, the uppermoft of which is attached
to the brafs frame, or may be laid to form the bafis of it,
and has an axis of fteel fail in its centre ; t!ie fecond circular
plate is racked at the concave edge all round, and has a
circular hole in the centre, juft large enough to receive the
fteel axis we have mentioned ; the third circular plate forms
the top of the wooden tripod, and has alfo a hole in its
centre, juft fufficient to admit the fteel axis above defcribed ;
but its diameter is fomewhat lets than the diameter of the
.racked plate next above it, fo that a rim, made faft to the
racked plate, furrounds it, in the manner of a box-lid ; but
there is no other faftening of thefe three plates together,
than the prefTure occafioned by the fuperincumbent weight
of the telefcope, and of its fubjacciil frame E K K : the
axis, or fcrew, of the handle I is made faft to the upper-
moft plate of the faid frame, and takes hold of the notches
in the racked plate below it, fo that when the telefcope ii
turned round in azimuth, by a quick motion, it takes the
frame under it, and alfo the racked circle, round along witL
it, while the ftand or wooden four-footed frame E F ftands
quiefcent ; but when the quick motion is finiflied, the handle
I is ftill in its place at the eye-end of the tube, and turning
it round, will give the requifite flow motion ; for turning the
handle, in conneftion with the racked plate, turns the fuper-
incumbent frame and telefcope, without any motion being
given to the racked plate itfelf, which is now kept down to
its place by fimple prelfure of its load above. The ftand, or
large wooden frame, is braced in all direftions, as may be feen
in the drawing, and might be advantageoufly made of call -iron,
as it is not contrived for the convenience of portability.

The beft ftand for the Newtonian telefcope is that which
is reprefented by Jig. 3, in which A is the elevated moutli
of a feven-feet tube, and B the place of the'large fpeculum,
that reflefts the rays of light back to. the fmall diagonal
plane metal near C, which, by a feccnd refledlion, brings
them to a focus at the eye-piece below C, as feen in the
drawing. Above C is the finder, the upper end of which
has a Imall achromatic objeft-glafs, and the lower end the
eye-glafs. The upper end of the tube refts on a fupport D,
that IS capable of being raifed or lowered flowly by a pinion
on the axis of the handle under J), while the lower end
rells on the horizontal bar of the frame E F, tliat is
fufpended by a pulley over F ; the four pivots a, b, c,
and di of the faid frame, fliding in the open grooves,
feen near thofe letters, in the main frame, keep the fmall
frame in any given fituation, and allow a free motion,
firft down the vertical, and then down the inchned pieces,
that compofe the main frame, as low as to G and H ;
and when the lower end of the tube has been depreffed into
this fituation, the tube may have an elevation approaching
towards the zenith : for not only is the upper end eleva-
ted by the handles at J for the quick, and at D for
the flow motions ; but the lower one is depreffed by
the handle at I, round which the cord is coiled, that goes
round a fixed roller at K, and two others at L and M,
before it embraces the pulley N, and is hooked to a pin
at O, above the frame. The reft of the main frame is fo
clearly exliibited in the drawing, that no farther defcription
of it is neceffary. In fome of the inftruments of this con-
ftruftioji, when the handle J is omitted, and a quicker motion
in altitude is required; and alfo a greater elevation than can be
given fimply by the handle at D, the fecond fquare Hem that
■ carries the pinion of the handle is raifed by hand, and kept to
its elevation by means 01 a fecond rack, which is fet at
liberty by prefTmg a button at P, conneded with the
fpring-catch ot the rack, when this fq^uared ftem is lowered
again, all which raotiens will be readily comprehended by

any

TELESCOPE.

any perlon tolerably acquainted witli the mecliaiiifin of
rack-work. Tlie quick motion in azimuth is given by
Aiding the lower end of the tube gently along the bar on
wliich it reils, or by moving the whole frame, which
moves on caftors ; but the (low motion is produced by the
fcrew at D. It is fcarcely neccfTary to add, that the eye of
the obferver is applied to ti>e Jide of the tube near its
mouth, when the finder has pointed the tube properly to its
objed. This Hand was contrived by fir William Herfchel,
whofc experience in the uie of vai-ious Hands directed him
to prefer one that is not hable to propagate vibratory
motion to the large fpeculum, and that has a point of fup-
port near the upper extremity of the tube. We have, how-
ever, feen a fix-feet refleftor very fteadily fupported on a
frame fimilar to that exhibited in Jig. 2 ; and the com-
pofer of the prefent article has a Caffegrainian telefcopc,
with a tliree-feet tube, fixed between the cheeks of one of the
doors of his obfervatory, which turns round witli the
moveable dome in azimuth, and which elevates in altitude
on two pivots relling in the notches of a pair of brafs plates
let into the faid cheeks ; which mode of mounting is not
only convenient for celeftial obfervations, but is remarkably
free from tremors, which advantage may be owing partly
to fteadinefs of pofitiori, and partly to the mouth of the
tube being nearly two feet advanced into the c^en air. If the
dome had not a remarkably eafy motion on tliree loofe ebony
balls, placed at equal diftanccs, this mode of mounting a
large telefcope would not afford a flow adjuftment for
motion in a/.imutli, which it now does with facility.

It is always interefting to a nian of fcience to know by
what progrefTive fteps a great undertaking is accomplithed,
as well as to learn under what imprefTion the original
idea was entertained of forming the plan of operations.
When fir William Herfchel, who was brought up a
mufician, refided as organift at Bath, the natural bent
of his mind led him to cultivate the pleafing fcience of
optics, and to ftudy the theory of mechanics fo far as
to enable him to amufe himfelf with attempts to con-
ftruft a refledling telefcope : his fnccefs, in an undertaking
of confiderable difficulty, increafed with his endeavours to
attain fome degree of excellence ; and though at firll he
was fatisfied to pick a tolerable fpeculum out of fome dozens
at which he had laboured ; yet, feeling that his experience
began to give him facilities both in the contrivance and
execution of his manipulations, he proceeded by degrees to
conftrucl ipecula of ieven, ten, and even twenty feet focus
of the Newtonian form, to the number of more than 400,
befides feveral of the Gregorian kind : but as yet he was un-
acquainted with any certain praftical method of giving
a parabohc curve to the face of his metal ; on which
account he fele6ted, by trial, fuch fpecula for ufe as he
found moll perfeft in figure, and repolifhed the remainder,
in all thefe operations there was much room for experi-
mental obfervatioii, and the time was not expended in
vain. To a mind like Herfchel's, even a failure roufed
a feeling for a new cnterprife ; and it was no fmall ftep
towards advancement, to have perceived the caufe of un-
luccefsful mealures : the objcft being attainable, the means
were to be found by (kilful perfeverance. Nor were the
labours of our optician to be confined to the formation of
a fpeculum ; his mechanical flvill was dircfted to the con-
trivance and execution of various ftands for telefcopes of
an unufual length ; and in the year 1778, he produced that
which is now ufually applied to the Newtonian telefcope,
and which we have Juft defcribed as reprefcnted bv
P/d/^XXX. /^. 3. By the year 17S1, Herfchel (beft
known by this title at that period) felt fuch confidence in
Vol. XXXV.

his improved methods of proceeding, that he crcdled a llaud
for a thirty-feet i-ofliding metal of 36 inches aperture, and
fucceeded in calling it ; but to hib "mortification the metal
cracked in the coohng. The difappoiutment attending tluK
accident mult have been fewere, but did not damp ilie .irdour
of the mechanicul adventurer, in which light, no doubt, the
enterprifing contriver was now viewed. A fecond molting
of the fame metal was immediately determined upon, and
a furnace was conllruded for the purpofe, which unfor-
tunately gave way, and the liquid metal blew up the pave-
ment. The mortification conlequent on this fecond acci-
dent only ))lungcd our adventurer the dec-per, tliat he might
rife the higher in his next attempt. DunW an intervaFof
fome refpite from optical and mechanical labours, the
aftronomer, however, wae not alkxp ; and »vhile obfervations
were making on the rotations of the planets, with tele-
fcopes of the Newtonian form, of 7, 10, and 20 feet focil
length, the little planet, at firll fuppofed to be a comet,
from its having a vifible magnified difc, was difcovered.
This lucky event rekindled the optician's ardour, and at
the fame time introduced him to the notice of his majelly ;
who, by his liberal patronage, promoted the views of this
amateur inftrument-makcr, and afforded facility to his future
operations.

In the year 1782, a good twenty-feet refleftor was
finiflied with a large aperture, and mounted on the Her-
fchelian (land for admitting of front obfnval'wm , for which
it is found very ufeful. The forty-feet telefcope, or
mafter-piece of mechanifm, which is more immrdiately the
objeft of our examination, was begun at Clay-Hall at the
latter end of the year 1785, when, through the mcduition
of the prefident of the Royal Society, the fupport of regal
munificence had been gracioudy promifcd ; and, when tjie
various portions of the bulky llrudlure, which employed
forty workmen of different denominations, had been re-
moved to Slough, near Windfor, the foundation was begun,
which was to be the (cite for the largeft telefcope that had
ever been pointed to tiie heavenly regions. We will not
detain our readei- by delcribing the details of mafonry, car-
pentry, and fmith's work, which have occupied eighteen
large plates, in the fecond part of vol. Ixxxv. of the Phi-
lofophical Tranla6tions, for their explanation, but defcribe
fo much of the inftrument, and of its appendages, as are
ufeful in making aClual obfervations.

The beil view for general reprefentation of the Hcrfchc-
lian telefcope, is that which has been given in plate 24.
of the volume jull named, which therefore we have copied
into our Plate XXXI. of yljlronomical Injlrumcnts, with
fome flight alterations arifing out of fubfequent improve-
ments or curt.iilments of unneceffary appendages. Thi»
view, taken from a Ration to the fouth-wefl of the creftion,
reprefents the telefcope elevated in the meridian line, and
affords the means of feeing the front parts of the inftru-
ment, and of its numerous appendages ; but does not allow
the mechanifm that fupports the inferior end of the tube,
and tiiat gives motion in fome of the adjuflments, to be ex-
plained by a reference to their parts, and therefore mull be
comprehended from a verbal defcription. The foundati>.in on
which the frame-work of the forty-feet telefcope is erected,
confifls of two concentric circles of brick-work, orx 42,
and the other 21 feet in di.imeter, both funk 2^ feet
under ground, and tapering from the breadth of 2 ft. 3 in.
below, to I ft. 2 in. above, where they arc capped with
paving-ftoncs of 125: inches wide, and 3 thick. In the
centre of thcfe circles, is fixed fall into the ground by
brick-work, and oppofite braces of wood, a vertical beam,
as a centre of motion, round which the whole (Irudurc
N n may

TELESCOPE^

may have a circular motion in a/imiitli, the plnne of the
outer circle bcinpr made perfeAly level. The platform that
ronneAs the diffen-nt parts of the frame-work below, has
three principal horizontal beams lying parallel to each otht r,
and three others lying paralli-l, crolTing tlie fir(t at risjht an-
gles, befidcs various Ijracing-beams, that tie the wholi com-
paftly together, bv iron bolts palling through the places of
croflitig. In our drawing, the outer circle of brick-work
and mafonry is denoted by the letters A B, and the circum-
ference of the platform of wood by C D : undr-r each op-
pofite end of the fix main beams is fixed a roller, of fix
inches m diameter, and eight long, having each a ftrong iron
frame bolted into the end of its refpeftive beam ; fo that
tlte outer circle has twelve rollers: but thefe were not fuffi-
ciest to bear the wholi- at 21 feet from the centre of motion ;
therefore eight more rollers, nearly equidiflant, were fixed
to flrong parts of the platform, fo as to be borne by the
inner circle of 2 I feet diameter ; and thus the whole platform,
with its fuperftrudlure, is capable of making a revolution,
when fufficient force is applied round the central vertica'l
beam, that enters a hole at the junction of the two central
main beams, and that afcends but a little way out of the ground.
Six out of the twelve rollers of the outer circle are feen be-
tween A B, the brick-work, and C D, the circular edge of
the platform, and the rell may be imagined, not only on the
remainder of this circle, but alfo on the inner circle, which
is concealed. In thefe rollers, it is of great importance that
the axes of motion all point towards the central beam round
which they carry the platform, and alfo that their diameters
and frames be precifely of like dimenfions, otherwife they
will not bear alike on the bafis of mafonry. At twelve feet
diftance from, and all round this moveable platform, are
fixed faft into the ground eight equidiflant polls, to an oppo-
iite pair of which the ends of a long pliable rope are hooked,
that give the motion in azimuth ; which rope, being condufted
over tVTo feparate puUies, fixed upon the platform, at oppofite
fides of the centre, has its ends turned in the direftion of
tangents, that point in oppofite direftions to their refpeiSlive
polls. The middle part of the rope is made to pafs round
one of the fpokes of a large wheel, carried by the platform,
before it winds round the axle, fo as to coil up both ends of
the rope equally ; which rope therefore pulls by both
tangental ends alike, fo as to apply an equal force at each
oppofite pulley, while the refillance of the polls produces the
requifite motion, without a flrain on die centre. This
mechanifm gives the operator a great mechanical advan-
tage. That part of the platform C, which connefts the
extreme ends of the three longitudinal beams, over the
rollers at A, is made ftrong, and is the fupport for a pair of
double ladders, that are fee.n afeending to the fummit of the
whole frame-work, one on each fide of the large tube E ;
and at D is another fimilar fupport for two other double
ladders, which, afeending in like manner, meet the former
ones, and crofs into them in fuch a way, as to admit of
being bolted together at the points of croffing. Thefe
ladders are propped by other {horter ladders, as feen in the
figure, and fome upright mafts, of which one is feen eretled
over the roller at B, afcend in like manner, and afford the
means of obtaining horizontal braces at different heights, all
round the frame, except where the elevated end E of the tele-
fcope requires an opening to be left between the front ladders
for Its different degrees of elevation. The tranfverfe beam
F G, which lies horizontally over the croffings of the double
ladders, and is bolted to them, receives the hooks of the dif-
ferent pulhes, which we fiiall (hortly have occafion to de-
fcribe, at the fame time that it conneas and braces together
all the ladders at their upper extremities. Thefe ladders are

each 49 feet 2 inches Jong, fo that liie height of the iralif*

verfe beam F G muft be ■^''49 x 49 — 20 x 20 = 45'
r.carly, and will therefore admit of the long tube, of 40 feet
in length, to be raifed into a vertical pofition und-^r it. Be-
low the mouth of the large tube, a gallery H I, with its at-
tachr^d brackets K and L, reds upon the (!op s of the in-
terior halves of the double ladders, at K and L r- f ftively,
and may be made to flide up or down, into any (late of eleva-
tion, by two fyftems of pullies, and ropes goi:.ii; round the
blocks hooked at th- junftion of each pair of ladd. rs, to tli--
tranfverfebeam F G, as may be feen in the figure ; and whea
tliis gallery is lowered to the landing of the pair of fteps M,.
a party may be admitted into it to gratify their curiofity, the
floor being 13 feet 6 inches by 6 feet i^ inch, and palifaded
on the front, as well as partly at both ends. The bafes, or
Aiding parts of the brackets, are prevented from flipping
afide by lateral rollers of brafs, afting againft the (Iraight
fides of the middle pole of each double ladder, while other
rollers of the fame metal, acting under them, diminifli ih^'.y
friftion, when drawn up or let down by the pullies. In tb.'i
framing of thefe brackets, it was necelfary to introduce con-
trivances for allowing fome deviation of the gallery from a.i
exatl level, in cafe one of the brackets was elevated by its.
pulley failer than the other ; which contrivances are not
eafily defcribed without a reference to the drawings of the
feparate parts in the original account, or without infpeftion
of the parts themfelves.

The tube of the telefcope, which is 39 feet 4 inches in
length, and 4 feet 10 inches in diameter, is made entirely of
iron ; it having been afcertained that a wooden tube wo'jld
have exceeded an iron one in weight by at leaft 3000 lbs.
The fheets were firft; put together by a kind of feaming, that
requires no rivets ; and when the fides of the iron platform
were cut ftraight, it was lifted by proper tackle into a
hollow gutter, and then brought gradually, by vario-.s
tools, into a cylindrical form. Various hoops r.re fixed
within the tube, and longitudinal bai'S of iron, connefting
fome of them, were attached to the two ends of t!-.c
tube, by way of bracing the Iheets, and keeping the fiiape
perfeft when the pullies are applied to give the neceffary
elevation at the upper end, and that the fpeculum might be
kept fecure in its bed at the lower end. The hoop by which
the upper end of the tube is fufpended is eight inches broad,
and thicker than the refl ; and the fyftem of three puDies,
feen at N, with each a double block, has a correiponding fet
at O, hooked to the tranfverfe pole G F ; and the bars to
which the blocks are hooked are fo bent, that the moving
ropes wiil not come in contaft ; nor will the elevated
tube have its vertical motion difturbed by the tackle, either
in afeending or defceniing, which was. an important precau-
tion. The lower end of the tube is firmly fupported on
rollers, that are capable or being mo\'ed forwards or back-
wards by a double rack, moved by wheels and pinio:?s
at R, which we fltall not attempt to defcribe minutely ;
but the v:fe of which every mechanic ■(vill comprehend '.vith-
out particular explanation. Originally there were feveral
appendages near the mouth of the tube Aiding by pullies, or
fixed to the tube, for the purpofe of regulating the fiuceps
taken by this inttrum.er.t ; but as the twenty-feet refleftor is
now ufed for this purpofe, they are taken off, and have bean
omitted in our drawing. By an adjuftment at the lower
extremity of the tube, the fpeculum is turned to a fmail
inclination, fo that the line of collimation is not coinci-
dent with the longitudinal axis of the tube, but croffes the
tube diagonally, and meets the eye in the air, at about two
inches from the edge of the tube. Hence no part of
the head intercepts the incident rays, and the ebfcrva-

tion

TELESCOPE.

twn is taken with tlie face lool:iiig at the fpcculum, or by
what the autlior has called, by way of diftiiiflion, \.\\c front
•vi<'-:u, the back "xiiig always turned to the objoCt to be
viewed. Befide-v '-lie puUics of elevation, and of a/.imuthal
motion, there are others for the purpofe of communication,
as well as fpc.il'nnj-pipes, repeating-bells, and iignals by
clock-work, which cannot be clearly comprehended without
infpeftion, or numerous drawings to be referred to ; but the
dexterity of the obferver has rendered fome of thefe fupcr-
fluous. The large fpeculuin is enclofed in a llrong iron
ring, braced acrois with bars of iron, and an encloiurc of
iron and tin (heets makes a cafe for it ; it is lifted by three
handles of iron attached to the fides of the ring, and is put
into and taken out of its proper place by the help of a move-
able crane, running on a carriage, which operation of coiirfe
requires great care. Three fmall vanes attached to the edge
of the tube at the mouth, afiift to put tlie line of coUiraatioa
right, wlicn they are feen refleAed from thefpeculum to the
eye-piece. We viCted Slough lately, with a view of ex-
amining all the minutiae of the llupendous apparatus tliat is
rendered neceifary for the management of this huge telefcope,
and that can only be well defcribed on the fpot, and found
the fubftance of a letter written by the late Mr. Smcaton on
this fubjeft, immediately after a vifit for the exprefs purpofe
of infpe<fting]the apparatus then in exiilence, fo accurate, that
we avail ourfelves of this fource of information ; and as the
letter which is before us is a copy taken from the writer's
own manufcript, we have no doubt of its authenticity. It
relates however principaily to the twenty-feet inftrument.

Gray's Inn, Nov. 4th, 1785.
" My dear friend,
*' Since my laft, I have been to pay my vifit to Mr. Her-
fchel, and according to my promife, proceed to give you
fome account of what I have feen ; and indeed he has fo
much originality about him, as well as natural ingenuity,
accompanied with great readinefs and dexterity, that to
enter into the detail would be far to exceed the bounds of a
letter ; I will therefore enter into the great outhnes, and fill
up as I can. You muft know that, till this vifit, I have
held the doftrine about telefcopes that I beheve is the com-
mon one ; that, having fixed upon a proportion that you by
experience find to do well in any one fpecies of telefcope,
what you are to expcft from any other fize of the fame
fpecies, is in proportion to the fquare root of the length ;
fo that increaCng the length four times, your telefcope will
allov; you to take an image of double the diameter ; every
point of it being illuminated with the fame quantity of light,
and painted with an equal degree of dillinftnefs and pre-
cifion. This idea and expeftation I carried with me to
Thornhill, and carried the fame to Clay-Hall ; but I did not
bring it back with me. Mr. Herfchel's doftrine will illuf-
trate his purfuits better than minute defcriptions. What-
ever his doftrine originally was, experience has taught him
that large furfaces of fpeculums are not to be ground and
poHfiied fo as to preferve fo accurate a figure as thofe of a
fmall or moderate fize ; he therefore divides the maximum
that telefcopes may be expefted to bring out, into three
diftinft clafTes ; firft, the greateft poffible degree of magni-
f)-ing power, where there is a fufiiciency of fight ; fecondly,
the greateft degree of diftinftnefs, where there is alfo a fuf-
ficiency of light, but where the natural fize of the objcft
does not require the greatefl. degree of magnifying power ;
thirdly, the greateft degree of light, where the objeifls are
naturally obfcure, whicn will afford difcoveries that cannot
Jse brought out cithpr by great degrees of magnifjing power,

or a capacity of diftinftnefi, where, on tliefe aecountJ, ii
fufficiency of light is wanting. In conformity with this doci,
trine, his principal difcovenes have bivii made ujHiii the
(tars, where the greateft degree of niagnifyiiig powers have
been required, and ufed with his original telefcope of fivcn
feet focal length, which lie has pufliL-d to between fix and
feven thoiifai,d times. The givateti difcovenes liave alfo been
made with thefe, where the greateft diftinttnefs has been
required, and a moderate degree of magnifying power ; the v
diameter of the fpecuhim of this telefcope being no more
than 6A inches : and alfo, for tlie fame purpofe, he finds liii
ten-feet telefcopes applicable, the diameter being 9 inches'*'
but for obji fts naturally obfcure, lie can dift initly (ee an objeA
with his twenty-feet telefcope tlie diameter 19 inches, (which
is feldom charged with a magnifying power of more than
200 times,) which the others will not reach. With this te-
lelcojv; he is now and has been for fome time paft at work,
as he calls it, fweipmg the heaveas. The whole apparjiliii
can upon occafion be turned to any azimuth, but is chiefly
ufed with th« telefcope turning in the plane of the meri-
dian. The inferior or fpcculum end of the tube is fup-
ported immediately upon the ground ; the other end of the
tube is raifed and lowered by a tackle, fupportcd at top upon
a double equilateral triangle (or thereabouts) ; the obferver
is alfo hoifted up in a chair, that works on rollers, upon the
inclined legs of the triangle next the eye-glafs ; and the
eye-glafs is brought to anfwcr to this ftraigiit line by Aiding
the butt of the telefcope near the centre of the whole ma-
chine ; and by the fame means it can be put into a vertical
pofition. The raifing the chair and the flidiiig of the butt
are done by feparate tackles refpeftively, touched only f)c-
cafionally ; but the main tackle that raifts the telefcope,
when brought to itj intended elevation, that i^ polar dif-
tance, is worked by a diftinft motion, that caufes it to rife
and fall alternately through a fpacc of two degrees of the
meridian, which being done with fome degree of brilkncfs,
a plot in the heavens is examined at once of two degr"-^
broad, the motion of the heavens in AR bringing on the
objedls in fucccftion. By way of regifter, large (heets of
paper are prepared, marked and numbered, being ruled hito
parallel long and crofs lines at a quarter of an inch diftance ;
a fmall fquare of this kind repreft-nting a quarter of a de-
gree in AR and declination: all thofe that are examined
being marked with a crofs, and thofe that have been feen,
but not fully examined, with a ftroke one way ; and when af-
terwards feen to fatisfaftion, the crofs is completed. The
place and fpecies of the objeft are alfo marked upon the
paper. In this operation, three perfons are concerned ; a
labourer works continually the handle backwards and for-
wards for performing the deftined range ; and in this he it
prevented from ranging too little or too much, by a fmall
piece of machinery, that ftrikes a bell at each end of the
range ; he alfo ftops on notice : and if any thing comes re-
quiring this notice, and the objeft to be pnrfued, the tele-
fcope can by an apparatus, which occafionally heaves it from
its meridian bearing, purfue it in right afcenfion for near a
quarter of an hour ; and that tliere may be no need for the
obferver's eye to be taken from the eye-glafs, an afiiftant
( Mr. Herfchel's fifter) fits in an adjacent room with the
fquared fheet before her, who notes down and in a book
writes what is diSated. The time fhe has by the clock
facing her, and the polar diftance by a piece of machinery,
which continually (hews the degree and minute, and is
worked by a ftring aftuatcd by the telefcope in rifing and fall-
ing, which comes into the room, and winding round a barrel,
performs the requifite motions. The telefcope is fct to its
N n 2 altitude

TELESCOPE.

altitude by a fmall quadrant iixcd over it, aiid the corre-
^oiideut index is regulated anfwerable to the ft retching of
the cord of communication, by obferving the Hrft known
liar that paflTes of Flamftead's catalogue. By this means,
what has been done and what is to do is diftinftly fecn
by the fheets. In this way, many hundred nebulas have been
difcovered, not only unknown before, but which no ordinaiy
telefcopes will reach. The fpeculum of the great telefcope
of 40 feet is cad, but wasnot got home ; it is four feet diame-
ter, and about lojo lbs. weight. Mr. Herfchel tells me
there is a wanlioul'e in Thames-llreet, where they keej) for
fide metal ready made into ingots, of which they have two
forts, what they call white metal and bell-metal ; I fuppofe
fuch as the bells of clocks are made of, but he did not know
exaAIy their compofition : for his fpeculum, they put two
ingots of bell-metal to one of white metal. He thinks it a
lower metal than what he ufed for his former fpecula of 19
inches, viz. yf ounces of tin, to 20ouiices of copper. I am not
fure, however, whether I remember right, but you probably
■^vill guefs. He does not propofe it to magnify more than
the prefent one of 19 inches, but to. take the whole advan-
tage in light, he makes all his fpecula flat upon the back
fide. The thicknefs of this lail great one at the edge was to
have been two inches, but by fome (lirinking in the mould,
and particularly in the middle, I underlland it is not there
above I J inch, and alfo Icfs at the edge than it was to have
been, fo that it is hollow in the back as well as face ; but as
it came pretty well upon the face, he promifes to make
ufe of it ; and when he has got thus furnifhed, he promifes
to caft another, having duplicates of all he makes, fo that
while one is in ufe, another can go to the polifher. They are
made to be enclofed in brafs boxes, and their weight lays
limply upon feveral thickneffes of cloth, and are polifhed in
tliefe boxes, and are made to go in and take out fo con-
veniently, that they are very frequently put into their tubes
and tried with an objeft while under the operation of poli fil-
ing ; and to thefe frequent trials he afcribes the principal
caufe of his fuccefs in thefe operations.

******

I remain, dear fir,
ever your's,

J. Smeaton.

We have only to add farther, on this fubjedl, what we
leai-nt in a converfation with fir William Herfchel, that he
prefers fingle lenfes, before what are called achromatic eye-
pieces, from an idea that more light is thus had for both
his 20 and 40 feet refleftors, and that greater poiuer may
thus be obtained for his fmaller inftruments. We have, how-
ever, to regrot, that his mode of giving the parabolic curve
to the great fpeculum, by mechanical means, muft for the
prefent remain a fecret, for the difclofurc of which we feel
th.it we have no right to afli, while thire is an exifting
manufactory that might be injured thereby. The peculiar
advantage of the Herfchelian conftruftion is, that there is
no light loft by a fecqnd reJlcHion, and that the large quan-
tity of polifiied furface reflefts more rays than can be col-
lefted by any other means. The weight of the metal,
which is very brittle when of the beft mixture, made it
neceffary to have a prevailing portion of copper in the large
fpeculum, which is, therefore, liable to be the fooner
tarniflied, and to require more frequent poliftiing than
would have been requiiite, if the beft proportion for bright-
nefs could have been preferved in the ingredients of the
compound metal : but what is defeftive in quality, is com-
penfated by the quantity of poliihed furface. It is hardly
neceffary to inform the pradical aftronomer, that when the

4

greatcil powers are ufed, both tlie light and the field of
view, and confequent time of apparent paffage through the
field, are proportionably diminished. We underftood the
ingenious and dextrous obferver to fay, that inftruftion
and praAice are neceffary to enable any other perfon to
follow a ftar or planet with the forty-feet refleftor ; for that
a heavenly body feen with one of the higheft powers does
not continue in the field more than a few fcconds of
time, unlefs the motion of the tube is regulated fo as to
keep pace with the app.vent motion of the body ; and this
is probably the reafon why few perfons have been in a
iituation to form an eftimate of the merits of this tranfcendant
inftrument. For the detail of all the parts, fee vol. Ixxxv.
of the Philof. Tranf. of London, part ii. 1795.

5. Oti the Potiiers, isfc After having described the moft

convenient conftrudlions of a telefcope, of both the dioptric
and cata-dioptric kinds, we propofed to fhew how their
powers may be praftically varied and eftimated. We have
already feen, in our feftion on the theory of telefcopes, how
the powers may be calculated, when the focal diiiances of
the glafles are known. In telefcopes with one objeft-glafs,
or concave fpeculum, and one eye-glafs, the folar foci of
which may be called F andyrefpeftively, the power P may

F
be always expreffed by — ; but F varies inverfely with the

diflance of an objeft viewed, while /remains the fame, there-
fore the power P will vary alfo inverfely witli the diftance.
So long ago as in the year 1740, Benjamin Martin, to whofe
ingenuity the praftical opticians of the prefent day are
much indebted, propofed to determine diftances at one fta-
tion by this variation ofpoxuer in a long telelcope ; but as the
diftance increafed, the proportional elongated portion of
the Hiding tube containing the eyc-glafl'es became fo fmall,
that the icale was too hmited to be of any real ufe. We
mention this circumftance, merely to ftiew that the fame tele-
fcope with the fame glafles has its powers natur.illy varying
with the diftance, but in an inverfe ratio, until the incident
rays become parallel in confequence of the great diftance of
the radiant objed; ; hence we may account for the reafon
why the famous Short attributed to his telefcopes powers
which they did not poflefs, when directed to very diftant
objefts. But, generally ipeaking, when we fay that a tele-
fcope magnifies fifty times, we are underftood to mean, that
it enlai-ges the diameter of the fun, or of fome dijlant objeft,
fo many times ; becaufe in this cafe F and / remain both
unaltered. (See Lens, 5.) But when the objeft viewed
is at no great diftance, calhng the elongated portion of the
folar focus e, and the diftance d, Martin has ftiewa that

F -f- f X F
^ : F :: F -{- e : d, or that = d; and he pro-

e

pofed to determine the quantity of e in all fituations by me-
chanical meafurement. Now fuppofing the power to be
confidered as always detemiined from the folar focus of an
objeft-glafs or fpeculum, in telefcopes of the fimpleft con-
ftruftion, this power, wliere the objeft-glafs or fpeculum re-
mains the fame, can be increafed only by fliortening the focus
of the eye-glafs or eye-piece, when it is compofed of two
glafles ; but there is a limit in the power of dioptric tele-
fcopes conftrufted with fmgle objeft-glafles, which depends
on the prifmatic and fpherical aberrations, beyond which
limit indijlinllnefs takes place ; and even in good achromatic
and reflefting telefcopes, the eye-piece may be fhortened
until a deficiency of light renders the increafed power of
little ufe, and thus fixes a limit to ufeful power.

After a power is fixed on, in the ufe of a fimple tele-

fcopej

TELESCOPE.

fcope, fuch as admits of lufficient light, and allows a field of
fiew large enough to contain the images of tiie ob]c6t to be
examined, the magnitude of tliis power may be alcertained

F

by different means, befides — , wliicii cxpreffion is better cal-
culated to explain the theory than to define the praAical re-
fult ; for it is not an eafy matter to meafure precifely the
exaff compound {ohx focus of an eye-piece compofed of two
glatfes, nor yet that of a finglc lens, when its focus is (liort,
and confcquently its fubftaiice confiderablc in thickneis.
Neither is it eafy to obtain the exaff power of a tcrrcllrial
eye-tube conihufted on the principles of a compound micro-
fcope. The firfi. pradical method of meafuring the total
power of. a telefcope, that we (hall defcribc, is extremely
fimple, and is applicable to telcfcopes of all conftruclions,
however complex tlie calculation by theory may be, and
gives the refult with very little trouble. Whatever be the
diameter of the objcft-glafs or fpeculuni of a telefcope, in
inches and parts, tlie diameter of its image, or luminous difc,
formed in the anterior focus of the eye-piece, by the con-
denfed rays, will bear the fame proportion to that diameter,
as tl«a focal length of the eye-glafs or glafles jointly, beais
to the focal length of the objeft-glafs or fpeculum ; thefc
diameters, tiierefore, maybe fubftituted for the two foci of the
refpeftive glafles, or fpeculum and its eye-glafs, in deter-
mining the power. Different methods of meafuring the
luminous difc have been propoied ; a nicely divided (lip of
mother-of-pearl, fixed in a fmall piece of tube bearing a mag-
nifier at the oppofite end, forms a fimple inftrument, which
has been called the pearl dynamcter, (from liniot.fj.iuir, of power,
and fiETpov, a meafure,) and which anfwers the purpofe very
conveniently, when (liding within another (liort tube for the
fake of adjullment, as is feen mjig. 9. Plate XXIX.

Suppofe that the difc of a telefcope, with an obje(ft-glafs
of 3.25 inches diameter, meafures ^y^ = 1-03°^ ^n inch by

the pearl dynameter, then — — r= 54^ is the power required

to be meafured : and if the fame difc had been meafured
with a reflefting telefcope of 7.5 inches diameter of the
large fpeculum, whatever its conftruftion in other refpefts,

the power would have been — ^ =: 125. The correftnefs of

this fimple method will depend on the accuracy with which
the refpeftive diameters of the difc and objeft-glafs, or fpe-
culum, ai'e taken, and the diftance to which the telefcope is
adjufted for diftintl vifion. The powers of the four achro-
matic telefcopes, for which we have adapted our Tables I.
and II. in the next fe£tion, were taken in this way, when
Troughton's micrometer was applied as a celeltial eye-
piece, and were determined to be as follow : viz.

J"- ^ f 2.05-

30.15 focus \;^^-^ =

1.077
t .05 1 2

[3-0OO

t .052

Thefe powers, if the data had been taken with perfeft ac-
curacy, would have been refpeftively to each other as the
focal lengths of the objett-glalTes direftly, which they are
nearly, or inverfely as the vahies of the micrometrical fcrew,
which values have been tabulated, as vrill be feen in our

45.75 ditto

63.5 ditto

118.8 ditto

30.5 = power.
45.3 = ditto.
= 63.5 = ditto.
120.0 = ditto.

fubfequcnt fctlion ; thcrefot-c, when the power of one of the
telefcopes is obtained accurately by tlie pearl dynameter,
the powers of all the others may be had from the micro-
metrical values, by reciprocal proportion. Before, liovv-
ever, the dynameter is ufed, it will be nccedary to adjul) the
eye-piece to didind villon when viewing a remolr objedt,
otherwiie the diic will be too fmall, and the power larger
than when celcllial obfervalions are taken. Alfo, to avoid
millaking the anterior glafs of the eye-piece fur the difc or
diiiiiniflied image of the objetl-glafs, a llip of paper may be
(luck on the centre of the exterior face of the objecl-glafs,
the image of which will appear on the centre of the difc, and
alfill the adjullment of the dynnmeler to its true place of
diftindt vifion, which is efTential at the moment of taking the
exaft meafure of the difc. If one of the celellial eye-pieces
lias got a divided flip of pearl, as recommended by Cavallu,
to be ufed as a micrometer, the interior I-ns may be taken
out, and then the eye-piece will become a dynamcter for
meafuring the powers of all the other eye-pieces, whether
celellial or tcrrellrial, in the way we have here defcribcd ;
but it will be more convenient to u(e one with a Hiding
tube of adjullment for diftance, as made by T. Jones, of
Charing-Crofs.

As this dynameter has lately been conftniftcd in an im-
proved manner, by the maker we have juft named, and as it
has never been dcfcribed, we will here give our readers a
(hort account of its improved conllruftion. Fig. 9. of
Plate XXIX. reprefents this neat httle inftrument of nearly
its full fize, where a, b, and c, are fo many fmall tubes
within one another : the (hortcft tube, a, contains the two
plano-convex lenfes^and g, which conftitute what we have
called the pofitive, or Ramfden'a eye-piece, with the two
curved faces oppofed to each other ; and as this eye-piece
fcrews into the tube b, near the end g, it may be confidered
as a part of this tube, when fcrewed into its place : the tube
b has a (lip of the mother-of-pearl, d d, very delicately-
made, and fcrewed faft acrofs a diaphragm near its remote
end, at fuch a diftance from the lens g, that the fcrew of the
eye-piece a will adjuft the pearl for diftinft vifion, as an
objcil in the compound focus of the eye-piece, for any eye
that may have occafion to ufe it. The !lip of pearl is di-
vided into fuch minute parts, that 500 of them are equal to
an inch, and yet the eye-piece has power enough to give a
clear view of them, and to enable the eye to count the di-
viding ftrokes, of which every fifth is of double, and every
tenthof four times the length of the fubdividlng ftrokes.
When the fcale is rendered clearly vifible and legible, by the
fcrew of adjullment, the tube b isinferted into the oulermoft
tube c, which has a diaphragm and covered hole at c, and
when this hole is uncovered, tube c is brought into contadi
with the eye-piece of the telefcope, centre to centre, fo as to
receive the pencil of condenfed rays, that iifually enters the
eye of a fpedlator ; then, if the image of the objeA -glafs of
the telefcope formed at the place of the eye, is not well
defined on the llip of pearl, tube b muft be puflied into
tube c, till this will be the cafe, and then the number of divi-
fions and fub-divifions of the pearl fcale, that the little lumi-
nous circle exattly covers, will give the meafure required ;
and if the number read be doubled, becaufe they are 500th
parts of an inch, they will then be fo many parts out of
1000, and will therefore be decimal parts of an inch ; the
denominator being confidered ^ 1 00c.

Another method of afcertaining the powers of a tele-
fcope, when a dynameter is not at hand, is by what is called
falfe vifion, which requires a little prailice before it can be
applied with fuccefs. By this method, one eye views the
magnified image of a diftant objed in the telefcope ; and

the

TELESCOPE.

Uie other eye, bciug alfo ufed, but cat of the tclefcope,
projeds lliat imagu- upon a liorizontal line, bounded by foine
oblervablo diftiiiCt nniks, that can be knov !i again : then
as often as the angle lubtended at the place uf obfervation
by tlic objca, of which the image was obferved, is contained
ill the angle fubtendcd by tlic horizontal line into which
it was projeded, fo much docs the image apparently exceed
the objcd ; i. c. fo much does the tcleicope magnify. For
inftance, fup|)ofc that forty bricks in the wall of a diftant
building appealed juil to occupy the whole field of view of
any tclefcope, and that the angle fubtended by thofe bricks
meafured 50', by aiiy other inftrument, which would be
the cafe at the eighth of a mile very nearly ; then fuppofe
that the horizontal line covered by the forty magniiied bricks,
or by the luminous circle of the field of view, was bounded
by two trees, and fubtended an angle of 41° 40' ; on Uiefe

41° 40'
fuppofitions, the power would be ^ — = 50 : and in

this way, but not fo well as by the pearl dynameter, a tele-
fcope compofed of any number of glaflcs, or fpecula and
glafles, may have its power determined, without any regard
to the radii of the glafTes or fpecula, or to their refpeftive
pofitions. Should the refults of the two mctliods accord,
it may be taken for granted, that the determination arifing
from the average is fufficiently accurate. The powers of
the four telefcopes with the fame eye-piece, which we have
beTore mentioned, were taken again by this fecond method,
and found to be as in the fubjoined ftatement ; viz.

In.

30.15 focus
45.75 ditto
63.5 ditto
1 18.8 ditto

= 30-9

47.0

64.8

= 121. 6

In taking thefe meafures, it was found convenient to

make ufe of the fpace included between the two fpider's
lines of Troughton's micrometer, inilead of the whole field
of view ; which fubftitution not only prevented diilorfion,
by confining the objefts to the middle of the field of view,
but diminifhed the angle to be projedted within the dimen-
fions of the pupil of the eye, fo that the head did not re-
quire to be turned from its firft pofition in making the pro-
jeftion. Two painted ftaves were ftuck into the ground
at about 700 feet from the eye, at fuch a diftance from each
other, that they could both be fecn within about one -half of
the field of view ; the fpider's lines were then opened till they
coincided with the two ftaves, when projefted upon them by
falfe vifion, and the value of the revolutions was then
found to be as above ftated. This was done with the tele-
fcope of 30. 1 5 inches focus ; but the fame projeftion would
have taken place at the fame opening of the hues, with any
of the other three telefcopes at the fame diftance from the
ftaves ; therefore it was not neceflary to repeat this opera-
tion with the other telefcopes, becaufe the refpe£live values
of the fame opening, or number of revolutions, are given in
our Tables I. and II., as will be feen prefently, for all the
telefcopes, as fo many divifors for the common dividend.
Thus Troughton's micrometer may be ufed with great ad-
vantage in determining the power of any telefcope to which
it is adapted ; and even Cavallo's may be fubftituted for
the fame purpofe, when that eye-piece is ufed to which it
ii appropnated. But the moft convenient, as well as moft ac-

curate dynameter that we have feen, is tiiat wliich has an eye-
glafs divided, fo as to form two images of the luminous dii'c,
when the centres of the femi-lenfes are feparated by a fcrew
with a divided head. This double-image dynameter was in-
vented by Ramfden, probably foon after Dollond's objeft-
glafs micrometer was invented, and is now made by G. Dol-
lond, and alfo, with fome variation, by Thomas Jones, of
Cliaring-Crofs, who was .1 pupil of Ramfden's fchool. As
this elegant and ufeful little infirument has not been de-
fcribed, we fhall introduce a Ihort account of it in this
place. Fig. 12. Plate X.W^. of AJlronomical InJlrumentSy
reprefents the exterior appearance of Mr. Dollond's con-
ftrutlion, and _yf^. 14. its p'r-., when the covering plate is
taken off ; in both which figures the fame letters refer to
the fame parts. The frame tliat contains the fcrew is
denoted by a, and b is the interior or Hiding-tube of
brafs, made faft to the faid frame, having the divided lens at
the eye -end, near the letter of reference a mjig. 1 2 ; and c is
the outer tube, which is placed in contaft with the outei-
moft eye-glafs of the telefcope, when the luminous difc is
to be meafured, and admits of adjuftment of the tube b
to diftinft vifion of the difc : d 1% R milled head of a con-
cealed fcrew, which feparates the two femi-lenfes until the
luminous difc is feen double, with the oppofite edge of each
difc nearly in contaft, as in ^g. 13; e is the divided head
of the fcrew, or micrometrical head, with 100 divifions pro-
perly numbered ; andy is the fcale for indicating the num-
ber of revolutions of the fcrew, as the divided head e does
the parts of a revolution. The axis of this fcrew is made
faft to the frame, io as not to move from its fituation
while it revolves, and is of bell-metal ; it is made hol-
low within, and is tapped to a tlu-ead of the fame fine-
nefs as that of the exterior fcrew ; then a fmaUer fcrew of
fteel enters the tapped tube, as feen in fig. 14, and has its
other end pinned faft to the piece of brafs g i, at the point _f,
which piece carries one half of the divided lens, while the
other half is caiTied by a fimilar piece, I h, to which the
fcale_/"is alfo fcrewed faft. The foot-piece of ^ A is tapped,
fo as to receive the thick fcrew of the axis ; and a bent
fpring of metal, i h, bears againft both pieces, g I and b h, fo
as to keep the fcrews connefted with them free from (hake.
During this defcription of the concealed parts of the frame,
the mechanical reader will have anticipated, that when the mi-
crometer head, and nut d, made faft to the ax's of the thick
fcrew, turn together in the direftion tha-, .r.akes the figures
increafe, the thick fcrew will draw the :,:=ce bh, and with
it the fcale f, and one femi-lens, towards the nut : but as
the fmall fcrew of fteel is a left-handed fcrew, i. e. has its
thread winding in a contrary direftion, and is fail to the
piece g b, it will recede from the nut, and take the other
femi-lens in a contrary direftion, fo that the centres of the
femi-lens will feparate with a velocity equal to the fimi of
the contrary motions of the two femi-lenfes ; and as thefe
centres recede, the original difc will become a double difc,
as in_yff. 13, and may by feparation be made two difcs,
when the femi-lenfes are removed to their greateft diftance.
Hence, when the value of one revolution is known, the
amount of any given number of revolutions and parts is
had, as being multiples of that revolution. In the dyna-
meter before us, there is .i difc of thin horn or ivory, juft
-r'^th of an inch in diameter, in the fliding-piece that clofes
the aperture of the exterior end of tube c ; and five revolu-
tions of the fcrew juft divides this difc into two contiguous
ones, fo that each fubdivifion of the micrometer e is juft
j^g'ggth of an inch, and when doubled, may be put down in
decimal numbers. But there is another ufe of the horn
difc, befides that of giving a value to the micrcraeter ; it

fo

Telescope.

fo mucli refcmbles the luminous diio formed by the image
uf the objciit-fflals which is to be meafured, that the modf
ot dividing this difc by the fcrew may be iUuflratlve of the
mode of appUcation to the meafurement of the aftual difc
formed with dllliuft vifion, by the refraded rays that have
pafTed through the eye-tube of a telefcope.

This iuilrumeut forms, befides, a plcafmg mierofoope not
only for viewing, but for meafuring too, the real dimenfions of
any microfcopic object ; and when applied to a nicely divided
fcale, it may be afcertained whether or not tlie liorn difc
is exaftly V.,th of an inch in diameter; viz. whether or not
five revolutions of the fcrew will bring the llrokcs that in-
elude Vd th of an inch into exaft apparent coincidence ; for
if not, a correftion depending on the excefs or deficiency
inuft be applied to all meafures of a luminous difc, that are
to determine the total power of any telefcope ; or otherwife
the two lenles of tlie eye-piece muft have their Ji/lnm-c
between them fo adjufted, that five revolutions will exaftly
meafure ^' ,th of an inch ; for as the two femi-lenfes, when
brought to have their centres coincident, conllitute one of the
two lenfes of a pofitive eye-piece, as in the pearl dynameter,
und as in Troughton's micrometer, we have fliewn that
altering the diftance between thcfe lenfes, will alter their
compound focus, and confequently their magnifying power,
on which the apparent magnitude of the luminous difc
depends. In ufing this inftrumeut, the eye is applied above
the centre ot the tube i, over a in Jig. 12, and the tube c is
ufed, as in the peai-1 dynameter, for adjuftment for diftinCil
viGon of the difcs.

When Ramfden firft made the double-image dynameter,
ns now conilrudled by iVIr. Dollond, and as we have here
defcribed it, he found that there was fome play in the
fcrews after they had been in ufe for fome time, fo that they
would not immediately obey the direA and retrograde
motions of the nut J; and that the lofs thus arifing affefted
the meafure by the femi-lenfes, which did not move con-
temporaneoufly ; but in the inftrument under our examination
there is no fault of this kind.

The dynameter which Ramfden confidered as on an im-
proved conftruftion, as it regards the imperfcftion juft
noticed, is now made by his pupil Thomas Jones, who, we
have faid, has alfo improved the pearl dynameter already
defcribed. Figs. 10. and II. reprefent the interior parts of
Thomas Jones's dynameter, which we have alfo before us ;
there is no frame a here, but the tube b contains the lenfes
of the eye-piece, of which that next the eye is divided, as in
DoUond's inftrument ; and the tube c is the fame, except
that it carries a lens i, with which the divifions on the fcale
y are read, when the dynameter has its pofition reverfed,
after the meafurement is finiihed. The nut d, and divided
head e, are alfo the fame as we have defcribed ; but the femi-
Jenfes are not fixed in fliding-pieces of metal, fuch as we
have defcribed ; neither is the fcrew fimilar to what we
have above noticed. Within the tube b is an interior
tube of much fmaller diameter, and nearly of equal length,
which is divided longitudinally into two fimilar halves, which
turn on feparate pivots in a gimbal, or moveable ring, within
the remote end of the tube i, and each femi-lens is fixed in
the nearer end of its own femi-tube. Thefe femi-tubes are
marked m and n refpeftively \n.Jig. 10, and one of the
pivots in the ring is at 0 4 the other being at the oppofite
end of the diameter of the ring : the extreme ends of the
pivots turn in the tube b. The feftion of the femi-tubes,
holding the femi-lenfes, is leen in Jig. 1 1 , together with the
micrometer head and nut. The axis of the icrcw is of bell-
metal, and folid : the end nearefl to the micrometer head has
threads of double fincnefs to the end within the tube, and

5

theaftion is fo ing<-niou(ly tontrived, lliat the liim-lrnhs .itf
moved in contrarj- dircftions by the fame fcn-w, notwith-
llanding the threads all incline one way. The cylindrical nut
g is tapped for llie finer thread; and as this nut is fcrcwcd
tall to the lube b, as feen in Jig. i i. more plainly, the for-
ward motion of this axis has its velocity guided by this fmc
part ot the frrew ; and the end that enters the tube, ppffes
again!! a llud />, made fait to the femi-tube of the femi-li-ns
I ; ,ind a longitudinal count erasing fpring concealed in tube
b, and made fall to it at the lower end, .allows the fenii-tubc
to recede, but prelfes it cUife to the end of the fcrew ; then
another llud /, made fall to the femi-tube of tne femi-lens 2,
is tapped for receiving the coarfer thread on the axis of the
fame fcrew, which thus gives a double retrograde velocity
to this femi-tube, compared with what it receives from the
pulh of the finer fcrew ; and as there are two threads in the
fine fcrew for one in the coarfe one, and as both are cut on
the fame axis, the apparent motion of the femi-lens 2, it
aftually the difference ot two contrary, but contemporaneous
motions; and thefe motions are fo flow, that five revolutions
are equal to Voth of an inch, and confequently the reading is
in decimal numbers already. Otherwife, this dynameter it
applied exaftly as we have above explained.

Befides thefe dynametcrs, we have cx.Tmined a double-image
one by DoUoud, in which the microinetcr head was divided
into forty parts, and in which the ivory difc was only ,'tth of
an inch, fo that 2.50 revolutions meafured the difc, and a
doubh meafure might be obtained by making the contad of
the two difcs firft to the left and then to tlie right, in order
to make the error of zero vanifh, in which cafe half the fum
of the two meafures was the true meafure correfted for the
oppofite errors of zero, and the graduated circle or head of
the micrometer turned IlifF on the axis of the fcrew for ad-
juftment to zero. This inftrument profelTcd to have 5 x 40
:= 200 divifions in Voth of an inch, and confequently only
2000 in an inch ; but on examining the value of a revolution
Avith a fine fcale, we found that 198 divifions meafured -Vt''
of an inch : we will therefore exemplify the ufe of thit
inftrument, by ftiewing how the correction for the imper-
feftion of the fcale may be applied in a£tual praflice. In
the firft place, the fcrew is turned in a retrograde direftion
until contaft of the two difcs takes place to the left of the
original fingle difc ; in this fituation the 40 on the divided
head muft be put to zero, or the lozenge marked as a
pointer to the micrometer head, and the ftroke indicated on
the fmall fcalcy", by another lozenge or index, muft be noted ;
then turn the fcrew, firft till the two difcs unite in one, where
a fingle meafure might be taken, andtiien till they are again
in contaft to the right ; in which fituation, the whole diameter
of one difc will have crofltd the whole diameter of the other,
and therefore the fcrew and its parts will give a dcubla meafure
of the real diameter. In an aftual trial of a telefcope, this
double meafure was found to be two revolutions of the
fcrew, and 37 parts of the head, or J J of another revolution ;
and on an average of feveral trials, i'„th of an inch was found
not cxadtly equal to 200, but to 198 of the divifions of the
head, as we have ftated above ; then ' -^l of ,' th of an inch
was the double meafure of the difc ; or -, !, i v = 0'295 of an
inch was the fingle meafure ; and the diameter of the objeft-

giafs being 3.24 inches, we have the power =

.0295

no. 1 with great correftnefs, the telefcope having been pcr-
vioufly adjufted for viewing the folar fpots. This was the
determination of the power of our telefcope of 63.5 inches
focal diftance, when No. 4. of the celefti;d eye-pieces was on ;
and in the fame way aU the other powers, cclcftial or tcrrcf-

trial.

TELESCOPE.

trial, may as readily b<- obtained. T. Jones's conftruftion
is however more convenient for ufe, and is more accura-.e,
though it meafures only one difc, unlets the power be great
and confequentiy the dlfc Imall. The divided head is fixed
fait to the axis of the fcrew, and is divided into loo parts,
coo of which meafure exadly ^,th of an inch, fo that tjie
inch is fub^ivided into 10,000 of thele parts, and the
decimal numbers aie read off at once without calculation :
thus, when the difc is adjufted to appear fingle and wcU
defined, the index, which is tlie edge of the fcale /, llanda
at 100, or zero of the micrometer head, and the edge ot the
circular rim of tlie head is coincident witli the firft Itroke of
the fcale; but when one revolution of the fcrew has taken
place, the faid edge is foufld coincident with the fecond
llroke of the fcale, and fo on, as the divided liead revolves ;
wlien the two difcs were brought into coiitaft, the quantity
indicated, as feen through a lens /-, was z.95, viz. two re-
volutions, and I'j'c on the head of the fcrew ; but in this
inftrument, five revolutions, we have faid, are equal to /55th
of an inch, and therefore one revolution = -,^3, confequently
Tnmjo" or -0295 of an inch, is the meafure, as before ; fo that
all that is requiflte to do, in regillering the meafures taken
with this iuitrument, is to prefix a cipher to the figures
read off bv infpeftion, and then the decimal quantity, or
divifor, is had, without further calculation, for atelefcopc of
any aperture, either dioptric or cata-dioptric, and of any
conftruclion.

In both DoUond's and T.Jones's dynametcrs the difc is
feen without diftorfion and without prifmatic colours, and
the inftrument forms a fingle microfcope of the moft ufcful
kind ; for, by the latter in particular, fmall objefts may have
their dimenfions taken to the accuracy of ^-^i^th part of
an inch, and at the fame time the figures may be had by
infpeftion, from the fcale and its parts, to form places in
decimals when a cipher is prefixed, as we have above ex-
plained. The powers of our four telefcopes, with the eye-
piece of Troughton's micrometer, were found by T. Jones's
double-image dynameter agreeably to the fubjoiued ftate-
ment ; viz.

In.
30.15 focus

['•50 ^
1 .040

45-75

ditto

•50
.049

3-5°

^0.6 =: power.

63.5 ditto

118.8 ditto

076
3-25

= 46.0 = ditto.

0504
000

64.5

ditto.

0252

=^ 1 19.0 := ditto.

In all the three determinations of powers, the adjuftment
for vifion was to a diftant terrejlrial objeft, and confequently
thcfe are fomewhat too great. From the experience we have
had of thefe different modes of afcertaining the powers of a
telefcope, we have no hcfitation in giving the preference to
the double -image dynameter, in which the two images may
be brought into very nice contaft : whereas in the pearl
dynameter, which is alfo very good, fomething is always left
to eftimation in taking the fractional part of a divifion ; and
wheafalfe vifion is ufed, the adjuilmentof the eyes to differ-
ent diftances, one within the telefcope and the other with-
out, at the fame time, leaves confiderable uncertainty in the
fize of the projefted field of view, which will vary according
to the flate and pofition of the eye in every trial. We
aierition this laft circumftance as worthy of confideration,
becaufe feveral micrometrical determinations of the diftance
between double ftars have been made, particularly by fir W.

Herfchel, where the power of the telefcope determined by
falfe vifion is made in effeft the fcale of the meafure ; confe-
quently if the power is not accurately afligned, the meafure
of the angular diftance depending on it will be proportion-
ably erroneous. Aftronomers, we repeat, are yet in
want of an unobjectionable mode of meafuring the angu-
lar diftances of very fmall double ftars, which cannot be leen
when extraneous light is admitted into the telefcope, and
which therefore have hitherto been projefted on two lumi-
nous points, placed at meafured diftances from each other,
for the purpofe of afcertaining the apparent celeftial interval
in its magnified ftate, from a comparifon with a known ter-
reftrial interval in its unmagnified ftate, which method is
liable to confiderable uncertainty, and can only be admif-
fible upon the principle of its admitting of an average
taken from a fucceffion of meafures under different circum-
ftances.

We have already explained, in our preceding feftion, how
the powers of any telefcope that has a terreftrial eye-tube, may
be varied by the application of the celeftial eye-pieces to the
eye-end of this, by the help of adapters, and therefore we
fliall only fay further on this part of our fubjeft, that how-
ever the power is varied by changes of pofition of the eye-
pieces, or by additional field-glaffes, any of the dynameters
will give the total power, under any of the difpofitions, by
the fimple nieafurement of the difc, which we have explained ;
but (liould there be any doubt about the exclufion of the rays
incident on the extreme circular edge of the objeft-glafs by
the diaphragm, or by Troughton's new illuminator, a mea-
fured circle, or long flip of paper, ftuck to the face of the
objeft-glafs, muft neceffarily be fubftituted for the glafs itfelf,
which we were obliged to do with three out of the four of
our telefcopes, and then its image at the eye muft be fubfti-
tuted for the difc, that we have hitherto defcribed as the true
image of the glafs itfelf, which it will be only when all the
rays are tranfmitted and refrafted to a focus at the place of
the faid ditc or image.

In all refrafting telefcopes, that are not achromatic, of
which indeed very few are now made, the indiflindnefs of an
objeft is direftly as the area of the aperture, and inverfely
as the fquare of the focal diftance of the eye-glafs, when this
is fingle, becaufe the aberrations are proportional to thefe
data ; but in a reflefting telefcope, the indiftinftnefs will be,
with fpherical curves, as the fixth power of the diameter of
the large fpeculum direftly, and as the fourth power of its
focal diftance inverfely, and alfo as the fquare of the focal
diftance of the eye-glals inverfely.

The light in any telefcope, refrafting or reflefting, if we
difregard what is loft by refleftion, is direftly as the fquares
of the linear aipertures, and inverfely as the fquare of their
linear amplifications.

In refrafting telefcopes of various lengths, not achromatic,
a given objeft will appear equally bright and diftinft, when
their linear apertures, and the focal diftances of their fingle
eye-glaffes, are feverally in a fubduphcate ratio of their
lengths, or focal diftances of their objeft-glaffes : and then
alfo their linear amphfications will be in a fubduphcate ratio
of their focal lengths. But in reflefting telefcopes, and in
the beft achromatic refraftors, of various lengths, a given
objeft will appear equally bright and equally diftinft, when
their linear apertures, and alfo their linear amplifications, are
as the fquare-fquare roots of the cubes of their lengths ; and
confequently when the focal diftances of their eye-glaffes
are alfo as the fquare-fquare roots of their lengths. See
Smith's Optics, p. 140, et feq.

6. Meafures taken by MicrometriealTelefcopes. — Though the
primary ufe of a telefcope is to render a diftant objeft

vjfible,

TELESCOPE

vifible, by amplifying the vifual angle, yet its application
to the mealurement of fmall angles was an objctt tiiat en-
gaged the aftronomer's attention at no groat dillance of time
from its invention. When the apparent diameters of the pla-
netary bodies had once been increafed, fo as to fubtend an
appreciable angle at the eye of the obferver, it foon became
a matter of intcreft to meafure thofe angles in their enlarged
ilale. We have already given the defcription of the differ-
ent Micrometers that have been fucceffively a])pliod to a
telefcope for the purpofe of meafuring minute angles, and
terreftrial diftances correfponding thereto ; but we have re-
ferved our account of the means proper to [>•: ufed in thefe
operations, as conlUtuting a portion of our prefent article.
We propofe to illullrate the ufe of a few of tiie mod accu-
rate and ufeful micrometers by fuch examples, as will fuf-
fice to render the application of any other micrometer in-
telligible.

When an objeft to be viewed is remote, the rays of light
which proceed from it may be confidercd as coming from it
in parallel lines, and in this cafe the focus of tlie objeft-glafs,
or fpeculum, is the rtiorteft pofliblo ; confequently, the
power of the inllrument depending on this focal dillance, is
the fmallell poffible with the fame eye-piece ; but the rays
which proceed from a near objeft, come to the objeft-glafs
or fpeculum diverging, and confequently do not come to a
focus fo foon as in the former cafe ; fo that the power is
greater than when a diftant objett is viewed. This variation
of power depending on the diitance of the objeft viewed, is
accompanied by a new adjuftmenl of the eye-piece for dillinft
vifion in every telefcope of confiderablc magnitude ; and the
longer the focus of the objedt-glafs is, the greater is the va-
riation of power with the fame variation of diftance. Hence
the angle that is meafured by any of tlie micrometers at-
tached to a telefcope, is the true angle only when the objeft
fubtending that angle is remote ; and a correftion, depend-
ing both on the dillance and fecal length of the telefcope,
becomes neceffary for converting the apparent meafured
angle into the true one. To a want of attention to this cir-
cumftance in tlie praftical application of micrometrical tele-
fcopes to the meafurement of terreftrial diftances, is princi-
pally to be attributed the failure of their fuccefs ; and
celeftial objefts have confequently engroffed their utihty
almoft exclufively. We conceive, therefore, that we fhall
render our readers an acceptable fervice by Ihewing, not
only how fmall celeftial angles may be nieaiured by a tele-
fcope fitted up with an accurate micrometer, but alfo how
terreftrial angles, fubtended by objefts at various diftances,
may be afcertained, and their correfponding diftances be ob-
tained with great accuracy ; and that by fimple vifion at
one ftation, when the diftance is not very confiderable. The
compofer of the prefent article has made experiments with
different micrometers adapted to telefcopes of various
lengths, and can therefore illuftrate the theory by aftual
examples in fuflficient variety.

Celejlial Meafures When a micrometer of any defcrip-
tion, mechanical or optical, is propofed to be ufed with a
telefcope, it is neceffary that the value of one of its divifions
be afcertained with that identical telefcope when viewing a
remote objeft, fuch as a heavenly body ; or otherwife, that a
correftion for diftance be applied previoully to the deter-
mination of fuch value. We will firft fuppofe the objeft at
a fufficient diftance to require no correftion for want of
parallelifm of the rays of light, and will ftiew how to ap-
preciate the micrometrical fcale for fuch remote diftance
without correftion. The diameter of the fun has been fo
well afcertained by aftual mealurement of the beft inftru-
mcnts, from month to month, and from year to year, that it
Vol. XXXV.

may be taken from the Nautical Almanac, or Connoiff.mce
dcs Terns, on any giv.Mi day, as a ftandard, from which the
value of a correfponding number of divifions on the fcale of
the micrometer may be affigncd with great accuracy, after
allowance is made for apparent variation in the fun's dia-
meter by altitude ; and when the number of miuutcs and
feconds correfponding to a certain number of divifions on
the fcale is afcert.iined, the value of one divifion is readily
obtained by dividing the whole number of minutes and
feconds by the whole nimibcr of divifions that meafure the
faid quantity : and then whatever may have been the error
of the obfervation, as affi-cling the whole fcale, the quan-
tity of it belonging to one divifion will bi- only ,'„ ,V. or-jV
ot the whole, accordingly as there ware 30, 4.0, or 50 divi-
fions in the fcale that corrcfponded to the corredl diameter
of the fun. For inftance, on the 7th of Auguft 18 15, the
fun's diameter was meafured at noon by a Troughton's
micrometer, .ittached to a five-feet rcfrafting achromatic
telefcope made by Tulley, and was found to be equal to
60.65 turns of the fcrew, when taken in a vertical dirertion,
while the fun paffed horizontally between the two parallel
fpider's lines in the focus of the eye-piece. In this fituation
the altitude of the fun was fo great, that the diftVrcnce
between the refraftions of the upper and lower limbs wa«
infenfible, and therefore may be neglcfted in the calculation
of the value of the fcale of notches that indicate the revolu-
tions of the fcrew. On this day, the frmi-diametcr of the
fun, as given in the Nautical Almanac, was 15' 48".3, and
the notches correfponding to the fun's diameter were 6o.6j,

or 60 entire notches, and —^ taken from the divided head
100

of the fcrew : then

ly 48".3 X 2
60.65

= 3i".27 is the value of

one notch, or revolution of the fcrew, according to this ob-
fervation. Again, on the 15th of Oiflober, of the fame
year, the fun's diameter, at nine o'clock P^. M., was found
equal to 61.50 revolutions of the fame fcrew, ufed with the
fame telefcope, when the fun's fcmi-diameter is g^ven i6' 4". 8,
or the diameter 32' 9".6 ; but at the low altitude at which this
meafure was taken, the difference of the two refraftions of
the upper and lower limbs amounted, by the table of refrac-
tions, to 2". 6, to be fubtrafted from the real to produce the
apparent diameter, becaufc the vertical diameter was con-
trafted by this quantity, the lower limb being more elevated
by refraftion than the upper one ; therefore, according to

32' 7"

this obfervation, the value comes out ^ = S'''-^^ for

61.5 ^

each revolution ; hence th« average of tjie two mea-
fures, taken at different times, and at different altitudes, is

3 1 ". 2 7 4- 2 1 ". 3 3

^ '- ^ — -^ = 5i".j, which determination accords with

2 ■" ■'

meafuies taken at other periods, and alfo with terreftrial
mcafures fubfequcntly taken, as will appear hereafter.

When this value of the micrometer's revolutions was af-
certained, the iolar focus of the objc6l-glafs was exaftly
meafured, and found to be 63.5 inches. Three other achro-
matic telefcopes were then procured, and had the fame mi-
crometer adapted to them refpeftively, by as many rings of
brafs, which had each a male and a female fcrew : the former
to fcrew into the tube of its telefcope, and the latttr to re-
ceive the coarfe thread of the micrometer ; which rings we
have called adapters. The focal lengtbs of the rcfpcftive
objeft-glaffes were found by accurate meafurement to be
30.15, 45.75, and 1 18.3 inches; and the correfponding
O o ViducB

TELESCOPE.

values of tie micromcler'* revolution, found as above de-
feribed, v/en 66".o, 4y'.5, and i6".8 ; viz. exadly in the
fcverfe proportion of their focal lengths, as the theory re-
quires. Hence, when the value of the micrometer is known
with a telefcope of a known focal length, its value may be
had, when applied to any other telefcope of a determined
focal length, by reciprocal proportion; for as 30.15 in. :
6^.5 in. :: 3i".3 : 66".o ; and convcrfely, wlien the values
arc known, and the focal length of one of the telefcopes, the
focal lengths of all the others may be determined ; whicli- is

equally the cafe with the powers, depending folely on the
focal lengths when the fame eye-piece is ufed witli each.
When the values of tlie micrometer fcrew had been deter-
mined, both by meafuremcnt of the fun, and by mutual com-
])ar)fon of the focal lengths of the four achromatic tele-
Icopes, the two following tables were conftrufted to facili-
tate the ufe of the micrometer with any or all of the faid
telefcopes, which we fiibjoin as a fpecimcn by which other
tables may be conllrufted by the fimple arrangement of the
multiples of the value of unity.

Table I. Values of entire Re\folutions of the Micrometer's Screw, with four differept Telefcopes.

Bevol.

30- '5

45-75

63-5

118.3

Uevol.

3c

•'5

45-75

63-5

118.3

1 II

1

II

1

II

(

//

/

II

/

//

/

//

1

//

I

I 6

0

43-5

0

31-3

0

16.8

3>

34

6

22

28.5

16

10.3

8

40.8

2

2 12

I

27.0

I

2.6

0

33-6

32

35

12

23

12.0

16

41.6

8

57.6

3

3 18

2

10.5

I

33-9

0

50.4

33

36

18

23

55-5

17

12.9

9

14.4

4

4 24

4

54.0

0

5.2

I

7-2

34

37

24

24

39-0

17

44.3

9

31.2

5

5 30

3

37-5

2

36-5

I

24.0

35

38

30

25

22.5

18

^5-5

9

48.0

6

6 36

4

21.0

3

7.8

I

40.8

36

39

36

26

4.0

18

14.8

10

4.8

7

7 42

5

4-5

3

39-1

I

57.6

37

■P

42

26

47-5

19

18.1

10

21.6

8

8 48

5

48.0

4

10.4

2

14.4

38

41

48

27

33-0

19

49.4

10

38-4

9

9 54

6

31-5

4

41.7

2

3J.2

39

42

54

28

16.5

20

20.7

II

55-2

10

II 0

7

15.0

5

13-0

2

48.0

40

44

0

29

0.0

' 20

52.0

11

12.0

n

12 6

7

58-5

5

44-3

3

4.8

41

45

6

29

43-5

21

23-3

11

28.8

12

13 12

8

42.0

6

15.6

3

21.6

42

46

12

30

27.0

21

54.6

II

45.6

'3

14 18

9

25-5

6

46.9

3

38.4

43

47

18

31

10.5

22

25-9

12

2.4

14

15 24

10

9.0

7

18. 2

3

55-2

44

48

24

31

54.0

22

57-2

12

19.2

'5

16 30

10

52.5

7

49-5

4

12.0

45

49

30

32

37-5

23

28.5

12

36.0

16

17 36

II

36.0

8

20.8

4

28.8

46

50

36

33

21.0

23

59.8

12

52.8

17

t8 42

12

19.5

8

52.1

4

45.6

47

51

42

34

4-5

24

31-1

13

9.6

18

19 48

13

3-0

9

23-4

5

2.4

48

52

48

34

48.0

25

2.4

'3

26.4

>9

20 54

13

46.5

9

54-7

5

19.2

49

53

54

35

31-5

25

33-7

13

43-2

20

22 0

14

30.0

10

26.0

5

36.0

50

55

0

36

15.0

26

5.0

14

0.0

21

23 6

15

13-5

10

57-3

5

52.8

5>

56

6

36

58-5

26

36-3

14

16.8

22

24 12

15

57.0

II

28.6

6

9.6

52

57

12

37

42.0

27

7.6

H

33-6

23

25 i8

16

40.5

II

59-9

6

26.4

53

58

18

38

-^5-5

27

38.9

H

50.4

24

26 24

17

24.0

12

31.2

6

43-2

54

59

24

39

9.0

28

1Q.2

15

7-2

25

27 30

18

7-5

13

2-5

7

0.0

55

60

30

39

52-5

28

41.5

'5

24.0

26

28 36

18

51.0

13

33-8

7

16.8

56

61

36

40

36.0

29

12.2

15

40.8

27

29 42

19

34-5

14

51

7

33-6

57

62

42

41

19.5

29

44.1

'5

57-6

28

30 48

20

18.0

14

36-4

7

50.4

58

63

48

42

3-0

30

15.4

16

14.4

29

31 54

21

1-5

15

7-7

8

7.2

59

64

54

42

46.5

30

46.7

16

31.2

30

33 0

21

45.0

15

39-0

8

24.0

60

66

0

43

30.0

3'

i8.o

16

48.C

Taeli

TELESCOPE.

Table II — Value of the Parts of the Micrometer's Screw, with four different Tilcfcopcs

Parts.

30-'5

45-75

63-5

118. 3

I'arts.

30-15

45-75

63-5

1 18.3

l\n,.

30- '5

45-75

63-5

11K.3

.01

0.7

0.4

II
0-3

II
0.2

-35

II
23.1

U

15.2

II
10.9

II
5-9

.69

II
45.6

II
30.0

II

21.6

II
1 1.6

.02

1-3

0.9

0.6

0-3

•36

23.8

.5.6

"-3

6.0

.70

46.2

30-4

21.9

1 1.7

•03

2.0

1-3

0.9

0.5

•37

24.4

1 6. 1

11.6

6.3

•7'

46.9

30.9

22.2

11.9

.04

2.6

1-7

1.2

0.7

•38

25.1

16.5

U.9

6-3

.72

47-6

3'-3

22.5

12. 1

.06

3-3

2.2

1.6

0.8

•39

25.8

17.0

12.2

6.5

■73

48.2

3'-7

22.8

12.3

4.0

2.6

1.9

I.O

.40

26.4

17.4

12.5

6.7

•74

48.9

32.2

23.2

12.5

.07

4.6

3-0

2.2

1.2

.41

27.1

17.8

12.8

6.9

-75

49 5

32.6

23^5

12.6

.08

5-3

3-5

2.5

••3

.42

27.8

•8-3

'3-«

7.0

.76

50.2

33-0

23.8

I 2.8

.09

^•?

3-9

2.8

'•5

-43

28.4

18.7

'3-J

7.2

•77

50.9

33-5

24.1

12.9

.10

6.6

4-3

3-1

'•7

-44

29.1

19.1

.3.8

7-4

.78

5'-5

33-9

24.4

'3-1

.H

7-3

4.8

3-4

1.8

•45

29.7

19.5

14. 1

7-5

•79

52-2

34-4

24.7

"3-3

.12

8.0

5-2

3-8

2.0

.46

3P-4

20.0

14.4

7^7

.80

52.8

34-8

25.0

'3-5

. -13

8.6

5.6

4.1

2.2

-47

31.0

20.4

14.7

2-9

.81

53-5

35-2

25-3

'3-7

.14

9.2

6.1

4-4

2-3

.48

3'-7

20.9

15.0

8.0

.82

54.2

35^7

25^7

'3-8

•15

9.9

6.5

4-7

2-5

•49

32-4

21.2

15-3

8.2

•83

54-8

36.1

26.0

14.0

.16

10.6

7.0

5.0

2.7

.50

33-0

21.7

15.6

8.4

.84

55-5

36-5

26.3

14. 1

•17

II. 2

7-4

5-3

2.8

-5«

33-7

22.1

16.0

8-5

•85

56.2

37-0

26.6

'4-3

.18

II. 9

7.8

5.6

3-0

-52

34-4

22.6

16.3

8.7

.86

56.8

37-4

26.9

14.4

•«9

12.5

8-3

5-9

3-2

•53

35-°

23.0

16.6

8.9

.87

57-5

37-8

27.2

14.6

.20

13.2

8.7

H

3-3

•54

35-7

23-4

16.9

9.0

.88

58.1

38-3

27^5

14.8

.21

>3-9

9.1

6.6

3-5

•55

36-3

23-9

17.2

9.2

.89

58.8

38-7

27.9

14.9

.22

14.5

9.6

6.9

3-7

.56

37-0

24-3

'7-5

9-4

.90

59-4

39-'

28.2

15.0

•23

15.1

lO.O

7-2

3-9

-57

37-7

24.7

17.8

9-5

.91

60.1

39-6

28.5

15.2

.24

15.8

10.4

7-5

4.0

-58

38-3

25.3

18.1

9-7

.92

60.7

40.0

28.8

^5-i

.25

16.5

10.9

7-8

4.2

•59

38-9

25.6

18.5

9.9

•93

61.4

40.4

29.1

tSS

.26

17.2

1 1.3

8.1

4-3

.60

39-6

26.1

18.8

10.0

•94

62.0

40.9

29.4

'5-7

.27

17.8

II. 7

8.4

4-5

.61

40-3

26.5

19.1

10.2

•95

62.7

4>-3

29.7

'5-9

.28

18.5

12.2

8.8

4-7

.62

41.0

26.9

19.4

10.4

.96

63-4

41.7

30.0

16.1

.29

19.2

12.6

9.1

4-9

-63

41.7

27-4

19.7

10.5

97

64.0

42.2

30^4

16.3

•30

19.8

13.0

9-4

5.0

.64

42-3

27.8

20.0

10.7

.08

64.7

42.6

30-7

16.4

•31

20.5

13-5

9-7

5.2

.65

42.9

28.3

20.3

10.9

99

65-3

43- >

31.0

16.6

•32

21.2

13-9

lO.O

5-3

.66

43-6

28.7

20.7

11. 1

1.00

66.0

43-5

31-3

16.8

•33

21.8

1 4- 3

10.3

5-5

.67

44-3

29.1

21.0

1 1.2

•34

22.5

14.8

10.6

5-7

.68

44.9

29.6

21.3

11.4

The ufe of thefe tables will be beft underftood from a
few real examples.

1. The fun's diameter was taken by Troughton's micro-
meter, applied to the telefcope of 45.75 inclies focal length,
on the 27th of May 1815, when his altitude was fo high
as to require no correftion tor the difference of the two rc-
fraftions of the lower and upper limbs, and was found equal
to 43.62 turns of the fcrew : then by Table I. 43 =
■31' io".5, and by Table II. .62 = 26".9, the fiftn of
which is 3i'37'''.4, the diameter given in the Nautical
Almanac being 31' 37". In this obfervation the thicknefs
of the fpider's line was allowed for.

2. On the 7th of Auguft 1815, the fun's diameter at
noon meafured 60.60 turns, when the micrometer was ufed
with the telefcope of 63.5 inches focal length ; whence we
have 60 in Table I. = 31' 18", and .60 in Table II. =
i8".8, making together 31' 36".8, the diameter in the
Nautical Almanac for that day being 15' 48".3 X 2 =
31' 36".6. When thefe meafures were taken, the telefcope
was on an equatorial ftand, and the parallel lines were fo
placedj that the fun's body paffed along the fpacc con-
tained between them, without any apparent variation of

altitude, which pofition is neceffary in every obfervation
taken with Troughton's micrometer, when the objeft has
an apparent motion.

3. On the 14th of Auguft 1815, the moon's diameter
was meafured about 9 P.M. not far from the meridian,
when her altitude was about 18', with Troughton's micro-
meter, attached to the telefcope of 45.75 inches focus, and
was found equal to 41.52 turns of the fcrew ; the horizon-
tal fcmi-diameter, according to the Nautical Almanac, be-
ing at noon 15' 4", and at midnight 15' o", confcquently at
the time 15' l". To the horizontal diameter 30' 2", add the
augmentation at 18^ altitude, (from Table IV. of the rr-
guJjflte tables,) iiix. 5", and the diameter in altitude will be
30' 7". Now from Table I. take the value of 41 turns
= 29' 43".5, and from Table II. take the value of .52 =
22". 6 ; the fum of which two values will be 30*6". i,
which muft be incrcafed by 5", the difference of refrailion
at 18', and 18° 30' of altitude; fo that the diameter, whtn
the reduftions are all made, is too great by 4" nearly,
which error may be in the limar tables, or in the obferva-
tion, which was made when the moon's age was only eleven
days, and therefore under an unfavourable circumftancf ;
O o 2 for

TELESCOPE.

tor ii! ihis liiuauon the illuminated portion of the moon is
always apparently larger than the dark portion.

4. The fun's diameter was again taken at nine o clock
A M. on the 15th of Oaober, with the telefcope of 63.5
inches, and was found equal to 61.56 turns, vvhen the alti-
tude was fuch as to require an addition of 2 '.6 for the va-
riation of ihc rcfrattion ip half a degree of altitude ; and
here we have from Table I. 60 4- I = 31' 18" + 3i".3 -
,,'4g".3, and from Table II. .56 = if .5, making, to-
gether with + 2".6 the correftion, the fum 32' g".^, the
diameter given in the Nautical Almanac being i6'4".8 X z

= 32' 9"-6- r T • 1

In all tiiefe examples, as well as in the data from which
the preceding tables were computed, Troughton's microme-
ter was ufed as a celeftial eye-piece, where the objed was
confequently inverted, which is the manner in which tins
micrometer was intended to be ufed ; but according to the
conftruaion of the modern teiTeftrial eye-tube, this micro-
meter may be fubftituted, by help of an adapter, for the
two glaffes at the eye-end of this tube, in which fituation
the magnifying power is very confiderably increafed, and
confequently the fcale rendered capable of meafuring fmaller
portions of a fecond, than in the ufual way, particularly
when there is light enough in the field of view, :. e. when
the objeft-glafs has a large diameter. When the microme-
ter in queition is applied to the eye-end of the terreftrial
tube of the telefcope of 45.75 inches, one turn is equal
to only i6".03, which (hews the power to be fomewhat
greater than when the 118.8 inches telefcope was ufed as a
celeftial telefcope with the fame micrometer ; and with the
telefcope of 63.5 inches, which has three pair of feparate
field-glafTes, the terreftrial powers with the laid micrometer
gives the refpcclive values of one turn of the fcrew 9".97,
"/".gS, and 5". 15 ; fo that this telefcope has four various va-
lues of the micrpmetrical fcale, which may be ufed in fuc-
ceffion for meafuring the fame angle, according to circum-
ftances, and each variety may have a feparate table computed
for its particular ufe. This application of Troughton's
micrometer to the terreftrial tube, and the additional pairs
of field-glafTes, were contrived by the author of this article,
and led to another addition, wlach in itfelf admits of ftill
greater varieties. On obferving that the modern terreftrial
eye-tube is in faft a compound micro/cope, it occurred to him,
that there are three modes of increafing the power of this
inftrument ; firft, by (hortening the compound focus of the
eye-glaffes ; fecondly, by fhortening the compound focus of
the pair of field-glaffes ; and thirdly, by lengthening the dif-
tance between the compound eye-glafs and compound field-
glafs (or objeft-glafs of the microfcope). The two former
modes had now been tried, and afforded the varieties in the
meafures which we have fpecified : the laft one was therefore
reforted to thus ; a tube was made to Aide within the teiTef-
trial tube, after its own eye-piece was withdrawn, and the
micrometer was made to fcrevir into this moveable tube, fo
as to vary the diftance of the micrometer glafles from the
field-glaffes of the telefcope at pleafure. The refult proved
as was expefted ; every new pofition for diftance gave a new
value to the fcale of the micrometer, and the two extremes
of thefe values, with the 63.5 inch telefcope, were 10" and
5* refpeftively p&r revolution of the fcrew ; at leaft the
points were found by experiment on the Aiding tube, where
tliefe values, and alfo the intermediate ones 9", 8", 7", and
6" per revolution, were marked with a graver. The dif-
tances of thefe points depended on the field-glaffes ufed
with the Hiding tube ; and three fets of points were inferted,
to correfpond to the three pairs of field-glaffes, any one of
which admitted the fcale to be fubdivided into tenths of a
10

fecond. This mode of applying a (liding micrometer in the
terreftrial tube is as ufeful as novel ; for when the pofition is
made for an exaft number of feconds p^r tiu-n of the fcrew,
the tables are difpenfed with ; the only operation being to
multiply the number of turns by the number of feconds be-
longing to the pofition of the Aiding tube, and then to re-
duce them to minutes by 60 as a divifor. A few examples
will render thefe new methods of ufing the micrometer per-
fcftly intelligible^ and will at the fame time Aiew that they
contribute greatly to accuracy, by a fpecies of repetition of
the meafurc, of which they are capable. We will firft ex-
emplify the method without the Aiding tube.

I. 'The meafures of Jupiter's diameter, taken by the 63.5
inch telefcope on the 19th of April 181 6, were as follow ;

Bv Troucrhton's micrometer ufed 7 , _ " " o

' fn- 1 ■ f 1-43 X 31.3 — 44.8

as a celeftial eye-piece - 3 ^j j j -r-r

By N° I. 6f the field-glaffes withl ^

the terreftrial tube - J

By N° 2. of ditto - - 5.53x7.98 = 44.13

By N° 3. of ditto - - 8.32x5.15=42.85

4)173-98

Average of the four meafures

43-495

The values of the tliree field-glaffes had been taken by
ten-eftrial meafurement at 700 feet, on the 31ft of March
1816, and may require farther correction.

2. On the 30th of April 1816, Jupiter being very nearly
in oppofition, his diameter was meafured with the 45.75 inch
telefcope, wliich has only two varieties, a celeftial and a ter-
reftrial application of the micrometer, and the refult was
thus : viz.

By the celeitial meafure, taken to the!
• . , r y 1.04 turns,

right ot zero " ' ' J

By the fame, taken to the left of zero - 1.05 ditto.

2)2.09

By the terreftrial meafure 2.72 x 16". 03

1.045

II
= 43-52
= 43-50

2)87.02

The average of the celeftial and terreftrial meafures = 43.5 1

3. On the 25th of Oftober 1815, the following meafures
were taken of the diameter of Mars with Troughton's mi-
crometer attached to the Aiding tube of the telefcope 63.5
inches ; •vix,.

Firft pofition at the dot of 7"! '^'""'- " _ "

with third field-glafs - ]" 3-43 X 7 -24.01

Second pofition with ditto - 2.96 x 8 ^ 23. 6S

Third pofition with ditto - 2.68 x 9 = 24.12

Fourth pofition with ditto - 2.40 x 10 = 24.00

With N° 1. field-glafs and its'? ,

dot 4" - - . I 0-0 X
With N° 2. field-glafs and itsi

dots" - - - i 3-0 X

With the micrometer ufed as a^j

celeftial eye-piece - j '' ' 3 -3 — 4-

4 = 24.00
8 = 24.00

7)167.91
23.987

Thefe

TELKSCOPE.

Thefe obfervations of Mars were niadt> near the meridian,
when he was a little paft oppofition, and confequcntly when his
diameter was near a niaximiini.whiolicircunillance we mention,
becaufe aftronomers have given very difeoidant accounts of
the apparent diameter of this planet ; and perhaps no deter-
mination has beL'n more accurate than we have here given.

4. The iun's diameter was mealured at noon on the 24th
of September 18 16, by Trougliton's micrometer adapted
to the 30.15 inch telefcope, iji the following manner ; viz.

II I II

29.21 X 65.7 = 31 59.1

tions, unconncded with each other, k. i".24 for i-acli unit
read on the vernier, and this datcrminaliun was afurwards
confirmed by an obfcrvaiion of the fun taken on the zcth

1919"

September 1816, viz. - - = I ".24 very nearly. After

having given a value to DoUond's micrometer thus fitted up,
on the 2 ill of Auguft 1816, the diameter of Saturn's riim
was meafured when its longer diainetcr was very nearly hori-
'O'ltal, both to the right and left of zero, and was found

By the celeftial power - 29.21 x 65.7 = 31' ^g.'l •^l"*' to one fubdivifion and 7.7 on the vernier, or 25 + 7.7

By theterreftrial, with theeye-l ^ _ = 32.7' parts of the vernier ; then 32.7 x l".24 = 40". J48

tube Hided to dot 30" I "3-92 X 3° - 3' 57-6 is the meafure of the greatefl length of Saturn's ring taken

By the terrelhial, at dot 28" 68.50 X 28 =31 58. 0

By the terreftrial, at dot 25" 76.74 x 25 =31 58.5

4)127 53-2

Average meafure ...

By the Nautical Almanac 15' 59".! X 2

= 3«
= 3»

58-3
58.2

On the Aiding tube of this telefcope, the dots on the fcale
run from 31" to 19", at which dots the powers are to eacii
other inverfely as thefe numbers ; but the whole diameter of
the fun cannot be taken on the fcale of the micrometer when
a greater power is ufed, than when the pofitioii is at
dot 25", or middle dot of the Aiding tube, where the power
is about 82.

In thefe four examples, the diameters meafured were the
vertical diameters, for taking which Troughton's microme-
ter is peculiarly adapted ; but the horizontal diameter of a
body in motion cannot be taken with the fame accuracy with
this inftrument, on account of the difficulty of keeping the
extreme edges of the objeft in contaft with the fpidcr's
lines, while the final .idjuftment of the meafure is making.
For this ptirpofe, DoUond's divided objeft-glafs micrometer
IS more convenient, and may have its fcale appreciated, and
tl»e values thereof tabulated in the way we have already ex-
plained. For inftance, we obtained a divided obje£t-glafs,
with the requifite adjuftmcnts both for circular motion and
for the feparation of the centre of the femi-lenfes, of three
inches and a half diameter, and fitted it over the objeft-end
of the 45.75 inch achromatic of TuUey, while the original
objeft-glafs, of the fame dimenfions, remained in its place.
The focus of this divided objeft-glafs was fo long, that it
fhortened the original focus only to 40.3 inches. The fcale
of the objeft-glafs is divided into inches and twentieth parts
of an inch, one of which parts or fubdivifions is again re-
duced by a vernier into twenty-five fubordinate parts, fo
that -j'j- of -jJj, or -sTroth of an inch, is the fmallefl quantity
appreciable bv the vernier. On the gih of AuguR i8i6,
when the fun's diameter was 31' 37", or 1897", the oppofite
limbs of the two apparent images of the fun coincided
when the fcale indicated three inclies, one-twentieth part,
and eleven towards 25 on the vernier, after an allowance
was made for the index error by a crofTed obfervation of a
very fmall angle. Now thefe numbers reduced into the
loweft denomination, give 1536 parts of the vernier, and

1897"

— 2__ =; i".25r is the value of one of thefe parts ; but by
1536

a terreftrial meafureraent, to be explained hereafter, the
value taken at 700 feet diftancc, with a correftion for want
of paralleUfm of the rays at this diftance, the value came

888" „ , r u- ^ J •

out- = i".245; the average 01 which two dettrmioa-

713

near tlie meridian, when the patfage was at nearly 28 minutes
pall eleven P.M. ; and, confequently, when the planet was at
no greater dillance than eight days from oppofition. On
the 4th of Auguft 1815, tile gieateft diameter of Saturn':,
ring however, meafured with Troughton's micrometer at-
tached to the 63.5 inch telefcope, had been found by
careful meafurement = 1.50 x 3i"-3 = 46".95, the planet
being then only three days from oppofition. By the
fame apparatus the ring had been made 48".2 on the loth
of September 1815, and on the 25lh of the fame month
only 43". Thefe difcrcpancies (hew that no dependence can
be placed in horizontal meafures made with Troughton's
micrometer when the olijeft is in apparent motion, but for all
other meafures of fm.iU angles, it is no doubt the bell that
has been yet invented.

Dr. Brevvfter's micrometer has the fame adv.int.igc as
DoUond's, when the divided lens is ufed as the Aiding lens
within the tube; but the power of the patent telelcopes
hitherto conftrui'.ted is fo fmall, that an angle can feldom be
meafured with it nearer than to 10", and frequently not fo
near. The principle, however, is apphcable to telefcopcs
of larger dimenfiDns.

When DoUond's and Troughton's micrometers are both
apphed to the telefcope of 45.75 inches, the value of the
fcale of Troughton's becomes ."Utered from 43". 5 to 49".4,
namely, in the invcrfe ratio of the diminifhed focus ; and
they may both be ufed with great convenience at the fame
time, in which cafe, one may meafure the angular length
and the other the angular breadth of tiie fame body ; or,
if the body 'oe celeftial, one may give the horizontal and
the other the vertical dimenfions at the fame inftant. This
mode of applying two micrometers, one optical and the
other mechanical, at the fame time, affords a mnuial check
on the meafures of eacli, when the body is round, like one
of the heavenly bodies, and gives a very falisfadlory refult,
when it can be adopted. When Troughton's micrometer
is ufed as a celeftial eye-piece, along with DoUond's micro-
meter attached to the telefcope 45.75, ftiortened to 40.3,
the double images are formed beyond both eye-glaffes,
reckoning from the eye, and gives there I ".24 as the value
of one uroke on the vernier ; whereas when a common
celeftial eye-piece is ufed with DoUond's, the fecond glafs
of the compound piece (hortens the focus of the objed-
glafs a little, and the images arc feen between the two
glafl'es of the eye-piece ; confequently the value of Dol-
lond's micrometer varies a trifle with every difte-rent eye-
piece, which is not the cafe with Troughtoii.'s, where the
image is always in the unaltered focus ol the objett-glafs.
On the 26th of September 1816, a careful lines ol ob-
fervations W.1S made of the fun's diameter with both Trough-
ton's and DoUond's micrometers ufed at the fame time,
when the former gave 38.85 X 49".4 = S''59"-2, and the
other 15.47 (3 ii. I div. 22 on vcm.) x i".2i := 31'
58".28, the diameter of the fun by the Nautical Almanac

being

TELESCOPE.

being 31' 59". 2 horizontally, and 3 1' 57",9 vertically, at the
altitude of 38".

TerreJIrial Meajures In the examples which we have

given of ccleftial angular mcafures taken by a microme-
trical telefcope, no correait)ii of the meafured angle was
iieceflary, becaufe tlie rays of light coming from thefe objefts
may be confidcred as parallel on entering the objeft-glafs,
and as always converging to the fame focal point, where the
image is formed ; hence the magnifying power of the celef-
tial telefcope does not vary. But when tcrreftrial objefts
are viewed at different diftances, there is a deviation from
parallehfm in the courfe of the rays, which increafes in the
inverfe ratio of the diftance, and which lengthens the focus
of the objeft-glafs, and confequently increafes the power
of the inftrument, even with the fame glaffcs. This altera-
tion in the effeftive length of a telefcope is praftically dif-
covered by the adjuftment of the eye-piece for diflinft vifion,
which is neceffarily different at different diftances from the
objeft viewed. But we have fhewn, that the fcales of
Troughton's and of Dollond's micrometers will vary with
the variable powers of even the fame telefcope, and there-
fore will require a correftion for each variety of power, or,
in other words, for each variety of terreftrial dlltance.
The determination of thefe varying correftions, therefore,
is. effential to the accuracy of the meafures taken by a mi-
crometer in all cafes, where the incident rays of light come
diverging from objefts placed at moderate diftances. If we
put_/" for the folar or principal focus of the objeft-glafs of
any telefeope, and d for the diftance of an objeft from the
faid abjeft-glafs when ufed, the addition to the length
of the folar focus, which we will call e, according to the

laws of dioptrics, may be found by this theorem, — . ,

d-f

Jiat is, the fquare of the folar focus, divided by the dif-
tance in the fame meafure, when diminifhed by one focal
diftance, will be the elongation, or excefs of the lengthened
focus over the folar focus ; then as the powers are to each
other refpeftively as the focal lengths, with the fame eye-
piece, we fhall have f '■ f -\- c : : true angle : meafured or
apparent angle ; and converfely, zs, J -^ c : f ■.: apparent

angle : true angje. For inftance, let it be required to
afcertain what is the neceffary correftion for an angle, itiea-
fured by a telefcope of 63.5 inches focus, that is fubtended
by one yard at a hundred yards diftanfce from the objecl-
glafs. By a fimple cafe in plain trigonometry, the true angle
fubtended by a yard, at a hundred yards diftance, is 34'
59". 4, or 34'.99 ; and 63.5 inches are 1.764, when reduced
into the denomination of yards and decimal parts ; then

1.764 X 1.764 3.111696 , , . , ,

— — 0.03167 =«, the mcreafed

100 — 1.764
length of the focus

98.236
and

1.764 4- 0.03167 X 34'.99 _
1.704

35'.6i8, or 35' 37".o8 will be the meafured angle, therefone
35' 37".o8 — 34' 59".4 = 37".68 is the corrtftion to be
added to the true angle, in order to obtain the apparent
angle, that would have been the true ang!e alfo, if the focus
of the objeft-glafs had remained unaltered at the diftance of
100 yards. But it is the correftion anfwering to the appa-
rent or meafured angle that we want, and the determination
of this requires a tranfpofition which is operofe, and there-
fore objeftionable in praftice ; on which account we recom-
mend each furveyor, military tadlician, and leveller, who is
difpofed to avail himfelf of the ufe of a micrometrical tele-
fcope, for fhortening his labours, to ufe tables adapted to
the focal length of his own telefco;)e, which may give by in-
fpeftion the correftion proper in all cafes for reducing the
apparent angle into the true one, and •vice iierfd. Tables III.
and IV. which are fubjoined, were computed for this pur-
pofe, from the theorem juil exemplified, and are adapted for
a telefcope of 63.5 inches focal length, to which we have
added Table V., as a general table for finding the diftance,
in yards and decimal parts, con'efponding to any angle,
from i' to 30' 59" inclufively ; even to the accuracy of a
fingle fecond, when that angle is fubtended by an exacl yard.
The labour of conftrudiing thefe tables has been confiderable,
but the facility and accuracy with which they give the de-
fired refults, has amply repaid the computer, and, it is pre-
fumed, will be a recommendation to the notice of our
fcientific readers, to whom their application may in many
cafes be found ufeful.

TABtE

TELESCOPE.

Tablk III. — For converting the true into the
apparent Angle.

Table IV. — For converting the apparent into the
true Angle.

True

A„ale

0"

10"

20"

30"

40'

50"

II

/(

II

II

(/

II

l'

+ 0.OJ

+ 0.04

+ 0.05

+ 0.06

-f 0.08

+ 0.10

2

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.19

0.22

0.25

3

0.2S

0.31

0-34

0.37

0.41

0.45

4

0.49

0-53

0.57

0.61

0.66

0.71

5

0.76

0.81

0.86

0.92

0.98

1.04

6

1. 10

i.i6

1.22

1.29

1.36

'-43

7

1.50

••57

1.64

1. 71

1.79

1.87

8

1.96

2.04

2.12

2.20

2.28

2.37

9

2.46

2.54

2.63

2.72

2.82

2.92

10

3-03

3-H

3-25

3-36

3-46

3-57

II

3.68

3-79

3-90

4.02

4.14

4.26

12

4-39

4.51

4.64

4.76

4.89

5.02

13

5-15

5.29

l-^^l

5-37

5-7'

5.85

H

5-99

6.13

6.28

6-43

6.58

6-73

•5

6.88

7-03

7.18

7-33

7.48

7-64

16

7.80

7.96

8.13

8.36

8-47

8.64

17

8.82

8.99

9.17

9-35

9-53

9-7'

18

9.89

10.07

10.25

10.44

10.63

10.82

'9

1 1. 01

1 1.20

11-39

11.59

11.79

U.99

20

12.19

12.40

12.61

12.82

13-04

13.26

21

13.48

13.69

13.90

14. 11

H-32

'4-53

22

14.74

14.96

15.18

15.40

15-63

15.86

23

16.09

16.33

16.57

16.81

17.05

17.29

24

17.53

17.77

18.01

18.25

18.49

18.74

25

18.99

19.25

19.51

19-77

20.03

20.29

26

20.56

20.82

21.08

21-34

21.60

21.87

27

22.14

22.41

22.68

22.96

23.24

23-52

28

23.81

24.09

24-37

24.66

24.95

25.24

29

25-53

25.82

26.11

26.41

26.71

27.01

30

27-31

27.61

27.91

28.21

28.52

28.83

31

29.14

29.45

29.47

30.09

30.41

30.73

32

3 J -05

31-37

31.69

32.01

32-33

32.66

33

3299

33-32

33-65

33-99

34-33

34-67

34

35-OI

35-35

35-69

36-03

36.38

36.73

35

37.08

37-43 37-79

38-15

38-5»

38.87

36

3923

39-59

39-95

40.31

40.67

41.03

37

41.40

41-77

42.14

42.51

42.88

43-25

38

43.62

44.00

44-3S

44.76

45-15

45-54

39

45-93

46.32

46.71

47.10

47-49

47.89

40

48.29

48.70

49.11

49.52

49-93

50-34

4'

50-75

51.16

51-57

51.98

52-39

52.81

42

53.23

53-65 54-08

54-5'

54-94

55-37

43

55.80

56.23

56.66

57.09

57.52

57-95

44

58.38

58.82

59.26

59-71

60.16

60.61

45

61.06

61.51

61.96

62.41

62.86

63-31

46

63-77

64.22

64.67

65.12

65.58

66,04

47

66.50

66.96

67.42

67.88

68.34

68.81

48

69.28

69.75

70.22

70.70

71.18

71.66

49

72.14

72.63

73-«2

73.61

74.11

74.61

50

75.11

75.61

76.11

76.61

77.12

77-63

51

78.14

78.66

79.18

79.70

80.22

80.74

52

81.26

81. 78

82.36

82.83

83.36

83-99

53

84.42

84.95

85.4S

86.01

86.54

87.08

54

87.62

88.15

88.69

89.23

89.77

90.31

1 55

90.85

91.39

91-93

92.48

93-03

93-58

156

94- '3

94.08

95-23

95-78

96-33

96.88

57

97-43

97.98

98.53 99.09

99.65

100.21

58

100.77

101.33 ]ioi. 89 I102. 46

103.03

103.60

59

104.17

104.751105,33 105.91

106.50

107.09

60

107.68

108.27 108.86 109.45

110.04

! 10.64

Ap|Mr(ii
Angle.

0"

10"

20"

30"

40"

50"

II

II

II

II

II

II

l'

— 0.0^

— O.0<)

—0.05

—0.06

—0.06

-0.1

2

0.1

O.I

0.1

0.2

0.2

0.2

3

0-3

0-3

0-3

0.4

0.4

0.5

4

0.5

0.5

0.6

0.6

0.7

0.7

5

0.8

0.8

0.9

0.9

I.O

1.0

6

I.I

I.I

1.2

»-3

'-3

1.4

7

'-5

1.6

1-7

>-7

1.8

'-9

8

2.0

2.0

2.1

2.2

2-3

2-4

9

2-5

2.6

2-7

2.8

2.9

3-0

10

3-'

3-2

3-3

3-4

3-5

3-6

II

3-7

3-8

3-9

4.0

4.1

4-3

12

4.4

4-5

4.6

4-7

4.8

4-9

'3

5.0

5-2

5-4

5-5

5-7

5.8

'4

5-9

6.0

6.2

6-3

6.5

fc.6

'5

6.8

7.0

7-'

7-3

7-4

7-5

16

7-7

7-8

8.0

8.1

8-3

8-5

17

8.7

8.8

9.0

9.2

9.4

9-5

18

9-7

9.8

1 0.0

10.2

10.4

10.6

19

10.8

II.O

11.2

11.4

11.6

11.8

20

12.0

12.2

12.4

12.6

12.8

'3-'

21

'3-3

'3-5

13.6

13.8

14.0

14.2

22

14.4

14.6

14.7

14.9

15.1

'5-3

23

15.6

15.8

16.0

16.2

.6.5

16.7

24

17.0

17.2

17-5

17.7

18.0

18.2

25

18.5

18.7

19.0

19.2

19.5

19.7

26

20.0

20.2

20.5

20.8

21.0

21.2

27

21-5

21-7

22.0

22.3

22.5

22.8

28

23.0

233

23-6

23-9

2A.2
26.0

24-5

29

24.8

25.1

25.4

25-7

26.3

30

26.6

26.9

27.1

27.4

27.7

28.0

31

28.3

28.6

28.8

29.1

29.4

29.7

32

30.0

30-3

30.6

31.0

3»-3

31-6

33

32.0

32-3

32-7

33-0

33-3

33-6

34

33-9

34-2

34-5

34-9

35-2

35-5

35

35-8

36.1

36-4

36-7

37-'

37-5

36

37.8

38.1

38-5

38-9

39-3

39.6

37

40.0

40-3

40.8

41.0

41.3

41.7

38

42.0

42.3

42-7

43-1

43-5

43-9

39

44-2

44-5

44.9

45-2

45-6

46.0

40

46.4

46.8

47.2

47-6

48.0

48.4

4'

48.8

49-2

49-6

50.0

50.4

50.7

42

51.0

51.4

51.8

52.2

52.6

53-0

43

53-4

53-8

54-2

54-7

55-^

55-6

44

56.0

56.4

56.8

57-3

57-7

58..

45

58.5

58.9

59-3

59-8

60.2

60.7

4(r

61. 1

61.6

62.1

62.5

62.8

63.2

47

63.6

64.1

64.5

64-9

65-3

65.8

48

66.2

66.7

67.1

67-5

68.0

68.4

49

6S.9

69-3

69.8

70.2

70.7

71.1

50

71.6

72.0

72.4

72.9

73-3

7.1-8

51

74-3

74-8

75-3

75-8

76.2

76.7

52

77-2

77-7

78.2

78.7

79-2

79-7

53

80.2

8c. 7

81.2.

8.-7

82.2

82.7

54

83-2

83-7

84.2

84.7

85.2

85-7

55

86.2

86.7

87.2

87.7

88.2

88.7

56

89.2

89.7

90-3

90.8

91.3

91.8

57

92-3

92.8

93-3

93-8

94-3

94.9

58

^I'i

95-9

96.4

97.0

97-5

98.1

59

98.6

99-1

99.6

100.2

I CO. 7

101.3

60

101.8

102.4

103.9

'03-5

104.0

1C4.5

12

TELESCOPE.

Table V.— For finding the Diftance in Yards from the Trtie Angle fubtended by one Yard.

Tru»
Anglf.

0"

i"

2"

3".

4"

5"

6"

7"

8"

9"

I'

3437-7

3381-34

3326.8

3274-

3222.8

3173.26

3125.15

3°78.54

3033-25

2989.3

2

1718.8J

1704.64

1690.67

1676.93

1663.4

1650.1

1637-

1624.1 1

1611.4

1598.93

3

1 145.9

1139.56

■133-3

1127.11

1120.98

1 1 14.92

1108.94

11C3.

1097.15

i09>-33 1

4

859-43

855-83

852.32

848.81

845-33

841.88

838.46

835.06

831-7

828.36

S

687.54

685.25

682.98

680.73

678.45

676.27

674.05

671.86

669.63

667.51

6

572.95

571-36

569.78

568.21

566.65

565.10

563-55

562.02

560.49

558.98

7

491.1

489.93

488.77

487.62

486.46

485-32

484.18

483.05

481.92

480.80

i

429.71

428.81

427.91

427.03

426.16

425.28

424.40

423-53

422.66

421.80

9

381.96

381.25

380.55

379-85

379-15

378.46

377-77

377-07

376.39

375-70

lO

343-77

343-19

342.62

342.05

341-49

340-93

340.36

339-79

339-23

338-69

II

312.52

312.02

311.52

311.09

310.63

310.17

309.70

309.23

308.77

308.31

12

286.47

286.07

285.68

285.28

284.89

284.49

284.10

283.71

283.32

282.93

13

264.44

264.10

263.76

263.42

263.09

262.76

262.42

262.08

261.75

261.42

«4

245-55

245.26

24497

244.67

244.38

244.09

243.81

243-52

243-23

242.94

'5

229.18

228.92

228.67

228.41

228.16

227.91

227.66

227.41

227.16

226.91

16

214.85

214.62

214.40

214.17

213-95

213 72

213.51

213.29

213.08

212.86

17

202.22

202.02

201.82

201.62

201.42

201.22

201.03

200.83

200.64

200.44

18

190.98

190.80

190.62

190-35

190.27

190.09

189.92

189.74

189.57

189.40

•9

180.93

180.77

180.61

180.45

180.29

180.13

179.98

179.82

179.67

179.51

20

171.88

171-73

171.59

171-44

171.31

171. 17

171.02

170.88

170.74

170.60

21

163.70

163-57

163.44

163-31

163.18

163.05

162.92

162.79

162.66

162.53

22

156.26

156.13

156.01

155.88

155-76

155.64

155-54

155.42

155-31

155.19

23

149.46

149-35

149.24

149-13

149.03

148.93

148.82

148.71

148.60

148.49

24

143-23

143-13

143-03

142.94

142.84

142.75

142.64

142.54

142.44

142-34

25

«37-5>

137-41

137-32

137-23

137-14

137-05

136.96

136.87

136.78

136.68

26

132.22

132-13

132.05

131.96

131.88

131.80

131-71

131.62

131-54

131.46

27

127.32

127.24

127.16

127.08

127.00

126.93

126.85

126.77

126.69

126.61

28

122.78

122.70

122.63

122.55

122.48

122.41

122-33

122.26

122.19

122.11

29

118.54

118.47

118.40

118-33

118.26

118.19

118.13

118.07

118.00

117-93

30

114.59

114.52

114.46

114-39

114-33

114.27

114.20

114.14

114.08

114.01

TELESCOPE.

Table V. — continued.

Ani;le.

10"

11"

12"

■3"

,4"

•5"

16"

17"

18"

19"

I'

2946.6

2905.1

2867.75

2825.5

2787.25

2750.16

27'3-97

2678.73

2644.38

2610.91

2

1586.63

'574-52

•567-57

1550.84

'539-27

1527.86

1516.62

1505.56

1494.65 14R3.9

3

1085.6

1079.9

1054.27

1068.71

1063.25

1057.75

105.'. 35

1047.01

1041.74

1036.49

4

825.05

821.76

818.5

815.22

812.05

808.86

805.7

802.57 799.46

796-37

5

665.36

663.22

661.09

658.98

656.88

654.8

652-73

650.67

648.62 646.58

6

557-46

555-96

554-47

552.98

55'-5

550-03

548.58

547.12

545-66 544.23

7

479.68

478.59

477.66

476.36

475-26

474.16

473.08

472.0

470.92 46^.84

8

420.94

420.08

41923

418.38

4'7-53

416.69

4.5.85

415.01

414.18

4'3-3S

9

375-02

374-34

373.66

372-98

372-3'

37 '.64

370.97

370-3'

369.65

368.98

lO

338-13

337-57

337-62

336-47

335-93

335-38

334-82

334.29

333-76 333.22

1 1

307-85

3^7-39

306.93

306.47

306.02

305-57

305.12

304.67

304.22 303.77

12

282.55

2S2.16

281.77

281.39

281.01

280.63

280.24

279.86

279.49 279.. I

'3

261.09

260.76

260.13

260.11

259.78

259-45

259.12

258.80

258.47

258.15

14

242.66

242.37

242.09

241.80

241.52

241.24

240.96

240.68

240.40

240.12

'5

226.66

226.41

226.6

225.91

225.67

225.42

225.18

224.93

224.69 224.44

16

212.64

212.42

212.20

21 1.98

211.76

211.54

2"-33

21 I.I I

210.90

210.68

17

200.25

200.05

199.86

199.66

199.47

199.28

199.09

198.90

198.71

198.52

18

189.23

189.05

188.88

188.70

188.53

188.36

188.19

188.02

187.85

187.68

•9

179-35

179.19

179.04

178.88

178.73

178.57

178.42

178.26

178.11

177.96

20

170.46

170.32

170.8

170.04

169.90

169.76

169.62

169.48

169.34

169.20

21

162.41

162.28

162.16

162.03

161.91

161.77

161.65

161.51

161.39

161.26

22

155.08

154.96

154.85

•54-73

154.62

154.50

'54-38

154.27

154.15

'54-03

23

148.38

148.27

148.17

148.06

147.96

147.85

'47-75

147.64

'47-54

•47.43

24

142.24

142.14

142.05

141.95

141.85

141.75

141.66

141.56

141.46

141.36

25

>3fi59

136.50

136.41

136-32

'36.23

136.14

136.05

'3596

135.87

•35-79

26

»3J-38

131.29

131.21

131.12

131.04

'30-95

130.87

130.79

130.71

130.62

27

126.54

126.45

126.38

126.30

126.23

126.14

126.07

125.99

125.92

125.84

28

122.04

121.97

121.90

121.83

121.76

121.69

121.62

121.54

121.47

1 2 1 .40

29

117.86

117,79

J17-73

117.66

117.59

117.52

117,46

"7-39

117.32

117.16

30

113-95

113.89

'•3-83

113.76

113.70

113.64

113.58 113.51

".V4S

"3-39

Vol, XXXV,

PP

TELESCOPE.

Table V. — continued.

True

30"

21"

22"

23"

24"

25"

26" 27" 28"
1

29"

l'

2578.27

2546.44

2515.4

2485.1

2455-5

2426.6

2398.4

2370.82

2343-87

2317-55

2

1473-3

1462.86

1452-55

1442.38

1432-37

1422.49

1412.75

1403.14

1393.62

'384-3'

3

1031-3'

1026.17

1021. 1

1016.07

1011.05

1006.16

1001.27

996-43

991.64

986.9

4

793-32

790-24

787.26

784.26

781.28

778.34

775-42

772.51

769.64

766.78

S

644.56

642.56

640.56

638.38

636.61

634-65

632.70

630.77

628.85

626.94

6

542.8

541-37

539-95

53856

537-18

535-75

534-36
462.47

532-99

531.62

530-25

7

46S.77

467.70

466.63

465-59

464.55

463-51

461.46

460.45

459.41

8

413-53

411.70

410.88

410.06

409.25

408.42

407.61

406.81

406.03

405.22

9

368.33

367.66

367.02

366.36

365-71

365.06

364.42

363-78

363-14

362.49

10

332.68

332-14

331-61

331-08

330-55

330.02

329.49

328.96

328.44

327-92

II

303-32

302.87

302-43

301-99

301-55

301.11

300.67

300.23

299.80

299.36

12

278.73

278-35

277.98

277.60

277-23

276.86

276-49

276.12

275-75

275-38

'3

257.82

257.49

257.16

256.83

256.51

256.20

255.90

255.58

255.27

254.96

14

239.84

239.56

239.29

239.01

238-73

238.45

238.18

237.90

237.63

237-35

15

224.20

223-95

223.71

223.46

223.22

222.98

222.74

222.50

222.26

222.02

16

21047

210.25

210.04

209.82

209.61

209.40

209.19

208.97

208.76

208.55

17

198-33

198.13

197.94

197-75

197.56

197-37

197.18

197.09

196.81

196.72

18

187.51

187-34

187.17

187.00

186.83

186.66

186.49

186.32

186.15

185.98

19

177.81

177.65

177.50

177-35

177.20

177.04

176.89

176.74

176.59

176.44

20

169.06

168.92

168.78

168.64

168.51

168.37

168.24

168.10

167.97

167.82

21

161. 14

x6i.oi

160.89

160.76

160.64

160.51

160.39

160.26

160.14

160.01

22

153-92

153.80

153-69

'53-57

153-46

153-34

153-23

153.12 153.01

152.89

23

'47-33

147.22

147.12

147.01

146.91

146.80

146.70

146.59 146.49

146.38

H

141.27

141.17

141.08

140.98

140.88

140.78

140.69

140.59

140.50

140.40

25

135-7^

135.61

135-52

135-43

135-34

'35-25

135.16

135-07

134.98

134.89

26

130-54

130.46

130-38

130-29

130.21

130-13

130.05

129,97

129.89

129.80

27

125.77

125.69

125.62

125.54

125.47

125.38

125-31

125.23

125.16

125.08

28

'21-33

121.25

121.18

121. II

1 2 1. 04

120.97

120.90

120.83

120.76

120.69

29

j "7-19

117.12

117.05

116.98

116.92

116.85

116.78

116.71

116.65

116.58

. 30

113-33

113.26

113.20

113.14

113.08

113.01

112.95

112.89

112.83

112.77

TELESCOPE.

Table V. — continued.

True

Angle.

30"

31"

32"

33"

34"

3S"

36"

37"

38"

39"

i'

2291.8

2266.61

2241.97

2217.87

2194-3

2171.2

2148.55

2126.41

: 104.7

2083.47

2

1375.08

1365-97

1356.93

1348.1

'339-36

1330.72

1322.19

'3' 3-77

■305-45

1297-23

3

982.2

977-54

972.93

968.36

963.84

959-36

954.91

950.51

946.15

941.83

4

763-93

761. 1 1

758-31

755-54

752.78

750.04

747-33

744.62

74'-9J

739-29

5

625.03

623.15

621.23

619.40

617.55

615.71

613.87

612.05

610.24

608.44

6

528.88

527-53

526.18

524.84

523-50

522.18

520.87

519-55

518.24

5.6.95
449-37

7

458.36

457-34

456-33

455-33

454-32

453-3^

452-33

45 1-34

450.36

8

404.43

403.64

402.85

402.06

401.29

400.51

399-73

398-95

398.19

397-4'

9

361.86

361.22

360.59

359-96

359-35

358-71

358.09

357-47

356-85

356.23

10

327-40

326.88

326.36

325.84

325-33

324.82

324-32

323-81

323-29

322.78

II

298.93

298.49

298.06

297.65

297.20

296.77

296.35

295.92

295.50

295.08

12

275.01

274.65

274-29

273.92

273-56

273.18

272.83

272.47

272.11

271.75

>3

254.64

254-33

254.02

253-7'

253-39

253.08

252.76

252.46

252-15

251.85

H

237.08

236.81

236-54

236.27

236.00

235-73

235-46

235-19

234-92

234-65

15

221.78

221.54

221.31

221.07

220.83

220.59

220.36

220.12

219.89

219.66

i6

208.34

208.13

207.92

207.71

207.50

207.29

207.09

206.88

206.67

206.46

17

196.44

196.24

196.06

195.87

195.69

195.50

195-32

195-13

194.95

194.76

i8

185.82

185.64

185.48

185.31

185.15

184.98

184.82

184.65

184.49

1S4.32

'9

176.29

176.14

175-99

175.84

175.69

175-54

175-39

175-24

175-09

174-94

20

167.69

167.54

167.41

167.27

167.14

167.00

166.87

166.73

166.60

166.47

21

159.89

159.76

159.64

159.51

159-39

159.27

159-15

159.02

158.90

158.78

22

152.78

152.67

152.56

152.45

152-33

152.22

152.11

151.99

151.88

151-77

23

146.28

146.17

146.07

145-97

145.86

145.76

145.66

145.56

145.46

145-35

24

140.31

140.21

140.12

140.02

139-93

139-83

139-74

139.64

139-55

139-45

25

134.81

134-73

134.64

134-55

134.46

134-37

134-29

134.20

134.11

134.02

26

129.72

129.64

129.56

129.48

129.40

129.31

129.23

129.15

129.07

128.99

27

125.01

124.93

124.86

124.78

124.71

124.63

124.55

124-47

124.40

124.32

28

120.62

120.55

120.48

120.41

120.34

120.27

120.20

120.13

120.06

119.99

29

116.52

116.45

116.39

1 16.32

116.26

116.19

116.13

116.06

116.00

115-93

, 30

112. 71

112.65

112.59

112.52

1 12.46

112.40

112.34

112.28

112.22

1 12.16

Pp 2

TELESCOPE.

Table V. — continucil.

True
Angle.

40"

4."

42"

43"

44"

45"

46"

47"

48"

49"

I'

2062.62

2042.2

2022.1

2002.54

1983.28

1964.4

1945.85

1927.68

1909.82

1892.31

2

1289.13

1281.13

1273.22

1265.41

1257.7

1250.06

1242-55

1235.10

1227.75

1220.47

3

937-55

933-27

929.15

924.94

920.81

916.72

912.66

908.64

904.65

900.72

4

736.65

734-03

73>-43

728.83

726.27

723.72

721.19

718.69

716.18

713-71

5

606.65

604.87

603.1

601.35

599.6

597.86

596.12

594.41

592.71

591.01

6

515.65

514-36

513.00

511.81

510.55

509.29

508.04

506.78

505.52

504.30

7

448.40

447.42

446.45

445-49

444-53

443-57

442.62

441.67

440.73

439-79

8

396.66

395.88

395-12

394-37

393-63

392.88

392-13

391-38

390.64

389.90

9

355-62

355-01

354-40

353-79

353-18

352-56

351-93

351-35

350-78

350.18

10

322.28

321.78

321.28

320.78

320.28

319-79

319.29

318-79

318-30

317.81

1 1

294.66

294.24

293.82

293.40

292.98

292.56

292.15

291-73

291.32

290.92

12

271.40

271.04

270.68

270.32

269.97

269.62

269.28

268.93

268.59

268.23

13

251-54

251.24

250.93

250.62

250.32

250.02

249.71

249.41

249.11

248.81

H

234-38

234.11

233-84

233-57

233-31

233-05

232.79

232-53

232.27

232.01

ij

219-43

219.19

218.96

218.72

218.49

218.26

218.03

217.80

217.57

217-34

16

206.26

206.05

205.85

205.64

205.44

205.23

205.03

204.82

204.62

204.41

•7

194.58

194.40

194.22

194.03

193-85

193.67

193-49

193-31

193-13

192.95

18

184.16

183.99

183-83

183.67

183.51

183-34

183.18

183.01

182.85

182.69

19

174-79

174.64

174.49

174-34

174.20

174.05

173-91

173.76

173.62

173-47

20

166.34

166.20

166.07

165.94

165.81

165.67

165.54

165.41

165.28

165.14

21

158.66

158.54

158.42

158.29

158.17

158.05

157-93

157.81

157-69

157-57

22

151.66

151.54

151-43

151.32

151.21

151.10

150.99

150.88

150.77

150.66

23

145.25

145.14

145.04

144.94

144.84

144.74

144.64

144.54

144.44

144-34

24

139-36

139.26

139-17

139.09

138.99

138.89

138.80

138-70

138.61

138.52

25

133-93

133-94

133-86

133-67

133-59

133-50

133-42

133-33

133-25

133-16

26

128.91

128.82

128.74

128.66

128.58

128.49

128.41

128.33

128.25

128.18

27

124.25

124.17

124.10

124.02

123-95

123.88

123.80

123.72

123.65

123.58

28

119.92

119.85

119.78

119.71

1 19.64

119.57

119.50

I '9-43

1 19-36

119.29

29

115.87

115.80

115.74

115.67

115.61

115.54

115.48

115.42

115.36

115.29

30

112. JO

112.04

111.98

111.91

111.85

111.79

111.73

111.67

111.61

111-55

TELESCOPE.

Table V. — conlmmd.

'I'riie
Angl«.

50"

51"

52"

53"

54"

55" 56"

57"

58"

5v"

I'

1875.11

1858.21

1841.62

1825.32

1809.3

1 793.6

1778.12

1762.92

'747-95

'733-29

2

■2'3-3

1206.2

1 199.2

1192.24

1185.42

1178.64

1 171.93

1 165.3

1158.77

1152.30

3

896.8

892.9

889.06

885.24

881.46

877.72

873-97

870.30

866.65

863.02

4

711.25

708.8

706.37

703.96

701.57

699.18

696.81

694.49

692.15

6H9.83

5

589.32

587.64

585.96

584.30

58265

581.02

579-38

577-76

575-'5

574-55

6

503.08

501.85

500.63

499.42

498.22

497.02

495.82

494-63

493-45

492.27

7

438.86

437-92

436.98

436.07

435-15

434-24

43332

432.42

43'-5'

430.61

8

389-17

388.44

387-71

386.98

386.25

3«5-54

384-81

384.10

383-39

382.67

9

349-59

848.99

348-4'

347.82

347-25

346.66

346.08

345-49

344-92

344-34

lO

317 32

3-6.83

316.35

315-85

315-38

314-90

314-42

313-94

3 '3-47

3 '2-99

II

290.51

290.07

289.68

289.28

288.88

288.47

288.07

287.67

287.27

286.87

12

267.87

267.52

267.18

266.S3

266.49

266.15

265.81

265.46

265.12

264.78

'3

248.51

248.21

247.91

247.61

247-31

247.02

246.72

246.42

246.13

245-83

'4

231-75

23 '-49

231-23

230.97

230.72

230-47

230.22

229.96

229.70

229.44

'5

217.12

216.89

216.66

216.43

216.21

215.98

215.75

215.52

215.30

215. cs

i6

204.21

204.00

203.80

203.60

203.40

203.21

203.01

202.81

202.61

202.41

I?

192.77

192.59

192.41

192,23

192.05

191.87

191.69

191.51

'9'-33

191. 15

i8

182.53

182.37

182.21

182.05

181.89

181.73

181.57

181.41

181.25

181.09

19

•73-33

173.1S

'73-04

172.89

172.75

172.60

172.46

172.31

172.17

172.03

20

165.01

164.88

164.75

164.61

164.48

164-35

164.22

164.09

163.96

.63.»3

21

157-45

157-33

157.21

157.09

156.97

156.85

'56-73

156.61

156.49

'56-37

22

150.55

150.44

150-33

150.22

150.11

150.01

149.90

149-79

149.68

'49-57

23

144.24

144.14

144.04

143-94

143.84

143-74

143-64

143-54

'43-44

'43-34

24

138-43

138-33

i38-?4

138.15

138.06

137.96

137-87

137-78.

137.69

137.60

25

133-07

132.98

132.90

132.81

132-73

132.64

132.56

132-47

'32-39

'32-3'

26

27

128.10

128.03

127.95

127.87

127.79

127.71

127.63

127.56

127.48

127.41

■23-5I

'23-43

123.36

123.28

123.21

123-13

123.06

122.98

122.91

122.84

28

119.22

119.16

119.09

119.02

118.95

118.88

1 18.81

118.74

118.67

118.60

29

115.23

115.17

115. 11

115.04

114.98

114,91

114 85

1.4-78

114.72

114.66

3°

111.49 'n-43 '"-37

III. 31

111.25

III. 19

III. 13

111.07

II 1.01

110.95

TELESCOPE.

Conjlruaion and UJe of tht TabUs.—VCe have already ex-
plained the conftrudion and ufc of Tables I. and II., which
are required to be adapted to the particular telefcope with
which any given micrometer is ufed ; and we have alfo ex-
plained how tlie value of a fingle divifion, or turn of a fcrew,
is afcertained by means of the fun's diameter : but this me-
thod gives a derivative rather than an original independent
value to the micrometrical fcale ; for if the fun's diameter
be not truly given in the Nautical Almanac (and the late Dr.
Malkelyne had reafon to alter it in the lateil years of his
life), the errorof this meafure will be introduced into the Icale
derived from it ; Table III. is therefore inlerted, as affording
the ready means of obtaining an independent fcale from
aftual tcrreftrial meafurement. We have already rtiewn how
the table of correftions is conflrufted in this table ; and the
reader will have no difficulty in taking out the proper
numbers, as correftions to be added to the true angle, in
order to convert it into the apparent or meafured angle, if he
be careful to take the minutes of the given angle from the
left-hand vertical column, and the feconds from the hori-
zontal line at the top ; for in every inftance, the meeting of
the two columns will contain the additive quantity that is to
be applied to the true angle, in order to obtain what the tele-
fcope will give when the value of its fcale is once duly
affigned. For inftance, fuppofe the true angle 14' 20",
where 14' is taken at the fide, and 20" at the top, the junc-
tion of the two columns gives + 6".28, which (hews that
this quantity muft be added to 14' 20", the true angle, to
make 14' 26". 28, the apparent angle, as meafured by a tele-
fcope of 63.5 inches focal length. If now this angle, reduced
into feconds, be divided by the turns of the fcrew, or divifions
on any fcale ufed as a micrometrical fcale, the quotient will be
the value in feconds of one turn, or divifion, as the cafe
may be, provided the angle in queftion be that which a true
yard adlually fubtends at a known diftance. For example,
when a yard of 36 exaft inches was erefted at the diftance of
190.98 yards, the micrometer of Troughton, attached to
Tulley's 63.5 inch telefcope, meafured it by 34.78 revolu-
tions of its fcrew ; and by Table V. the true angle, read as in
Table III. at the fide and top, correfponding to this dif-
tance, is 18' o" ; the additive quantity belonging to this
angle, as taken from Table III., is + 9". 89 ; and therefore
the apparent angle, if meafured by the faid telefcope, would be

, ^ i8'9".89 ,, ■ , , r

18' 9".89 ; therefore = 31.33 is the value ot

one revolution of the fcrew, which is very nearly the fame
as vi:as determined from the fun, and before tabulated. This
coincidence of the celeftial and ten-eftrial meafures affords a
convincing proof that the fcale has been duly appreciated.

We have faid, that this table of coiTeclions, and alfo the
following one, which we (hall explain prefently, are com-
puted exclufively for a telefcope of 63.5 inches focus, being
that which is reprefented, with a Troughton's micrometer
attached, mjig. 6. of Plate XXIX. ; and that each different
telefcope ought to have its own tables of correftions cor-
refponding to its focal length, which limitation is required
by the theorem on vyhich we have grounded our calculations.
But as the diftance, which is the varying term, is the fame
for all telefcopes, we find that in praftice the correftions
of any other telefcope will be fo nearly proportionate to their
refpeftive focal lengths, that they may be taken exaftly as
fuch, without any fenfible error ; that is, the error ariiing from
the table of correftions will be always as fmall as the error
of obfervation in ordinary telefcopes, unlefs the diftance be
very fmall, and its correftion confequently great. On this
account, Table III., and alfo Table IV., which, it will be

fcen, is derived from it, like Table V., may be confidered as
genera/ tables, admitting of proportional parts of their whole
correftions to be taken as fuitable correftions for telefcopes
of other dimenfions. This confideration is of great im-
portance, with refpeft to the general utihty of our tables
of correction ; and therefore the reader (hall not depend
folely on the authority of our bare afTertion. We have
already computed the corredlion for a telefcope of 63.5
inches focal length, to be added when the true angle is
34' 59".4, or diftance 100 yards, and found it 37".68 ; let
us fee what it will be v^'ith the fame data, when the telefcope
has juft one half of the faid focal length : here we have

■'''■— 00- "f - yard for the focal length ;

of

then

<2 X

•//> T' _ .0078? = e, the clonffation of
100 - 882 99.118 / 5 ' 6

the focus, and

.882 X .00785 X
'Ml

34-99_ .^, ,
— 35 '3'

or 35'

18"

for the apparent angle, from which, if we fubtraft 34' 59".4,
the true angle, the difference l8".6 wiU be the correfpond-
ing correftion, which differs only a quarter of a fecond

or half the correftion of the telefcope of

fro

37".68

double dimenfions. Beyond 100 yards diftance, the en-or,
fmall as it is, will continue to diminifh as the diftance in-
creafes, and a fmaller diftance will feldom require to be mea-
fured in this way. The accuracy of this conclufion has
been ftill farther corroborated by aftual experiment : a gra-
duated ftaff was placed ereft at a diftance, by meafurement
of a Troughton's chain of five -feet hnks, of 261.9 yards,
and the two telefcopes of 63.5 and 45.75 inches focal length,
were tried againft each other thus ; a yard by the firft was
found, with Troughton's micrometer, to be equal to 25.33
turns ; and by the fecond, with the fame inftrument, to
be 18.19; the true angle belonging to this diftance by
Table V. is I3'7".54; and the correftion for the larger

telefcope by Table III. + 5'

.25: therefore, taking: ,'

or .72 of 5". 25 = 3".8 for the correftion of the fmaller
telefcope, we have the following values of the refpeftive

fcales ;

•3'

7"-S4

+ 5"-25 _

3 1 ".2984, &c. and
25-33

= 43". 504, which values accord very

i3'7"-54+ 3"-8

18.19

nearly with thofe that had been previoufly determined by
a feries of folar meafures, and the latter of them exaftly, as
far as to the third place in the decimal figures.

Table IV. is the table to be ufed with Table V. for finding,
firft the true angle from the apparent one, and then the true
diftance at once from this true angle : its correftions are
arranged fomewhat differently from thofe in Table III., and
have an oppofite fign, but are borrowed from Table III. in
fuch way, that by means of a little tranfpofition, the terms
of one may be converted into thofe of the other ; as, for
example, at the apparent angle 18' 40", in Table IV., the
correftion is — 10". 4, and the true angle confequently
i8'29".6; and at 18' 30", the neareft numbers for the
true angle in Table III., the correftion is + io".44, which
makes its correfponding apparent angle 18' 4o".44. In the
former of thefe two tables, the correftion is calculated to
the hundredth part of a fecond ; it being that from which
the fcale has its value appreciated; but in the latter, it was
deemed convenient to leave out the hundredth parts, as

being

TELESCOPE.

being beyond the powers of the telcfcopc, or rather of tlie
human eye, when a fingle obfervation is taken.

Before Table V. was conftruded, it was found by j)laiic
trigonometry, that one yard will fubtend an angle of one mi-
nute at 3437-7 yards didance ; and, as the dillance d>'creafes
in the fame ratio in winch the angle increafcs, the table was
made by a continual reduAion of this number into halves,
thirds, fourths, &c. as far as to 30', and all the intermediate
feconds from i' to 30', were inferted with their correfpond-
ing diftanccs. For inftance, at the true angle of 1 8' 30",
tlie true dillance is 185.82 yards ; it being always under-
ftood, that the meafured angle is fubtcnded by an exad yard
placed at right angles to the line of fight, in either a vertical
or horizontal pofition, and that the correftion taken from
Table IV. has been applied to the meafured or apparent
angle. If two yards fliould be ufcd as the oppofed objeCl
at a great diftance, then /',///" the angle only muil be taken ;
but if half a yard only be ufed at fmall dillances, then double
the angle will be proper ; and Ihould the diftance be within
110.95 y^i'ds, the fmaJlcft diilance contained in the table ;
in which cafe the angle will exceed 30' : the dillance belong-

With telefcope 30.15 in. 24.59 revol. = 27 2.9 (by

45-75 in- 37-53 revol. = 27 10.5

63.5 in. 52.25 revol. — 27 15.43

1 18.8 in. 98.52 revol. = jy 35.1

ing to half\.\\e anjrle will always be douMt the didance re-
quired, Suppofe tiic angle 33' ; then hilf of this is 16' 30",
and the double number 20S.34 ; confcquenlly 104.17 yirdt
will be the correfponding dillance ; and thus the table will
extend to any Ihort dillance, by taking a given portion of
the meafured angle, when reduced to the true one, and by
ufmg the fame portion of tlie correfponding dillajice, pro-
vided the angle do not exceed 60', which is the limit a(
Table IV., and wliich is as much as a telefcope magnifying
only 30 times will ufually take into the field of view.

In order to exemplify the ufe of ihcfe new tables, and at
the fame time to prove their accuracy, we obtained from
Mr. Troughtou a couple of Haves, having each a (liding
yard of brafs, cut into notches for decimal divilions of a
yard, which are capable of being feen at a diftance, with
an apparatus for placing them perpendicular in any giveu
fituation : on the 8th of Oclober 1816, one of thcfe llavea
was fixed in a perpendicular pofition at an unknown diftance
on level ground, and the following meafures were taken of
the angle fubtended by a yard, by Troughton's micrometer
fuccemvely adapted to each of the four telcfitopcs, thus :

Tables I. and II.) - 10.4 (by Table IV.) = 26 52.5

— 15.6 .- - =26 54.9

— 21.85 - - =26 53.58

— 41.0 - - =26 54.1

4)215.08

By Table V. the diftance correfponding to this angle is
127.81 yards, and by meafurement of a good chain, it was
afterwards found to be 5.808 x 22 = 127.776 yards, the
difference or error being only .034 of a yard, or fomething
lefs than an inch and a half. During the obfervations, the
fun was obfcured by clouds, and the objedl viewed had no
vibratory motion, which is a circumftance effential to be
attended fo.

With Dollond's divided objedl-glafs applied to the tele-
fcope of 45.75, the meafure was 2 in. ii div. 19 ver., or
? 294 of the vernier, which, multiplied by i".24, the folar

Average = 26 53.77

value of unity, gave the meafured angle only 26' 44".56 ;
but on examining the ratio in which the focus elongates at
different diftances, we found that the divergence of the rayf
was leffened fo much, in pafTmg through the divided objed-
glafs, before they entered the acliromatic objedt-glafs, that
the table of corredions would be of no ufe for this arrange-
ment of two feparate objeft-glaftes.

On the 1 6th of the lame month the graduated ftaff was
ereAcd at a greater unknown diftance, and the following
meafures were taken by Troughton's micrometer, as before,

With telefcope

45.75 in. 27.59 revol. =.
63.5 in. 38.48 revol. =

20 0.1 — 8.6 (correftion) = 19 51.5
20 4.4 — 12 - - = 19 52.4

to which angle the correfponding dillance by Table V. is
173.0 yards; and the fubfequent meafure by the chain
accurately repeated was 172.92 yards, in which determi-
nation the error was .08 of a yard, or 2.88 inches only.

From thefe operations we are perfuaded that a good
telefcope, with a Troughton's micrometer, will determine
diftances, by fimple infpeftion, when within t'le eighth part
of a mile, with more accuracy than is ufually done by a
furveyor's chain or meafuring-wheel ; and, confequently,
if both a backward and forward view be taken from one
ftation, fituated near the middle of a Une joinir-g two gra-
duated ftaves, a quarter of a mile may be fo determined at
one Jlatlon in the fpace of two or three minutes after the
ftation is taken. But it m.ay be faid, why not take a
quarter of a mile at one fight, lince the power of a good
telefcope will command a fmall objcft at this diftance i
To which we anfwer, that the error aiifing from diftance
9

2)103.9

Average = 19 51.95

may be confidered rather as a geometrical than an optical
error : our experiments have convinced us that a fmall
angle may be meafured by Troughton's micrometer, when
the thicknefs of the fpider's line is allowed for, {viz. locth
of a turn of the fcrew in our micrometer,) fo accurately,
that the error of obfervation in favourable weather will
feldom exceed one fee or. J ; but the error in diftance, cor-
refponding to an error of one fecond in the meafured angle,
increafes in the duplicate ratio of the diftance, and confe-
quently becomes too confiJerr.ble to be admiflible beyond
a hmited diftance ; for inibince, at the diftance of 220 yards,
or the eighth of a rnile, an error of 1" in the angle fubtended
by a yard produces only an error of 0.23 of a yard in
diftance ; but at 440 yards, or a quarter of a mile, the
error in diftance corr. fpondiiig to the fane error in the
angle is 0.92 ; that is, at twice the diftance the geometri-
cal error is four times augmented ; which circunillancc

limits

TEL

limits the diftance at which micronietrical meafurements
in loiiKimetry can be ufcfullv employed at one ilation.
What may be called the ot^liral error, or that which anles
from want of parallclilm in the rays of light on entermg the
obiea-jrlafs, and is allowed for in our fourth table, on the
contrarv, d-creafes with an incrcafe of diftance, and very
nearly in a fub-duplicate ratio ; fo that the corredion ariling
out of this optical error bjcoraes infenfible at no very great
diftance in tclefcopcs of ordinary dimenhons : for inftance,
at 220 vards, or its angle 15' 3S", the correaion is - 7 .4
by our'Tablc IV.; but at 440, or its angle 7' 49', the
correclion diminilhes to l".9, or nearly a fourth of the
former at double the diftance. Hence there is a peculiar
diftance at which every feparate telefcopc will have its
optical error or correaion reduced to 1", or quantity of
probable error of obfervation, beyond which diftance the
tabulated correftions may be difregarded in ordinary opera-
tions. With the telefcope of 63.5 inches focus, the cor-
reftion will be lefs than 1" at 590 yards diftance; with
that of 45.75 inches, at 537 ; and with that of 30.15 inches,
at 430, the diftance continuing to diminilh with the dimi-
niftiing length of the focus of each objeft-glafs, but not in
the fame ratio ; confcquently, when the telefcope is very
ftiort, and its power fmall, the optical error may be alto-
gether difregarded, wherever fucii telefcope can be of any
real ufe ; becaufe, in all probability, this error will be lefs
than the error of obfervation arifing from want of power. -

Telescope Shell, in Comhology, the name of a fpecies of
turbo, with plane, ftriated, and numerous fpires.

TELESCOPICAL Stak.s, fuch as are not vifible to
the naked eye, but difcoverable only by the help of a tele-
fcope. See Star.

AH ftars lefs than that of the fixth magnitude are tele-
fcopic to a middling eye.

TELESE, in Gcograf'hy, a town of Naples, in Lavora,
the fee of a bilhop, who reiides at Cerreto ; 18 miles E.N.E.
of Capua. N. lat. 41° 12'. E. long. 14" 32'.

TELESIA, or Telessia, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Italy, in Samnium.

Telesia, in Mineralogy. See CoRUNDUM.
TELESIO, Berkardino, in Biography, a modern phi-
lofopher, the defcendant of an illuftrious family at Cofenza,
in Naples, was born in the year 1508 or 1509. Having re-
ceived the early part of his education under an uncle at
Milan, he accompanied him to Rome in 1525, and ftiared
in the calamities which attended the fack and pillage of that
city. At Padua, whither he afterwards removed, he ap-
plied himfelf with diligence to the ftudy of mathematics and
philofophy. Returning again to Rome, he formed an inti-
mate acquaintance with feveral perfons of diftinguifhed cha-
rafter, and fo much ingratiated himfelf with pope Pius IV.
that he was offered the arclibiftiopric of Cofenza, which he
dechned for himfelf and obtained for his brother. From
Rome he retired to his native country, where he maiTied in
advanced age, and for a fiiort time became profefTor of phi-
lofophy in the univcrfity of Naples. However, the place
of his more conftant relidence was Cofenza, and here he
eftabliftied an academy called Cofentiiia. He paffed the re-
mainder of his life under the patronage of feveral perfons of
diftinftion, particularly Ferdinand, duke of Nocera ; but af-
flitled by the afTafTination of one of '.lis foiis, and by the ca-
lumnies circulated againft his fchool of philofophy, he ter-
minated hiB Hfe in the year 15SS. Telefio diftinguiftied him-
lelf by his oppofition to the phyfics of Ariftotle, and em-
ployed mathematical principles in explaining the laws of
nature. Theie were tirft divulged in a work printed at
Home in 1565, entitled " De Rerum Natura juxta propria

TEL

principia. Lib. II." and enlarged to nine books in an edition
printed at Naples in 1586. The fame fyftem was main-
tained in other treatifes, under the titles of " De his qua; in
Aerc hunt, et de Terrig Motibus ;" « De Mari ;" " De
Colorum Genere," &c. His fyftem was in its efl"ence the
doftrinc of Parmenides, who taught, that the firft principles
in nature, by means of which all natural phenomena are pro-
duced, are cold and heat. (See Parmenides and Eleatic.)
Teletio's theory is thus developed : " Matter, which is in
itfelf incapable of aftion, and admits neither of increafe nor
diminution, is afted upon by two contrary incorporeal prin-
ciples, heat and cold. From the perpetual oppoiition of
thefe, arife the feveral forms of nature : the prevalence of
cold in the lower regions producing the earth and terreftrial
bodies, and that of heat in the fuperior regions, the heavens
and celeftial bodies. All the changes of natural bodies are
owing to this conflid ; and according to the degree in which
each principle prevails, are the different degrees of denfity,
refiftance, capacity, moifture, drynefs, &c. which arc found
in different fubftances." This fyftem is founded on the
fanciful converfion of mere attributes and properties into
fubftaiitia! principles. For lord Bacon obferves, that Te-
lefio, no lefs than Plato and Ariftotle, places abftraft notions
at the bafis of his fyftem, and produces his world of real
beings from non-entities. This eminent pLilolopher, how-
ever, charafterifes him as a lover of truth ar.d a benefaftor
to fcience ; and one who prepared the way for fubfv-quent
improvements. After his death, his writings, as containing
" innovations," were put into the Index Expurgatorius of
the Inquifition. His philofophy, neverthelefs, had many
advocates, among whom was CampancUa ; and his works
were republiftied at Venice, in 1590, by Antonio Perfio,
who wrote a compendium of his philofophy in the vernacu-
lar tongue. Telefio's ftyle was more poliftied than that of
other philofophers of his time ; and he intermixed fome
Latin verfes of conCderable eloquence. Brucker by En-
field.

TELESPHORUS, in Mythology, a deity invoked by
the Greeks for health, together with Efculapius and Hygeia.
The figures of thefe three divinities occur on feveral me-
dals ; and on fome we have Telefphorus with Efculapius
alone, and on others with Hygeia.

The figure of Telefphorus is invariably the fame, viz,
that of an infant clothed with a fort of cloak without
fleeves, which enfolds its arms, defcends below the knees,
and has a kind of hood or cowl covering its head.

Montfaucon has given a particular defcription of this
deity, the worihip of which is fuppofed to have paffed from
Epidaurus to Rome, with that of Efculapius.

TELETiE, among the Ancients, were folemn rites per-
formed in honour of Ifis.

TELETZKOI-Ozero, in Geography. See Altin.

Teletzkoi Mountain, deriving its name from the lake
Teletzkoi-ozero, one of the greateft eminences of the Altay
mountains (fee Altai), and from which the river Oby
ifTues. It forms, with its lofty fummits, the boundary be-
tween Siberia and the Soongarey, ftrikes its powerful ridges
down between the lake and the Katunia ; and after having
turned round the eaft fide and the lake, unites with the Ku-
netzkoi mountains. This divifion is one of the greateft, but
at the fame time the coldeft and moft inacceflible, of all the
Altaian ore -mountains ; hence ■ it is, that its quality and
contents are little known. This, however, is certain, that
very powerful granite and porphyry mountains are in its
range, and that the earth near and upon it yields jafper, flint
breccia, hornfchiftus, white (probably faline) thalk-ftone,
coloured marble, black fchiiius, marie, fand-ftone, and in

thefe

TEL

T E L

tliefe tliere are iron, argontaccous copper, and lead ores,
naplitlia, afphaltus, &e. The mountains to the right of the
Katunia feem to be pai-ticularly rich in ores.

TELEUTES, or Telengutes, a trihe of Tartars, who
are fuppofed to have derived their name from the lake Te-
legul in the Altay mountains. They are alio denominated
by the Ruffians the wiiite Kalmucks, becaufe they formerly
lived among the Soongarians. Abulgafi reckons them among
the Mongohan races ; but as their fpecch is manifeftly a
corrupt Tartarian, their origin may more confillently be de-
rived from that nation. In the year 1609 they did homage
for the firft time to the Ruffian empire ; but it was not till
towards the middle of the 1 7th century, when fome ftems of
them removed higher up the Tom, that they became pro-
perly fubjefts of Ruffia : the greater part of them, however,
remained with the Kalmucks. Tiie former dwelt partly in
the Tomn<oi diftrift of the Tobolfliian, partly in the Kuf-
netfkian circle of the government of Kolhyvan ; and their
number is fo fmall, that they only reckon about 500 males.

TELFS, a town of the county of Tyrol, near the Inn ;
15 miles W.S.W. of Infpruck.

TELGEN, a town of Sweden, in vSudermanland, on
the lake Mv?ler ; 15 miles S.W. of Stockholm.

TELGET, a town of Germany, in the bifhopric of
Munfter; 5 miles E.S.E. of Munlter.

TELGHIOURAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the
government of Diarbekir ; 30 miles S. of Diarbekir.

TELHEIM, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ; 7 miles
S.S.W. of Schweinfurt.

TELHEIRO, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira ; 6 miles S.W. of Pinhel.

TELICA, a volcano of Mexico, near Tecoantepeque.

TELICARDIOS, in Natural H[jlory, the name given
by fome authors to a ilone found in the (hape of a heart.
It owes this figure to its having been found in the fhell of
fome large bivalve of the cockle kind ; and is more ufually
known 'among authors under the name of bucardites.

TELIGUL, or Telegul, in Geography, a lake of
Ruffia, in the Altay mountains, about 120 miles in circum-
ference. N. lat. 43° 12'. E. long. 64° 14'.

TELIPHANO, in Botany, a name ufed by fome au-
thors for the doronicum, or leopard's bane.

TELL, William, in Biography, a celebrated Swifs, was
an inhabitant of middle rank of Burgeln, in the canton of
Uri, and fon-in-law of Walter Furft. In 1 307 he engaged
in the confpiracy againft the Auftrian tyranny. Gefler, the
German bailiff, fufpefting a plot, artfully contrived a fcheme
for afcertainiug the extent of fubmiffion to the Auftrian
yoke. Accordingly he fet up a hat upon a pole, and com-
manded that obeyfancc fhould be paid to it. Tell refifted
the command ; and, as tradition reports, the arbitrary bai-
liff ordered him to (hoot with an arrow at an apple placed
on the head of his fon. He cleft the apple without hurting
the child ; and being obferved to have another arrow, he
was interrogated what he intended to do with it. He un-
hefitatingly replied, that if he had wounded his fon, the
other fhaft (hould have been direfted to the bailiff's heart.
This bold declaration caufed him to be imprifoned. Of
this fatl there is no doubt ; though the incident of the ar-
row and apple may be fabulous, as it is applied by Saxo
GramAaticus to a Dane at an earlier period. The bailiff
took Tell with him acrofs the lake of Lucern, defigning to
convey him to another canton. In the paffage, a ftorni
arofe ; and the veffel being in danger, the fetters of Tell
who was known to be a (l<ilful boatman, were taken off,
and the helm was committed to his hands. Availing himfelf
of this circumftance, he fleered to a rock and made his
efcape. Gefler on landing met with his fate from an arroiv

Vol, XXXV.

of Tell, who afterwards retired to StaufTachcr in the canton
of Schwcitz ; and on the following new-year's day, all the
Auftrian governors were feized and difmiifed from the coun-
\xy ; and this circumftance is faid to be the commencement
of Swifs freedom. Toll's death is fuppofed to have been
occafioned by an inundation at Burgeln in the year 1354.
His grateful countrymen creftcd a rude chapel to his honour
on the fpot where he refided, and another upon the rock on
which he landed. His pollerity, however, funk into ob-
livion, without any permanent diilin(flion ; the laft who bore
his name died in 1684, and the laft of the female hne in
1720. Coxe. Muller. Gen. Biog.

TELLA Pashnum, in Natural Hijlory, a name given
by the people of the Eaft Indies to a kmdof white arienic,
or rat's-bane, found native among them.

It is well known to be a fatal poifon, and ufed to dcftroy
vermin. It lies in the chfFs of rivers among ftrata of ftonp
in large white irregular lumps ; when held to the fire, it
emits copious fumes, fmelling ftrongly of garhc and fulphur,
but it does not readily melt or run.

Tell.'V Sagrum, a name given by the natives of the Eaft
Indies to a kind of earth which they ufe externally to dry
up ulcers, and internally in cafes of coughs and colds. It
is of the nature of the finer clays, and is found at the bot-
tom of tome of their rivers.

TELLEGROD, in Geography, a morafs on the borders
of Norway and Lapland, which cannot be crofTed \»ithout
much apprehenfion of danger. During winter it is frozen
to the depth of feveral yards, and docs not thaw till the
fummer is far advanced. The furface may appear dry and
folid, but as the heat ftill penetrates downwards, the icy
floor which fupports it, foftening and melting, bends and
trembles under the Ihock of preffure, and at laft gives way,
fo that horfes, carriages, and pafTengers — all fink into the
abyfs. Near the mouth of the Fiord, or firth, a bed of
clay-marle is feen diftinftly mixed with fmall fhells. Ap-
pearances of a like kind occur along the fouthern Ihorcs of
Norway, and the fadl is the more remarkable, fince no foffile
ftiells have been ever found in the interior of the country.
Tliis marie, however, is only a local formation, and refts on
the fundamental gncifs.

TELLER, an officer in the exchequer, of whom there
are four : whofe bufinefs is to receive all monies due to the
crown, and tiiercupon to throw down a bill through a pipe
into the tally-court, where it is received by the auditor's
clerks, who attend there to write the words of the faid bill
upon a tally, and then deliver it to be entered by the clerk
of the pells, or his clerk.

The tally is then fplit or cloven by the two deputy cham-
berlains, who have their fcals ; and while the fenior deputy-
reads the one part, the junior examines the other part with
the other two clerks.

The tellers' places are in the king's gift, and they have
befides their chief clerk or deputy, and other clerks for the
difpatch of bufinefs.

Teller, Mahcl's, in biography, a prieft and mufical
compofer in the church of St. Gervais, in Maeftricht, pub-
hfhed in 1726, his firft work at Augftjurg, under the title
of " Mufica facra ftylo plane Italico et Chromatico pro
Compofitionis amatoribus, complcftens IX Motetta brevia
de Tempore, et II MifTas folemnes, &c." His fecond
work was pofthumous, and publifhed likewfe under the
folemn title of " Mvifica facra," confifting of four mafTrs
and four motets, for four voices, two violins, tenor", bafloon,
and a bafTo continue, or figured bafe.

Teller, Florian, an eminent dramatic compofer of
the mufic of grand opera ballets. In ) 763 he compofcd
mufic for the ballet of Orpheus and Euridicc, for the

o

v'q

duke

TEL

duke of Wurtembiiig's theatre at Stuttgard ; and the year
after, for his highiafs's birth-day, that of Novcrrc's grand
ballet called " The Triumph of Ncptunr." The ballet
mufic of this compoler fupcrfeded that of Lulli and Ra-
meau at Piu-is ; aud in our opera, the mufic of the ballets
hijloriques, and chaconnes danced by Mad. Heinel and
Vellris, was chiefly the produftion of Teller.

TELLES, in Geography, a fea-port of Africa, in the
kingdom of Fc/, on the coaft of llie Mediterranean ; the
harbour is fmall but fafe, and the bottom good ; 120 miles
E.S.E, of Tangiers.

TELI.ICHERY, a city of Hindooft.-in, on the coail
of Malabar, belonging to the Englifli, and defended by
lines. It was long befieged by the forces of Hyder Ali ;
but in the year 1782 the troops were defeated, the camp
taken, and the general wounded and made prifoner by the
Britilh, under the command of major Abiiigdon. The fitua-
tion of the town is beautiful and healtliy : pepper is the
great ai-ticle of trade, and cardamoms ; 48 miles N.N.W.
of Calicut. N. lat. 1 1° 15'. E. long. 75° 20'.

TELLICO, a town of the Hate of Tenneffee, with a
block-houfe ; 50 miles S.W. of KnoxviUe. N. lat. 35° 37'.
E. long. 84° 18'.

TELLIER, Michael, in B'togfaphy, a diftinguiftied
Jefuit, was born in 1643, near Pire, in Lower Normandy.
He lludied at the Jefuits' college at Caen, and entered into
the fociety at eighteen years of age. Having for fome time
taught the fchools, he was direfted by his fuperiors to pre-
pare an edition of Quintus Curtius, " in ufum Delphiiii,"
which was printed in 1678. He was afterwards feletted,
with other eminent brethren, to eftablifti at the .Jefuits' col-
lege at Paris a fociety of learned men, who might retrieve
the honour of the body ; but his views were direfted to
other objefts, and he became a zealous controverfialift
in the fubjefts of difpute between the Jefuits and other
orders. Accordingly, in 1687, he publiflicd " Defenfe des
Nouveaux Chretiens et des Miffionaires de la Chine, du Ja-
pon, et des Indes," which was attacked by Arnauld in his
" Morale Pratique," and was announced to the holy office :
and lentence of condemnation was averted by a promife that
Tellier (hould come to Rome, and make alterations in his
work. This prepared the way for numerous publications ;
in confequence of which Tellier gained increafing reputa-
tion, and was advanced to the offices of revifor, reftor, and
provincial. Upon the death of F. la Chaife in 1709, he
was chofen, m competition with another candidate, and in
confequence of an affumed air of modeily, to fucceed him
as confelTor to the king. But whatever modefty he might
afluine to ferve a prefent purpofe, lie had little true hu-
mility. Ardent, unfympathizing, and defpotic, he was
hated by his bretlu-en over whom he tyrannized, in the moft
unwarrantable manner. Fontenelle, who well knew his dif-
pofition and charafter, hearing of his appointment, faid,
" The Janfenills have finned." His firft aft was the demo-
lition of the famous houfe of Port Royal, which he razed
to its foundation ; he then forced upon the Ration and the
magiftrates the bull Unigenitus ; and he proceeded with
fuch violence, that the Jefuits themfelves faid, " Father le
Tellier di'ives us at fuch a rate that he wall overturn us."
Tellier's condud brought dilgrace on the fociety, and was
ultimately the chief occafion of its abolition. On the death
of Louis XIV. he was exiled, firfl: to Amiens, and after-
wards to La Fleche, where he died in 1 7 19, at the age
of feventy-fix. The morals of Tellier were regular ; and
though fome perfons fufpefted him of hypocrify, others have
with greater probabihty beUeved, that he was aftuated by
real zeal for the principles which he had adopted. He was a
naan of literature, wrote many works, aud was a membep of

TEL

the Academy of Belles Lettrcs. Nouv. Dldt. D'AIem-
bert's Hift. of the Jefuits.

TELLIGT, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
biihopric of Munfter, with a rich abbey, on the Ems ;
3 miles from Munfter.

TELLIGUO Mountains, or Ircn Mounta'ms. See
Iron Mounlains.

TELLINA, in the Linnoean fyftem of Conchohgy, a
dillinft genus of the clafs of Vermes, and order of Teftacea.
For the characters of this genus, fee Conchology. Gmeliu
enumerates ninety-one fpecies.

TELLINGANA, in Geography, a province of Hin-
dooftan, now called Golconda.

TELLINGSTEDE, a town of the duchy of Hol-
ftein ; 1 1 miles S.E. of Lunden.

TELLIPOLI, a town on the N. coaft of the ifland of
Ceylon ; 9 miles N. of Jaffnapatam.

TELLO, a town on the W. coaft of the ifland of Ce-
lebes, and capital of a fmall kingdom, once united to Ma-
caflar. S. lat. 5°. E. long. 120° 2'. — Alfo, a town on the
W. coaft of the ifland of Lombock. S. L-.t. 8^ 24'. E-
long. 1 15° 45'.

Tello Laugue, a town on the W. coaft of Sumatra,
N. lat. 0° 51'. E. long. 98^ 2 1'.

Tello Point, a cape on the W. coaft of Sumatra. S.
lat. i°5o'. E. long. 100*^ 31'.

TELLONIUM. See Thelonium.

TELLONUM, in Ancieni Geography, a place of Gaul,
in Aquitania, near the fea-coaft, S.E. of Burdigala.

TELLOW, in Geography, a town of Brandenburg, in
the Middle Mark, famous for its turnips ; 10 miles S. of
Berlin. N. lat. 52° 23'. E. long. 13^ 15'.

TELLUDOPIN, a town of the ifland of Celebes, in
Buggcfs bay. S. lat. 2° 35'.

TELLURE, in Agriculture. See TiLLER.

TELLURIUM, in Mineralogy, a metal difcovered by
Klaproth, combined with gold and filver, in the ores from
the bannat of Temefwar, and in the Farzebay mountains in
Tranfylvania. The ores of this metal are denominated na-

raphic tellurium, yelloiv tellurium, and black

five tcllii
tellurium ore.

Native Tellurium; Gedigcn Syhan, Werner. — The colour
is intermediate between tin and filver white, and fometimes
inclines to fteel-grey. Tiiis ore is found niaflive and difTe-
minated ; it is faid fometimes to occur cryftallized in four-
fided prifms ; it occurs alfo in fmall granular concretions.
It yields to the knife, and is ratlier brittle. The fpecific
gravity, according to Klaproth, is 6. 1 5. Before the blow-
pipe, native tellurium melts eafily before ignition ; it burns
with a greenifli flame, and is entirely volatilized in a denfe
white vapour, which has the acrid odour of horfe-radifh.
When expofed to a low heat, it is converted into a yellowifti
or blackifh oxyd : by an increafe of temperature it forms a
dark brown or black glafs, in which gold grains are inter-
fperfed : at a ftiU higher heat the oxyd is entirely volatilized.
The conftituent parts are, according to Klaproth,

Tellurium . . - . 92.55
Iron - - - - - 7.20
Gold 25

The proportion of gold is however variable. In *ie va-
riety of native tellurium, Klaproth found 9 parts in the 100
of gold. Native tellurium occurs in veins with quartz and
lithomarge. It is known, in the older works on mineralogy,
by the name of aurum problematicum, aurum paradoxicum, and
white gold ore.

Graphic Tellurium; Tellure 7iatif graphique, Haiiy. — This

is worked as an ore of gold at Offenbanya, in Tranfylvania,

8 where

TELLURIUM.

where it has hitherto only been found. It is fo called, frupi
the particular appearance formed by the aggregation of the
cs^llals ; it occurs in veins in porphyry. 1 he colour of gra-
phic tellurium is fteel-grey, which is foitiotimcs varioufly
taniifhed by expofure to the air : it is alfo found wiiite,
yellow, or lead-grey. It has a fhining metaUic luftre. It
occurs maffive, diOminated in leaves, and cryftalhzcd in
fmall comprcflcd hcxalicdral prifms, eitlier witli or without
tetrahedral fummits, and generally arranged in rows on the
furface of quartz. There are frequently other prifms at-
tached to the extremities of tlie former, at right angles with
them, giving the whole row an appearance of Pcrfepolitan
charaaers. The planes of the cryllals arc fmooth. " The
maffive variety, which is very rare, occurs in granulai- diftinft
concretions." (Jamefon's Min.) It is foft, brittle, and
frangible, and yields a lead-grey itrcak. The fpecific gra-
vity is 5.723. Before the blow-pipe it burns with a green
flame, and is volatilized. The conilituent parts, accerding
to Klaproth, are

Tellurium - . ... 60

Gold ------ JO

Silver ------ 10

Tclloiv Tfl/iirium Ore. — The colour of this ore is filver-
white, paffing into yellow ifli or brafs-white and grey. It oc-
aurs in grains, and in minute comprefled four-fided prifms,
with a lamellar ftruclure and bright metallic luftre : it alfo oc-
curs maffive and reticulated : it is foft and fomewhat fedlile :
the fpecific gravity is 10.878. The conftituent parts, ac-
cording to Klaproth, are

Tellurium - - - - 44- 7 J

Gold 26.75

Lead . - . . . iq.j

Silver - . . . . 8.5

Sulphur . - . - . ^

This ore, which is worked for the gold and filver it con-
tains, has liitherto been fouud only at Nagyag, in Tranfyl-
vania. It occurs in fmall irregular veins in porphyry. The
moft frequent vein-ftones are brown fpar and quartz : it is
fometimes afTociated with red manganefe ore, fulphuret of
manganefe, native arfenic, plumofe antimony, and native gold.
Bloii Tellurium Ore; NagyagerK, Werner. — The colour
ef this ore is between iron-black and dark lc?.d-grey. It
occurs maffive and in leaves, and alfo crytlallizcd, in the fol-
lowing forms ; oblique four-fided tables, redlangular four-
lided tables, fix and eight-fided tables, and in acute oftohe-
drpns acuminated at the Tummit. It has a fplendent me-
talhc luftre, a more or lefs curved lamellar ftrufture, with
joints on cleavage in one direflion. It yields eafily to the
knife, and is feftile : the thin laminas are flexible ; it ftains
flightiy when rubbed in the fingers. The fpecific gravity
is 8.919. This ore melts very eafily before tbe blow-pipe ;
the fulphur and tellurium are volatilized ; a blackifh round-
coloured globule remains, which, on being molted with
borax, yields a globule which confifts of gold alloyed with
filver ; the flag which remains tinges borax violet-blue. It*
conftituent parts, according to Klaproth, aie
Tellurium - - - -
Lead ....

Gold
Silver
Copper
Sulphur

32.2
54.0
9.0
0.5

1-3

3-0

This ore is found affociated with the preceding ore of
tellurium. An ore of tellurium has lately been difcovercd
in Norway by Efmark. An account of the mines where
tellurium is obtjuncd, was publifhcd by M. Stutr in the new
Memoirs of the Society of Naluralifts at Berlin, vol. ii.

1799, and by Efmark, entitled " An Account of a Mine-
ralogical Journey through Hung-iry, Traafylvania, and the
Bannat," in tha Neuen Bergmannillchcn Journal, vuk. i.
and ii. Dr. Clarke, in the 4tli vol. of lii« Travels, has alfo
recently given a dcfcription of the tellurium mines, from
which we Iliall briefly cxtraft the moft intcrcfting partkubiri
at the clofc of the prcfent article.

Analyju of the Ores of Tellurium. — Thcfe orc8 are worked
for ulie gold and filver tlicy contain ; and tlie tellurium with
wliich they are combined being extremely volatile at a low
degree of heat, tliis metal was loft in the proccfs of cxiraftion,
and was for a long time fuppufcd to be antimony. Muller iirfl
fufpcfted that it was a new metal. Bcrgmann made fovcral
experiments upon it, but left thequcftion undecided.

Klaproth, in 1798, read an account of the difcovrry of
this new metal in the public fitting of the Royal Acadany
of Sciences at Berlin.

The proccfs of extraSing the metal from native telluriuni
is as follows. Six parts of muriatic acid are poured on the
crude ore, which has been previoufly fcparated as mucli as
poflible from its matrix, and mechanically divided. Heat is
applied, and three parts of nitric acid arc added by degrees.
A violent effervefcence takes place. By this proceis the
metallic portion of the o're is djlTolvcd, leaving the m.itrix,
which is principally quartz, behind. In the next place, tlw
filtered folution is carefully diluted with as much water as
it will bear without being rendered turbid. Cauflic potafh
or foda is added, until the precipitate which is firft produced
difappears, and only a dark-brown flimy rcfiduc rcmsuns.

Decant the folution, fetting the refiduum apart for fub-
fequent examination : it confifts of iron and gold. To the
alkaline folution add muriatic acid, until it be faturated,
moft accurately obfcrving the point of faturation. A copi-
ous white precipitate eniues, which in a raifcd temperature
falls to the bottom of the vcftel in the form of a heavy
powder. It is then coUefted, and wafhcd with equal parts
of water and fpirits of wine, and dried in a gentle warmth.
This is the oxyd of tellurium. To reduce it to a metallic
form, it (liould be heated in a fmall glafs retort along witK
one-twelfth of its weight of charcoal, or it may be previ-
oufly moiftened with oil. Adapt a receiver to the retort,
and let heat be applied till the powder be brought to a ftate
of ignition. Small metalhc drops will be feen hning the
upper part of the retort, which fall down feparalely, and
arc fucceeded by others. On refrigeration, the reduced
metal (excepting fome few metallic drops on the flioiildcr
of the retort) is found fufed, with a clean fplendent furface,
which is moft frequently cry ftalllne. At the moment the reduc-
tion takes place, a quantity of carbonic acid gas is fuddenly
generated, carr)'ing along with it fome particles of the mixture,
which it depofits in the receiver. The other ores of tellurium
being worked as gold ore ; for their analyfis, fee Gold.

Tellurium in the pure reguline ftate was firft obtained by
Klaproth, who has given the following dcfcription of it :
il is of a tin-white colour, verging to lead-grey ; it has a very
high metallic fplcndour, and a foliated ftrudurc ; the furfaccs
of tlie fragments are very brilliant. When cooling flowly
after fuflon, it an"umes a cryftalline furface. It is very
brittle, and eafily reduced to powder. Among all the known
fufible metals, except the metalline alkalies or earths, tellu-
rium poflefles the leart fpecific gravity, being only 6.185.

Tellurium melts fooner thau antimony, when expofed to
the fame degree of heat, but later than lead. It inflames
upon charcoal before the blowpipe with a violence rcfem-
bling detonation, and with a vivid light-blue flame, which on
the edges has a grecnifli tinge. By the continued aftion of
the blowpipe, it is entirely diffipated in a greyiftl-whitc
vapour, and emJU a fraell hke that of fcraped radifli.

Q q t Tellurium

TEL

TEL

ToUurium amalgamates very impcrfeftly with mercur^',
even when heat is apphed. It combines with fiilphur in
equal proportions when fufed in a gentle heat, and forms
a lead-coloured llriated fubilance. With nitric acid, tel-
lurium yields a limpid coloiu-lefs folution, which is not ren-
dered turbid by water. In the concentrated fohition, very
light, llender, ncedle-fhaped cryftals are formed, which com-
monly aflume a dendrilical arrangement. Muriatic acid, on
the addition of a little nitric acid, affords a fimilar clear folu-
tion of this metal. This faturated folution is decompoied
by the mere addition of water, which throvi's down a white
powder, but this is again diffolved on adding more water.

The powder thrown down is not a pure oxyd of tellurium,
as it is conibined with a fmall quantity of muriatic acid.
If tellurium be expofed to one hundred times its weight of
concentrated fulphuric acid, the acid gradually acquires a
tinge of a fine deep amethyftine red. This colour is de-
ftroyed by the addition of water, and by heat.

Carbonated and pure alkalies precipitate tellurium in
tlie form of a white oxyd, combined with water or an
hydrate. This is rediflblved by an excefs of alkali. Al-
kaline fulphurets throw down a dark -brown or blackifh pre-
cipitate. Tinfture of gaUs produces a flocculent yellow
pi-ecipitatc. The folutions of this metal in acids are not
decompofej by pruffiate of potalh, a property which tel-
lurium poflcfTes in common with gold, platina, iridium,
ofmium, rhodium, and antimony. Zina and iron precipi-
tate tellurium from its folution in acids, in the metallic ftate,
in the fliape of blackifh flocculi, which acquire a metallic
luftre by trituration. Phofphorus is gradually coated with
metallic laminx in a muriatic folution of tellurium.

Oxyd of tellurium on charcoal is reduced with briflc effer-
vefc*nce, and afterwards volatilized ; but if heated in a
firnall glafs retort it fufes, and on refrigeration exhibits a
ftraw-yellow colour and a ftriated texture. Some of thefe
properties of pure metallic telliu-ium are common to native
tellurium. Since the firil difcovery of this metal by Kla-
proth, it has been further afcertained, that it combines
with chlorine in the proportion of lOO parts of tellurium
with 90.5 of chlorine. Tellurium forms two diftinft com-
pounds with hydrogen, the one of which is folid, and the
other gafeous. The firft is formed by making tellurium
the negative lurface in water in the Galvanic circuit; by this
a brown powder is produced, which is a folid hydruret of
tellurium. The fecond is formed by afting with dilute
fulphuric acid upon the alloy of tellurium and potaflium, by
which a peculiar gas is produced, having a fmell refembling
that of fulphuretted hydrogen. It is abforbed by water, and
a claret -coloured folution refults, which by expofure to the
air becomes brown, and depofits tellurium. After being
wafhed with a fmall quantity of water, this gas does not
afFeft vegetable blue colours. It burns with a blueilh flame,
depofiting oxyd of tellurium, and imites with alkalies. It pre-
cipitates moil metallic folutions, and is itfelf inftantly de-
compofed by chlorine gas. It may be called telluretted
hydrogen gas.

Tellurium is one of thofe metals whofe oxyds poffefs the
charafters of acids, and form diftindl; clafTes of falts. The
falts formed by a combination of a bafe with the oxyd of
tellurium, are called by Berzelius tellurets.

Tellurium, according to Klaproth, combines with oxygen
in the proportion of 100 parts of the metal with 20.5 of
oxygen ; but Berzelius determines the proportions to be
ICO tellurium and 27.83 oxygen.

This metal has not hitherto been apphed to any ufeful
pjrpofe in the arts, which may probably be attributed to its
fcarcity, and the comparative recentnefs of its difcovery.

Tellurium Mines. — " The mine of Nagyag is diftant aljout
5

ij-niiles from Deva, in the bannat of Temefwar : it is fitu-
ated ill the heights of the mountains, lying on the north
iide of the river Moros. After croffing the river, we began
to climb thefe heights. The roads were not bad, but almoft
the whole journey to Nagyag was up a fleep afccnt. We
were five hours, although drawn by four horfes in a light
car, before we reached the fmall town where the mine has
been opened.

" As Tranfylvania is the only country in the whole world
where tellurium has been difcovered, our curiofity was
greatly excited to view the Nagyag mine. At laft the pro-
fpeiEl opened upon us with great boldnefs of fcenery quite
among the fummits of this mountainous region, and in a
manner highly pifturefque and ftriking. The fituation of
the mine was diftinguifhed by an immenfe heap of difcarded
minerals thrown out in working it.

" The whole village of Nagyag has been undermined : the
works are not only carried on upon a grand and extenfive
fcale, but they are condufted with a degree of neatnefs,
for which the Germans have long been famous in mining.
Some fpecimens of tellurium are fo exceedingly rich in
gold, that in the falj of them for the crown, it is neccffary
to weigh them, and to eftimate the price according to
the quantity of gold they contain. This kind of ore is
always kept locked up in private warehoufes. The com-
mon ore lies expofed in heaps, at which the workmen are
bufily employed in preparing the ore for ftamping.

" When the mine was firft difcovered, the mountains around
it were covered with forefts, which have fince been cut
down to fupply the mines with timber. The difcovery of
the mine is thus related on the refpeftable authority of bai-on
Boon, in his letter to profefTor Feber. ' A Wallachian,
whofe name was Armenian John, came to my father, then
pofTefled of a rich filver mine at Cuertes, telling him, that
as he conflantly obferved flames iffuing from and playing
upon a fiffure in ihe Nagyag foreft, he was of opinion that
rich ore might be hid under ground. My father was fortu-
nate enough to liften to the poor man's tale ; and accord-
ingly he drove a gallery in the ground which the Walla-
chian had pointed out. The works went on iome years
without fuccefs, and my father had refolved to give them
up. However, he made a laft drift towards the fiffure,
and there he difcovered the black and lamcllated gold ores,
which were at firft looked upon as iron glimmer, but proved,
when affayed, to be, what they really are, rich gold ores."
Travels through the Bannat, Lend. 1799.

" Other veins were afterwards difcovered running parallel
to each other from north to fouth, and dipping from weft
to eaft. When Boon vifited Nagyag, the mine had only
been worked to the depth of 60 fathoms. Its depth is
now 150 fathoms. The mountains are entirely compofed
of porphyry, covered with red clay or red flate and fand-
ftone. The veins break off as foon as they reach the red flate.
Thefe veins contain with the ore, felfparand fat quartz. There
is alfo found here a very rich kind of ore, which is finely
woven into the texture of a reddifh felfpar. Among the
rich ores, native filver occurs mixed with gold. Another
variety is called by the miners cotton ore ; it confifts of little
native filvery gold grains in tellurium, adhering to an argil-
laceous matrix. All the femi-metals at Nagyag are found,
when carefuUy analyfed, to contain gold. According to
Boon, the tellurium mines in the courfe of 20 years yielded
above 4,000,000 florins in gold and filver. At the time of
our arrival it had been worked 60 years, and was equally
produftive."

TELLUS, Terra, S> in yf/i/onomy. See Earth.

TELMARA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia
Minor, in Caria.

TELMEEN,

T E M

TELMEENjin Geojrraphy, atownofAhlca, in the country
of Saliaia, anciently called Alnissna ; 50 miles W. of Gabs.

TELMES, a town of Morocco; 15 miles from Safi.

TELMISSUS, \n ylnciiHt Geography, a nainc given to
three towns in Afia Minor, one at the diflance of 60 (ladia
from HalicarnalTus, in Lycia ; fituated at the S.E. part of
the gulf of Glaucus, 2^ leagues N.E. of the promontory
TelmefTiis, and nearly S.Vf. of the mouth of the river
Glaucus. Its inhabitants were famous for their flcill in
augury : this town had a very fine theatre : — the fecond

was in Caria, and the third in Pifidia Alfo, a mountain

of Afia Minor, in Lycia.

TELO Martius, a port of Gallia Narbonnenfis. See
Toulon.

TELOBIS, a town of Spain, in the Tarragonefe, be-
longing to the Jaccatani. Ptol.

TELOBO, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Eaft
Ir.dian fea, near the weft coaft of Gilolo. S. lat. t° 6'.
E. lor.g. 127^ 15'.

TELON, a name given by the chemifts to fire.

TELONiE, TO.mou, among the Athenians, farmers of
the public revenues : for the feverity with which they were
handled, in cafe they failed, fee Potter, Archasol. Gr^c.
lib. i. c. 14. torn. i. p. 81.

TELONIUM. See Thelonium.

TELONtUS, Salto, in ^Indent Geography, a river of
Italy, in the country of the Sabines. It Iprang towards the
S. of Carfeoli, and ran N. to difcharge itfelf into the Velinus.

TELOPEA, in Bolany, from TnAw-o-, confpiciious at a
diflance, a name very fuitable to this magnificent fhrub, with
its fine fcarlet flowers. — Brown Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 10.
197. Prodr. Nov. HoU. v. i. 388. Ait. Hort. Kcw.

V. I. 212 Our Embolhrium fpeciojijjtmum, with E. trun-

tatum of Labill. Nov. HoU. v. i. 32. t. 44, conftitutc this
genus. See Emeotiirium, from which we are unwilling to
feparate them, for the reafons given under OnEOCALLls.
The extremely clofe natural affinity, and great refemblance,
of thefe plants to each other, makes us miftruft even the
technical charafter of the lateral y//^ffM (omitted indeed in
Hort. Kew.), fuppofing that organ to be really terminal in
Emhothrium, ivhich on a careful infpettion we find reaion to
doubt. The efficient part of the ftigma in E. coccincum is
certainly oblique. We willi to learn, rather than to diftate,
but we cannot confide implicitly in the moft able guide.

TELOS, PiscoplA, in Jncicnt Geography, an ifland of
the Archipelago, fituated S.E. of the ifle of Cos, and
N.W. of that of Rhodes. Phny fays that it was cele-
brated for its perfumes.

TELPAH, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bahar ; 40 miles S.S.W. of Patna.

TELPHUSSA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Peloponnefuo, in Arcadia, upon an eminence, at tome dif-
lance from the river Ladon, S.E. of Trophjea. A temple
of Ceres was fituated near this town, in which fhe was
honoured under the name of Lufia.

TELUMNUM, a town of Aquitanic Gaul, on the route
from Aqu;e Tarbellicx to Burdigala, between Cxquofa and
Salamacum. Anton, llin. This is the fame with Tellonum.

TELWAllAH, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Agimere ; 25 miles N. of Biiddakano.

TEMA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Ningo,
on the Gold Coaft.

TEMACHIS, in Natural Hijlory, the name of a genus
of foffils, of the clafs of the gypfums ; the charafters of
which are thefe : it is of a fofter fubftance than many of
the other genera, and of a very bright and ghttering hue.
The name is derived from the Greek Tstiaxoc, frujiulum, a
fmall irregular fragment ; the bodies of this genus being

T E M

compofcd of an alTemblage of multitudes of irregiiLir flaky
fragments, as arc all the gypfums ; but no genus of them
fo vifibly as thefe. Hill. See Gypsum.

TEMA LA, Nkgiiais, in Ancient Geography, a mari-
time town of India, on the wellcrn coaft beyond the Ganges,
S. of Beraboiina, where the coaft turns towards the E.

at the W. mouth of the river Sabaracut. Alfo, a river of

India, the mouth of which was near Berabonna* and the
promontory of Tcmala.

TEMAN, ill Commerce, the name of a dry mcafurc at
Mocha, iu Arabia, coiitai:iing 40 mecmeda* or kelias, and
weighing in rice 168 lbs. avoirdupois.

TEMANIK, in Geography, a town of Porfia, in the
province of Kerman ; 25 miles S. of Maftih.

TEMAPARA, in Zoology, the name of a peculiar
fpecies ot lizard, called alfo tejwuacu.

It approaches much to the nature of the iguana, but is
black, fpotted with white.

TEMBA, in Geography, a proWnce of the kingdom of
Angola.

TEMBA RE, a town on the weft coaft of the ifland
of Celebes. S. lat. 1° 27'. E. long. 119° 20'.

TEMBASA, in Ancient Geography, a celebrated town
of Greece, in the Peloponnefus. Pliny.

TEMBEN, in Geography, a town of AbyfTinia j 100
miles E.S.E. of .Sire.

TEMBLEQUE, a town of Spain, in New Caftilc ;
13 miles E.S.E. of Toledo.

TEMBRIUM, or Tymbrium, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Afia, in Phrygia.

TEMBROGIUS, a river of Afia, in Phrygia, which
ran into the Sangarius.

TEMBRUS^ a town of the ifland of Cyprus.

TEMBUL, in Botany, a name ufed by fome authors
for the plant called betel.

TEMDE, in Geography, a river of England, which runt
into the Severn, 2 miles above Ludlow.

TEMDEGUE Kiamen, a poft of Chinefc Tartary ;
10 miles S.E. of Tcitcicar.

TEME, or Team, a river of England, which rifes in
the county of Radnor, and runs into the Severn, 2 miles
below Worcofter.

TEMEH, a town of Egypt, on the left bank of the
Nile ; 9 miles N. of Tahta.

Temeh Iffebag, a town of Egypt ; 1 2 n\iles N. of Fayoum.

TEMELET, a town of Morocco ; 70 miles W.S.W.
of Morocco.

TEMELO, in Ichthyology, a name ufed by fome for
the filh called in Englifli the grayling, and in fome places
the umber.

TEMEN, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Nedsjcd ; 80 miles S.S.E. of Jamama.

TEMENDEFUST, or Metafust, a town of Algiers ;
10 miles E. of Algiers.

TEMENEH, a town of ACatic Turkey, in Natolia j
52 miles W.N.W. of Sinob.

TEMENI, a town of the ifland of Candia ; 6 miles S.
of Candy.

Temeni Porta, in Ancient Geography, a fmall town of
Afia Minor, in Lydia.

TEMENIA, a town of Afia, in Phrygia, on the con-
fines of Lycaonia.

TEMENIUM, a fortrcfs of the Peloponnefus, on the
confines of the Argolide. Here were two temples, one
dedicated to Neptune, and another to Venus.

TEMERICUS Ar.ER, a fmall country of G.-Ulia Nar-
bonnenfis, towards the fource of the Rhine.

TEMES, io Geography, a river of Hungary, which rifes

in

T E M

in the fouth-eaft part of the mountains, and run<! into the
Danube, oppofite Belgrade.

TEMESA, in Mcient Geography, a town of Italy, in
Brutium, called Tempfa or Tcmla in the time oi Strabo.

TEMESCAMANG, in Geography, the principal of
thofc lakes in Lower Canada formed by the Utavvas and its
contributory ftrcams, which lake has always been a trading
port, and which may be faid to continue, by a fucceflion of
rivers and lakes, upwards of 50 leagues from the Forks,
pafling near the waters of the lake Abbitiby, in N. lat.
48° 30', which is received by the Moofe river, that dif-
charges itfelf into James bay. Mackenzie's Travels.

TEMESCHU, a town of New Mexico, in the province
of Mayo ; 160 miles E.N.E. of Santa Cruz.

TEMESVAR, or Temeswar, a town of Hungary.
Tliis is an important fortrefs, fituated on the river Beg,
which forms a morafs round it, and is ftrongly fortified.
It is the capital of a bannat, the refidence of a governor,
and the fee of a Greek bifhop. It was taken by prince
Eugene in 17 16; and by the peace of Paffarowitz was,
with the whole bannat, confirmed to the houfe of Auftria ;
fmce which time it has been almofl wholly rebuilt. It is
large and populous ; the ftreets broad and well paved.
The fortrefs is a caftle with walls nine feet thick, and re-
quires a garrifon of ii).,ooo men. It contains about 443
fquare German miles, with a population of about 450,000
inhabitants; 52 miles E.N.E. of Belgrade. N. lat. 45° 49'.
E. long. 21°.

TEMIN, in Commerce, a money of account in Algiers,
equivalent to 2 carubes, or 29 afpers. See Coin.

TEMISCHBERG, in Geography, a fortrefs of Ruffia,
in the government of Caucafus ; 60 miles W. of Stavropol.

TEMISSAH, or Temmissa, a large town of Africa,
in the province of Fezzan, diftant from Mourzouk, its
capital, in an E.N.E. direftion, about 120 miles. Here
the caravan of pilgrims from Bornou and Nigritia, which
takes its departure from Mourzouk about the end of Oc-
tober, or beginning of November, and travels by the way
of Cairo to Mecca, ai-rives in the evening of the feventh day,
and ufually provides the (lores of com and dates, and dried
meat, that are requifite for its dreary paflage.

TEMISVAR. See Baba.

TEMITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Chru-
dim ; 18 miles N.W. of Chrudim.

TEMLOWKA, a town of Algiers, anciently called
" Signs ;" 24 miles S.E. of Conftantina.

TEMMA, a town of Africa, on the Gold Coaft. N.
lat. 5° 45'. W. long. 0° 55'.

TEMMELISSUS, in Jncient Geography, a town of
Afia, in Syria, on the route from Celecoma to Larifla, be-
tween Chalcida and Apaniea. Anton. Itin.

TEMMES, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
government of Ulea ; 20 mdes S. of Ulea.

TEMNIKOV, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Tambov ; 1 16 miles N.N.E. of Tambov. N. lat. 54° 28'.
E. long. 43° 14'.

TEMNOS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor,
in Ionia, at the mouth and north of the river Hemius. It
did not fubfift in the time of Pliny.

TEMOEL, in Geography, a town on the weft coaft of
the ifland of Celebes. S. lat. o' 5'. E. long. 119° 35'.

TEMORIS, a town of New Mexico, in the province
of Culiacan ; 70 miles N.N.E. of Culiacan.

TEMOSOSHI, a town of New Mexico, in the pro-
vince of Hiaqui ; 1 30 miles E. of Riochico.

TEMPATLAHOAC, in Ornithology, the name of a
broad-billed bird of the Weft Indies, defcribed by Nierem-

T E M

berg ; and by him efteemed a fpecies of duck. It is a va-
riety of the anas clypeata. See Duck.

It is of the fize of the common duck ; is common on the
lakes, of Mexico, and is a good eatable bird. Ray.

TEMPE', in Ancient Geography, a celebrated valley of
Theflaly, between the nwuntains OHa and Olympus.
jSilian, Pliny, and Strabo reprefent it as 40 ftadia in length,
along tiie middle of which lay the courfe of the river Peneus,
which feparated Theffaly from Macedonia. Tempe, ac-
cording to Livy, was the name given to the wood or foreft,
which, though not dangerous, was difficult for an ai-my to
pafs, becaufe of two defiles five miles in length ; and the
river Peneus made a terrifying noife in pafling through this
deep valley. Tempe, it is faid, is derived from the Greek
TEjuTj; ; in the plural, fignifying wood. Tempe, at its en-
trance, has a large village, which has been lone famous for
the accompli (hments of its inhabitants, and for the great
trade they carry on with Vienna and the interior of Europe.

Tempe, in Commerce. See Stampe.

TEMPELBURG, ia Geography, a town of Hinder
Pomerania ; 19 miles W. of New Stettin. N. lat. 53° 29'.
E. long. 16° 12'.

TEMPER, in a Phyfual Scnfe. See Max.

Temper of a Horfe, the difpofition of the animal, which
ftiould be carefully attended to while he is young, as well as
in the purchafe.

T^yiP-ERjin a. MuJicalSen/e. SeeTEMPERAMENT,in Mujic.

Temper, in a Mechanical Senfe. See Tempering.

TEMPERAMENT, TeMPERAMENTUM, Temperature,
in Phyfiology. See Man.

Temperament, Temperamento, in Mufic, generally de-
notes a reftifying or amending of the falfe or imperfeft con-
cords, by transferring to them part of the beauty of the
perfedl ones.

The degrees of the oftave, which may be called its elements,
as being the fmalleft intervals into which'jt is refolvable,are two
greater femitones, two lefs tones, and three greater tones.

Now the different fituation of thefe elements, with refpeft
to each other, occaiions that intervals or concords of the
fame name, as thirds, fourths, &c. do not confift of the
fame degrees or elements, though there be always the fame
number of them : but one fourth, for inftance, is agreeable
and perfeft, and another not.

To mend thefe imperfeft concords, the muficians have
bethought themfelves to temper, i. e. give them part of the
agreeablenefs of perfeft ones. In order to this, they take
a medium between the two, and this they call a temperantent ;
which neceflarily produces a new divifion of the oilave, or,
which amounts to the fame, new elements.

For inftance, whereas naturally its elements are the greater
femitone, and the greater and lefs tone ; they take a middle
tone formed of the greater and the lefs : and the only ele-
ments now are the greater femitone, and this mean tone,
which renders the five intervals that are tones equal, and
thofe that are femitones lefs unequal to thefe.

One might alfo divide each of the five tones of the ofilave
into femitones, which, joined to the two it naturally has,
would make twelve : in which cafe, the whole odlave would
be divided into twelve equal parts, which would be mean
femitones.

It is eafy to form various other kinds of temperaments :
all the difficulty is to find fuch as are free from two great
inconveniencies, i. e. which do not alter either all the con-
cords too much, or, at leaft, fome of them.

All fuch divifions of the ottave are called temperci or ttm-
perativ: Jyjlem,

The temperament does, indeed, according to the definition
above given, and confidcred in one view, correft fome falfe

concords,

TEMPERAMENT.

concords, yet, in other refpects, it fpoils and falufics both
perfetl and impcifeft concords, and renders difcords more
liarfh than they would otherwifc be, if the intervals were
julUy taken. To explain this, we inull confider that all the
intervals are founded on the primary proportions ariling from
the numbers 2, 3, and 5, that is, if we do not exceed the
compafs of an oftave, -], 4, and 4. Sec Intekval.

The nearer we come in praftice to the true intervals, the
more perfeft the melody and harmony will be ; ajid it is cer-
tain, that the human voice, and fome inilrumcnts, as violins,
&c. which have no flops nor frets, will execute mufic to a
great degree of exaftnefs ; but the cafe is not the fame with
fixed or fretted inftruments, as harpfichords, organs, lutes,
viols, &c. Accuracy is here impoffible, unlefs we would
content ourfelves with always playing in the fame key, with-
out any tranfition or tranfpofition whatfocvcr. In this cafe,
indeed, the harpfichord or organ might vie with the accu-
racy of the voice or violin. For inftance : if we were to
compofe or play in the key of C, then we miglit make the
feveral intervals of that key to be in the following true pro-
portions, I, I, -^, -14, ?, -',^, i, 1 1, that is, in whole

numbers, -{ , of- and the

' I24 27 30 32 36 40 45 483

mftrument tuned in this manner, would perform any piece
of mulic in C, juftly compofed, with great beauty and ex-
aftnefs ; taking for granted, that every key, fundamental
note, or found, ought to have its true fifth and fourth, and
that thefe ought alfo to have their true fifths and thirds.

Now this being preniifed, it will prefently appear, that in
making any tranfpofition or tranfition from C, we fliall find
fome falfe concord. Thus, for inflance, if we proceed
to G, and confider it as a key, or fundamental found, we
fliall have the following feries of numbers for the o&ave

Ot G, "VIZ. < ^ o iC /r ^

13.6 40 45 48 54 60 64 72 J
But here the interval between 40 and 54 is falfo, being
a comma too much, for the fecond of a key mufl make
a true fifth with the fifth of the fame key. In like man-
ner, if we were to proceed fi-om C to A, as a new key,
we fhould find the following feries for the oftave of A,

fABCDEFGa-} , ,, •, ,
-i n ^ t: of where the mterval

{^40 45 48 54 60 04 72 80 J

between A 40 and its fourth D 54 is falfe, being too great
by a comma. If any other tranfition were examined, we
ihail always find fome note falfe.; as in F, the fixth would
be redundant by a comma ; and in D, the fifth would be
deficient by a comma. All which (hews the impoffibility
of truth and exaftnefs of mufic on fixed inftruments. Yet
as thefe inftruments have their ule and convenience in fome
refpefts, it was proper to endeavour to find out a method of
making them tolerable. It has been obferved under the
article Interval, that the tone major exceeds the tone
minor by a comma. Their difference is ncccffary for the
truth and perfeftion of mufic ; but yet if thefe tones were
rendered equal, the ear would not be offended. And this
has fuggefted the means of tempering fixed inftruments. If
we were to make all tones equal to the tone major, as fome
imagine the ancients did, then we ftiould find the ditonus, or
third, exceeding a true third major by one comma, which
would be intolerable. In like manner, if all tones were to be
minor, we fhould have thirds major defedlive by a comma,
which would alfo be intolerable, not to mention other falfe in-
tervals that muft neceffarily arife from fuch a fuppofition.

Suppofing then one tone increafed, and the others dinii-
nifhed by half a comma, we fhould have our thirds major
remain perfeft. But ttill it would be neceffary to examine
what fifths this fuppofition would give. Now it is evident
that a tone major added to an oftave, makes jufl two fifths,

thus i X -J = 4 = .; X }. But the tone here added is a
tone major, and the tone we have afTumrd is a ttniporate
tone deficient from the tone major by half a comma ; hence
the fum of the twu fifths, on this fuppofition, will fall fhort
of the truth by half a comma, and confiquently one fifth
will be deficient a quarter of a comma. Which difTi-rcnce,
although it be fenfiblc, yet experience (hews, that fifths fo
diminithed are tolerable.

This temperament is what is called the common or vulgar
temperament, and confifts, as lias been faid, in diminifhing
the fifth by a quarter of a comma, in preferving the third
major perfed, and dividing it into two equal tones. Which
being fuppofed, it follows that the fourth muft exceed the
truth by a quarter of a comma ; that the third minor will be
deficient by the fame quantity ; that the fixth minor will be
perfeft, and the fixth major redundant by a quarter of a
comma ; and laftly, that the feinitonc major will exceed the
truth by a quarter of a comma. If we introduce chromatic
notes, or flats and ftiarps, the femitone minor will alfo ex-
ceed the truth by a quarter of a comma, and confcqucntly
the difference between the two femitones, or the diefis en-
harmonica, will be preferved.

If then we had a harpfichord or organ, with each feint
or half note divided, we ihould have the foHowing notes or
founds, viz. CC», Db, D, D», Eb, E, F*, Gb,
G, G.«, A b, A, A*, B b, B, c, in the compafs of an
oftavc. Yet this fyflem of notes, numerous as thev feem,
would not be fufficient for all tranfitions aid tranfpofitions.
For though a piece of mufic tranfpofed to any pf the na-
•tural keys C, D, E, F, G, A, B, and to the flats, as
E b and B b, and fome others, would do well ; yet, in
tranfpofing to fharps, as to C«, we (liould not find a true
third major, uidcfs we introduced E *. And even in flats,
as A b and Eb> we fhould 'not find a true third major in
defcending, or a fixth minor in afccnding, unlefs we intro-
duced Fb and Cb. And in like manner, tranfpofitions to
G« and Eb would oblige us to introduce B* and Cb.
Nor would even this fuffice, for if neceffity required a tranf-
pofition from the key of C to that of D *t, wo fhould not
find a true third major without introducing F** and r.
So that at laft we fhall come to a temperate fyftem, where,
in afcending, the notes C, D, F, G, A, would each have
its fliarp and double fharp, and the notes B and E each a
fingle Iharp. In defcending, the notes E, D, B, A, G,
would each have their flat and double flat, and the notes
F and C each a fingle ilat. And tlius the oftavc would
be divided into 3 1 intervals, whofo defignations are
C Dbb C* Db C«« D Ebb D« Eb D»«

I 234 56 789 10
E Fb E» F Gbb F* Gb F*« G

II 12 13 14 15 16 17 iS 19
Abb G* Abb G«f« A Bbb A* Bb

20 21 22 2^ 24 25 26 27

A«;* B C B* C. where the letters C, D, E,

28 29 30 31
F, G, A, B, fignify the common diatonic notes : thofe
marked with a fingle * or b are the chromatic ; and thofe
marked « ith a double * * or b b arc enharmonic notes ; fo
called, becaufe the interval between them and the next dia-
tonic note is an enharmonic diefis ; for which rcafon, the
notes E*, Fb, and B «, Cb» arc alfo enharmonic.

But even in this divifion of the oftave, all the notes would
not have a third major in afcending and defcending : thus, for
inftance, D** has no third major ; for this would be F***,
which is not in the fcale, nor can any number of additional
notes fuffice in all cafes. But this inconvenience is cafily reme-
died, and the fyftem confiderably improved, by making all the
thirty -one intervals equal. We have already obferved, that in

the

TEMrERAMENT.

the common temperament, the femitones major and mmor ex-
ceed the truth by a quarter of a comma, and that the enharmonic
dicl'is is preferved true. Hence it follows, that the hype-
rochc, or difference between the chromatic and enharmonic
ditfis ; for example, the interval between Fb and £«, or Db D
and C», &c. will alfo exceed the truth by a quarterof a comma.
Now the hyperoche.by our table under Interval, is equal to
1.37695, to which adding a quarter of acomma = 0.25000, we
have 1. 68695, whichdiffcrs fromtheenharraonicdiefis 1.90917
only by 0.28222, or about ,'r of a comma. Neglefting this
fmall difference, let us fuppofe all the thirty-one intervals of
the oftave equal, it will follow that tranfpofitions to all the
notes of the fyftem, whether diatonic, chromatic, or enhar-
monic, will be equally good, and differ only in pitch or tone, as
they ought, but not in accuracy, which muft next be examined.

The divifion of the oftave into thirty-one parts may be con-
veniently done by logarithms. Under the article Interval, I
find the logarithm of the oftave = 55-79763 commas ; confe-
quently each diefis, or divifion of the oftave, — 1.79992
comma; hence the fifth, being 18 diefes, will be 32.399
commas. Now the true fifths being 32.640, the fifth con-
sequently in this temperament is deficient by 0.241 parts of
a comma, which is lefs than a quarter of a comma byTTn part;
and therefore this fifth will, ftriftly fpeaking, be better than
that of the vulgar temperament by -rrir of the comma ; but
this is infenfible. Next, proceeding to examine the third,
we (hall find it equal to 10 diefes or divifions, that is, 17-999
commas; and the true third major being 17-963 commas,
the difference is 0.036, that is, about A of a comma. Now as
the ear can bear a fifth, altered by a quarter of a comma, it will
much more eafily bear the alteration of -jV of a comma in a
third major. Again, in this temperament the third minor
is indeed, flriclly fpeaking, worfe than in the vulgar, which
differs from the truth but a quarter of a comma, whereas
here it diflFers by about -^ oi i comma more ;. but then this
difference is infenfible.

Thus we have been led from the confideration of the
vulgar temperament, to the invention of the temperament
which divides the oftave into 3 1 equal intervals, commonly
called Huygens's temperament. This great mathematician
was, indeed, the firfl who gave a diflinft account of it, and
Ihewed its ufe and accuracy. But here, as in many other
inventions, we find the hint of the thing much older than the
true knowledge of it. See Huygenii Opera omnia, vol. i.
p. 748, 749, edit. I. Lugd. Batav. 1724.

The divifion of the oftave into 31 parts was invented
in Italy about 300 years ago, by Don Nicola Vincentino.
The title of his book is " L'Antica Mufica Riddotta alia
Modema Prattica, &c." Roma, 1555. fol.; and an inftru-
ment, called archicembalo, was made upon this fcheme, as
Salinas informs us, who at the fame time condemns it, as
very difagreeable in praftice. But this could be owing to
nothing but its not being tuned according to the intention of
the inventor. For if aU the thirds major of this inftrument
were made perfeft, and the fifths diminifhed by a quarter of a
comma, it is evident that the inftrument would be equally exadl
with any tuned according to the vulgar temperament, and
would fuffice for tranfpofitions to any diatonic or chromatic
notes, though not to all the enharmonic, as D*«, &c. be-
caufe we fhould not find its third major. And if the in-
ftrument were tuned according to-Jltf. Huygens's fcheme, of
making all the divifions equal, it vpould then have all the
31 keys equally good, and very near the truth. See
Salinas, lib. iii. The title of his work is " Francifci Salinje
BurgenCs de Mufica Libri Septem," Salmanticas, 1577, fol.
Meri^ennus's work is intitled " Harmonicorum, Libri XII.
authore F. M. Merfenno Minimo, Lutetiae Parifiorum,"
1648, foL He publifhed another book before this, the title

of which is " Harmonie Univerfelle, contenant la Theorie et
la Pratique de la Mufique," Pai-is, 1636, fol. 2 vols.

Hence it is plain, Salinas and Merfennus had not fuf-
ficiently examined this matter.

The ufe of this temperament of M. Huygens deferves to
be introduced into the practice of mufic, as it will facilitate
the execution of all the genera of mufic, whether diatonic,
chromatic, or enharmonic ; nor does the multiphcity of its
parts render it impracticable, the author affuring us that he
had a harpfichord made at Paris with fuch divifions, which
was approved of and imitated by fome able muficians.
Merfennus alfo gives a fcheme for this purpofe ; and Salinas
fays he faw and played upon fuch an inftrument. See alfo
Don Vincentino before cited, lib. v. p. 99, &c.

M. Huygens, to facilitate the tuning of inftruments with
fuch divifions, has given us a table of the parts of an oftave,
according to his fyftem, together with their logaritlims.
The table is as follows :

The divifion of

Tlie divifion of

the 0(5^ave into

tht offave acconi-
in:; to tlie com-

3 1 equal parts.

iioiilemperauieni.

I.

II.

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

N. 97106450

4.6989700043

50000

Ut^

c

50000

4.6989700043

4-7086806493

S1131

4.7183912943

52278

4.7281019393

53469

Si

B'

53499

4.7283474859

4-7378125843

54678

4.7475232293

55914

Sa

B

55902

4.7474250108

4.7572338743

57179

*

»

57243

4-7577249674

4-7669445193

58471

4.7766551643

59794

La

A

59814

4.7768024924

4-7863658093

61 146

4.7960764543

62528

#

«

62500

4.7958800173

4.8057870993

63942

Sol"

G"

64000

4.8061799740

4.8154677443

65388

4-8252083893

68666

Sbl

G

66874

4.8252574989

4.8349190343

68378

4.8446296793

69924

4-8543403243

71506 Fa^

F>

71554

4-8546349804

4.8040509693

74122

4.8737616143

74776

Fa

F

74767

4.8737125054

4-8834722593

76467

4-8931829043

78197

4-9028935493

79964

Mi

E

80000

4.9030899870

4-9126041943

81772

4.9223148393

83621

Ma

Eb

83592

4.922I675I19

4-9320254843

85512

*

«

85599

4.9324674685

4.9417361293

87445

4-9514467743

89422

Re

D

89443

4.9515949935

4-961 1574193

91444

4.9708680643

93512

*

*

93459

4.9706225184

4-9805787093

95627

Ut'

C"

95702

4.9809224750

4.9902893543

97789

4.9999999993

1 00000 1 Ut

c

lOOCOO

5.00COOOOOOO

The fecond column of this table contains the numbers
expreffing the length of chords making 31 equal divifions, the
longeft, anfwering to C, being fuppofed to be divided into
100,000 parts.

In the third column are the fyllables by which the notes
are ufually named in France ; and the afterlfc * /hews fome
enharmonic notes, of which that near yo/ is moft necelTary.

In the fourth column are the letters commonly ufed to
denote the found of the odlave.

The

TEMPERAMENT.

Tl.e numbers of the fccond column were found by means
of thofe in tlie firft, whicli arc tlieir rclpedlive logarithms ;
and thcfewerc found by dividing 0.30102999566, the loga-
rithm of 2, by 31. The quotient 97106450 is marked N,
and being continually added to the logarithm of 50000, that
is, to 4.6989700043, gives all the logarithms of tlic lirft
column to the greatefl 4.9999999993. wliich being ex-
tremely near to 5.0000000000, the logarithm of looooo,
thews the operation to have been rightly performed.

The fifth column (hews the lengths of the chords in the
common temperament ; and the fixth column contains their
refpeftive logarithms. Vide Huygenii Opera, vol. i.

P- 752. 753-

The learned author of this temperament has not given the
notes anfwering to all the divifions of the oftave ; but that
may eafily be fupplied from what lias been faid above when
we derived this temperament from the confidcration of the
common.

As Huygens has not given the names of all the intervals
that occur in his temperate fcale, we (hall here infert them
in the oilave, from C to c, with their refpeftive meafures in
the commas, and tenths of a comma

Intervals.

N allies.

Meafures.

''Dbb

1 . Diminifhed fecond,extreme'

flat fecond, or enharmonic •

1.8

diefis.

C«

2. Semitone minor, or chro-'

3-6

matic diefis. j

Db

3. Flat fecond, or femitone )
major. J

S-V

c«*

4. Double femitone minor.

7.2

D

5. Second, or tone.

9.0

Ebb

6. Diminifned third, or ex-")
treme flat third. J

10.8

D«

7. Superfluous fecond.

12.6

Eb

8, Third miner, or flat third.

14.4

D««

9. Extreme fuperfluous fecond.

16.2

E

10. Third major, or Iharp third.

18.0

Fb

II. Diminiflied fourth.

19.8

E«

12. Superfluous third.

21.6

F

13. Fourth.

23-4

0

*-•

Gbb

14. Extreme diminifhed fifth.

25.2

u J

F*

15. Falfe fourth, or tritonus.

27.0

6

Gb

16. Falfe fifth, or femidiapente.

z8.8

ti

F*i>*

17. Extreme fuperfluous fourth.

30.6

G

18. Fifth.

32-4

Abb

19. Diminiflied fixth, or ex-'

treme flat fixth.

34-2

G«

20. Superfluous fifth.

36.0

Ab

21. Flat fixth, or fixth minor.

37-H

G*«

22. Extreme fuperfluous fifth.

'sg-'^

A

23. Sharp fixth, or fixth major.

41.4

Bbb

24. Diminiflied feventh, or ex-1
treme fiat feventh. C

43-2

A* [25. Superfluous fixth.

45.0

Bb

26. Flat feventh, or feventh'

46. S

minor.

A»»

27. Extreme fuperfluous fixth.

4S.6

B

28. Sharp feventh, or feventh'
major.

50.4

«b

29. Diminiflied oAave.

52.2

B*

30. Superfluous feventh.

54.0

c

31. OAave.

55.8

Vol. XXXV.

The temperate diefis cnharmonica of Huygens iieiiig i.R
coniina, nearly, which is eafdy remembered,' the meafurc of
any interval in the oftave may be found by multiplying it
by the luimber denoting the place of that mterval. Thus
the fixth minor, being the twenty-firfl; interval, will be =
1.8 X 21 = 37.8. The odave, being the thirty-firft, will
be = 31 X 1.8 = 55.8, which does not differ from the
truth by more than 0.00237, that is, not by t.-<t of a comma,
and therefore perfedly infenfible. See Intehvai,.

All the intervals in the foregoing table, cither have rr-
ceived names, or at leaft might receive them, from a perfed
analogy to the names in ufe among praftical muficians ; but
many of thefe intervals are as yet unheard of among prac-
titioners. Perhaps, if all the genera of ancient mufic were
reftored, every interval here mentioned might be of ufe,
either in melody or harmony, and thereby greatly add to the
variety of compofition.

We have already mentioned the advantages of M.
Huygens's fydem ; but its excellency will better appear by
comparing it with the fchemes of others. 'We may dil-
tinguifti and name the different temperaments by llu.- number
of equal parts into which the oftave is fuppofcd to be
divided. The temperaments that occur in books are tem-
peraments of 12, 19,31, 43, 50, 53, and ^^ parts, of whicli
in order.

The temperament of 12 parte is founded on the fuppofi-
tion that the fcmitones major and minor may be made equal.
Hence the o£lave will be divided into 12 equal femitones,
feven of which will make the 5th, four the 3d, and three
the 3d minor.

The temperament of 19 parts goes upon the fuppofition
that ihs femitone major is the double of the femitone minor.
Hence the tone will be 3, and the third major 6. The diefis
enharmouica will be i, and confequcntly the oftave, being
three thirds major and a diefis, will be 19. The fifth contains
1 1 parts. The harpfichord, in this fcheme, will have every
feint cut in two, one for the (harp of the lower note, and
the other for the flat of the higher. Between B and C, and
between E and F, will be iuLerpofed keys, which mull ferve
for the (harps of B and E, and the flats of C and F re-
fpeftively.

The temperament of 31 parts is M. Huygens's, already
defcribed : here the femitones arc as 3 to 2. The third
major is 10, and the fifth 18.

T'he temperament of 43 is M. Sauveur's, and by him
very fully dcfcnbed in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy
of Sciences, A.D. 1701, 1702. He fuppofes ihc propor-
tion of the femitones to be as 4 to 3. Hence his tone is 7,
the third major 14, the fifth 25, and the oftave 43. What
mufical foundation this learned gentleman went upon in the
invefi-igation of this temperament, is not known : but it
fecms liable to infupei-ablc difficulties ; for here the diefis en-
harmonica is but the half of the difference between it and the
chromatic diefis : whereas, in truth, this difference, inflead
of being double of, is really lefs than the enharmonic dieCs,
as was long ago objedlcd to him by Mr. Henfling, and ap-
pears from the table under Intf.kval, Mifccl. Bcrolin,
tom. i. p. 285, 286.

Befidcs, his enharmonic diefis falls gre.itly (hon of the
truth, being but 1.27 of a comma, w-hich is an error of
0.64, or nearly 4 of a comma. Whereas, in M. Huygens's
temperament, the error of the diffis is alm,oll infenfible, being
but ^TT of a comma. Nor are the praAical advantages of
M. Sauveur's fyftem any ways comparable to Huygens's.
His fifth is indeed, ftric\ly fpeaking, belter ; but (o little,
that the difference is not fenfible, not being 7'. of a comma.
On the other hand, his thirds are fenfibly worfe, the major
R r being

TEMPERAMENT.

being h »nd the minor 4 of a comma falfc. Whocas
HuyVnV. third m.-,jor doc. not d.ffer fenf.bly from the
truth, and the minor has nofenfible difference from the third
mino^ def.cu-..t by 4 of a co.nma of the common tonperament
which ought to be deemed the hm.t of the dimmution of
concords. If «e add to this, that the much greater number
of parts in M. Sauveur's odave, makes it much more intri-
cate th.-in M. Huygcns's, and that thcfc parts would be
falfe or ufelefs, even fuppofmg the enharmonic genus rc-
ftored, no mufici.in will long hefitate which he ought to

''Vhe temperament of 50 parts is propofed by Mr. Hen-
fline in the Mifccllan. Beroliii. above cited: he takes the
proportion of the femitonc as 5 to 3 : hence his tone is 8,
the third major 16, the fifth 29, and the oaave 50. 1 he
third major and fifth in tliis fyllem will be worfe tli.-in Huy-
gcns's, though the third minor be a little better. 1 he third
major is here lefs than the true, and the fifth deficient by
more than 4 of a comma, which is a fault, not to mention the
inconveniency arifing from dividing tlie odave into 50 parts ;
befides, 5 : 3, the proportion of the fcmitones here afTumed,
although expreffed in greater numbers, is not fo near the
truth as M. Huygens's of 3 : 2. See Ratio.

The temperament of 53 parts is mentioned by Mcrfennus.

Here the tones will be unequal, 9 being the tone major, and
8 the minor. Hence the third major will be 17, and the
fifth 31, which laft does not differ from the truth by above
-, ^^ part of a comma. The third minor is alfo more perfeft
than in M. Huygens's fyllem. But the multiplicity of
parts in the odave of this fyflcm renders it too intricate ;
and the diflinftion of tones major and minor upon fixed in-
llruments is imprafticablc.

The lall temperament we have to mention is that of 55
parts, which M. Sauveur calls the temperament of praftical
muficians. Its foundation lies in afTuming the proportion of
the fcmitones as 5 to 4 ; fo that the tone will be 9, the third 18,
and the fifth 32. The fifth in this fyflcm, as in that which
makes the fcmitones equal, is nearer the truth than M. Huy-
gens's, but this advantage is not ^V of ^ comma ; and on
tlie otlicr hand, the thirds, both major and minor, are here
greatly mifluned, as will appear by the annexed table, ex-
hibiting the thirds and fifths of thefe feveral temperaments,
as alfo the thirds and fifths of the common temperajnent,
and two mentioned by Salinas, marked ift Salin. 2d Salin,
The letter V. ftands for the fifth ; III. for the third major ;
and 3. for the third minor. The fifths are all deficient, but
the tliirds are fometimes lefs than the true ; the firft are
marked + , the others — .

Temperaments.

V. Coll..

Error.

III. torn.

Error.

3 Com.

Error.

Of 12 parts

32-549

0.091

18.599

0.636 +

12.950

0.727 -

'9

32.304

0.336

17.620

0-343 -

14.684

0.004 +

31

32-399

0.241

17.999

0.036 -|-

14.400

0.277 -

43
50

32.440

0.200

18.167

0.204 +

14.273

0.404 -

32.363

0.277

17.855

0.108 —

14.508

0.169 —

53
55

32-637
32-464

0.000
0.176

17.897
18.261

0.066 —
0.298 —

14.740
14.203

0.063 +
0.474 -

Com. Temp.

32-390

0.250

17.963

0.000

14.427

0.250 —

I ft Salin.

32-307

0-333

17.630

0-333 -

14.677

0.000

2d Salin.

32-354

0.286

17.520

0.143 -

14-434

0.143 -

True Scale.

32.640

0.000

17.063

0.000

14.607

0.000

Temperaments formed by the divifion of the oftave into
<qual parts, may be called geometrical temperaments. The
common, and the two mentioned by Salinas, do not pro-
ceed upon this foundation ; the intention of the firft in-
ventors not having been to make tranfpofitions to every note
of the fyftem equally good ; but only to make the moft
ufual tranfitions in the courfe of a piece of mufic tolerable.
Hence the parts of the oftave, in their fuppofition, were
not all equal.

The common temperament, as we have faid, preferves
the third major perfeft. The firft of Salinas preferves the
third minor perfeft. In the fecond of Salinas, the femi-
tone minor is perfeft. The foundation of his firft tempe-
rament is making the temperate tone equal to the tone minor
and 4 of a comma, or the tone major lefs i of a comma.
Hence his fifth and third major will be deficient by 4^ of a
comma ; and the third minor confequently will be true. The
ground of his fecond fcheme is, to add i of a comma to the
tone minor, or take i from the tone major for his temperate
tone. Hence the fifth will be deficient by 4- of a comma,
and the thirds major and minor each deficient by -=■ of a
comma. Confequently, the femitonc, being their difference,
will be preftrved.

As to Mr. Salmon's fcale in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, there is nothing true in it, but the diatonic fcale of C.
His fcale for A is falfe, the fourth being erroneous by a
comma : moft. of his femitoncs are likewife falfe. In

fhort, it can neither be confidered as a true fcale, nor as a
temperament.

Before we clofe this article, it may be proper to add a few-
words about the method of invention of the foregoing geo-
metrical temperaments. M. Huygens having had the hint
of a divifion of the oftave into 3 1 parts, had nothing far-
ther to do but to examine it by logarithms. But fuppofing
no fuch hint had been given, he might have inveftigated it
direftly, by the method laid down by himfelf, and alfo
by Dr. Wallis and Mr. Cotes, for approximating to the
value of given ratios in fmaller numbers. We have given
Mr. Cotes's method under Ratio. The application of that
method to the prefent purpofe is thus : the ratio of the
oftave to the third major is 55.79763 to 17.96282, and the
approximating ratios will be,

1. Greater than the true 28 : 9, 87 : 28, &c.

2. Lefs than the true 3 : i, 31 : 10, 59 : 19, 205 : 66, Sec.
The ratios greater than the true muft all be rejefted ; be-

caufe they give the third major lefs than true, and confe-
quently the tone (its half) deficient by above ^ of a comma ;
which gives the fifth deficient above .| of a comma : but this
ought not to be. The firft of the ratios lefs than true is
3 : I , or 1 2 : 4, which is the temperament of 1 2 parts be-
fore defcribed, and too inaccurate. The next is 31 : 10, or
M. Huygens's. The reil divide the oftave into too many
parts.

The fame may be alfo found thus : the ratio of the aftave

te

TEMPERAMENT.

to the common temperate fifth, deficient by ^ of a comma, is
56.79763 to 32.38952. The approximating ratios to which
axe,

1. Greater than the true 2 : i, 7 : 4, 19 : 1 1, 50 : 29, &c.

2. Lefsthan the true i : i, 3 : 2, 5 : 3, 12 : 7, 31 : 18,
205 : 119. Where we have the temperaments of 12, 19,
31, and 50 parts, before examined.

And here all ratios greater than the true ought to be re-
jefted, becaufe they give the fifth lefs than true, that is,
in this cafe, deficient by more than ^ of a comma.

If we invefligate the approximating ratios to the ratio of
the femitones major and minor, or 5.19529 to 3.28612, we
ftiall have the ratios i : i, 2 : I, 2 : 2, 5 : 3, whicli re-
fpeftively give the temperaments of 12, 19, 31, and 50
parts, before defcribed.

Again, invefligating the approximating ratiosof the fifth to
the third major, we fhall find 7 : 4, 9 : 5, 1 1 : 6, 29 : 16,
which will alfo give the temperaments 12, 19, 31, 50, as
before.

Laftly, the approximated ratios of the oftave to the true
fifth are 1 2 : 7 and 5 3 : 3 1 greater than the true ; tlie others
being of no ufe, fince the fifth muil necefTarily be diminiflied.
Here we find the temperament of 53 parts. As to the
temperaments of 43 and 55, being deflitute of any mufical
foundation, it is no wonder they do not appear by this me-
thod of invelligation.

M. Huygens, in his Cofmotheoros, fays that the tone
or pitch of the voice cannot be preferved, unlefs the confo-
nants be tempered, fo as to deviate a little from the higheil
perfe<ftion. For the proof of this aflertion, he brings a
melody confining of the foDowing founds, C, F, D, G, C ;
where, if the intervals were to be fung perfeft, by taking
the interval from C to F a true fourth afcending, from F
to D a third minor defcending, from D to G a true fourth
afcending, and laflly, from G to C a true fifth defcending,
we fhould fall a comma below the C from whence we began.
Therefore, if we were to repeat this feriea of notes nine
times, we fhould at laft fall near a tone major below our firft
found.

M. Huygens's folution of this difficulty is, that we re-
member the note from whence we fet out, and return to it
by a fecret temperament, thereby finging the intervals a
Kttle imperfeft ; which, he fays, will be found neceffary in
slmoft all fongs or melodies.

A like difficulty is mentioned in the Memoirs of the
Royal Academy of Sciences ; and is there urged for the ne-
cefliiy of a temperament, even for finging in the fame key.
And M. Huygens's folution of the difficulty is there ap-
proved of. Ann. 1707, p. 264.

But the folution of thefe learned gentlemen is, as yet, far
from being" decifive. No experiment has yet been brought
to fliew that the human voice lings tempered notes ; not even
when accompanied by tempered inflruments. It feems to us,
on the contrary, that an exercifed voice, guided by a good
ear, fings true, even though accompanied by a miftuned
ijiftrument, as harpficliords moft frequently are, cfpecially
in tranfpofed keys. And were thefe intlruments always as
well tuned as art could make them, yet their tones would be
equal ; and it feems evident to the ear, that the human voice
finging naturally two tones in fucceflion, as C, D, E, never
makes them equal : and cannot, without great difficulty,
and by means of a variation of liarmony, be brouglit to
make them equal.

Another folution, therefore, of M. Huygens's diffi-
culty, mufl be fought for. The truth feems to be, that the
fccond of the key muil be the true tone major above the key
and therefore the third between the fecond and fourth of the

fC F D G C7

key muft be fung deficient by a comma. Thu» in the key e(
C, from C to D win be a tone major = -J, and from D to
F will be a deficient third = i-i. See Interval.

M. Huygens's melody, therefore, will lland as follows :

D

X ; X

And the voice would fing the interval F, D, juft as if Uve
note E had been interpofcd ; in which cafe the notes would
be

fC F E D G C 7
l4x44XiVX4x-J=i S

Thefe notes all come within the diatonic fcale of C ; and
tlie voice naturally falls upon the note from whence it fet
out. The fame anfwcr will hold in the example mentioned
in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences ; where the
intervals bB, G, E, C occur. And here tlie interval from
bB to G fiiould be taken = ^^ =: 44 x to, as in tke
former example ; and for the fame reafon, the key being F.

There feems, therefore, no repugnancy between the prac-
tice and theory of mnfic, while the melody is confiked to
one key ; but it mull be owned, that in tranfitions from key
to key, efpccially where feveral parts arc to make harmony
with each other, there flill remain difficulties, not mentioned
by M. Huygens, or any other writer we know of, which
might defervc a farther examination.

We mull not omit mentioning, that the learned Dr. Smithy
in his Harmonics, has not only carried the theory of tem-
peraments far beyond all the autliors that preceded him ;
but has fhewn how to tune an inftrument according to any
propofed temperament, by the ear only, wliich is certainly a
mofl ingenious difcovery.

This learned author prefers what he calls the temperament
of equal harmony, which differs infcnfibly fron: ihe divifioa
of the oftave into fifty parts, to all others ; and infills, that
it labours under the fewell defefts, and is of all others the mofl
agreeable in praftice. In the fyllem of equal harmony, the
temperaments of the fifth, third major and third minor, are
refpeftively tV and -i\ a"<l -rr of a comma lefs than the
truth.

It would be impoflible^here to do juflice to the learned
author's reafonings on this fubjeft ; we fhall only add, that he
eflabhfhes, contrary to the common opinion, that the \ch
fimple confonances, generally fpeaking, will not bear fo
great temperaments as the Ampler confonances.

Dr. Smith mentions a temperament communicated to him
by the ingenious Mr. Harrifon, which confifts in making
the proportion between the oftave and third major equal to
that of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. In thii
temperament the third major is diminiflied by ?, of 3 comma,
but the third minor is very near the ti-uth, and extremely
beautiful.

A late author feems to think the divifion of the oftave
into thirty-one parts, not to be of modern invention, but
necefTarily imphcd in the doftrine of the ancients. At firfl
light, it would feem as if the ancients made hut twenty -four
Jiefes or divifions in the oftave, -viz. ten to each fourth,
and four to tlie tone; wliich (the oftave being equal to
two fourths and a tone) gives twenty. four diefes to the
oftave. But the author jufl quoted contends, that this
divifion is to be underftood only in one tenfion, that is,
either afcending or defcending) but that, accurately fpeak-
ing, if we confider all the diefts, or divifions of the fourth,
both afcending and defcending, we fhall find thirteen ; five
to each tone, and three to the femitonc major : and confe-
quently thirty-one divifions in the oftave. Thefe, indeed,
are not all naturally equal i but if we make them fo, we
R r 3 n>aU

T E M

fhull have a tempcmment known by tlie modenis under the
name of Huvgcns's tniipiranunt. Dr. Pepufch, in I'hil.

Tranf. N^ 4«i. p- 273- S''"-' ^^^'^ '"■'"^''-' I^'e-"'*''-

Such was the hiftorv and theory of temperament about
half a cenlurv ago. But as our k. yed and « md inftruments
kave extended their compafs and powers, and all the ancient
Jaws of relative modulation ai-e difrepjarded by modern com-
pofcrrs, moft practicul muficians inclme to equal harmony,
in which .-ill the keys participate of the impcrfeftion of the
fcale when the oftave is confined to twelve fcmitones, ot
which every one occafioiiallv ferves for two or three dif-
ferent purpofes. As the note A natural, for inftance, is
fometimcs B double fiat, and fometimes G double fhaip,
E natuml is oblij^ed to officiate for D double (harp, and
fometimcs for F flat.

There' are, however, theorifts who calculate, but never
liften, and who think temperament an abomination, a deadly
fin againft Pythagoras and his triple progrejfion. Now as
it is generally agreed that tlie ancients had no fimultaneous
harmonv, or muiic in parts, and allowed of no confonances
but the unifon, oftave, 4th, and 5th, they did wifely to
make them as perfcd as poffible ; but fince the invention
of counterpoint, and new inlhuments of fixt tones by
keys, frets, and additional ventages, which furnifh but
tT\-elve femitoiies, wliereas thirty-one different founds are
wanting to fupply two diftinft founds for fynonimous notes,
fuch as A « and B b, C « D b, D « E b, &c. tempera-
ment, though it a little diminifhes the perfeftlon of certain
notes, the whole inftrument is bettered by it, and rendered
equally fit for all keys. Every concord, except the unifon
and oftave, has a latitude, and allows of bearings without
offending the ear. A perfeft 5th makes an intolerable
major 3d below it. And as the 3d, though called an
imperfeCl concord, is the mofl grateful and pleafing of all
the concords when pcrfeft ; contrapuntifls do wifely to
allow tuners to rob 4ths and 5tlis of a little of that perfec-
tion which they can fpare without injury, for the good of
the whole. If the learned harmonift, the abbe Rouffier, is
living, this relaxation of Pythagorean difcipline, and \vant
of due refpeft for the triple progrejfion, will, we fear, diilurb
and render him fomewhat intemperate in cenfuring our
aljurdiiy.

We have always regarded mufic as an objeft for the ear,
and wifh to make it as pleafing to that fenfe as poffible ; and
have been fo long accuftomed to tempered fcales, as to re-
ceive more pain than pleafure from inufic performed on an
inftrument tuned by perfcft 5ths throughout, that is, by
the triple progrejfion. We fhall, however, prcfcribe no ex-
clufive methocT of tempering the fcale ; as almoft every
man who tunes his own inftrument has a fyftem of his own :
we fliall only obferve, that the greateft muficians in the
courfe of their lives have often changed their method. In
our cathedrals and parifti-churches in general, where the
natural keys are made as perfeft as poffible, at the expence
of A b, D b, F*, and C*, keys that have never been
admitted within the pale of the church, organifts that hear
little other mufic, are extremely offended by equal parti-
cipation of the fcales, when the pure harmony of their
favourite keys is deformed by temperament : and thofe ac-
cuftomed to the levelling fyftem of equal harmony, on the
contrary, hold the ivolf in as much abhorrence, as they
would the deftruftive wolf in the Gevauden. At prefent,
our tuners mitigate the extremes of equal and unequal
temperament, by favouring the natural keys, and making
the extraneous or tranfpofed keys fomewhat lefs perfeft ;
but devoting the wolf to total deftruftion.

It is imagined by many, that the charafter of keys, par-

T E M

ticularly the minor, depends on the imperfeftion of the
fcales, occafioned by unequal temperament : as F minor h
plaintive, E b folemn, and E * brilliant. But though the
difference between the pitch of E b and E*, D* and E b,
is but half a note, whatever may be the general pitch of the
inftrument, whether lialf a note too high, or half a note too
low, tliefc keys ftill retain their character, it fliould feem
not from the tuning or elevation of the general fyftem, but
from fomething for which we are unable to account. See
Music, and Sound.

TEMPERATE Zon-e. See Zone.

TEMPERATURE, in general, denotes the degree of
free caloric which a body appears to poffefs when com-
pared with other bodies ; or, in other words, the ftate of a
body in relation to its capability of producing in other
bodies the elTefts arifing from the prefence of free caloric.
Sir Humphrey Davy defines temperature to be " the
power bodies poffefs of communicating or receiving heat,
or the energy of repulfion." But this definition appeai-s
to us to be a little ambiguous, for temperature is not a
term indicative of a pofitive faculty in bodies, as this defi-
nition may be underilood to mean ; but, as before obferved,
is merely a relative term, expreffive of the degree in which
bodies, in conformity to the grand law of the equal dif-
tribution of free caloric, can affeft, or be affefted by
other bodies of a lower or higher temperature, that is,
potreifing more or lefs free caloric than themfelves.

There are two means of meafuriiig the temperature of
bodies, namely, by our fenfations, or by the different degrees
of expanfion produced in bodies on being fubjefted to dit-
ferent degrees of free caloric. The firft of tliefe, from
various obvious caufes, is fo imperfeft and limited, that no
dependence can be placed upon it as a meafure of tem-
perature. The fecond is much more regular and extenfive,
and is, therefore, always at prefent employed. " When
two bodies produce the fame increafe or diminution of
volume in a third body, to which they are equally applied,
they are faid to be of the fame temperature ; and any body
is faid to be at a higher or lower temperature, as it produces
a greater or lefs expanfion in another body with which it is
in contaft." Inftruments founded upon the principle of
the expanfion of bodies by heat, and deftined to meafure
degrees of temperatm-e, are called thermometers, or, when
the temperature is very high, pyrometers; which fee.
Under the fame heads alfo the important queftion is dil-
cuffed, how far the expanfion of bodies by heat is to be
confidered as an indication of their real temperature. See
alfo Caloric.

TempEiIATURE of the Atmnfphere. See ATMOSPHERE.

Temperature of Climate. See Climate.

Temperature of the Earth, is that degree of fenfible
heat which exifts on the furfape, or in the interior of the
folid part of the globe. The temperature of the atmo-
fphere is frequently defcribed as the fame with the tem-
perature of the eai-th, from which it is effentially diftinft.
The fenfible heat of the atmofphere varies with the latitude,
the feafon, and the elevation of the place in which the obfer-
vation is made. The fuperficial temperature of the earth varies
alfo with the latitude and the feaion, and in a ftill greater
degree if the land be dry ; but the internal temperature of the
earth appears to be permanent in each place throughout the
whole year. At a certain depth under the furface, the
thermometer always indicates the fame degree of heat ; and
the difference between the permanent internal temperature
in different latitudes, is much lefs than that which exifts at
the furface. The depth at which the thermometer remains
ftationary about latitude 52°, is 80 feet : nearer to the

equator.

TEMPERATURE.

equator, or the poles, a greater depth would be necefTary to
obtain the permanent temperature. At ftill greater depths,
probably, the temperature under each degree of latitude is
the fame all over the globe, except in the vicinity of vol-
canic fires.

M. Volney, in his travels through North America, fpeak-
ing of the temperature of the earth, endeavours to oppofc
the opinion ol its permanent internal temperature. Setting
out from la.ke Superior, he fays, and proceeding weft to
the Stoney mountains, and travelling north as far as latitude
72°, the country now well known to the Canadian traveller,
difplays a climate that for feverity of cold can be compared
only to Siberia. From latitude 46", the earth is frozen
during the whole year. At fevcral trading pods between
latitude 50" and 56°, it was found impofiiblc to have wells.
Mr. Shaw had attempted to dig one at the poft of St. Au-
guftin, about forty miles from the mountains ; but though
it was in the month of July, the ground was frozen at the
depth of three feet from the furface, and as it grew harder
he was obliged to give up the attempt. He relates alfo
an account of Mr. Robfon, an Englilh engineer, who at-
tempted to fmk a well at Prince of Wales's fort, lati-
tude 59°, in the month of September. He firll found
thirty-fix inches of earth thawed by the preceding warin
weather, then a ftratum of eight inches frozen as hard as a
ftone ; under this a flratum of fandy friable earth, froily
and very dry, in which his borer could find no water. The
celebrated traveller Ledyard, fays Volney, affirms, that at
Yakutllc, not io high as latitude 62°, wells of water
cannot be obtained, becaufe it is found by experiment that
water freezes at the depth of fixty feet. From thefe cir-
cumftances, M. Volney would infer that the internal part of
the earth is in a conftant ftate of congelation. Some of the
above obfervations, we believe, were inaccurately made ;
and it has been too haftily determined, that the earth
is frozen during the whole year in Nortli America, even
in latitude 46°; for this is not the cafe 11° further
north. We have been favoured with the following ftate-
ment from an intelligent medical gentleman, who was iome
years refident in Hudfon's Bay. " On digging a well at
York fort, Hudfon's Bay, latitude 57° 7', in the beginning
of Oftober, the following circumftances were remarked.
About thirty inches from the furface, a bed of frozen earth,
about twilve inches thick, was met willi ; below was a bed
of loofe fandy clay, about half a yard thick, which was fuc-
ceeded by a bed of the fame clay, rendered perfeftly hard
and folid by troft. Sinking lower, ilmilar beds of frozen
and loofe earth were found, alternating with each other ; the
frozen beds, however, conftantly decreafing in tliicknefs,
though not regularly, and at a certain depth they feemed to
difappear entirely. Thefe frozen ftrata are confidered by
the inhabitants as indications of the feverity of the preceding
winters, each ftratum being fuppofed, with much proba-
bihty, to be formed in different years, and to be travelling
downward until they are thawed by the internal temperature
of the earth. The procefs by which they fink down may
be explained, on the fuppofition that the upper furface is
diminiftiing by heat during iummer, and the under furface
increafing by the congelation of moifture in contaft with it.
Another circumftance, wliich took place in the fame latitude,
may ferve to elucidate the obfervation of Ledyard, that
the water was conftantly frozen at fixty feet under the fur-
face at Yakutflc." A well had been funk which yielded a
plentiful fnpply of water during the firft fummer ; but the
water, being expofed to the air, froze during the next
winter, and remained frozen ever after, being too far below
the furfEce to be thawed. Hence it appears that water

cxifts unfrozen at a moderate depth under the furface in the
coldeft climates, when it has no communication with the
external air. The cffcA of the fummer heat in the fame
latitude extends about feventcen inches under tlie furface,
where the ground has been ftiadcd ; hut where it has
been expofed to the fun, the furface is thawed to the
depth of tiirec feet. From the fmall deptli to which the
folar heat penetrates, we may infer that l!ie water below
is kept in a fluid ftate by the internal lirat of the globe.
It has been generally fuppofed, that the permaiu'nt tem-
perature of each latitude is the fame nearly as the n-.eau
annual temperature of the atmofphere, and that ihis is
indicated by the temperature of fprings or deep wells ; but
the temperature of fprings will vary with that of the ftrata
near the furface through which they run.. (Sec TtM-
PERATURE of springs.) It is to be regretted that more
numerous obfervations have not been made on the tempe-
rature of deep mines. From obfervations recently made in
Cornwall, it appears that tlie temperature increafes with the
depth, at leaft in lomc of the mines, and in the loweft it was
not lefs than 70°. This may, perhaps, be owing to the che-
mical changes which are taking place ; for it appc ars, from the
evidence of the overfeers of the mines, in reply to' certain
([ueries propofed by the Royal Geological Society of Corn-
wall, that the water is found conftantly warmer in the
vicinity of veins of copper-ore, than it is in the vicinity, of
tin-ore : the former veins are in general worked to a greater
depth tlian the latter. It remains to be afccrtained wliether
this incrcafe of temperature be owing to chemical caufes, or
is invariable at the fame diftance from the furface. Tiie
decompofition of pyrites in copper veins would feem to point
out a caufe for the increafed temperature in their vicinity ;
it is evident, however, that it is not derived from the folar
rays. It fecms reafonable to believe, from what we at prc-
fcnt know of the internal temperature of the eartli, that
there exifts a permanent fource of heat within the globe,
though we are unacquainted with the caufes by which it
is generated. We are equally ignorant of the caufes by
which light is generated on the furface of the fun : oriC
operation is not more furprifing or inexplicable than the
other ; nor is the difficulty removed, by fuppofing the fun
to be furrounded with a luminous atniofphere. Some
philofophers have maintained the opinion, that the earth has
been conftantly growing colder fince the period when it was
firft inhabited, and that the organic remains of elephants and
other animals, (fuppofed to be fimilar to thofe of tropical
climates,) which are found in Siberia, offer a demonftrative
proof, that the arftic regions once enjoyed the _ tempe-
rature of the torrid zone. It has fince been afcertained,
by the elaborate refearches of M. Cuvier, that thefe animals
were not of the fame fpecies as the African or Afiatic
elephant. A moft convincing proof of this was afforded
by the entire body of one of thefe elephants, which was
difcovered imbedded in ice near the mouth of a river in the
north of Siberia, by a Tungnfian fiftierman, in the year
1799. It firft prefented a ftiapelcfs mafs projt fling from
an ice -bank. Two years afterwards he could diftir.clly fee
that it was the body of an enormous animal ; tlie entire
flank and one of its tuflis had become difengaged from the
ice. In 1803, the ice beginning to melt earHer than ufual,
the whole body was difengaged, and fell from the ice-bank
on the fandy (liore. In 1806, Mr. Adams went to examine
this animal, which ftill remained on the fand, but its body
was much mutilated. The flcin was extremely thick and
heavy, and as much of it remained as required the exertions
of ten men to carrj' away. More than thirty pounds of
the hair and briftlcs of the animal were colkfted. Some of

this
6

TEMPERATURE.

this hzlr was prefentcd to the Mufoiim of Natural Hiftory
ill Paris. It coiilifts of three dillinft kinds. The one is
fliff black, briftles, a foot or more in length ; another kind
is a coarfe flexible hair, of a reddilh-brown colour ; the
third kind is a coarfe wool, whicl\ grow among the roots
of the lonj hair. Thcfe afford undeniable proof, that this
animal belonged to a race of elephants inhabiting a cold
region, and was not fitted to dwell in the torrid zone. This
animal was a male, and had a long mane on its neck. The
bones were all perfect. As the only proof offered for the
refrigeration of the earth was tlie former exillcnce of tro-
pical animals in northern latitudes, and as this can no
longer be maintained, we have reafon to believe that the
general temperature of the globe is llationary, though the
chmate of particular countries may vary at different periods,
from cultivation, the dcftrudion of large forclls, or other
local caufes.

Though the annual changes in the temperature of the
climate affeft the furface only to a fmall comparative depth,
yet the continued effeft of the annual mean temperature,
confidered as a permanent caufe, may be fufficient to keep
the internal temperature of the earth tlationary, in each
latitude, at a ftill greater depth. Hence we find that the
internal temperature of the earth, and the mean temperature
of the atmofphere, are nearly, but not exaftly, the fame ;
for in all northern countries, the mean temperature of the
earth is higher than that of the air, and the difference, ac-
cording to the obfervations of Dr. Wahlenberg, fellow of
the Royal Society of Stockholm, appears to incieafe as we
advance northward, or as the cold of the winter becomes
mora fevere. This would alfo feem to give additional con-
firmation to the opinion, that there is a permanent fource of
heat within the globe itfelf. The following table fhews the
rate at which the temperature varies according to the latitude.

Latitude.

Temp, of the
Earth.

Mean Temp, of
theAimofphere.

Berlin - - -
Carlftrom - -
Upfala - - -
Umen ...
Degeforts - -

52-5°

56.25

60.

64.

64.25

49.28°

47-3

43-70

37-22

36.68

46-4°
42.03

33-38

The obfervations were made on fprings which threw up
a large quantity of water at a permanent degree of tem-
perature in all feafons. It is to be regretted that wc have
not a feries of obfervations made with equal care in fouthern
latitudes. M. Volney dates, in his " Travels in America,"
that the mean temperature of wells forty-five feet deep was
as under :

Charleftown

Virginia

Philadelphia

Maffachufetts

Vermont

Fahr.
63°
57
53
49
44

This depth is too fmall, to give the true mean temperature
of the earth ; and the obfervations can only be regarded as
approximation! to the truth. On the fame authority it is
flated, that the temperature of the earth, to a confiderable
depth under the torrid zone, is 14° Reaumur, or 63°
Fahrenheit.

In the fouthern parts of England, the mean temperature,
taken from permanent fprings, is about 48° ; at Edinburgh,
^fi ir. the north of Ireland, 48° ; and at Paris, 51 ^

For the temperature of the atmofphere, fee Atmosphere,
where the mean temperature in different latitudes is given.
Mr. Humboldt has lately publiihed a botanical account of
the new genera and fpecies of plants difcovered in the
tropical regions of America, with many intereiling obferva-
tions on the temperature, as affefting the growth of plants.
The plants of the torrid zone extend farther through the
fouthern temperate zone than through the northern, owing^
to the greater influence of the ocean in the fouthern hemi-
fphere, in moderating the rigour of winter ; the ocean bear-
ing a much greater proportion to the furface on the fouth,
than on the north iide of the equator. In eftimating the^
climate fuited for the growth of particular plants, the mean
temperature will not afford a correft ftandard ; for though
the mean temperature of the year, in the middle latitudes of
North America, be the fame as it is in Europe, 7° further
north, the temperature of different feafons in thefe fame
latitudes by no means agrees. The winters are colder, and
the fummers hotter, in North America than in Europe, In
Philadelphia the fummer is as hot as at Rome or Mont-
pellier, while the winter correfponds with that at Vienn*.
At Quebec the fummer is warmer than at Paris, but tlip
winter colder than at St. Peterlhurgh. In the north of
China there is a ftill greater difference beiweea the heat and
cold, than in North America.

In North America, as fai- as latitude 48°, the fummer*
are four centigrade degrees, or about 7° Fahrenheit, hotter
than in the correfponding latitude in Europe. Between the
tropics, the mean annual temperature is the fame as on tire-
old continent, which may be feen in the following table,
expreffed in degrees of the centigrade thermometer.

OIJ Ctnthient.

Nciu Continent,

27.7"
27.5
25.6
25.6

Senegambia 26.5" Cumana

Madras 26.9 Antilles

Batavia 25.2 Vera Cruz

Mantilla 25.6 Havannah

Twenty-five degrees correfpond with feventy-feven (fe»
grees of Fahrenheit.

Though the plants of the torrid zone extend farther
through the fouthern temperate zone than through the
northern, as we have before ftated ; yet to a certain diilance
from the line, the temperature appears to be lefs on the fouth
than on the north fide. Rio Janeiro and Havannah are
nearly at the fame diftance from the equator ; but the mean
temperature of the fummer and winter months in each is
as under :

Havannah.
December 22.1°
January 21.2

July 28.5

Auguft 28.8

Rio Janeiro.

June 20.0°

July 21.2

January 26.2

February 27.0

On the coaft of Peru, the temperature is diminifhed by
the perpetual cloudinefs of the fky, and by a ftrong fea
current fctting in from Cape Horn. From the tropic to
34° of fouth latitude, the mean temperature of the fouthern
hemifphere fcarcely differs from that of the northern. Be-
tween latitude 34° and 57°, there is a greater difference
between the temperatures of fummer than of winter : the
winters in the fouthern hemifphere are not colder, but the
fummers are confiderably more fo than in the northern hemi-
fphere. In fouth latitude 48^, the fummer temperature is
the fame as the winter temperature of Toulon, Cadiz, and
Rome.

The higher we afcend above the level of tlie fea, and the
farther we advance from the equator, the greater is the dif.

ference

TEMPERATURE.

I.at.

Cent. Tlicrm

10.27°

2.4°

I9.II

2.6

23. 8

7-4

31.28

17.4

39-56

24.6

46.47

33

57.00

35

ference between tlie temperature of different feafons of the
year. The following table exhibits the temperature between
the hotteft and coldeft months, in different latitudes.

Cumana ...
Vera Cruz,
Havannah

Natches ...

Philadelphia

Quebec ...

Nain ...

In the temperate zone, as we advance northwards, the
coldnefs of the winter increafcs at a much greater rate than
the heat of the fumnier diminilhes. Thus at Enonlekis, in
latitude 68° 30', the temperature of July is as hot as that
of Edinburgh. Between the tropics, the temperature at no
feafon of the year equals that of the fea-diore ; but in tile
temperate zone, the upper currents of air are fomctimes
warmer than the lower, during the winter months ; and the
thermometer, on the fnmmits of hills, is occafionally three or
four degrees higher than in the plains. Hence in the tem-
perate zone, we find the fame plants frequently on low and
elevated fituations ; but tliis is never the cafe between the
tropics. In the temperate zone on the old continent, when

the mean heat of the motitli is as under, the following
plants bloffom :

Fiilir.

42°, the Amygdalis perfica,
47, the Prunus doniellica,
52, the Betula alba.

The reafon why plants vegetate with greater rapidity in

Lapland and Norway than farther foutli, is owing to the
increment of temperature being mucli greater, and to thp
temperature of the earth in winter being feveral degrees
above that of the air.

From obfervations made in different latitudes, it appears
that 1000 fathoms of altitude occaiion a diminution of tem-
perature equal to 23° of Fahrenheit ; 50 fatlioms being
nearly equal to half a degree. Mountains 1000 fathoms in
height, at 46° of latitude, liave the mean temperature of
Lapland ; and mountains of the fame lieight between the
tropics enjoy the temperature of Sicily.

The following table by Humboldt exhibits the moil re.
markable circumilances refpecting tlie temperature in the
three zones. The temperature is taken according to the
centigrade thermometer. The fathom 6 French feet, or
6.39453 Englilh feet.

Torrid Zone.

Temperate Zone.

Frigid Zone.

Andes,
Quito,
Ut. 0°.

Rloumains of
Mexico,
Lat. -20°.

Caucafns,
Lat. 4-2^^^

PyreiitVs,
Lat. 4-2i=.

Alps,
Lat. J5|°io46°.

Lapland,
Lat. 67° to 70°.

Inferior hmit of perpe-l
tual fnow - -J

2460 fa.

2350 fa.

1650 fa.

1400 fa.

1370 fa.

550 fa.

Mean annual heat at that")
height . - -J

,10
'2

-3r

-4°

-6'

Mean heat of vvinter, ditto

ir

-

-

- -

- 10°

-20i°

Mean heat of Aug. ditto

■r

- -

-

-

+ 60

+ 9^

Diftance between trees'
and fnow

600 fa. ' 350 fa.

1

650 fa.

230 fa.

450 fa. 300 fa.

Upper limit of trees

1800 fa.

2000 fa.

1000 fa.

1 1 70 fa.

920 fa.

250 fa.

Laft fpecies of trees to-f^
wards the fnow -J

Efcilonia
alftonia.

Pinus
Occident.

Betula
alba.

Pinus rubra. [ Piuus
P. uncin. abies.

Betula
alba.

Upper limit of the Eri- /
cineae - - - f

Befariae.
1 600 fa.

-

Rhodod.
caucas.
1380 fa.

-

Rhodod. Rhodod.
ferrug. laponicum.
1 1 70 fa. 480 fa.

Diftance between the I „ r
fnow and corn -J

630 fa.

700 fa. 450 fa.

In the feventh volume of the Tranfaftions of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, Dr. John Murray has pubhfhed a
paper on the diffufion of heat on the furface of the earth ; in
■which he attempts to prove, from the nature of caloric, that
the temperature of the earth is conftantly increafing from the
folar rays, and that this temperature is becoming more equal
in different parts of the earth. The atmofphere, he con-
tends, conveys no heat into unlimited fpace ; our pl.inet, in
relation to the difcharge of caloric from it, is bounded as it
were by a wall of iron-conduAing matter. He adroit?,

however, that a fmall portion of heat may be loft by radia-
tion : thus, at the liotter parts of the earth's furface, there
may be fome emiffion of caloric by radiation ; but this, he
fays, cannot be equal to the quantity communicated by the
folar rays : for of the heat derived from the latter fourcc, a
portion is abforbed by the earth, and conveyed to the in-
terior, as is apparent from the decreafing temperature, as
we recede from the furface to a certain depth ; and another
portion is carried off by the afcending current of heated air,
and conveyed to cglder regions, where it is abforbed. Tiius,

evcB

TEMPERATURK.

evfn from thofif parts of the furface of the earth where the
circumilances are mod f.ivourable to radiation, the quantity
radiated cannot be equal to the quantity received from the folar
rays. Over the whole earth llic diffufion muft be ftill
greater ; and inftead of the conclufion, that the planet dif-
chargcs its excefs of heat by radi.ilion, there is every reafon
to draw the oppofite cojiclufion, that part of the heat which
it receives from the fun is retained. He further infers, that
the temperature of the globe muft rife, from the mode in
which heat is communicated to it by the fun ; and at the
fame time, as it advances, mull become more equal over the
whole furface. And this rife has its limits. There cannot
be either unlimited increafe of heat, or unlimited refrigera-
tion ; but the final refult will be a ftatc of permanence and
uniformity, the continuance of which is fecured by the veiy
circumftance, that if it is deviated from, this deviation muft
correft itfelf by an increafe of radiation from the hotter
parts, or from an increafed abforption of caloric by the
colder parts of the globe. According to this theory, in
procefs of time, the equatorial and polar parts of the globe
will arrive at the fame degree of temperature, which wiU re-
main ftationary, as there will be no circulation of heated air
or water to the poles. To this reafoning we coneeive it may
be objected, that it affumes, without fufficient grounds, that
caloric cannot pafs from the earth into unlimited fpace, and
that the folar heat does not become latent by chemical union
with terreftrial fubftances. It affumes alfo, that caloric is
a diftinft fpeciiic fubftance ; an opinion which is denied by
fome of the moil eminent philofophers. Nor have we, per-
haps, any evidence to prove that the temperature of the
earth has changed fince the earlieft records of hiftory, if we
except the local changes which refult from drainage and
cultivation. It is well known that the climate of Europe
is materially changed fince the periods of ancient hiftory,
when the Danube was annually frozen, and would admit
the paflage of armies over the ice. The climate of the
United States of America has alfo undergone a material
change during the laft century. Both thefe local changes
have been produced by the fame caufe, the deftruftion of
extenfive woods, and the progrefs of agriculture ; but, in-
dependently of local caufes, we have no data to infer that
the temperature of the globe is increafing or diminiftiing.

Temperature of the Sea. The temperature of the fea
near the furface is affefted by the changes of tempera-
ture of the atmofphere, and by the currents which tra-
verfe it. The currents which flow from the equatorial to
the polar regions, fervc to equalize the heat of different lati-
tudes. This is remarkably the cafe with the current called
the Gulf ftream, which paffes by the fhores of Mexico,
Louifiana, and Florida, and round the point of the peninfula,
under the fhelter and proteaion of the Bahama illands, which
break the efforts of the ocean and the current of the trade
wind. This ftream, on entering the ocean, preferves its
water by the velocity of its current, and may be further dif-
tinguilhed by its colour and temperature. The temperature
is from eleven to twenty -two degrees higher than that of the
ocean. From the Floridas to Newfoundland the current
continues increafing in breadth, and diminifhing in velocity.
Some experiments made by Mr. Jonathan Williams, give the
difference of temperature between the Atlantic ocean and the
Gulf ftream as under, December, 1789.

Soundings in fhoal-water, on the coaft,

A httle before entering the ftream,

In the ftream, ....

Before reaching Newfoundland, in the ftream,

At Newfoundland, out of the ftream,

Beyond the banks, in the open fea.

Fal.r.

60

70
66

54
60

Fal.r.
On approaching the coail of England, - 48'-

Capt. Billings, in 1791, found the temperatureof) ^

the lea on the coaft of America, - -J

In the water of the Gulf ftream, - "77

In winter, Mr. WiUiams found the variation between the
Gulf ftream and the ocean 23°; the difterence, as might be
expefted, being kfs in fumraer than in winter. Thefe inqui-
ries have afcertaincd another faft, from whence navigators
may derive fome advantage ; for by examuiing the tempera-
ture of the fea in different places, it has been found that the
water is colder in proportion to its Ihallownefs ; and hence
may be derived an indication of the approach to land, or to
a fhoal. Out of the reach of currents, a difference always
exifts between the temperature of the furface and the lower
parts of the fea. In northern latitudes, the furface is fome-
times warmer and fometimes colder than the lower parts ;
but near the equator, the temperature of the furface may be
expefted to be invariably warmer than at great depths. In
all probability, the temperature of the fea is permanent in
each degree of latitude, at a certain depth. Capt. Ellis let
down a fea-gage in N. lat. 25° 13'. W. long. 25° 12'.
He found the fea falter and colder in proportion to the
depth, till the gage had defcended 3900 feet, when the mer-
cury in the thermometer came up at 53° ; but the water did
not gfrow colder, though he let down the gage 1400 feet
lower. At the furface of the fea, the thermometer ftood at 64°.

From the experiments of Capt. Douglas, near the coafte
of Lapland and Norway, of which an account is given in the
60th volume of the Philofophical Tranfaftions, the follow-
ing differences were obferved between the temperature of the
fea at the furface, and at certain depths.

Temperature at the Surface.

Depth in
Fathoms.

Tem-
perature.

May 12, 7
lat. 70° 40', j

36° Fahr.

78 to 87

59°

May 17,
nearly the fame.

37

86 to 90

39

May 22, 1
lat. 70^32', S

37

80

39

June 29, 7
l.t. 70° 54', 1

44

98

\
40

July 7, 7
lat. 70^45', 1

46

70
at the bottom.

44

July 8, lat. 68= 43',"]
1 2leaguesfromthe (
idand of Lofoot, (
Norland, - - ]

47 ■

100

260

r:Ot at the

bottom.

46
52

July.9, lat.65''25',]
20 or 25 leagues
from the coaft of f
Norway, - -j

48 {

100

210

at the bottom.

46
48

July 10, lat. 64° 40', "7 J.
about 30 leagues >■ 52
from the coaft, -J '•

75

141

at the groimd.

1

45
46

From

TEMPERATURE.

From die above obfervations it appears, that though the
fea at a moderate depth was cooler than at the furfaco during
the fummer montlis in nortlieni latitudes, yet at Hill greater
depths the temperature increafed, and at the depth of 260
fatlioms was 52° in July, when the furfjce was only 47°.
Now this depth being below tlie immediate cffeifls of the
folar rays, the temperature could only be derived from that
of the globe itfelf, which appears to be fufficient to preferve
the fea many degrees above the freezing point at the depth
of 300 fathoms. Indeed, the temperature of the fea near
the tropics, in lat. 25^ 13', at the depth of 650 fathoms,
appears to be the fame as the temperature of the fea in
kt. 68° 43', at little more than one-third of tliat depth, as
maybe feen by comparing the obfervationsofCapt. Ellis with
that of Capt. Douglas. We have hence alfo ilroiig grounds
for believing, that at a certain depth, the temperature of the
fea is permanent, and is the fame in every degree of latitude
from the equator to the pole, though the depth may vary at
which this permanent temperature would be found.
. The mean annual temperature of the Itandard fituation in
every latitude, as deduced by Mr. Kirwan from the Atlantic
and Pacific oceans, is given under the article Temperature of
the Atmosphere. But fom? exceptions to this ftandard,
not there noticed, deferve to be mentioned here.

That part of the Pacific ocean which lies between N. lat.
52° and 66°, is only about 45 miles broad at its northern
extremity, and 1300 miles at its fouthern. It is, therefore,
reafonable to conclude with Mr. Kirwan, that its tempera-
ture will be confiderably influenced by the furrounding high
land, as well as by the many bleak iflands fcattered through
it. Mr. K. fuppofes, that from thefe circumftances the
temperature is fully four or five degrees below the ftandard.
Small feas furrounded by land are ufually rendered, from
this circumftance, at leaft in temperate and cold climates,
warmer in fummer and colder in winter than the ftandard
ocean : the gulf of Bothnia, for inftance, is ftated to be
generally frozen in winter, but in fummer to be fometimes
heated to 70°. The German ocean is above three degrees
colder in winter, and five degrees warmer in fummer, than
the Atlantic. The Mediterranean fea is, for the greater part
of its extent, warmer both in fummer and winter than the
Atlantic, which therefore flows into it. The Black fea is
colder than the Mediterranean, and flows into it.

Thefe obfervations apply chiefly to the furface of the
ocean : from experiments that have been made it appears,
that at confiderable depths the temperature is much lower
than at the furface, and that the deeper we go, the lower it
becomes ; fo that fome fuppofe that, at very great depths,
the water always exifts in a Hate of ice. See Kirwan's
" Eftimate of the Temperature of different Climates;" alfo
his " Efl^ay on tlie Variation of the Atmofphere."

Temperature of Springs. Thofe common fprings
which throw up a confiderable quantity of water during the
whole year, have generally a permanent temperature, or
nearly fo ; and this is fuppofed to repreient the mean tem-
perature of the earth in each latitude ; but there are other
fprings which have a much higher permanent temperature,
and fome which throw up their waters at a boiling heat.
The following is the permanent temperature of fome of the
more celebrated warm fprings in Europe.

Fahr.
Matlock, - - . . 66°

Buxton, - . . - - 82

Briftol, - - - - 74

Bath, - - - - j"<

' 1 1 16

Vichy, - - - - 120

Vol. XXXV.

Fahr.
Carlfljad, - - - - 165°

Aix, - - - - 143

Borfet, - - - - 132

Bareges, - - - - 1 20

The Gcyfers or boiling fountains in Iceland, in the Azores,
and in various parts of the world, have a conftant tempera-
ture of 212'^. Tiie fource of heat, in fome of the latter
fprings, is evidently fubtcrranean fire, as all thofe iflands are
of volcanic origin, and .are the feats of aftive volcanoes at
the prefent day. It is obferved of other warm fprings, that
they generally rife in the vicinity of volcanic orbafaltic rocks.
This is the cafe with the warm fprings of Matlock and
Buxton. Rocks of bafaltic amygdaloid extend through the
high peak of Derbyfhire, where thefe fprings arc fituated.
Rocks of bafaltic amygdaloid, having a rtill more near
refemblance to volcanic lava, extend from Worford bridge,
in Gloucefterfliire, in a direftion fouthward, and, in all pro-
bability, are continued under the furface to Bath and Briftol.
According to Humboldt, hot fprings rife from granite and
rocks denominated primary, in various parts of South Ame-
rica ; and, from the permanent high temperature of warm
fprings, we may infer that the fource of heat is fituated deep
beneath the furface, and far below thofe caufes which can
change the temperature. It has been contended by forrte
perfous, that the high temperature of warm fprings arifes
from the decompofition of pyritous ftrata ; but if tnis were
the cafe, the waters would be ftrongly impregnated with
fulphate of iron and other mineral matters, which is not the
faift ; the temperature would alio decreafe as the pyritic
matter became exhaufted, of which we have an analogous
illuftration in the faline fprings of Cheltenham and Gloucef-
ter. Thefe fprings rife in a deep ftratum of blue clay, called
lias, (fee Strata of England,) which abounds in pyrites,
and in animal remains ; and it is found by experience, that
the fahne impregnation is greatell when the wells are tirft
opened, and that the ftrength of the waters gradually declines ;
oil which account, the proprietors are under the neceflity of
finking frefli wells to obtain water of the requifite faline
ftrength. This might be expefted ; for as the water per-
colates through fiffures in the clay, the fahne matter in its
vicinity is gradually wafhed away. But if the whole bed
were in a itate approaching to ignition, from the decompo-
fition of pyrites, the faline impregnation would be con-
ftantly fupphed to the fprings ; for we cannot fuppofe any
quantity of pyritous matter to exift equal to heat a whole
ftratum by decompofition, without, at the fame time, gener-
ating fuch an abundance of faline matter as muft faturate the
waters which percolate through it. We are hence led to infer
that the fource of heat in warm fprings is firbterranean fire,
and as thefe fprings have not been obferved to diminifti in
temperature for a period of nearly two thoufand years, we
may further infer the great depth at which this fource of
heat is fituated, an inference which is warranted by the con-
nection which volcanoes in diftant parts of the world appear
to have with each other. (See Volcano.) It may be
aflced, if the fource of lieat in warm fprings be fubterranean
fire, why are they not all of the fame degree of temperature i
To tiiis it may be replied, that, in fome inftances, the warm
fprings may W intermixed with cold fprings near the fur-
face ; and in other inftances, after rifing to a certain height,
they may run in an horizontal direftion for a confiderable
diftance among the upper ftrata, and thus be gradually
cooled. The eaufe which can raife up water from vaft
depths, mull be fought for in the expanfive power of fteam,
and elaftic vapours generated by heat, which we know by
experience to be fully adequate to the cffeft.

S f Temtera-

T E M

TEMPERATl'RE/or Plants, in Gardening, thf ftate of heat
ill which it is necciTary to keep particular forts of them, in
order to their ftriking or taking root, their healthy growth,
and their fucceeding in the beS and moft proper manner.
The ftate or degrees of heat, or the temperature, in all fuch
cafes, mull be regulated and direftcd by the nature of the
plants, their culture, and the fituations in which they are
grown. For thofe in hot-houfcs and floves, the tempera-
ture, in thofe of the dry ftovc kind, fliould moftly be from
about fifty to fevcnty degrees, according to the natures,
habits, and miuincrs of growth of the plants ; and in thofe
of the moill (love kind, from about fixty to ninety degrees,
as the nature of the beds and plants may be. Plants in con-
fcrvatorics are kept at various temperatures between thofe
of the firil kind of the above ftoves and that of the common
open air. And in greenhoufes, nearly fimilar temperatures
are conftantly to be preferved, in order to the raifing, and
to the growth of fuch plants, in the mod fuitable and beil
manner.

It ii always of great utility and importance to keep the
temperatures as fteady as poffible, whatever its ftate may be,
in the growth of all thefe forts of tender plants.

The temperatures, or ftates of heat for particular plants,
are moftly given under their proper heads, in defcribing
their culture.

Tempekature of Milk for Cheefe, in Rural Economy, the
degree of heat which is the moft proper in milk for the
purpofe of making cheefe. From fome experiments which
have been lately made upon the fubjeft, this temperature
would fecm to be about the middle point between that of
fummer and blood heat ; or, perhaps, fomewhere about
ninety degrees of Fahrenheit's fcale may give the average
degree of warmth which is moft proper and neceffary in the
bufinefs.

TEMPERING, in the Mechanic Jrts, the preparing of
fteel and iron, fo as to render them more compaft, hard,
and firm ; or even more foft and pliant ; according to their
refpeftive occafions.

Thefe metals are tempered by plunging them, while red-
liot, into fome liquor prepared for the occafion : fometimes
pure water is ufed for that purpofe : our lockfmiths, &c.
fcarcely ufe any other.

When an inftrument has been properly hardened, it is ne-
ceffary to give it a certain degree of foftnefs, in order to
adapt it for the purpofe to which it is to be applied. With
this view, it fliould be heated again to a certain point,
ufually determined by its colour, and then inftantly plunged
into cold water. This is called " letting it down to the
proper temper." It has been a queftion of difficult folu-
tion, how the water afts in hardening iron and fteel. It
is well known, fays Mr. Parkes, in his " Chemical Eflays,"
(vol. iv. ), that the hotter any piece of iron is made, and the
more quickly it is cooled, the harder it will become in its
texture ; and he fuggefts that this may be owing to the lofs
of its latent heat. In confirmation of this conjeifture he
alleges, that iron and fteel are generally allowed to owe their
malleability to their latent heat.

A compofition of divers juices, liquors, &c. has fome-
times been ufed ; which is various according to the opinion
and experience of the workman : as vinegar, moufe-ear water,
nettle or Spanifli radifti-water, the water oozing from broken
glafl"e8, fuet, fait, oil, foot, diftilled wine, fal ammoniac,
urine, Sec. But thefe methods are now generally abandoned.
Mr. Stodart, a very ingenious and fcientific cutler in Lon-
don, fays, (as Mr. Nicholfon informs us, Journal, vol. iv.
4to.) that one of his workmen makes up his charcoal fire
with ftiavings of leather, finding that this is effeftual in pre-

10

T E M

venting the tools from cracking in the procefs of hardening ;
and he fays, that he has found no advantage from the ufe of
fait in the water.

To harden and temper Englidi, Flemifh, and Swedifli
fteel, you muft give them a pretty high heat ; then fuddenly
quench them in water to make them hard ; but Spanifli and
Venetian fteel will need only a blood-red heat before they
be quenched.

In confequence of this operation, all the qualities of fteel
are changed ; fo that from being very duttile and foft, it
becomes fo hard and ftifF, that it is no longer capable of being
cut by the file, but is itfelf capable of cutting or piercing
very hard bodies, and that it does not yield to the hammer,
but may be fooner broken in pieces than extended. It be-
comes alfo fonorous, brittle, very elaftic, and capable of ac-
quiring the moft beautiful polifh. This hardnefs and duc-
tility of fteel may be divcrfified by vai-ying the temper.
The hotter the fteel is when tempered, and the colder the
water into which it is plunged, the greater hardnefs it ac-
quires, but at the fame time it becomes fo much more brittle.
The coldnefs of the water may be increafed by diflblving
falts in it : obfcrving that water is always colder while the
falts continue diflblving ; and that the fteel will cool fooner
by being ftirred about or placed in a ftream, fo as to come
in contaft with water not already made warm. On the
contrary, the lefs hot the fteel is when tempered, and the
hotter the water is in which it is tempered, the lefs hard it
becomes, and alfo the greater duftility it retains : and the
proper degree of heat is always relative to the ufe for which
the tools made of the fteel are intended.

If the fteel be too hard or brittle for an edged tool, &c.
let it down by rubbing a piece of grindftone or vvhetftone
hard upon the work, to take off the black fcurf : then
brighten, or heat it in the fire : and as it grows hotter, you
will fee the colour change by degrees, in the manner and
by the gradations ftated under the article Cutlery.

Saw -makers temper their tools by rubbing them over with
fuet or other greafe, and then heating them gradually till
the temperature of each tool is fufficiently raifed to fet fire
to the greafe of itfelf and occafion it to blaze. The}' are
thought to acquire in this mode of treatment a temper equal
to that which would be obtained by heating them in the
ufual way, till they became of a deep blue. This opera-
tion, which is praftifed at Sheffield, is called " blazing."
For the method of tempering files, in which the great de-
fideratum is to blend tenacity with hai-dnefs, fee File.

In the year 1789, Mr. David Hartley took out a patent
for a method of tempering fteel by the aid of a pyrometer
or thermometer applied near to the furface of the article,
and at the fame time recommended the ufe of heated oil, in
which (he fays) many dozens of razors or other tools might
be tempered at once with the utmoft facility, and the vari-
ous degrees of heat necefiary for different purpofes might
fpeedily be determined by experiment. (See Nicholfon's
Journal, vol. i. 410.) An improvement of this principle
has been fince fuggefted by Mr. Parkes ( Chem. Efl". vol. iv. )
by providing a bath of oil or of fome kind of fufible metal
for the tempering of every fpecies of edged tool, which
contrivance would, in his opinion, give to this operation a
greater degree of certainty, than has ever been experienced
by thofe who have condufted fuch manufaftories. See
Tilting.

Steel is ufually fold tempered, becaufe in many manu-
faftures, the cuftom is to temper it as foon as it is made,
probably that the purchafers of it may be better able to
judge of its quahty. When this ileel is to be ufed, it muft
be untempered by heating it more or lefs, and letting it

cool

T E M

T E M

cool (lowly, that it may be extended, filed, aiid receive the
neceffary form : after which every workman tempers it
again in his own way.

M. Berthoud, in his treatife on marine clocks, recom-
mends hardening the (lecl-balance wheel, by daubing it over
with foot (of wood) moittened witli urine, putting it into
a fmall box of thin iron-plate, and covering it over with the
fame compofition. This box with its contents is to be
heated to a blood-red, and then tlie wheel taken out fud-
denly and quenched.

Mr. Harrifon and M. Berthoud feem to agree upon the
whole, that the balance-fpring of time-pieces ftiould be
liardened and tempered after it has been coiled up in its
proper form ; and not tempered firft and coiled up after-
wards, as is the pra£lice in making the main-fpring. Some
curious workmen, in order to equally temper fmall fteel in-
ftruments, employ melted lead as an intermedium. A plate
of iron floats upon the melted lead, and receives from it,
in all its parts, an equal heat : the pieces of fteel laid upon
this plate, acquire all at once the fame degree of heat, and
are at once quenched in water ; tlic blue or other colours,
which they fucceflively aflume, affording fure marks of the
proper points of heat at which thev are to be quenched,
according to the different degrees of hardnefs required in
them. Lewis's Com. Phil. Techn. p. 32.

For the method of tempering fteel bars for artificial mag-
nets, praftifed by Mr. Canton, fee Artificial Magnet.

The ancients appear to fome to liave had a better method
of tempering than any of the moderns are acquainted with ;
witnefs their works in porphyry ; a ftone fo hard, that
fcarcely any of our tools make any impreffion upon it.

Tempering of Land, in Agricultitre, a term fignifying
the preparing it for a crop, efpecially of wheat. It is a
term in much ufe in Norfolk. It imphes aU the various
operations that may be undertaken in this intention.

TEMPEST, Tempestas, a ftorm or violent commo-
tion of the air, with or without rain, hail, fnow, &c.

Tempest, in Mythology, a deity among the Romans,
concerning whom we merely know, that Marcellus, as an
acknowledgment for having efcaped a ftorm, with which
he was overtaken at fea, between the iflands of Corfica
and Sardinia, built a temple to her without the Porta
Capena.

TEMPESTA, Antonio, in Biography, was an ingeni-
ous defigner and painter, born at Florence in 1555, and
was initiated in the art by Santi di Titi ; afterwards he
ftudied imder another artift, whofe name was Stradanus.
Tempefta was gifted with a brilliant and powerful imagina-
tion, not, however, of the moft correft or exalted kind.
His favourite fubjefts were battles, fieges, cavalcades, hunt-
ings, proceffions, &c. ; all of which he arranged and de-
figned in a novel and rich ftyle, and executed with un-
common fpirit and energy. He was employed by Gre-
goi-y XIII. in the Vatican, which he adorned with gro-
tefque inventions, and fome few hiftorical produftions. He
was alfo employed by the marchefe Juftiniani in decorating
his palace ; and in feveral of the churches of Rome, Tem-
pefta's paintings may be found.

He not only exercifed his genius and time with the pen-
cil, but devoted much of both to the etching needle ; having
left behind him nearly 1800 plates of different kinds, and
of very confiderable merit. He died in 1630, aged 75.

TEMPIE, in Geography, a town of the ifiand of Sar-
dinia ; 25 miles E. of Caftello Arragonefe Alfo, a town

of Mexico, in the province of Guadalajara ; 500 miles
N.W. of Mexico.

TEMPLARS, Templers, or Knights of the Temple, a

religious military order, firft cftabliflied at Jenifalem, in
favour of pilgrims travelling to the Holy Land.

The original of this order, tiie firft military one in the
world, is this : in 1 1 1 8, fome pious and noble pcrfons de-
voted themfclves to the fervice of God, in the prefence
of the patriarch of Jerufalem ; promifing to live in perpe-
tual chaftity, obedience, and poverty, after the manner of
canons.

The two principal perfons were Hugo de Paganis, and
Gcoffry of St. Omers. Baldwin II. then king of Jeru-
falem, gave them an apartment in his palace, near the temple
at .lerufalem, not far from the fepulchre of our Saviour ;
whence their denomination Templars.

Soon afterwards, the canons of the temple gave them a
piece of ground near the faid temple, on which to build
regular houfes ; and the king, the lords, the patriarch, and
the prelates, each gas'e them fomewhat out of their revenue
for food and cloaths.

Their firft undertaking, and what they had firft in view
at their inftitution, was, to guard the, highway againft rob-
bers, &c. chiefly for the fafety of pilgrims and croifes.

The principal articles of their rule were : that they (liould
hear the holy office throughout every day ; or that, when
their military duties (hould prevent this, they (hould fupply
it by a certain number of pater nofters : that they (liould
abftain from flefh four days in the week, and on Fridays
from eggs and milk-meats : that each knight might have
three horfes, and one efquire : and that they (hould neither
hunt nor fowl.

In the year 1228, this order acquired ftability, by being
confirmed in the council of Troyes, and fubjefted to a rule
of difcipline drawn up by St. Bernard.

In every nation they had a particular governor, called
majler of the temple, or of the militia of the temple. Their
grand-mafter had his refidence at Paris.

The order of Templars flourifhed for fome time, and ac-
quired by the valour of its knights immenfe riches, and an
eminent degree of mihtary renown : but as their profperity
increafcd, their vices were multiplied, and their arrogance,
luxury, and cruelty, rofe at laft to fuch a monftrous height,
that their privileges were revoked, and their order fupprefled
with the moft terrible circumftances of infamy and fcverity.
Their accufers were two of their ovi-n body, and their cliief
profecutor Philip the Fair, of France, who addrcffcd hie
complaints to Clement V. The pope, though at firft un-
willing to proceed againft them, was under the necefTity of
complying with the king's defire, fo that, in the year 1307,
upon an appointed day, and for fome time afterwards, all
the knights, who were difperfed throughout Europe, were
feized and imprifoned. Such of them as refufed to confefs
the enormities of which they were accufed, were put to
death ; and tliofe who, by tortures and promifes, were in-
duced to acknowledge the truth of what was laid to their
charge, obtained their liberty. In 131 2, the whole order
was fupprefled by the council of Vienne. A part of the
rich revenues they poffefTed was beftowed upon other orders,
efpecially on the knights of St. John, now of Malta, and
the reft confifcatcd to the refpeftive treafuries of the fove-
rcign princes in whofe dominions their pofTeffions lay — The
knights Templars, in order to juftify the feverity with which
they were treated, were charged with apoftacy to the Sara>
cens, and holding correfpondence with them ; with iufulting
the majefty of God ; turning into derifion the Gofpel of
Chi'ift ; and trampling upon the obligation of all laws, human
and divine. Candidates, it is faid, upon admiflion to this
order, were commanded to fpit, in token of contempt, upon
an image of Chrifl, and after admiflion, to worlhip cither a
S f 2 cat.

T E M

cat, or a wooden head crowiiod witli gold. It is fartlier
uffirim-d, that, among them, the odious and unnatural a£t
of lodomy was a matter of obligation ; and they arc charged
with other crimes too horrible to be mentioned, or even
imagined. However, though there be reafon to believe
that in this order, as well as otiu-rs of the fame period, there
were Ihocking examples of impiety and profligacy ; yet that
the whole order was thus cnormoully corrupt, is fo far from
being proved, tliat the contrary may be concluded even
from the ads and records, yet extant, of the tribunals be-
fore which they were tried and examined. If to this we
add, that many of tlie accufations advanced againft them
flatly contradicft each other, and that many members of this
unfortunate order folemnly avowed their innocence, while
lar.gnilhing under tlie feverell tortures, and even with their
d)ir.g breath ; it would feem probable, that king Philip fet
oil foot this bloody tragedy, with a view to gratify his
avarice, and glut his refentment againft the Templars, and
efpecially againft their grand-mafter, who had highly of-
fended him. The principal caufe of this invincible hatred
againft them was, that in his quarrel with Boniface VIII.
t!ic knights efpoufed the caufe of the pope, and furniflied
him with money to carry on the war. Mofiieim's Eccl.
Hift. vol. iii. ed. 8vo. Bower's Hift. of the Popes, vol. vi.

P- 393-

TEMPLE, Templum, a public building erefted in
honour of fome deity, cither true or falfe ; and in which
the people meet to pay religious worthip to the fame.

The word is formed from the Latin lemplum, which fome
derive from the Greek rifj-in-:, fignifying the fame thing ;
and others from Ti/^ra, abfc'mdo, I cut off, I feparate, becaufe
a temple is a place feparated from common ules ; others, with
more probabihty, derive it from the old Latin word templare,
to contemplate. It is certain the ancient augurs gave the name
templa to thofe parts of the lieavens which were marked out
for the obfervation of the flight of birds. Their formula
was this : Templa tefqua Junto.

Temples were originally all open, and hence received their
name. See Phil. Tranf. N° 47 1 . feft. 5. where we have
an account of the ancient temple in Ireland of the fame fort
as our famous Stonehenge.

The word templum, in its primary fenfe among the old
Romans, fignified nothing more than a place fet apart, and
confecrated by the augurs, whether enclofed or open ; in the
city, or in the fields.

Clemens Alexandrinus and Enfebius refer the origin of
temples to the fepulchres built for the dead. This notion
has been lately illuftrated and confirmed by a variety of tefti-
monies by Mr. Farmer, in his Tre.itife on the Worfliip of
Human Spirits, p. 373, Sec. Herodotus, Lucian, and
Strabo, will have the Egyptians to have been the firtt who
built temples to the gods ; and from them the cuftom was
propagated to the AtTyrians, comprehending under this ap-
pellation Phoenicia, Syria, and other countries. From
Egypt and Phoenicia it f)a(red to Greece with the colonies,
and from Greece to Rome. The firft erefted in Greece is
afcribed to Deucalion by ApoUonius (Argonaut, lib. iii.)
and the firft in Italy to .Tnnus.

In antiquity we meet with many people who would not
build any temples to their gods, for fear of confining them
to too naiTOw bounds, lliey performed their facrifices
in all places indifferently, from a perfuafion, that the whole
world is the temple of God, and that he required no other.
This was the doftrine of the magi, followed by the Per-
fians,_ the Scythians, the Numidians, and many other nations
mentioned by Herodotus, lib. i. Strabo, lib. xv. and
Cicero, in his fccond oration againft Verres.

T E M

The Perijans, who worfhipped the fun, believed it would
wrong his power, to enclofe him in the walls of a temple,
who had the whole world for his habitation ; and lieucc,
when Xerxes ravaged Greece, the magi exhorted him to
deftroy all the temples he met with.

The Sicyonians would build no temples to their goddefs
Coronis ; nor the Athenians, for the hke reafon, ereft any
ftatue to Clemency, who, they faid, was to live in the hearts
of men, not within ftone walls.

The Bithynians had no temples but the mountains to
worfliip on ; nor had the ancient Germans any other but the
woods.

Even fome philofophers have blamed the ufe and building
of temples, particularly Diogenes, Zeno, and his followers
the Stoics, But it may be faid, that if God hath no need of
temples, men have nt ed of places to meet in for the pubhc
offices of religion : accordingly, temples may be traced back
even unto the remoteft antiquity. See Hofpinian, de Ori-
gine Templorum.

The Romans had feveral kinds of temples ; of which thofe
built by the kings, &c. confecrated by the augurs, and in
which the exercife of religion was regulai-ly performed, were
called, by way of eminence, templa, temples. Thole that
were not confecrated were called udes. The little temples,
that were covered or roofed, they called ttdiculee ; thofe
open, facella. Some other edifices, confecrated to particular
myfteries of religion, they called fana and delulra.

All thefe kinds of temples, Vitruvius tells us, had other
particular denominations, according to the form and manner
of their conftruftion ; as will be hereafter fpecified. In-
deed, the Romans out-did all nations with regard to temples :
they not only built temples to their gods, to their virtues,
to their difeafes, S:c. but alfo to their emperors, and that
in their life -time ; inftances of which we meet with in medals,
infcriptions, and other monuments. Horace compliments
Auguftus hereupon, and fets him above Hercules, and all
the heroes of fable ; in that thofe were only admitted into
temples after their death, whereas Auguftus had his temples
and altars while living.

" Prsefenti tibi matures largimur honores ;
Jurandafque tuum per nomen ponimus aras."

Epift. ad Aug.

Suetonius, on this occafion, gives an inftance of the mo-
defty of that emperor, who would allow of no temples being
erefted to liim in the city ; and even in the provinces, wliere
he knew it was ufual to raife temples to the very proconfids,
refufed any but thofe erefted in the name of Rome as well
as his own. Vide Suet, in Oftav. cap. 52.

Whenever a temple was to be erefted, the arufpices were
confulted as to the fcite of it, and the time when the con-
ftruftion of it was to commence. The fpot afligned to it
was carefully purified, and it was encircled with fillets and
garlands. The veftals, accompanied with young boys and
girls, waftied the ground with water, and the prieft expiated
it by a folemn facrifice. Then he touched the foundation-
ftone, and bound it with a fillet ; and the people, animated
with extraordinary zeal, threw it in thither with fome pieces
of money, or metal which had not pafled through the fur-
nace. When the edifice was finiflied, it was confecrated
with a variety of ceremonies, in which the prieft, or, in his
ab fence, fome of his college, prefided. Some of thefe temples
were not to be built within the precinfts of cities, but with-
out the walls, as thofe of Mars, Vulcan, and Venus, for
reafons particularly affigned by Vitruvius. The temples
were held in great veneration ; and, in fome cafes, they were
a fanftuary for criminals and debtors. Within they were

very

TEMPLE.

very mucU adorned ; particularly with coflly llatues of
their gods and great men, and a great variety of votive
offerings.

The mod celebrated of tiie ancient temples among the
Pagans were the following : viz. the temple of liclus (fee
Belus and Bahylon ) ; tlie temple of Vulcan at Memphiti,
the magnificence and extent of which ai-e highly extolled by
Herodotus ; the temple of Jupiter at Thebes or Diofpohs ;
that of Andera at Hermunthis ; that of Proteus at Mem-
phis ; that of Minerva at Sais ; the temple of Diana at
Ephefus (fee Diana); the temple of Apollo in tlie city
of Miletus, which, as well as that of Diana, was of the
Ionic order ; the temple of Eleufis, built in honour of Ceres
and Proferpine, capable of containing 30,000 perfons ; the
temple of Jupiter Olympins at Athens, of the Corinthian
order ; and the temple of Apollo at Delphi, fo famous for its
oracles, and for the rich prefents with which it vvat; enriched
(fee DELrm); the temple of Jupiter, which contained his
admirable llatue. The ai'chiteft of the temple was Libo,
a native of the country : its height from the area to the roof
was 68 feet, its breadth 95, and its length 230. The throne
and ftatue of the god, for we cannot enumerate other

a crown. There alfo appeared Apollo and Diana, Minrrva
and Hercules. At the bottom of the pedeHal, you might
have feen Aniphltritc and Neptune, and Diana or the moon,
who appeared mounted on horfeback. In fine, a woollen
veil, ot a purple dye, .ind magnificently embroidered, the
prefent of king Antiochus, hung from top to bottom.
The tlirone and Itatue reached from the pavement, which
was of the finell marble, to the roof.

Italy abounded with temples as much as Greece ; fcveral of
v.hich were remarkable for their fmgularity or magnificence.
Rome was full of temples : fome of the moll remarkable for
their origin, materials, llrutture, or ufe, were the following :
■viz. the temple of Apollo, built by Aiiguilus, in honour
of his favourite deity Apollo, after his vidtory at Aftium,
upon mount Palatine. Its llrudtnre was very magnificent ;
it was built of the finefl marble of Claros, and embelli(hed|
both within and without, with the richeft ornaments. Its
gates were of ivory, enriched with baffo-relievos, reprefent-
ing the Gauls, when they were thrown headlong from the
top of the Capitol by T. Manlius. In the frontifpiece was
a chariot of the fun, of malTy gold, crowned with rays fo
■fplcadent that they dazzled the eyes of beholders. Within

fplendid ornaments, were the mafter-piece of Phidias ; and the temple was a marble ftatue of Apollo, made by Scopas,

antiquity produced nothing fo magnificent nor fo finifhed. and alfo a eololfal one of brafs, 50 feet high ; together with

The llatue, of an immenfe lieight, was of gold and ivory, fo a candleftick in the form of a tree, whofe branches were

artificially blended, that it could not be beheld but with covered with chillers of lamps refembling fruit. Upon

aftonidiment. The god wore upon his head a crown, which thefe branches the poets ufed to hang their poems, which

refembled the olive-leaf to perfection : in his right hand he they offered up to Apollo, as Horace informs us, ep.' 3. 1. i.

held a viftory, likewife of gold and ivory ; and in his left a To this temple, dedicated to the " god of arts'" was very

fceptre of exquifite tafte, refulgent with all forts of metals, properly annexed a noble hbrary The temple of Bacchus,

and fupporting an eagle. The Ihoes and mantle of the god fituated wit.tout the walls of Rome, is now the church of

were of gold ; and upon the mantle were all forts of animals St. Conllantia, fupported on the infide by twenty-four noble

and flowers engraved. The throne was all fparkling with pillars of granite. Its ancient mofaic ceiling, and the old

gold and precious (lones. The ivory and ebony, the animals window by which light was let in from the roof, ftill remain,

there reprefented, and feveral other ornaments, by their af- Behind tlje prefent ahar Hands an antique urn of por-

femblage, formed a delightful variety. At the four corners phyry, of large dimenfions ; and on each fide of the altar, a

of the throne were as many Vitlories, that feemed to be finely wrought antique candleftick of marble Here was

joining hands for a dance, befides two others that were at the temple of the goddefs Bona, who was Dryas, the wife

Jupiter's feet. The feet of the throne, on the fore-fide, of Faunus, diftinguifhed by her exemplary chattity. The

were adorned with fphinxes, who were plucking the tender Roman ladies facrificed to her in the night in a little

infants from the bofom of the Theban mothers ; and under- chapel, into which the men were not allowed to enter nor

neath were to be feen Apollo and Diana, wounding Niobe's were they permitted to be prefent at her £acrifices. It was

children to death with their arrows. Four crofs bars that for the violation of this rule, that Cicero profecuted the de

were at the feet of the throne, and went from one end to the bauched Clodius. (See his article.) The temple of Diana

other, were adorned with a great rumber of figures ex- was feated on mount Aventine. It was built in the reign of

tremely beautiful : upon one were reprefented feven con- Servius TuUius, at the joint expence of the Romans and

querors at the Olympic games ; upon another appeared Latins, for the purpofe of their meeting annually to offer a

Hercules, ready to engage with the Amazons, and the num- facrifice, in commemoration of the league made between the

ber of combatants on either fide was twenty-nine. Befides two nations. — The firft temple of Faith is faid to have been

the feet of the throne, there were hkewife pillars to fupport erefted by Numa, who taught the Romans to worfhip this

it. In fine, a great balluftrade, painted and adorned with goddefs, and thus to be reminded, that the moft facred oath

figures, railed in the whole work. Pansenus, an able painter they could take was to fwear by their fuil/j or veraci/y.

of that time, had reprefented there, with inimitable art, His intention was to render their promifcs, without writings

Atlas bearing the heavens upon his ftioulders, and Hercides ■ - —■'■--""-• -- ■" ' • • -■
in an attitude ftooping to eafe him of the load : Thefeus and
Pirithous, the combat of Hercules with the lion of Nemea,
Ajax offering violence to Caffandra, Hippodamia with her
mother, Prometheus in chains, and a thoufand other fubjefts
of fabulous hiftory. In the moft elevated place of the
throne, above the head of the god, were the Graces and
Hours, of each three in number. The pedeftal which fup-
ported this pile, was equally adorned with the reft. There
Phidias had engraved upon gold, on the one fide, the Sun
guiding his chariot ; on the other, Jupiter and Juno, the
Graces, Mercury, and Veila. There Venus appeared rifing

out of the bofom of the fea, and Cupid receiving her ; while had no pofticum, or back-door, as other temples had ; thus

Pitho, or the goddefs of perfuafion, was prefenting her with intimating, that we muft not only pafs through virtue to attain

to

or witneffes, as firm and certain as contracts made and fworii
to with the greateft formalities ; and in this he fucceeded to
his wifli. Polybius bears this honourable teftimony to the
Romans, that they inviolably kept their faiti, that is, their
word, without having occafion for witneffes or fecurities ;

whereas nothing could bind the Greeks to their promifes

The temple of Honour was built by Mutius, by order of
Marius, and might be reckoned among the nobleft buildings
in ancient Rome, if the materials, which were ftonc, had
correfponded to the greatnefs of the dcfign. It was re-
markable for this circumftance, that the entrance of it was
dedicated to Virtue, and the reft to Honour ; and that it

TEMPLE.

to Iioiiour, but that honour is alfo obliged to rcpafs t(irou|h
rtrtuc, that is, to perfcvere in it, aiid acquire more of it. — The
temple of Janus.' The Romans built, at different times, three
temples to .lar.us ; for an account of which, fee Janus — The
temple of .lupiter the Prefervef was one of the fixty temples
that flood upon the Capitoline hill. .lupiter Cuftos was re-
prcfcnted in it, holding his thunder with one hand, and a dart
with the other, and the figure of the emperor was under his
thunder, to (hew that he was under Jupiter's proteftion ;
or elfe engraved, lying upon a globe, and holding an image
of viftory, with the eagle at his feet, and thefe words,
«' Jovi Confervatori Augullorum noftrorum." — The temple
of Jupiter Optrmus Maximus, or Jupiter Capitolinus, was
moft commonly called the Capitol; which fee. — The temple
of Liberty was built upon mount Aventine, on the fpot
where Cicero's houfe once ftood, enriched with feveral brafs
pillars, and many fine ftatues. — Th'^ temple of Mars ftood
on the declivity of the Capitoline bill. In this temple were
kept the eagles and other military enfigns of the Romans,
and alfo the chariot in which Cxfar had triumphed — The
temple of Peace was begun by the emperor Claudius, and
finifhed by Vefpafian, who embelli(hcd it with paintings and
ftatues of the greateft matters, and alfo depofited in it all
the fpoils and riches taken by his fon Titus in the temple of
Jerusalem. It was burnt in the reign of Commodus — The
temple of Jupiter the Avenger was the Pantheon ; which fee.
To the temples already enumerated, we might add thofe of
Antoninus and Fauftina, of Auguftus, of Auguftus and
Bacchus, of the Mufes, of Ceres, of Claudius Caefar, of
Concord, of Fame, of the Flavian family, of Faunus, of
Fever, of Trajan and Neptune, of Happinefs, of Faith and
Jupiter the Preferver, of Flora, of Bad Fortune, of the
eldeft or firft-born Fortune, of Public Fortune, of Virile or
Courageous Fortune, of Hercules, of Juno, of Juno Mo-
heta, of Juno Sofpita, the giver or preferver of health, of
queen Juno, of Jupiter Feretrius, of Jupiter Stator, of
iipiter Tonans or the Thunderer, of Jupiter the Conqueror,
of Liber, an epithet of Bacchus, of the Mother of the
gods, of Mercury, of Minerva, of the goddafs Nenia, of
Ops and Saturn, of the Penates or Houfehold gods, of
Reft, of Quirinus, of Romulus and Remus, of Saturn, of
Serapis, of the Sun, of the Sun and Moon, of the god
Sylvanus, of Tellus or the Earth, of Venus, of Venus and
Cupid, of Venus Erj'cina, of Venus Erycina and the Mind,
of Venus Verticordis, of Vertumnus, of Vefta, and many
others, which, great and fmall, amounted to upwards of one
thoufand.

Temple, Jewijli, at Jerufalem, was an edifice erefted
much after the model of the tabernacle, but in a much more
magnificent and expenfive manner. According to the
opinion of fome, there were three different temples : the
firft built by David and Solomon on mount Moriah, which
was part of mount Sion ; the fecond, by Zerubbabel and
.Toftiua the high prieft ; and the third by Herod. This
laft, however, the Jews will not allow to be a new temple,
but only the fecond repaired or rebuilt. The expence of
building Solomon's temple was prodigious: the gold and
filver employed for this purpofe amounted to upwards of
eight hundred miUions fterling (i Chron. xxii. 14. xxix. 4.
6, 7.), which, fays Dr. Prideaux, was fufficient to have
built the whole temple with folid filver. But as the book
of Chronicles was written after the return from the Baby-
lonifh captivity, it is probable that the Jews might compute
by the Babylonifh talent, which was little more than half
the Mofaic talent, or perhaps by the Syriac talent, which
was but one-fifth of the Babylonifh ; and thus the whole
quantity of gold and filver would be reduced to a com-

paratively moderate quantity, and yet fufficient for the
purpofe.

Jofephus (lib. vii. xiv. ii. ) acquaints us, that the two
firft fums were only one-tenth part of what is expreffed in
the prefent Hebrew ; and Dr. Kennicott ( State of the
Hebrew Text, vol. ii. p. 355.) thinks it probable, that
a cipher was added to them both in fome very ancient He-
brew copy.

This temple was furrounded, except at the front or eaft
end, with three ftories of chambers, each five cubits fquare,
which reached to half the height of the temple ; and the
front was graced with a magnificent portico, which rofe to
the height of a hundred and twenty cubits. It was plun-
dered by Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, and at length
deftroyed, after it had ftood, according to Jofephus, four
hundred and feventy years, fix months, and ten days, from
its dedication. Others, however, as Calvifius and Scaliger,
reduce the number of years to four hundred and tvventy-
feven, or four hundred and twenty-eight ; and Ufher, to
four hundred and twenty-four years, three months, and
eight days.

The fecond temple was built by the Jews, after their re-
turn from the Babylonifh captivity, under the direction and
influence of Zerubbabel their governor, and of Jofhua the
high prieft, with the leave and encouragement of Cyrus the
Perfian emperor, to whom Judaea was now become a tri-
butaiy kingdom. According to the Jews, this temple was
deftitute of five remarkable appendages, which were the chief
glory of the firft temple ; w'z. the ark and mercy-feat, the
Schechinah, the holy fire on the altar, which had been firft
kindled from heaven, the urim and thummim, and the fpirit
of prophecy. This temple was plundered and profaned by
Antiochus Epiphanes, who alfo caufed the public worfhip
in it to ceafe ; and afterwards purified by Judas Maccabaeus,
who reftored the divine worfliip : and after having ftood five
hundred years, rebuilt by Herod, with a magnificence ap-
proaching to that of Solomon's. Tacitus calls it immenftc
opulentix templum ; and Jofephus fays, it was the moft afto-
niftiing ftrufture he had ever feen, as well on account of its
architedlure as its magnitude, and likewife the richnefs and
magnificence of its various parts, and the reputation of its
facred appurtenances. This temple, which Herod began to
build about fixteen years before the birth of Chrift, and fo
far completed in nine years and a half, as to be fit for divine
fervice, was at length deftroyed by the Romans on the fame
month and day of the month, on which Solomon's temple
was deftroyed by the Babylonians.

The Jewifti temple itfelf confifted of the portico, the fanc-
tuary, and the holy of holies ; and it was ornamented with
fpacious courts, making a fquare of half a mile in circum-
ference. The firft court was called the court of the Gen-
tiles, becaufe they were allowed to come into it, but no
farther. Within this was a lefs court, into which none but
Ifraelites might enter, divided into the court of the women ;
and the inner court, in which the temple and altar ftood, and
into which the priefts and all male Ifraelites might enter.

Temple, in ArchiteSure. The ancient temples were dif-
tinguifhed, with regard to their conftruiSlion, into various
kinds : as.

Temple \n antic, /Edes in antis. Thefe, according to
Vitruvius, were the moft fimple of all temples, having only
angular pilafters, called antd, or parajlatie, at the corners,
and two Tufcan columns, on each fide of the doors.

Temple, Tetrajlyle, or fimply tetrafiyle, was a temple that
had four columns in front, and as many behind. Such was
the temple of Fortuna Virihs at Rome.

Templ£, Projlyle, that which had only columns in its

front,

TEMPLE.

front, or forc-fidc. As that of Ceres at Elcufis, in
Greece.

Temple, Amphybrojlyle, or double projlyle, that which had
columns both before and behind, and which was alfo
tetraftyle.

Temple, Periptere, that which liad four rows of infulated
columns around, and was exhaftyle, /'. e. had fix columns in
front; as the temple of Honour at Rome. See Pekii'TERE.

Temi'LE, Diptere, that which had two wings, and two
rows of columns around, and was alfo oftollyle, or had
eight columns in front ; as that of Diana at Ephefus.

Temple, Pfcudo-dlpterc. See 'PsEVDO-dlpicrc.

Temple, Hypathros. See Hyp/T.thros.

Temple, Monoptere. Sec Monoptere.

Temples, among us, denote two inns of court, thus
called, bccaufe anciently the dvvelling-houfe of the knights
Templars.

At the fuppreffion of that order they were purchafed by
fome profeflbrs of the common law, and converted into hof-
pitia, or inns of courts.

They are called the Inner and MlJdk Temple, in relation
to EfTex-houfe, which was alfo a part of the houfe of the
Templars, and called the Outer Temple, becaufe fituate with-
out Temple-Bar.

In the Middle Temple, during the time of the Templars,
the king's treafure was kept : as was alfo that of the kings
of France in the houfe^of the Templars at Paris.

The chief officer was the mafter of the Temple, who was
fummoned to parliament in 49 Hen. III. And from him
the chief minifter of the Temple church is ftill called
M after of the Temple.

Temple, Sir William, in Biography, a (latefman and
mifcellaneous writer, was the fon of fir John Temple,
mafter of the rolls in Ireland in the reign of Charles I. and
II., and author of a Hiftory of the Irifh Rebellion, and
born in London in the year 1628. Having finiHied liis
courfe of claffical education, he was entered, at the age of
feventeen, at Emanuel college, in the univerfity of Cam-
bridge, under the tuition of the learned Cudworth. Being
defigned for pubhc hfe, his principal attention at the univer-
fity was engaged by the fludy of the modern languages,
French and Spanifh ; and at the age of twenty, he was lent
to finifh his education by travelling on the continent.
After fpending fix years in this way, he returned home
in 1654, and married the daughter of fir Peter Ofborn, of
Chickfand, Bedfordfllire, with whom he became acquainted
during his foreign travels. Declining to accept any office
under Cromwell, he refidcd with his father in Ireland, and
devoted his time to the ftudy of hiftory and philofophy.
At the Reftoration he became a member of the Irifh Con-
vention ; and in the Iri(h parhament of the year 166 1, he
was returned as a reprefentative of the county of Carlow,
and in 1662 was nominated one of the commiffioners from
that parliament to the king. At this time he removed with
his family to England ; and having faithfully executed a
fecret commiffion to the bifhop of Munfter, with which he
was entrufted in 1665, he was appointed in the following
year refident at the court of Brulfels, and raifed by patent
to the rank of a baronet. During the reign of Charles II.
he was concerned in a variety of negociations. After the
peace of Breda, (July 10, 1667,) fir William went over to
Holland, and formed an intimate acquaintance and friendfhip
with De Wit, a man frank and open, and of the fame ge-
nerous and enlarged fentiments with himfelf ; and in confe-
quence of the negociations of thefe two able ftatefmen', a
defenfive alliance was concluded between Holland and Eng-
land. Sweden acceded to the confederacy : and thus was

formed the triple league, which was generally regarded wilii
equal furprife and approbation. In the conduft of this bufi.
ncfs. Temple acquired great lionour ; but to all the compli.
ments that were paid to him on the occafion, he modeftly
replied, tliut to remove things from their centre, or proper
clement, required force and labour ; but that of themfelves
they cafily returned to it. The French monarch and the
court of Spain were equally difpleafed ; but in the treaty at
Aix-la-Cha])elle, where Temple appeared as amballador
extraordinary and mediator, on behalf of England, his ad-
drefs prev.^iled ; the Spanifli minifter comphed with the con-
ditions propofed ; and the peace between the contending
powers was figned in May, 1668. In confequence of this
event, fir William was nominated ambaftador to the States-
General, and taking up his refidence at the Hague in the
month of Auguft of this yeai-, he maintained his intimacy
with De Wit, and was alfo on familiar terms with Wilham,
prince of Orange, who had then attained the age of eighteen
years. But this triple alliance was of fhort duration. The
corruption and intrigues of the Englifli court produced a
recall of Temple in the year 1669, and when it was propofed
to him to return and make way for a breacii with Hol-
land, he declined, much to his honour, engaging iu hoftility
againft a country to which he was attaclied, and retired from
public bnfinefs to hht feat at Sheen, near Richmond. Here
he employed himfelf in the improvement of his manfion, and
in the cultivation of his garden ; and alfo in writing hi«
" Obfervations on the United Provinces," and a part of his
" Mifcellanea." When the war with the Dutch became
unpopular through the nation, and the court and its minifters
were under a neceffity of bringing it to a tei-mination, fir
William Temple was c;Jled out of his retirement to nego-
ciate with the Spanifli minifter in London : and when tlie
feparate peace with Holland was concluded, he was re-
quefted in the next yeai-, 1674, to undertake the office of
ambaffador to the States-General, for the purpofe of nego-
ciating a general peace. Before his acceptance of this office,
he obt;uned an audience of the king, with a view of ftating
to hie majefty the pernicious politics of the Cabal miniftry,
and tlie necelfity ot popular meafures for regaining the con-
fidence of the nation. The negotiations for peace were com-
menced at Nimeguen, whither he removed from the Hague
in 1676: and during their flow progrefs, he availed himfelf
of the opportunity thus afforded him for accom])lifliing the
popular meafure of the marriage of the prince of Orange to
the duke of York's eldeft daughter, which took place in
1677. On another occafion, when the French manifcfted
their intention of retaining the Spanifh towns, which were
to be furrendered by treaty, Temple was difpatched to the
Hague to concert effectual meafures with the States for
bringing the French to terms ; and in fix days lie concluded
a treaty, July 1678, by which England was bound to de-
clare war againft the French if the towns were not evacu-
ated within the interval of fixteen days ; but fo feeble and
fluftuating were the Enghfh councils, that before the ratifi-
cation of the projefted treaty, peace was figned at Nimeguen,
and France was fecured in the poffeffion of a great part of
its conquefts.

In 1679 Temple was recalled from the Hague, in order
to be appointed one of the fecretaries of ilate ; but per-
ceiving the violence of parties, and the prevalence of difcon-
tent, he recommended a council of thirty perfons, which was
to be compofcd, together with the minifters of the crown, of
perfons pofTeffing influence and credit in both houfee of
parliament. But divifions occurred which prevented the
falutary cffefts of fuch a meafure. Projeds of limitation or
exclufion were the fubjeils of warm JifcuiBon in parliament.

io

T E M

To thele meafures Temple was adverfe ; and his laft acl in
parliament, as member for the univerfity of Cambridge, was
to carry from the council the king's final anfwer to the ad-
drefs of the Commons, never to confent to the exchifion of
his brother : other members had previoully declined this
difagreeable fervice. When the king, in January 1 68 1,
diflolved the parliament without the advice of his privy
council. Temple boldly remonftrated againft the mcalure ;
and at length, wearied with the faftion and mifgovernmoiit
which he had witncfled, he declined the offered return for
the univerfity to the new parliament, and retired to Sheen,
conveying from thence a meffage to thi? king, " that he
would pafs the reft of his life as good a fubjeft as any in his
kingdom, but would never more meddle with public affairs."
The king replied to the meffage, that he bore him no re-
fentmcnt ; but his name was expunged from the council.
The remainder of his life was fpent in retirement and feclu-
fion from all public bufinefs ; and it is faid, that he inter-
fered fo little in political matters, as not to know the defign
of the prince of Orange to engage in the expedition that
terminated in the revolution, and to be the laft perfon who
gave credit to his landing. After James's abdication, how-
ever, he waited on the prince at Windfor, and prefentcd to
him Iiis fon. King William urged upon him the accept-
ance of the office of fecretary of ftate ; but he maintained
his purpofe of Hving in retirement. His fon was appointed
fecretary at war ; but in the week in which he affumed
the office, he was feized with melancholy, and threw himfelf
into the Thames. His refleftion on this affliclive event was
that which his Stoic philofophy alone could have diftated :
" a wife man might difpofe of himfelf, and render his life as
fhort as he pleafed." In his ftate of retirement, he admitted
Swift to be his companion, as we have already mentioned
under Swift's article. King William occafionally vifited
him, and confidentially confulted him on feveral important
affairs. In 1 694 he loft his wife ; and finking gradually
under increafing infirmities, occafioned by repeated fits of
the gout, his hfe was terminated at Moor park, in
January 1698, in his 70th year. The greateft part of his
fortune was bequeathed to the daughters of his unfortunate
fon by a French lady, under the exprefs condition that they
(hould not marry Frenchmen.

Sir William Temple ranks high as aftatefmau, and alfo as
a patriot, who well underftood and zealoufly purfued his
country's intereft. His foibles, without giving them a
worfe appellation, were impatience with thofe whom he
diftiked, warmth in difpute, and a ftiare of vanity and con-
ceit ; but he was fubftantially, fays his biographer, a worthy
man in the various relations of life. To outward forms of
religion he paid little regard ; but his letter to the counlefs
of Effex is no lefs pious than eloquent: fo that we can
fcarcely admit the charge of atheifm with which he is re-
proached by bilhop Burnet. As a writer, he ranks ainong
the moft eminent and popular of his time. His " Obferv-
ations upon the United Provinces of the Netherlands" were
printed in 1672, and deferve the attention of the politician
and philofopher: his " Mifcellanea" are lively and enter-
taining, if not profound. His " Memoirs" elucidate the
hiftory of the times. His " Introdudion to the Hiftory of
England" was pubUflied in 1695. His "Letters," in 3
vols., which relate to public tranfaftions, were publilhed after
his death by Swift. " AU fir William Temple's writings,"
fays one of his biograpl.crs, " difplay much acquaintance
both with books and men, and are entirely free from the li-
centioufnefs fo prevalent in that age. Their ftvle is negli-
gent and incorred, but agreeable, refembling that of ealy
and pohte converfation." Hume's Hift. vol. vii. 8vo.
4

T E M

Biog. Brit. Gen. Biog. Account of his Life, &c. prefixed
to the folio edition of liis Works, in 2 vols. Lond. 1720.

Sir William Temple did not cfcape the lafti of criticifm,
and inch was his vanity or irritabflity,or perhaps a compofition
of both, that his indignation was roufed, and he expreffed him-
felf in the following terms: "Thecriticksare a race of fcholars
I am very little acquainted with ; having always efteemed
them but little brokers, who, having no ftock of their own,
fet up and trade with that of other men, buying here and
feUiiig there, and commonly abufing both fides, to make out
a little paltry gain, cither of money or credit, for themfelves,
and care not at whofe coft." In another place he fays,
" there is, I think, no fort of talent fo defpicable, as that of
fuch common criticks, who can at beft pretend to value them-
felves by difcovering the defaults of other men, rather than
any worth or merit of their own : — a fort of levellers, that will
needs equal the beft and richeft of the country, not by improv-
ing their own eftatcs, but reducing thofe of their neighbours,
and making them appear as mean and wretched as themfelves."

Temple, in Geography, a town of the province of Maine,

in the county of Kennebeck, containing 482 inhabitants

Alfo, a townftiip of New Hampfliire, in the county of Hillf-
borough, containing 941 inhabitants ; 70 miles W. of Portf-
mouth.

Temple, Le, a town of France, in the department of
the Lot and Garonne ; 7 miles W. of Villeneuve d'Agen.

Temple^5(^{)', a bay on the N.E. coaft of New Holland,

to the S. of Cape Grenville Alfo, a bay on the E. coaft

of Labrador. N. lat. 52° 25'. W. long. 55° 50'.

TEMPLEMORE, {I r. the Great Church,) a poft-
town of the county of Tipperary, Ireland, where there was
formerly held a fair for wool, which lafted feveral days. It
is 75 miles S.W. from Dublin.

TEMPLE PATRICK, (;'. e. Patnd--s Church,) a poft-
town of the county of Antrim, Ireland, on the river Six-
mile-water ; 4^ miles E. by S. from Antrim, on the road
to Belfaft.

TEMPLERS. See Templars.

TEMPLES, in Jnatomy. See Tempora.

TEMPLETON, in Geography, a town of America, in
the ftate of Maffachufetls, and county of Worcefter, con-
taining I 203 inhabitants.

TEMPLETONIA, in Botany, is dedicated by Mr. R.
Brown, to the honour of John Templeton, efq. of Orange
Grove, near Belfaft, a gentleman whofe enquiries have much
enriched our knowledge of Iriih plants, and whofe name
confequently often appears in the pages of the Flora Bri-
lannica and Erig/i/h Botany. — Brown in Ait. Hort. Kew.

V. 4. 269 Clafs and order, Diadelphia Decandria. Nat.

Ord. Papiitonacea, Linn. Legiimino/x, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, fimple,
bell-fliaped, with live rather unequal fegments in the limb,
permanent. Cor. papilionaceous, of five petals. Standard
elliptical, afcending, entire. Wings nearly the length of
the ftandard, linear-oblong, obtufe, with a fmall tooth near
the bafe at their upper edge. Keel a Httle ftiorter than the
wings, oblong, flightly curved, of two half-ovate petals,
cohering near the extremity, with ftiort claws. Stam. Fila-
ments ten, all combined into one tube for more than half
their length, fcparate above, afcending, five alternate ones
rather the ftiorteft ; anthers uniform, fmall, oblong, incum-
bent. Fiji. Germen ftaLked, linear-awlftiaped ; ftyle awl-
ftiaped, afcending ; ftigma capitate. Per'ic. Legume ftalked,
linear-oblong, compreffed, obliquely pointed, of one cell
and two valves. Seeds eight or ten, oval, pohfhed, the fear
of each bordered with a prominent creft.

Eff. Ch. Calyx fimple, with five rather unequal teeth.

Keel

T E M

T E M

Keel oblong. Stamens all connefted. AnUiers uniform.
Legume ilalked, compreffcd. Seeds numerous, crefted.

I. T. retufa. Wedge-leaved Templetonia. Ait. n. I.
(Rafnia retufa; Venten. Malmaif. t. 53.) — Gathered by-
Mr. Brown, on the fouth-weft coaft of New Holland, from
whence feeds were fent to England by Mr. Peter Good, in
1803. This is a greenhoufe fhrub, flowering in fpring and
fummer. Stem about a yard higli, with ftraight, angular,
fmooth, leafy branches. Leaves about an inch and half
long, alternate, on fhort ftalks, fprcading, entire, emar-
ginate, fmooth. Stipulas in pairs, fmall, oval, deciduous.
Flowers lateral, axillai'y, folitary, on fimple ftalks, which
arc rather fhorter than the leaves. Calyx dcilitute of the
imbricated appendages which make a principal part of the
charafter of the neighbouring genus Sootti.^. (Sec that
article.) Petals near an inch long, of a deep crimfon. Le-
gume two inches long, and half an inch broad, (lightly
, tumid where each feed is lodged.

TEMPLEUVE en Pefvele, in Geography, a town of
France, in the department of the North ; 7 miles S.S.E.
of Lille.

TEMPLIN, a town of Germany, in the Ucker Mark
of Brandenburg, fituated between the Bodenfee and Dol-
genfee. In the year 1735, this place was totally confumcd
by fire, but has been rebuilt to very great advantage ; its
ftreets being now broad and ftraight, and its houfes uniform,
exclufive of a fpacious market-place in it, which forms a re-
gular quadrangle, infomuch that at prefent it is one of tlie
moil beautiful towns in all the Mark. It carries on a very
large trade in timber, which is greatly promoted by'means
of a canal, newly made. In 1806 it was taken by the
French, under the duke of Berg ; and the prince of Hohenloe,
who had retired hither after the battle of Jena, was made
prifoner; 15 miles S.W. of Prenzlow. N. lat. 53° 5'-
E. long. 13"° 34'.

TEMPLUM SosTRATi, the name of a kind of fur-
gical bandage defcribed by Galen. He alfo defcribes
another, under the name of templuni par-uum yfpolloriit lyru.
TEMPO, Ital., time, or meafure, in Mujic.
Tempo Ordinario, ufual time.
Tempo di Gavotta, gavot time. See Gavotta.
Tempo di Minuetto, minuet time.

A Tempo, or a tempo prima, after a paufe, or rallentando,
or ad libitum, implies a return to the firft time in which a
movement is begun ; and in recitative, where, in general, no
time is kept, a tempo, in an accompanied recitative, implies
a regular time.

TEMPOAL, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Guafteca ; 50 miles S.E. of St. Yago de los
Valles.

TEMPORA, in Anatomy, the anterior and lateral parts
of the head, where the fltull is covered by the temporal
mufcles : the temples in common language. See Cra-
nium.

TEMPORAL, Temporalis, a term frequently ufed
for fecular. In which fenfe it ftands oppofed to eccle-
Jiafiical.

' Pope Boniface wrote to Philip the Fair of France, that
he was fubjeft to him, both in fpirituals and temporals.

At prefent, all the doftors on this fide the Alps own the
fupremacy of kings in temporals.
Temporal Aaion. See Action.
Temporal Augment. See Augment.
TEMPORALIS, Temporal, in Anatomy, an epithet
apphed to various parts about the temples ; thefe are a fuper-
ricial, a m ddlc, and two deep-feated temporal arteries ; a
temporal bone on each fide of the head ; a temporal vein ;
Vol. XXXV.

a temporal mufole ; and temporal nerves. See the rcfpeflivc
articles.

TEMPORALITIES, or Tf.mporalties, the tempo-
ral revenues of an ccclcfiaftic ; particularly fuch lands, te-
nements, or lay-fees, tithes, &c. as have been annexed to
bifhops' fees by our kings, or other perfons of high rank in
the kingdom. Sec Revenue.

The temporalities of a bifhop, &c. Hand oppofed to his
fpiritualities. See Vacation.

The canonifts on the other fide of the Alps, anciently
gave the pope a power over the temporalities of kings.
Yet pope Clement V. owned frankly, that his prcdcceflor
Boniface VIII. liad exceeded the jull bounds of his au-
thority, in meddling with the temporalities of the king of
France. Fcvret.

TEMPORALIUM Gustos. See Gustos and Va-
cation.

Temporalium Rejlitutione. See Restitutione.
TEMPORARY Fortification. See Fortificatiov.
Temporary Hours. See Hour.

TEMPOREGIATO, in the Italian Muftc, fomctimcs
fignifies, that the muficians who accompany the voice, or
the perfon who beats time, (hould prolong fome particular
part thereof, to give the aftor or finger room to exprefs the
paffion he is to reprefent, or to introduce fome graces, by
way of ornament to the piece.

Tbmporroiato is alfo ufed in a different fenfe, for a
tempo, or a t^mpo giujlo.

TEMPORUM OssA, in Anatomy, two bones of the
cranium. See Cranium.

TEMPSCHE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Scheld ; 10 miles S.W. of Antwerp.

TEMPTATION, Tentatio, mTheology, an induction
or folicitation to evil, whether arifing from the world, the
fie(h, or the devil.

Our Saviour's temptation, previous to the commencement
of his public miniftry, has been a fubjeft of difcuflion and
controverfy among learned divines.

The evangelical account of this tranfaftion may be found
in Matt. iv. 1 — II. Mark, i. 12, 13. Luke, iy. 1—12. It
has generally been fuppofed, that the evangelical hiftory of
our Lord's teAptation is to be underftood as a narrative of
outward tranfaftions : that the devil tempted Chrift in per-
fon, appeared to him in a vifible form, fpoke to him with an
audible voice, and removed him corporc.illy from one place
to another ; and it muft be allowed that thefe fuppofitions
are warranted by the literal interpretation of the hiftory.
Neverthelefs, this interpretation is liable to a variety of ob-
jeftions. It is unfuitable to the fagacity and pohcy of the
evil fpirit. Why, it has been fuggefted, (hould the devil
aifault our bleftcd Lord at all, and what advantage could he ex-
peft to gain over him ; more efpccially when he came to him in
perfon, and appeared before him in a vifiblc form, and under
his own proper charafter, propofing and urging temptations
which could proceed only from an evil being ? In order to
evade this difiiciilty, fome writers, as archbiihop Seeker and
Dr. Cliandler, have coniediircd that the devil appeared net
as himjclj, but under tjic ailiimcd refcmblance of a good
angel ; and others have fuppofed that he appeared to Cluift
in Ihe form of a man. But the hiftory furniflies no ground
for thefe conjcdures, and they are equally inconfiftent with
the temptations themfelves, confidered in their own nature ;
nor can it be pretended that Chrift was ignorant by whom
the feveral temptations, and particularly the third of them,
waspropofcd; for in his reply, he calls him Satan. Befides,
this tranfaftion, acrording to the literal interpretation of it*
hiftory, was very ill calculated to promote either the honour

T t of

TEMPTATION.

of Chiift, or the inftrudioi. and confohtion of his difciples.
This objeaion IS ftrcnglhened, when we confider, that
Chrift mud have yielded vollmtarily to the mere motion and
iuftiRation of the devil, and have been acceffary to his own
dilhonour, danger, and temptation. His charafter muit
have been ratlur degrad.-d than exalted. The temptations
prefcnted to Chrift were fuch in their own nature as coukl
not afford evidence or excrcife of his obedience, nor of courle
fuitable confohtion or iifeful inftniaion to his foUowers,
under real and powerful trials. Moreover, it has been objefted
to the common opinion , that it afcribes to the devil the perform-
ance of the greatcft miracles, and of things not only preter-
natural, but abfurd and impoflible, for fuch we mull regard
his (hewing Chrift all the kingdoms of the world from
an exceedingly high mountain, and alfo whatever con-
ftitutes the glory and grandeur of its kingdoms. If we are
under a necefBty of deviating from a literal, and of adopt-
ing a {igurative intctpretation of the tranfaftion recorded in
th?8 hiftory, we are warranted in fo doing by other inftances
of a fimilar kind, that occur ui the facred writings. Thefe
writings relate things as aftually done, which neverthelels
were only tranfaftcd in a vilion. Cafes of this kind fre-
quently occur in fcripture ; for which we might refer to
Genefis, xxxii. 30. Hofea, i. and iii. .Teremiah, xiii. xxv.
xxvii. Ezekiel, iii. iv. v. vSt. Paul caUs his " being caught
up into the third heaven" and " into Paradife, a vifion and
revelationof the Lord." (zCor. xii. 1— 4-) In conformity
to thefe genera] principles, fome writers of eminene have
proceeded in forming their judgment concerning the tempta-
tions of Chrift ; and conftraincd by fuch objcftions as we have
already briefly ftated, they have abandoned the opinion that
thefe temptations are to be undcrftood as outward tranfac-
tions, inafmnch as the things therafclves were improbable,
and even imprafticable in their own nature ; and inafmuch
as the real performance could anfwer no valuable purpofe.
Calvin allows, in his note on Matt. iv. 5, that feveral cir-
cumftances in this hiftory agreed beft to a vifion ; and the
generality of later writers have admitted, that the devil's
(hewing to Chrift all the kingdoms of the world, and all
their glory, in a moment of time, was done by fome flfti-
tious fcenery, from a perfuafion, that it could not be done
in any other way. Hence it has been argued by others,
tliat if one of the temptations were prefented to Chrift in
▼ifion only, why might not the two others be prefented to
him in the fame manner. Adverting to the hiftory itfelf, it
is alleged, that the text, inftead of pofitively and exprefsly
afferting that the temptation of Chiift was a real outward
triflfaftion, contains clear intimations, and even direiSl afler-
tions of the contrary'. Thus, in the pafl^age relating to the
exhibition of the kingdoms of the world, and all their glory,
in one view, and in a fingle point of view, the evangelift is
not fpeaking of the real fight of all thefe objefts j but he
muft defign to be underftood of what was inftantaneoufly
exhibited to the mind. Other plain intimations occur, that
Chrift's temptation is not to be underftood as an outward
traiifaftion ; and it is alleged by the advocates of this
opinion, that all the evangelifts who have mentioned this
affair, do, in cxprefs terms, affirm that it paffed fpiritually,
and in iiijion, or that it was merely an ideal or mental repre-
fcntation.

Some of thofe bibhcal critics, who confider this hiftory
as a recital of vifionaiy reprefentations, maintain that thefe
vifions were framed by the devil, and that the temptations
are to be afcribcd to his immediate agency : thus denying the
power of Satan over the body of Chrift, and granting him
a nobler empire, a fovereign influence over the mind. Some
have indeed fuppolcd that Chrift's temptation was r.othing

more than a bare meditation of our Lord upon fuch trials as
might polTibly be propofed by the great tempter of man-
kind. But it is ueedlefs to make any obfervations on a
view of the fubjeft, which is altogether unfupported by the
hiftory.

Another opinion has been propofed by a very able
writer, in favour of which he has adduced a variety of argu-
ments, that have given fatisfaftion to many pcrfons who
have examined this fubjeft. Mr. Fsvmcr (in his Inquiry
into the Nature and Defign of Chrift's Temptation in the
Wildernefs) reprefcnts our Lord's temptation as befalling-
him while he was under a prophetic vifion, of which the
Spirit of God himfelf was the immediate and fole authoi.
Accordingly he confiders the temptation of Chrift, neither
as an outward tranfaftion, nor diabolical delufion, but as a
divine vifion. At the time when this event occurred, ouv
Saviour was aftually in the wildernefs, and therefore whei:
the evangelift fays, that " Jefus was led up of the Spirit
into the wildernefs," or as our author more literally renders
the words, " then was JeiJus brought (or carried) into the
v/ildernefs by the Spirit," he intimates, that into a wildernefs
our Lord feemed to himfelf to be carried, or thither he was
tranfported in vifion by a prophetic divine afflatus. The ex-
prcfhons ufed by the other evangelifts, Mark and Luke, are
faid to confirm the explication thus given of the language of
St. Matthew. Upon the whole, the meaning of the evan-
gelifts will be, " Chrift was brought into a wildernefs (not
merely under a divine direftion, but) under the full influence
of the prophetic Spirit, making fuitable revelations to his
mind, and giving him a view particularly of his future trials."
And thefe trials are defcribed as " temptations of the devil,"
on account of the particular mode of their being revealed, being
couched under the figure of Satan coming to him, and urg-
ing temptations. Our author, proceeding to examine the
proper intention of this prophetic vifion, obferves, that the
feveral fcenes which it comprehends, though prefented to
Chrift in the form, and capable of anfwering the end, of a
prefent trial, were direftly intended as a fymbolical predic-
tion and reprefentation of the future difficulties of his office
and miniftry. The firft fcene in Chrift's vifion was proba-
tionary, ferving to difcover the prefent turn and temper of
his mind ; and alfo prophetical, having a reference to his fu-
ture miniftry, through the whole courfe of which he was
prefTcd with the fame kind of temptations, and refifted them
upon the fame principles. This part of the vifion, therefore,
conveyed this general inftruftion : " that Chrift, though the
fon of God, was to ftruggle with the affiifting hardfhips 01
hunger and thirft, and all the other evils of humanity, like
the lowefv of the fons of men ; and that he was never to
exert his divine power for his own perfonal relief, under the
moft preffing difficulties, or for the fupply of his moft urgent
occaCons ; but with rcfignation and faitTi to wait for the in-
terpofition of God in his favour." The fecond fcene of
this vifion was Jerufalern, the metropolis of Judea nnd the
feat of power ; it was the temple of Jerufalem, where the
Jews expeifted tlie firft appearance of their Mcffiah ; it was
the wing of the temple, the eaftern front of it, which com-
manded a view of the worfhippers below. From this errii-
nence Chrift is required to throw himfelf down, in a depend-
ence upon the divine proteftion, that fo his miraculous prc-
fervation might give evidence of his divine miflion, ai.d in-
duce the numerous worfhippers, who were eye-witneffes of it,
to acknowledge him immediately as the Mefliah, viCbly de-
fcending from heaven, in a manner agreeable to the expefta-
tion of the Jews. Such was the propofal, and the temptation
was powerful. The principle upon v/hich he rejefted it was,
in its fpirit and meaning, this : " the Scripture forbids us

to

T E M

TEN

to prefcribe to God in what inilances \w fiiall rxcrt his power ;
and as we are not to rufh upou danger without a call, in i-x-
peftatiou of aii extraordinary delivoranco ; fo iicitlier ;u-i; we
to diiftate to divine wifdom vviiat miracles (hall be wrought
for men's conviftion." As this trial luire reference to his fu-
ture miniitry, we find that in exemplifyiujr the principle now
manifefted, he never needlefsly and unwarrantably cxpofcd
himfelf to danger, and then relied on a miraculous interpo-
fition of divine power for his refcue ; but he was cautious in
declining hazards ; avoiding what might exafpcrate his ene-
mies ; and even enjoining fdence with regard to his miracles,
when the publication of them was likely to excite envy or popu-
lar commotion, and to inflame their minds againft him. In dif-
playing the evidences of his divine miflion, he ftill aftcd upou
the fame maxim, opening his commiflion, not at Jerufalem,
but in Galilee. In order to avoid oftentation and offence, he
kept himfelf as private as the objeft of his commiflion would
allow; andinfteadof courting the favour of the opulent and
powerful, he converfed freely with all forts of people. In
many other inftances which an attentive perufal of his hif-
tory will furnifh, his miniftry will correfpond to his pro-
phetic vifion, in which he was tempted to a public and ollen-
tatious difplay of his miraculous powers. In the third fcenc,
the propolal was inftantaneoufly rejefted, and not without
a mixture of juft indignation. Belides this trial of his tem-
per, the fcene before us' pre-fignified the temptation to
which he would be ex,pofed in the courfe of his future mi-
niftry, during which he was called upon to proftitute himfelf,
with all his miraculous endowments, to the fervice of Satan,
for the fake of worldly honours, or for gratifying the mif-
taken expcftations of the Jewifh people. For a farther
illuflration of tliis fubjeft, we mud refer to the work already
cited. See alfo archbifliop Seeker's, Dr. Clarke's, Dr.
Chandler's, Mr. Mafon's Sermons, on this fubjcft. Ben-
fon's Hiftory of the Life of Chrift. Macknight's Truth
of the Gofpel Hiflory.

Temptation, Tentatia, in our Ancient Lauu-books, is
ufed for a trial, proof, or afiay. " Tentatio panis fiat bis
in anno." Chart. Edw. I. See Assay, Sec.

TEMROOK, in Geography, a famous Ration in the
Crimea, fituated at the foot of a iniall mountain, near
the northern embouchure of the Kuban, it is now a fingle
hut, for the purpofe of fupplying poll-horfes. In Mo-
traye's time, who travelled this way in December 171 1, it
was a place of greater importance. He delcribes it as con-
fiderable for its commerce in hides, caviaie, honey, Circaf-
fian flaves, and horfes. He fuppoled that its caille flood
where the ancients placed their " Petrous ;" and two emi-
nences, he fays, which are named " the point of the ifland,"
may have been their " Achilleum Fromontorium." This, it
is fuppofed, was the fituation of Cimmerium. Pallas con-
ieftures, that Temrook may probably have been the " Cim-
bricus" of Strabo.

TEMS, Fr., time, in Mufe; as a contre tons, againft
time.

TEMSEMA, mGeograjihi, a provinceof Morocco, fituated
on the coaft of tlie Atlantic, to the S. of Sallee. This pro-
vince is rich and fertile, and abounds in excellent provifions,
of various kinds. Its name feems intended to fignify its fa-
lubrity, and tl;e purity of the climate. Temfena appears to
be derived from the two Arabic words Taniain Satm, only a
year ; as if they fhould fay, that to refide here only a year
would be fufficient to infure the fickly the return of their
health, and fuch, in faft, is the firm belief of the natives.
Corn is very plentiful in this province ; it is of a very excel-
lent kind, and the cars frequently bear 70 grains, or more.
In the forefts is found a kind of cedar, called ha%ar, of «

refinous fmell ; it is a hard and incorruptible wood, and the
Moors employ it in building their houfes.

This and the neighbounng provinces abound in horfes
and lionicd cattle ; tlieir flocks are numerous, and the ca-
valry of Temfena is the beft appointed of the empire, ex-
cepting the Black troops of the emperor, called Abccd
Seedy Bubarric. The population of the dillrifts of Tem-
fena and Shavvia is eftimated at 1,160,000 pcrfons. The
males of Temfena and Sliawia are a ftrong, robuft race, of
a coj)per colour ; their women poflefs much beauty, and
have liighly cxpreffivc features ; and the animation of the
countenance is iucreafed by the ufe of cl kokol filelly, with
which they tinge their cye-laflics and eye-brows. In thefe
provinces they are fond of dyeing their hands and feet
with a preparation of the herb henna, which gives them a
beautiful orange-colour, and, in hot weather, imparts a
pleafing coolnefs and foftnefs to the hands, by preventing, in
a confiderable degree, the quicknefs of perfpiration.

TEMUS, in Botany, a genus which Juffieu has conde-
fcended to adopt, by its barbarous name, from the h;u-dly
lefs barbarous information of Mohna. Jufl". Gen. 435.^
Clafs and order, Polyavdrla Di^ynia. Nat. Ord. uncertain.

Efl". Ch. " Calys three-clelt. Petals eighteen, hncar,
very long. Stamens twenty-fix, (horter than the petals.
Anthers globofe. Germens two. Styles two. Berry two-
lobed. Seeds tunicated." — Native of Chili, where it i«
called Temo. This it feems is an evergreen tree, with alter.
nate leaves, and ftalked terminal Jlowers.

Temus, in Geography, a river of Sardinia, which ruRS
into the fea, 4 miles E. of Caftello Arragonefc.

TENA, a town of South America, m the province of
Quito ; 15 miles S. of Archidona.

TENABLE, formed from the French tenir, and that
from the Latin tenere, to hold, in the Military Art, fome-
thing that may be defended, kept, and held, againft
affailants.

Tenable is little ufed, but with a negative : v;hea a place
is open on all fides, and its defences arc all beaten down, it is
no longer tenable. When the enemy has gained fuch an emi-
nence, this polt is not tenable.

TENACIOUS BomKs. See Tenacity.

TENACITY, in Natural Philojophy, that quality of
bodies by which they fuftain a confiderable preflure, or force,
without breaking. Mem. Acad. Berlin, 1745, P- 47'

Tenacity is the oppofite quality to fragility, or brittle.
nefs.

TENACULUM, in Surgery, an inftrumc.-it ufed in am.
putation, for pulhng cut bleeding veiTels that are to be tied
by ligatures.

TENAGLIA, in Biography, a Roman compofer, men»
tioned by Pietro della Valle, as having fet the opera of
" Clearco," for that city, about 1634. This feems to have
been one of the firil mufical dramas performed at Rome in a
public theatre.

TENAILLE, in Fortijuaticn, a kind of outwork, con-
fifting of two p.irallel fids^, with a front, in which is a re-
entering angle.

In ftriftnefs, that angle, and the faces which compoff it,
arc the lenaillc.

The tenaillc is of two kinds ; Jimple and double.

Tenaille, Simple, or Single, is a large outwork, con-
fifting of two faces or fides, including a re-entering angle.
See Plate V. Fortification, Jig. 4. lit. a.

Tenaille, DcMe, or Flanked, is a large outwork,
confifting of t%vo iimple tenailles, or three faliants, and two
re-entering ongles. Fig. zi. lit. e.

The great defefts of tcnaiUes are, that they take up too
T t 2 much

T E N

raucli room, and on that account arc aJvautajfcous to the
enemy ; that ihf re -filtering angle is undefended ; the height
of the parapet hindering tlie feeing down into it, fo that the
enemy can lodge there under covert ; and the lides are not
fufficiently flaiiKed.

For thefe reafons, tenailles are now excluded out of forti-
fications by the bell engineers, and never made, but where
there wants time to form a horn-work.

Tenaille of the Pla.e, is the front of the place, com-
prehended between the points of two neighbouring baftions ;
including the curtain, the two flanks raifed on the curtain,
and the two fides of the baftions which face one another.

So that the tenaille, in this fenfe, is the fame with what is
otherwife called \.\ieface of a fortrefs.

Tknaiixe of the Ditch, is a low work raifed before the
curtain, in the middle of tlie fofs or ditch ; the parapet of
wliich is only two or three feet higlier than the level ground
of the ravelin.

There are three different forts {PlateVll. FortiJi:ation,
Jig. 6. The firil are thofe which are made in the direftion
of the lines of defence, leaving a paffage of three toifes be-
tween their extremities and the flanks of the baflions, and
likewife another of two toifes in the middle for a bridge of
communication to the ravelin. The fecond {fg. 7.) are
thofe whofe faces are in the lines of defence, and fixteen
toifes long, befides the pafl'age of three toifes between them
and the flanks of the baftions : their flanks are found by
defcribing arcs from one fhoulder of the tenaille as a centre
through the other, on which are fet off ten toifes for the
required flanks. The third fort (fg. 8.) comprehends
thofe whofe faces are fixteen toifes, as in the fecond fort,
and the flanks parallel to thofe of the baftions.

The ufe of tenailles, in general, is to defend the bottom
of the ditch by a grazing fire, and likewife the level ground
of the ravelin, and efpecially the ditch before the redoubt
within the ravelin, which cannot be fo conveniently defended
from any other place. The firft fort do not defend the
ditch fo well as the others, becaufe they are too oblique a
defence ; but as they are not fubjeft to be enfiladed, M.
Vauban has generally preferred them in the fortifying of
places. Thole of the fecond fort defend the ditch much
better than the firft, and add a low fl.mk to thofe of the
baftions ; but as thefe flanks are hable to be enfiladed, they
liave not been much ufed. This defeft, however, might be
remedied, by making them fo as to be covered by the ex-
tremities of the parapets of the oppofite ravelins, or by iorae
other work. Thofe of the third fort have the fame advan-
tage with the fecond, and are fubjeft to the fame incon-
veniences ; and, therefore, they may be ufed with the fame
precaution.

Tenailles are efteemed fo necen"ary, that there is hardly
any place fortified without them, and it is not without rea-
fon ; for when the ditch is dry, the part behind the tenailles
ferves as a place of arms, from which the troops may fally,
deftroy the works of the enemy in the ditch, oppofe their
defcent, and retire with fafety 5 and the communication
from the body of the place to the ravelin becomes eafy and
fccure, which is a great advantage ; for by that means the
ravelin may make a much better defence, as it can be fup-
plied with troops and neceffaries at any time. And if the
ditch is wet, they ferve as harbours for boats, which may
cafry out armed men to oppofe the paffage over the ditch
whenever they pleafe ; and the communication from the
tenailles to the ravelin becomes likewife much eafier than it
would be without them. MuUcr's Elem. of Fort. p. 34.

Sec FoRTIi'iCATION.

. The ram's-horn is a curved tenaille, raifed in the fofs before

TEN

the flanks, and prefenting its convexity to the covered vrsy.
This work feems preferable to either of the otlier tenailles,
both on account of its fimplicity, and the defence for which
it 16 conftrufted.

TENAILLONS, are works conftruded on each fide
of the ravelin, much hke the lunettes : they difler, as one of
the faces of a tenaillon is in the diredion of the ravelin,
whereas that of the lunette is perpendicular to it.

Tenaillons are conftrufted by producing the faces of the
ravelin beyond the counterfcarp of the ditch, at a diftance
MN [Plate Y\\. Foillf cation, fig. <j.) of thirty toifes, and
taking on the counteifcarp of the great ditch fifteen toifes
from the re-entering angle p to q, and drawing N q ; then
q N M/i will be the tenaillon required ; its ditch is twelve
toifes, or the fame as that of the ravelin. Sometimes there
is made a retired battery, in the front of the tenaillons, as
at B : this battery is ten toifes from the front, to which it
is parallel, and fifteen toifes long. There are commonly
intrenchments made in the tenaillons, fuch as O ; their pa-
rapets are parallel to the fronts M N, or rather perpendi-
cular to the fide N q, and bifeft the fide y N ; the ditch
before this retrenchment is three toifes, and there is a ban-
quette before the parapet, next to the ditch, of about eight
feet, called term, ferving to prevent the earth of the parapet
(which feldom has any revetement) from falling into the
ditch. The ravelin, before which tenaillons are conftrufted,
muft have its faliant angle much greater than the former
conftruftion makes them ; otherwife the faliant angles of
the tenaillons become too acute ; for which reafon the capital
of this ravelin is made forty-five toifes, and the faces ter-
minate within three toifes of the fhoulders. Muller's Elem.
Fort. p. 37.

A tenaillon is a work capable of affording great defence
to the befiegers ; as at the fiege of Lifle, in 1 708, where
the befiegers were twice or thiice drove out of a tenaillon
they had taken and retaken.

TENALA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Nyland ; 8 miles N.W. of Eknas.

TENANCY, a habitation, or houfe to live in, or a tene-
ment or poffefiion held of another.

Tenancy, Entire. See Entire.

Tenancy in Tail. See TsE-Tail.

TENANT, in jlgricuhure, a perfon holding land or
other property of another, either by grant, leafe, or other-
wife. Tenants are of different kinds, according to the na-
ture of the tenures by which they hold their lands ; but, in
this laft refpeft, they properly belong to the bufinefs of the
law. Tenants hold their lands or farms for very different
lengths of time, in different diftrifts, as from one year to
twenty -one ; but in many places they have no leafes at all.
The raoft common lengths of time are feven, nine, fourteen,
nineteen, and twenty-one. Short leafes are now becoming
general, as thofe of feven, nine, and eleven years. Tenants
now moftly pay all taxes, except that on property.

The proper choice of tenants is a matter of the greateil
importance to the well-doing and continued profperity and
fuccefs of all forts of landed property, of almoll any that
can be adopted ; as where they are improperly provided,
there can hardly any thing go on in the manner which it
ought to do ; nor can there be the beft fort of management,
that the cafe will admit of, purfued. Many things will ne-
ceffarily run into complete negleft, and ruinous ftates of
them be produced as the confequence, which might have
been eafily and wholly avoided, by more attention in the firft
feleftion of the tenants.

The writer of the Middlefex Agricultural Report, after

inculcating the necelTity and utihty of tenants having good

4 and

TENANT.

a:ij properly regulated lealeb ot the lands which they hold,
remarks, that the letting of farms to tenants at will, or from
year to ycai-, is a moil inuvife praflice, and one which liiould
by all means be avoided by the proprietors of landed ellates ;
us fuch tenants, he contends, from the very nature of their
tenures, are precluded from the poffibility of making any
improvements ; while they have it in their power to rum the
lands they occupy and hold. Rapacious landlords, undcilful
Itewards, and yearly tenancy, it is continued, deftroy the
holders' or tenants' confidence, fmother tlieii- thoughts of
improvements, and, in fhort, make bad tenants, by fetting
them to contrive fome mode of occupying the lands, fo as to
be able to quit them, on receiving half a year's notice, with
the lead poilible lofs to themfelves ; and which can only be
done, by keeping the foil continually in a poor (late, to the
evident great lofTes of the proprietors, the no lefs ones of the
tenants, and the ftill more difadvantages of the community
in general. See Lease, Letting of Farms, and Quali-
fications of Tenants.

The writer of the work on " Landed Property" has re-
marked that, on all large eltates, there are certain cftablillied
cuftoms and ufages to which the proprietors, as well as the
tenants or occupiers, confider themfelves mutually amenable,
although no legal contraiSs may fubfift between them ; and
that, even where imperfeft leafes, or other legal agreements,
cxift, there is ftill, in general, much left for cuftom and
ufage to determine. Thefe fixed regulations, though they
may be imperfeft, it is contended, fhould be ftriftly re-
garded by fuperintendents, until better ones arc fubftituted
in their place, not only for the fake of moral juftice, but as
fetting an example of integrity and good faith to the tenants.
Nothing of this fort fhould ever be broken through by thofe
in the management of fuch properties ; as tenants on all fucli
are conftantly to be met with ready enough to break their
llipulated agreements, without lucli examples ; and it muft
be extreme folly to induce the others who are well difpofed
to do the fame. On the contrai-y, it is but common pru-
deuce to fulfil every covenant, agreement, and promife,
which may have been made, with the moil fcrupulous exaft-
nefs, even to the meaneft cottager, in order to infpire proper
confidence, and obviate much mifchief.

And befides fetting examples of thefe kinds before the
tenants, they ought, it is fuppofed, to be hberalized in their
minds, by good offices, and afts of kindnefs, which may be
beneficial in various ways. A Ipirited improving tenant
Ihould be refufed few reafonable demands : he fhould have
advantages conferred on him, not merely as rewards for his
labours in benefiting the lands, but as inducing other tenants
to purfue fimilar plans, and to fhew that good managers are
noticed and diftinguiflied.

The confequences of an inattention to thefe matters,
which is too common in moft parts of the country, are very
prejudicial ; as the refufing of requefts which would equally
benefit the ellate and the tenant, the flupidly thwarting of the
well-meant intentions of the beil tenants upon it, the igno-
rantly quarrelling with them about mere trifles, and the
making no fort of difference between thofe who are improv-
ing and thofe who are ruining it, or perhaps the encouraging
the latter, and oppofing the former, muft have effefts of the
worft kind, there can be no doubt. Such tenants as are
capable of improving, are alfo capable of impoverifhing ; and
when difgufted by improper treatment, will be fure to harafs
the lands they hold, and take the firft chance they have of
removing to farms under more rational management, to the
great inconvenience and difadvantage of thofe which they
held before.

It is obferved in the Agricultural Survey of Gloucefter-

fliirc, that the leafes of rack-renters there genu ally coni-
mencc at Lady-day ; and, in this cafe, i* the vale, the
going-off ten.^n holds a part of the grafs-lands to olii May-
day, and has llkewife the going -oft' crop of wheat, with the
ule of the barns for the purpoie of houfing and threOiing it,
till the Midlummer following. In this ufage there is, the
writer thinks, gjeat inconvenience, cfpecially where the new
tenant is at variance with the old one, which is not uncom-
monly the cafe. Each has an opportunity of diftrefling
and incommoding the other in various ways. The improved
fpirit of agriculture has difcovered, both to landlord and
tenant, the abfurdity of tliis ancient cuHom ; and it is gra-
dually falling into difufe. Where an improvement has taken
place, the coming-on tenant enters the preceding Michael-
mas to plough the land for fpring-crops ; the tenant going
off at I-aJy-day ploughs for the wheat-crop, and often lows
it. In the cafe of ploughing only, the work is paid for;
and when lowed, the crop is valued at Lady-day, and paid
by the coming-on tenant. The going-off tenant is alfo fre-
quently paid for his feeds left after the laft year's crop.
Under this praAice, the new tenant enters on the whole of
tile eftate at Lady-day. And it is added, that Michaelmas
takings are not uncommon ; though, in one refpeft, they
are particularly inconvenient, as the old tenant has no time
to fpend the crops of the preceding fummer on the premifes,
and the new tenant is either obliged to fell his ftock at a moil
unfavourable time, or purchafe fodder for the fupport of it
at his new farm ; a circumftance he cannot always command,
and, when he can, at great lofs. But tliere are other takings
which commence at Candlemas, which have fome incon-
veniences, particularly that of enabling the new tenant to
" hain up" his paftures early, which is a matter of confider-
able confequence ; for the old tenant, going off at Lady-
day, always ftocks as far as he can tiU the laft moment,
thereby leaving the ground as bare as poftible. Nor is the
mifchief of this late hain'wg always compenfated by the ma-
nure left from the cattle, efpecially if the feafon has been
wet, and the ground tender. Two years' care will fome-
times fcarcely recover the land to a good and even turf, after
having been much trodden or poached.

But with refpeft to agreements between landlord and
tenants, it has been fuggefted by fome, that for fmall farms,
leafes are lefs neceffary ; but a large one cannot well be let
without a leafe. Upon a fmall farm, whofe land is good,
a man's improvements foon come round ; and if the tenant or
landlord difagree, either of them is eafily accommodated ;
but upon a large farm it is quite otherwife. It would not
be worth a man's while to fix himfelf upon a large fcalc for
a year or two ; and it would be attended with great expence
and lofs, to move from any great diftance, with large quan-
tities of ftock, for a (hort time. Befides, the plans of im-
provements upon a large farm are more ej^tcnfive ; and it is
longer before the money laid out in them is returned, efpe-
cially upon poor land. But undoubtedly the tenant, upon
either a fmall or a large farm, ought to have a fecurity for
his property ; and there fhould be an agreement to allow him
a proportionate rccompence for every improvement by which
he has raifed tiie land in its value, as by giving it more ma-
nure than could be made from the produce of the farm.
When the manure produced upon tlie farm is the property
of the farmer, and, by the terms of his leafe, he is obliged
to fell it to the coming tenant at a fair valuation, he often
endeavours to make more manure the lall year than any
other, and by that means benefits the eftate ; but if, on the
contrary, he is not paid any thing for it, he will perhaps do
every thing in his power to prevent any future improvement
upon the wrm, as, on fome account or another, he may fancy

himfelf

TEN

himlVlf ill ufeil upon leaving it. For all ulMcr-diainii.g
properlv done* and for new buildings that were neceilary
for the Varm, tlie tenant ought to be allowed a reward pro-
portionate to the number of years lefs t!ian twenty he may
have had the uk of them. He fhould likewife receive an
allowance for quick fences, and tlic planting of orchards, or
of aquatics and other ufeful trees in proper places, on pro-
d-jcing fair bills, with receipts to them, of tlie expences ;
provided he leaves the cllatc without committing any wilful
wade. The landlord who enters into inch a covenant with
hi^ tenant, may reafonably espeft to have his farm delivered
back to him upon terms equally fair. If the tenant has
committed any wafte, he fhould be obliged to make good
all dima^es. Now fuch mutuiJ conditions would do away
many abfurd rcftriftions that are at prefent laid upon the
tenant ; as it would then be his intereil not to injure the
farm, hecaufe he mufl: pay for all damages wantonly done ;
and the landlord would have no reafon to check the farmer's
experiments and improvements, which would be a great en-
couragement to both ingenuity and induftry : for gentle-
ir!"n's agents are very apt, from too anxious care of the
eftates, to reftrift tenants in fuch a manner, that they are
little better than a mill-horfe, who can go over only a par-
ticular circle of ground. It has been known that an agree-
ment was made to lay a certain quantity of lime on land,
■where, if the land had been the writer's, he would have
given more money than the lime cod, that it might not be
laid on.

And fometimes, befides many other injurious modes of
culture, which the ignorance or whim of the Reward obliges
the farmer to follow, he is tied down to plough and fow
crops of corn only four years in fix, and no turnips or clover.
But the reftrifling a man from ploughing up grafs-land with-
out leave, is certainly, it is thought, proper, till the land-
lord fees what his new tenant makes of the land he does
plough ; but if he ie indullrious, and tills well, the writer
would fuffer him to plough every inch he chofe : as, on
good arable land, it will certainly make in future a difference
of from one pound to three pounds an acre in rent to the
landlord. The nature and fituation of the farm are, however,
to be well confidered before this is done.

Alfo where the duration of the term is tv/enty-one years,
it would, it is fuppofed, be very proper that, three years
before the leale expires, he (hould be reftrifted in the rota-
lion of his crops, fo as to leave the farm in a proper ftate to
be profitable to the coming tenant. This would likewife
give time for the tenant to fix himfelf elfewhere, if the land-
lord and he do not agree again, as well as for the landlord
to make proper choice of a new tenant.

It is very common for tenants to live in a very poor way,
and obtain little profit, from the want of introducing a pro-
per fyftem of hufbandry upon their farms, as it is only this
that can afford a fuU profit ; therefore, the befl methods of
management his circumllances will afford fliould always be
purfued.

There is a great variety of regulations and rcftriftions
in regard to tenants, in refpeft to the times and manner of
entenng upon their farms, the extent and methods of break-
ing up and cropping the lands, the various improvements in
draining, manuring, Sec. the making of fences, the felling
of hay and ftraw, the difpofing of the live-ftock at the end
of leafes, the occupying of buildings by new tenants, the
felling of timber for repairs, and a vafl number of other
matter;,, many of which are owing to the pai'ticular fitua-
tion* and circumftances of the lands that are to be holden
by the tenants.

Tekant, or Tenent, Teruns, in Lam, one that holds or

T E N

pofTcffes lande and tenement? of foine lord or landlord, by
any kind of right, either in fee, for life, yeai-i, or at will.

The term tenant is ufcd with divers additions. Thus,
tenant in dower, is flic that poffefies lands by virtue of her
dower.

Tenant per Statute-Merchant, he that holds lands forfeited
to him by virtue of a ftatute. See St ATVTE-Merchant.

Tenant in Frani -Marriage, ir, he that holds lands or tene-
ments by virtue of a gift of them, made to him upon mar-
riage, between him and his wife. See YRAi^K-Marriage.

Tenant by Courtcfy holds for his life, by reafon of a cliild
bagotten by him of his wife, being an inheritrix, and born
alive. See Courtesy.

Tenant By Elegit holds by virtue of the writ called an elegit.
Tenant in Mortgage holds by means of a mortgage.
Tenant by Verge, in a;icient demefne, is he who is ad-
mitted by the rod in court to lands in ancient demefue. See
Verge.

Tenant by Copy of Court-Roll, is one admitted tenaiil. of
any lands, &c. within a manor, which, time ovt of mind,
have been demifed according to the cuftom of the manor.
See Copyhold.

Tenant Para-uail. See Paravail.

Tenant by Charter is he that holdeth by feoffment in writ-
ing, or other deed. See Charter, and Freehold.

Tenant in Capiti, or Chief, holdeth of the king in right of
his crown. See Capite.

Tenant of the King is he that holdeth of the perfon of the
king.

Tenants, Joint, thofe who have equal right in lands or
tenements, by virtue of one title. See Joint Tenants.

Tenants in Common, thofe who have equal right, but
hold by divers titles.

Tenant, Particular, he that holds only for his term.
Tenant, Sole, is he who has no other joined with him.
Tenant hy E.vecution, is he w'.io holds by virtue of an
execution upon any ftatute, recognizance, &c.
Tenants, Cujlomary. See Customary.
Tenant, Terre. See TEURE-Tenani.
Tenant, Fery. See Very.

Anciently, there were alfo tenant by knigki-fervicc, tenant
ir. burgage, tenant in focage, tenant in frank-fee, tenant in vsl-
ler.age. And there are ftill tenant in fee-Jimpk, tenant in fee-
tail, tenant upon fuffer ance, &c.

Tenant in Tail after Pojftbillty of IJfite extinff. See
Tail.

Tenant to the Praecipe, in Latu, is he againft v.'hom the
writ of praecipe is to be brought in fuing out a recovery.

Tenant, or Tcnan, in Heraldry, is ufed for fomething
that fuftains, or holds up, the fhield, or armoury ; and is
generally fynonimoiis with the worA fupporter.

The difference which fome authors make between the
two is, that tenants are tingle, and fupportcrs double, one
placed on each fide of the fhield. But the proper dillinftion
feems to confift in this, that tenants are human figures, and
fupporters figures of beafts.

There are various forms of tenants, as well as of fup-
porters, -oiz. angels, maids, religious, favages. Moors, &c.
The firft tenants, F. Meneftrier obferues, were trunks,
or branches of trees ; to which the efcutcheons were fattened
by ftraps and buckles. Afterwards the knights were repre-
fented as holding their own efcutcheons, which were either
hung to their neck, or elfe they leaned on them.

The origin of tenants and fupporters is, by many, re-
ferred to the ancient tournaments, in which the cavahers
had their arms borne by fervants difguifed like favages,
Moors, fabulous deities, bears, lions, &c. See Sufpobter.

TENA-

r E N

TEN

TEN A R I UM, in yinaenl Gto^ra/'h. See T.ts- arium.

TENARUS, or T.i;NARUs, a mountain of the Pelo-
ponnefiis, in Laconia.

TENASSERIM, in Geography. See Siam.

TENATARI, in Aucient Geography, a people wlio in-
habited tliat \i:cn of Germany which correfponds to the
prefent bifliopric of Miinllcr.

TENBURY, in Geography, a market-town in tlio upper
divifion of the hundred of Doddington, and county of Wor-
cefter, England, is fituated on the wedern border of the
coyr.ty, feparated from Shroplliire by the river I'eme, at
the dillance ol" 21 miles N.W. by W. from Worcefter, and
134 miles in the fame bearing from London. The manor
of Tenbury, at, or foon after the Conqueft, was held by
Robert Fit'/.-Richai-d, who was lord of Richard's caftle ;
his heir afTumed the name of Say, in confequence of a
marriage with the heirefs of tliat family : the property
paft, by a fucceiTiou of heirefTes, through various families,
to the Cornwalls, whofc defcendants are lllU the lords of it.
The town is not very extenfive, and Handing low, is often
fubjeft to floods from the rapid river Teme. A remarkable
inftance occurred Nov. 17, 1770, when a great part of the
church, with its organ and monuments, were deftroyed.
The parifh of Tenbury Is three miles and a half in length,
by three and a quarter in breadth ; and in the year 18 1 1
contained 308 houfes, and 1562 inhabitants. In tlie chancel
of the church is a curious monument, reprefentlng a child
in armour, laid in a crofs-leggcd pofition. Gough, in his
Sepulchral Monuments, mentions this figure, and attributes
it to the fon of " John Sturmy, the cruiader, who followed
liis father to the holy wars when under age."

Over the river, at the north end of the town, is a hand-
fome ftone bridge of fix arches. A market is held here on
Tuefdays, and there are three annual fairs. Great quan-
tities of hops and apples are cultivated in the vicinity of the
town, and confequently much cyder is made here. The
Leominfter canal, coming near the town, affords ready
communication for goods, cyder, &c. to diftant places.

About one mile and a half S.E. of Tenbury is Sutton-
park, in the chapel of which are fome old monuments of the
Arundel family. Near this place is Kyre-Wyre, diftin-
guiihed for its " tall and mighty oaks," and for a neat man-
lion belonging to the Pytts family. — Nafh's Hiftory, S:c.
of Worcefterfhire, 2 vols, folio. Beauties of England and
Wales ; Worceflerfliire.

TENBY, a market afid borough town in the hundred of
Narbeth, and county of Pembroke, South Wales, is fituated
on the fhoreof Caermarthen bay, 10 miles E. from Pembroke,
and 250 miles W. from London. It occupies a rocky
promontory of confiderable elevation, ftretching over the
lands in a foutherly direction, and at high water is nearly
inclofed by the fea. Here is a fmall but commodious har-
bour, (Viirted on the land-fide by a bold amphitheatre of
rocks and houfes. Leland fays, " Tinbigh town fl;ondith
on a main rokke, but not veri hi, and the Severn Sc fo gulf-
cth in about hit, that at the ful fe almoft the thirde part of
the town is inclofid with water. The tounc ;s ftrongeU
waullid and welle gatid, everi gate having his portcolis ex
lolido ferro. But that gate that ledith to Cairmarden ward
is moft femeliefl, as circulid without with an embatelid but
open rofid towr, after the fafcion of the eaft gate of Pem-
broke. Witliout this gate is a prcti fuburbe. In the
middes of the town is a faire paroche chirch. The toun
Itfelf lakkith frelch water, v/herfore utuntur importata."
And again, " Ther is a finus and a peere made for fhyppes.
The towne is very welthe by marchaundyce ; but yt is not
very bygge, having but one paroche chyrche. One thing is

to be marvtled at. There is no woUo yn the lownr, as yt m
faide, whcrby they be forced to fcch thcyr water at S. John's
without thotownc." The wall, which once iurroundtd the
town, is yet in fome places nearly entire. The principal
improvement of ihefe walls is afcribed to queen Elizabeth,
in whofc time Tenby was a flouridiing place. The ftrcets
are now in general good, though, on account of the nature
of the ground, in fome inllances inconveniently narrow and
fteep. They contain a large proportion of very refpeftabic
houfes, occupied by fubltaiitial tradefmen and merchants, or
by pcrfons of iiuKpendeut fortunes. The want of water
was an inconvenieucc under which the town long laboured :
but by the recommendation and exertions of fir Willian-i
P;'.xton, the town is now furnifhed, at a trifling charge, witl'
an cxhaufllefs fupply of this necefiary article. Tenby i?
one of the contributory boroughs joined with Pembroke ii;
the return of a reprefentative to parliament. The corpo.a-
tlon confills of a mayor, aldermen, and common-councilmei;,
a chamberlain, town-clerk, two (heriffs or bailiffs, two fer-
geants at mace, and twelve conftables. The town is divided
into two diftrifts, which are denominated the In-libcrties,
and the Out-liberties. The former divifion is fubjedt to the
jurifdiftion of the magiftrates of the borough ; the latter
to that of the county magiftrates. The prefent extent of
the town is not confiderable, the number of houfes being
eftlmatcd, in the year i8ti, at 265, and tiie population at
1 176. It is apparent, however, from the number of ruinated
buildings and foundations to be feen in the outikirts, that
formerly it muft have fpread over a larger fpace than it now
occupies, and contained a much more numerous population.
Two weekly markets are held on Wednefday and Saturday,
and five fairs annually. Tenby feems to have derived its
earlleft importance from its fiflieries. But when the country
fell under the power of the Anglo-Norman invaders, and
this diftrift became inhabited by the Flemifh fettlcrs, its
local advantages for commercial objefts of greater confe-
quence were feen and appreciated. The harbour was im-
proved for the convenience of fliipping, and the population
of the town and its vicinity was engaged in a woollen manu-
factory on an extenfive fcale. The commercial fpirit thus
awakened, procured for the inhabitants numerous privi-
leges and charters from their lords, and from fucceflive
monai'chs. The importance of Tenby, however, hai; funk
far below its former rank : its manufaftorics have difap-
peared, and its chief trade at prefent is created by the coal
raifed in its neighbourhood, which is here [hipped off for
other parts of the coaft, and for the Englifli marked. The
confequence which the town has loft in this relpeft feems
likely to be compenfated by its rapidly advancing reputation
as a bathing-place. It pofretFcs many natural attraftions
for vlfitors ; and peculiar advantages in point of convenience
have been recently provided. Among tliefe, the foremoft
rank muft be afiigiied to the baths lately erefted by fir
Wilham Paxton ; in which all accommodations for health
and pleafure are combined. The church of Tenby is
fituated in the middle of the town ; it is a fpacious edifice,
comprlfing a nave and two fide aifies : at the weft end is a
large fquare tower, furmounted by a lofty fpire. The
monaftic eftablilbmcnts of Tenby were an hofpital, or free
chapel of St. John tiic Baptilt, a convent of Carmelite
friars, founded in 1399, and called St. Man,''s college, and
an hofpital or lazar-houfe, dedicated to St. Mary Magdalen.
Here was an ancient caftle, of which there are yet confider-
able remains, though moftly in a very dilapidated ftate.
The only portions nov/ ftanding that indicate its former
ftrength are a baftion and fquare tov/er : the reft of the
buildincfs ex.hibit the air of a Trlcndid manficn rctber than

^ of

TEN

of a military fortrefs. The fituation of this caftle was
admirably formed for dofc-nce : it occupied the extrenrc
point of the promontory, and was fccured by maccel ibk
rocks on every fide, except that facing the town, which
was ftrengthened by bold fortifications.

On the coaft at Tenby are fome iniulatcd rocks of romantic
appearance, which exhibit curious excavations. Some ot
them are acceflible o;i foot at low water : this is the calc
with the ifland of St. Catherine, off the Callle Point, which
in one dircftion lias been perforated quite througli by tlic
repeated aaion of the tides. The principal ot thele iflands
is Caldey, fituated about two miles from the main land. It
is about a mile in length, and half a mile wide, and is e<^i-
mated to comprife about fix hundred acres of fuiface, ot
which nearly a third is in cultivation. Here was a priory,
founded, as is fuppofed, by Robert, the fon of Martin de
Turribus. The tower of the priory church, furmounted
by a (lone fpire, is yet Handing, and many of the conven-
tual buildings have been converted into offices, and attached
to a handfome modern edifice.

Near the coaft, to the eaftward of Tenby, are feveral
refpedlable gentlemen's refldences, fome of them of ancient
date. Among thefe are Cilgetty, formerly inhabited by the
Canon family ; Hen-Gaftell, (the old caftle,) the property
of Thomas Stokes, efq. ; Merrixton, the feat of Charles
Swan, efq. ; Bonville Court, an ancient manfion of the
Bonvilles ; and Eare Wear, now called Amroth Caftle,
the refidence of captain Ackland ; and on the road from
Narbeth is Begelty Hall, the feat of James Child, efq. —
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xviii. Pembrokefhire,
by T. Rees. Hiftorical Tour througli Pcmbi-okefhire, 4to.
1810, by R. Fenton, efq. Account of Tenby, illuftrated
with etchings, 4to. 1812, by Charles Norris, efq.

TENCE, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Loire ; 12 miles S.E. of Moniftrol.

TENCH, in Ichthyology, the Englifti name of the tinea of
the modern authors, the fullo and gnapheus of the ancients.

It is, according to the Artedian and Linnaean fyftem, a
fpecies of the cyprinus, and is diftinguifhed by Artedi by
the name of the blackifti, mucous, or flimy cyprinus (which
fee), \vith the end of the tail even. See Tench Fishing.

Tench's Ifland, in Geography, an ifland in the Pacific
ocean, fo called by Lieut. Ball, commander of the Supply,
returning from Norfolk ifland to England in the year 1 790.
The ifland cannot be more than two miles in circumference :
it is low, but entirely covered with trees, many of which are
the cocoa-nut ; there were likewife others of a large fize.
Thefe trees reached to the margin of a very fine fandy beach,
which entirely furrounds the ifland. A great number of
canoes were lying on the beach ; and, it is fuppofed, there
cannot be lefs than a thoufand inhabitants on the ifland.
The natives who wre in the canoes were ftout and healthy-
looking men ; their fkin was perfeftly fmooth, and free from
any dilorder : they were quite naked, and of a copper colour ;
their hair refembled that of the New Hollanders. Some of
their beards reached as low as the navel, and there was an
appearance of much art being ufed in forming them into
long ringlets : fo that it fliould feem as if the prevailing
fafliion on this ifland was that of keeping the beard well
combed, curled, and oiled. Two or three of the men had
fomething like a bead or bone fufpended to a ftring, which was
faftcned round the neck. S.lati l°39'. E. long. 150° 31'.

TENCOA, a town of Mexico, in the province of Hon-
duras; no miles W. of Comayagua. N. lat. 14." 48'.
W. long. 90" 22'.

TENCZA, a town of Auftrijn Poland ; 13 miles W.
of Cracow.

T E N

TEND, in our OIJ Wrilcn, feems to fignify as much as
tender, or offer ; as to tend or traverfe an averinent, ice.

TEND A, in Geography, a tov.-n of Africa, or rather
feveral towns clofe together, the capital of a country of the
fame name, on the right bank of the Gambia, fituated to the
fouth-weft of Bondou, and fouth-eaft of Woolly. N. lat.
13° 2'. W. long. 1 1° 55'. — Alio, a town of France, in the
department of the Maritime Alps ; late capital of a county
to which it gave name, annexed to Piedmont, fituated at the
union of the Roia and Brogna. It has only one parifti
church, wliich is a beautiful ftrufture, a caftle walled round
and flanked with towers, on a rock, which commands the en-
virons of the town. In the 1 6th century, it came to the duke
of Savoy. The foil is not fertile, being on all fides fur-
rounded by the Alps ; it yields, however, good pafturage
and timber ; the rivers alfo furnifh the inhabitants with ex-
cellent trout ; 22 miles N.E. of Nice.

TENDE, Col de, the moft remarkable paflage througli
the Maritime Alps. See Alps.

TENDEBA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia
Minor, in Caria.

TENDEBAR, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Kaen. N. lat. 13*^ 15'. W. long. 15' 57'.

TENDER, in a legal fenfe, fignifies as much as to offer,
or endeavour, the performance of any thing, in order to fave
the penalty, or forfeiture, incurred by non-performance.

Thus, to tender rent, is to offer it at the time and place
when and where it ought to have been paid ; which will
fave the condition of that time, though the landlord refufe
to accept it.

Tender, in Sea Language, is a veffel attending on fome
other larger and more confiderable one. It is employed in the
king's fervice on various occafions ; as to receive volun-
teers and impreffed men, and to convey them to a diftant
place ; to attend on fliips of war or fquadrons ; and to carry
intelligence or orders from one place to another, &c.

Tender Plants, in Gardening and Agriculture, all fuch as
are too dehcate and tender in their nature and habits to
ftand, or be raifed, grown, or produced in the climate of
this country, without artificial proteftion or alTiftance, until
they have been fufficiently inured to, and hardened, and habi-
tuated againft the effedls of it. It has indeed been obfervtd
by fir Jofeph Banks, in a paper containing fome hints con-
cerning the proper mode of inuring plants of this kind to this
climate, inferted in the firft volume of the " Tranfaftions of
the Horticultural Society" of London, that, refpeftable and
ufeful as every branch of the horticultural art certainly is, no
one is more interefting to the pubhc, or more hkely to prove
advantageous to thofe who may be fo fortunate as to fucceed
in it, than that of inuring plants, natives of warmer chmates,
to bear, without covering, the ungenial fprings, the chilly
fummers, and the rigorous winters, by which, efpecially for
fome years paft, we have been perpetually vifited. Many
attempts have, it is faid, been made in this line, and feveral
valuable flirubs, that ufed to be kept in our ftoves, are now
to be feen in the open gardens ; there is, however, fome rea-
fon, it is thought, to believe, that every one of ihcie was
originally the native of a cold chmate, though introduced to
us through the medium of a warm one ; as the gold-tree,
aucuba japonica, the montan, psonia frutefcens, and feveral
others, have been in our times.

In the cafe of annuals, however, it is thought probable that
much has been done by our anceftors, and fomething by
the prefent generation ; but it mufl be remembered, it is
faid, that all that is required in the cafe of an annual, is to
enable it to ripen its fruit in a comparatively cold [ummer,
after which, we know that the hardeft frofl has no power to

injnrc

TEN

injure tlic iced, though ex])ol'cd in the open air to its fevered
influenco ; but a perennial lias to encounter frofts with its
buds and annual (hoots, that have fometimes h&in i'o fevere
with us, as to rend afunder the trunks of our indigenous
forell -trees, as ftatcd by Miller.

It is fuggefted as probable, tliat wheat, our principal
food corn at prcfent, did not bring its feed to perfeftion
in this climate, until hardened to it by repeated fowings. A
few years ago, fome fpring-wheat from Gu/erat was, it is
faid, fown with barley in a fmall cultivated field : it rofe,
eared, and blofibmed, with a healthy appearance, but many
ears were, when ripe, wholly without corn, and few brought
more than three or four grains to perfeftioii.

In the year 1791, fome feeds of zizaniaaquatica were, it is
faid, procured from Canada, and fown in a pond at Spring-
Grove, near Hounfiow ; they grew, and produced itrong
plants, which ripened their feeds ; and thofe feeds vege-
tated in the fucceeding fpring, but the plants they produced
were weak, /lender, not half fo tall as thofe of the firft genera-
tion, and grew in the fhalloweft water only ; but the feeds
of thefe plants produced others the next year fenfibly ftronger
than their parents of the fecond year. In this manner the

plants proceeded, fpringing up every year from the feeds of during which this valuable root has been a fubjedt of culti-
the preceding one, every year becoming vifibly ftronger and vation. It is certain that this imperfedt naturalization has
larger, and rifmg from deeper parts of the pond, until the been the refult of the common pratlite of propagating by
year 1804, when feveral of the plants were, it is faid, fix the tubers, to the almoft total negleft of the feeds. It ts
feet in height, and the whole pond was in every part true that feeds have been occalionally fown, and new varie-
covered with them, as thick as wheat grows on a well- ties thus produced ; but the experiment has ftopped in the
managed field. firfl ftage, having been always undertaken for the mere pur-

Here, it is thought, we have an experiment which proves pofe of producing thefe varieties, without any regard to that
that an annual plant, fcarcely able to endure the ungenial much more important objcti, the produdlion of a plant fuf-
fummer of this country, has become, in fourteen genera- ficiently hardy to bear at leaft the fu-ft frofts of winter. In
tions, as ftrong and as vigorous as our indigenous plants are, the fouthern parts of our ifland, it is not a defideratum of
and as perfeft in all its parts as in its native climate and much importance, it is faid, as the tubers are in general fully
fituation. formed before the plant is killed by the froft ; but in

It is fuggefted too in the above paper, that the fettle- the northern parts it is an objeft of great confequence, tlie
mcnt lately made at New Holland gives a large fcope for plant being frequently killed long before the roots have at

TEN

It is ftated farther, that an economical objeft which de-
pends on this property of plants remains yet to be nuticcd.
Tliis, wiiich is ftill more in our power, is probably of more
confequence tliaii either of thofe mentioned above ; what is
meant is the pcrftft naturalization of the vine. It is well
known, that from many of tiie ordinary varieties cultivated
in this country, we can always infure a crop of grapes, but
not always a crop of ripe ones. From two or three of
thefe, the chance of ripening out of doors is coiifidtr.ibic ;
from many others, it is hopekfs. It is not improbable, that
by fucceffive lowings of feeds, other varieties might be pro-
duced, ftill more certain of ripening than thofe which fuc-
ceed beft witli us, viz. the miller and the fweetwater. Wc
fhould thus acquire pofleflion of an article of cultivation of
great importance, by which a ufeful aildition would be made
to the agricultural proceeds of land in particular fituations,
and by which we fhould be enabled to fabricate wines of a
quality fufficiently good to compete with thofe of foreign
growth.

A ftill more important objeft is, it is thought, the per-
feft naturahzation of the potatoe, an effciS as yet but
very partially obtained, notwithftanding the length of time

experiments of this kind : many plants have been brought
from thence which endure our climate with very little pro-
teftion, and fome of thefe arrive at puberty at an early pe-
riod : we have already three, it is faid, from the fouth
point of Van Diemen's ifland, where the climate cannot be
wholly without froft ; mimofa verticillata, encalyptus hirfuta
and obliqua.

In contributing ftill further to the elucidation and accom-
plifhment of this new, very ufeful, and important objeft of
the above arts, the account which has been given by Dr.
Maccullock, of fome delicate plants which are cultivated
in the open air in the illand of Guernfev, with the hints on
the means of naturalizing tender exotics, inferted in the
firft volume of the " Memoirs of the Caledonian Horti-
cultural Society," may alfo be found higlily uLful and
interefting.

It is certain, it is conceived, that neither the thermometric
ftate of a given country, nor any meteorological condition
which we have yet been able to obferve, is competent to
eitfplain the peculiar affeftion of plants for particular regions
of the earth. The obfervations of M. Ramond, in the
" Annales du Mufeum," which have been tranllated by
Mr. Sahfbury, fliew this, it is faid, in a ftriking point of
view. From thefe we fee the perfevering regularity with
which certain plants affeft peculiar elevations, apparently
unconnefted with the nature of the foil, but bearing a rela-
tion alone to particular ftates of the atmofphere, u hich we
have no means of appreciating. Similar fafts are familiar to
botanifts in our own country, in the very limited zones of
elevation affefted by our alpine plants.
Vol.. XXXV.

tained maturity. In the Highlands of Scotland, in particu-
lar, where a froft will frequently occur early in September,
the crop is often prematurely deftroyed, and the ufes of this
vegetable are in confequence materially Hmited. It is plain,
that it would be neceffary to fow the feeds of fucceffive
generations many times before the requifite degree of hardi-
nefs could be expefted, and that the procefs would demand
both patience and time. Yet if it fhould require more of
thefe than we can expe£l from the ordinary cultivator, it is
an experiment which we may at leaft recommend to thofe
public bodies, which fo laudably exert themfelves in amelior-
ating the agriculture and horticulture of this country. The
difficulty of procuring feeds from feedling plants, could
doubtlefs, it is thought, be obviated, in fome meafure, by
depriving the young plant of its tubers, and thus compel-
ling it to dirett its energies to the other and more common
mode of propagation, with which nature has provided ajl
plants.

The writer cannot, however, conclude the fuggeftions
in refpeft to this objeft or fpeculation, without noticing a
formidable objeftion which ftands in the way of our attempts
to naturalize particular plants. In every cafe where the
ufeful varieties have been the refult of cultivation in a warmer
climate from a bafe and ufelefs parent, it is to be feared, it
is faid, that the procefs followed in naturalization, would
again throw the plant back to its original ftate. This ob-
jeftion apphes, it is fuppofed, chiefly to thofe fruits, fuch a«
the peach, the apple, and the grape, which, in their prcfent
cultivated ftate, arc almoft entirely tlie produce of art. For
this reafon, it is not improbable, that all attempts to nalural-

U u izc

TEN

\ze the grape to a cold climate may fail ; yet the trial de-
fen-es, it is faid, to be made. The cafe does not apply
equally to tht- potatoe. The original plant appears to be
Taluable, independent of any artificial charader, and would
confequently admit of a change, tending even to fome de-
gree of deterioration, before it was materially injured m its
properties.

TENDERING, a name given to the foft tops of deer's
horns, when they begin to (hoot forth.

TENDING, in Sea Language, denotes the movement by
which a fhip turns or fwings round her anchor in a tide-
way at the beginning of the flood or ebb. Thus, if the
flood fets northerly, it is evident that the fhip, unlefs when
moored head and ftern, will fall into the line of the current,
turning her head to the fouthward, and vice verfd. 1 his
tranfition from one fituation to the other is called tending or
fwinging. Falconer.

TENDINOSUM Centrum. See Centrum.

TENDON, Tendo, in Jnalomy, the hard, infenfible
cords, by means of which mufcular fibres are attached to
bones. See Muscle, after the defcription of the mufcular
fyftem of animal life ; and Fibrous Sv/km.

Tendo ytd'i/lis, the powerful tendon belonging to the
mufclis of the calf of the leg, placed jull above the heel ; fo
named in allufion to the fable, in which Thetis is faid to
have held her fon, Achilles, by this part, when flie dipped him
in the Styx. See Gastrocnemius.

Tendon of ylchilles, Ruptured. When the tendo Achillis
is unfortunately cut, or ruptured, as it may be in con-
fequence of a violent exertion, or fpafm of the mufcles,
of which it is a continuation, the ufe of the leg is imme-
diately loft ; and unlefs the part be afterwards luccefsfully
united, die patient muft remain a cripple for life.

The ancient furgeons feem not to have been well ac-
quainted with the rupture of the tendo Achillis, which they
probably might miftake for a fprain, or fome other com-
plaint. In cafes in which this part had been cut, they re-
commended approximating the feparated portions, and
maintaining them in contaft by means of a future.

When the ruptured tendo Achillis was afterwards better
undcrftood, the plan which we have juft now mentioned was
ftill continued, the integuments being divided for the purpofe
of bringing the tendon into view. But that fuch a painful
mode is altogether ufelefs and wrong, it is fcarcely neceflary
for us at the prefent day to obferve.

The fuperficial fituation of the tendo Achillis always
make? the nature of the accident eafy of difcovery, and it is
only when there is a confiderable degree of fwelling (which
is very rare), that the cafe can be at all difficult to under-
fland. When the tendon has been cut through, which is not
an ordinary thing, the divifion of the (liin brings the ends of
the finew into view. When the tendon has been ruptured,
the patient hears a found, like that of the fmack of a whip,
at the moment of the occurrence. In wliatfoever way the
part has been divided, there is a fudden incapacity, or, at
leaft, an extreme difficulty of ftanding and walking. Hence
the patient falls down, and cannot get up again. Befides
thefe fymptoms, there is a very palpable depreffion between
the ends of the tendon, which depreffion is increafed when
the foot is bent, and diminirtied, or even quite removed,
when the foot is extended. The patient can fpontaneoufly
bend his foot, none of the flexor mufcles being interefted.
The power of extending the foot is ftill poffible, as the
peronei mufcles, the tibialis pofticus, and long flexors, re-
main perfcft, and may perform this motion. CEuvre^ Chi-
rurgicales de Default par Bichat, tom. i.

The indications aie to bring the ends of the divided part

T E N

together, and to keep them fo, until they have become fimily
united. The firft objeft is eafily fulfilled by putting the
foot in a Hate of complete exteiifion ; the fecond, namely,
that of keeping the ends of the tendon in contadl, is more
difficult.

In order to have a right comprehenfion of the indications,
we ffiould confider what keeps the ends of the tendon from
being in contact. The flexion of the foot has this effeifl on
the lower portion ; the contraftion of the gaftrocnemius
and foleus on the upper one. The indications then are to
put tiie foot in an unalterable ftate of extenfion, and to
counteraft the aftion of the above mufcles.

The aftion of the mufcles may be oppofed : i. By keep-
ing thefe powers in a continual ftate of relaxation. For this
purpofe, the leg mull be kept half bent upon the thigh.
2. By applying methodical prefl'ure to the mufcles ; me-
thodical, becaule it is to operate on the fleffiy portion of the
mufcles, and not on the tendon, the ends of which being de-
prefled by it, would be feparated from each other, and,
inl^ead of growing together, would unite to the adjacent
parts. The preffiare fliould alfo operate fo as to prevent
the ends of the tendon from inclining either to the right or
left.

This kind of prefl'ure, which the bandage ought to make,
feems to have efcaped the attention of all authors. Who
cannot fee, however, that the aftion of the mufcles being by
this means refifted, the upper end of the tendon will not
have fuch a tendency to be drawn upward, and feparated
from the lower one ^. CEuvi-es Chirurgicales de Default par
Bichat, tom. i.

The famous Petit feems entitled to the honour of having
firft devifed the plan of treating the ruptured, or divided
tendo Achillis, by keeping the leg and foot in a particular
pofture, with the aid of an apparatus. Seeing that the ex-
tenfion of the foot brought the ends of the tendon into con-
taft, it occurred to him that fuch extenfion fliould be main-
tained during the whole of the treatment, in order to bring
about a permanent union. This happy idea, the fimphcity
of which fliould have rendered it obvious to all praftitioners,
once having originated, became the common bafis, on which
have been founded all the numerous methods of cure, which
have been fince recommended. Default par Bichat.

The celebrated Dr. Alexander Monro, profeflbr of
anatomy at Edinburgh, happened to rupture his' tendo
Achillis. When the accident took place, he heai"d a loud
crack, as if he had fuddenly broke a nut with his heel, and
he experienced a fenfation, as if the heel of his flioe had
made a hole in the floor. This fenfation, he fays, has alfo
been obferved by others, though fome have complained of
a fmart ftroke, hke what would be produced by a ftone or
cane. Immediately fufpefting what had happened, the
doftor extended his left foot, in which the occurrence had
taken place, as ftrongly as he could with his right hand,
while with the left he prefled the mufcles of the calf down-
ward, fo as to bring the ends of the broken tendon as near
together as poffible. In this pofition he fat, until two fur-
geons came to his affiftance. They applied comprefles, and a
bent board to the upper part of the foot, and fore part of
the leg, both which they kept, as nearly as poffible, in a
ftraight line, by a tight bandage, made with a long roller.
But as this mode of dreffing foon became very uneafy, it
was changed for the following one. A foot-fock or flipper
was made of double quilted ticking, from the heel of which a
belt or ftrap projefted, of fufficient length to come up over
the calf of the leg. A ftrong piece of the fame materials
was prepared, of fufficient breadth to furround the calf, and
this was Caftened with lacings. On the back part of this
9 vn

TEN

was a buckle, through which the ftrap of the foot-foek was
pafTed, fo that the foot could be extended, and the calf
brought down at pleafure. The leg and foot were wrapt
up in foft flannel, fumigated with benzoin, and the bandage
was kept on day and night, the belt being made tighter
when the doftor was about to go to deep, and loofened
when he was awake, and on his guard. For a fortnight he
did not move his foot and leg at all, but was conveyed in a
chair on caftors from one part of the room to another.
After this he began to move the ankle-joint, but in fucli a
gentle manner, as not to give any pain. The degree of
motion was gradually increafed, as t!ie tendon became ca-
pable of bearing it, care being taken to Hop, when the mo-
tion began to create uneafincfs. The affedled limb was
moved in this way, for half an hour at a time. In a few
days, the hollow between the feparated ends of the tendon
became imperceptible, though the part continued foft much
longer. It became, however, gradually thicker and harder,
until a knot was at laft formed in it, apparently of a carti-
laginous nature. Though this was at iirll as large as a mid-
dling plum, and gradually became fofter and fmaller, yet it
did not difappear entirely. Having occafion to go out fix
weeks after tlie accident, the dodlor put on a pair of (hoes,
with heels two inches high, and contrived a Itecl machine to
keep his foot in the proper pofition. This machine, how-
ever, he afterwards changed for another, made of the fame
materials as the former. It was not till five months after the
accident, that he thought proper to lay afide all affillance,
and to put the ftrength of the tendon to a trial. See
Monro's Works, p. 66 1.

It feems unnecelFary to enumerate the various plans de-
vifed fince the time of Petit. Suffice it to ftate, that both
in a wound and rupture of the tendo Achillis, the ancient
method of ufing a future, for keeping the ends of the ten-
don in contadt, is at prefent quite exploded, and pofition of
the limb is the grand agent by which the cure is now univer-
fally accomplifhed. The following was Default's method,
which, though it was exprefsly defigned to fulfil all the
above-mentioned indications, may not after all be a more
valuable practical plan, than the one adopted by Dr.
Monro. After the ends of the tendon had been brought
into contaft, by moderate flexion of the knee, and complete
cxtenfion of the foot, Default ufed to fill up the hollows on
each fide of the tendon with foft lint and comprefles. The
roller applied to the limb made as much preflure on thefe
comprefies as on the tendon, and hence this part could not
be depreffed too much againil the fubjacent parts. Default
next took a comprefs, about two inches broad, and long
enough to reach from the toes to the middle of the thigh,
and placed it under the foot, over the back of the leg, and
the lower part of the thigh. He then began to apply a few
circles of a roller round the end of the foot, fo as to fix the
lower extremity of the longitudinal comprefs. After cover-
ing the whole foot with the roller, he ufed to make the
bandage defcribe the figure of 8, paffing it under the foot,
and acrofs the place \\ here the tendon was ruptured, and the
method was finifhed by encircling the limb upward with the
roller, as far as the upper end of the longitudinal comprefs.
Default par Bichat.

Certainly this plan feems to anfwer every objedt, and may
be worthy of being adopted in this country. The con-
tinued prefTure on the mufcles of the calf, by which their
aftion is materially refilled, is too much dilregarded by the
generality of Englifli lurgeons. Confult Monro's Works
Encyclopedie Methodique, article Achille, tendon d' ; and
M^moire fur la Divifion du Tendon d'Achille, in CEuvres Chi-

TEN

rurgicales de Default par Bichat, torn. i. p. 306. Cooper't
Di<ft. of Praftical Surgery.

Tendons, Shooting of the, Subftiltiis Ifndinum, in Medicine, a
(light and repeated convulfive twitching of the mufcles,
whicli occurs in the latter (lages of low fevers ; and, as it in-
dicates great debility, and a very morbid condition of the
brain or comnuju fenforium, it is ufually reckoned among the
dangerous fymplomj of fever. See Fevek, and Tvi-iius.

Tendon, in the Manege, a fort of griille that furrounds
one part of the horfe's foot, and is feated between the hoof
and the coffin-bone, near the coronet. When a horfe has a
quitter-bone, the matter that gathers between the coffin-bone
and the hoof fpoils the tendon, and makes it black ; and tiie
cure of fuch a quitter-bone confills in cutting and extirpating
the tendon.

TENDREMENT, Fr. in Mufu, tenderly, equal to con
tenerezza, Ital. See Con yljfetto, and AKFErTLO.-o.

TENDRIL, in Botany and Vegetable Philology. See
Ciituus.

TENDUCCI, Feudinando, in Biography, an opera-
finger in foprano, born at Sienna, whence he at firft adumed
the name of Sencfino, on account of the celebrity of a finger
of that city, in the early part of the laft century ; though
neither his voice nor flyle of finging at all refembled that of
the great finger and adlor, Fraucifco Bernardo detto Sene-
fino, whofe viiice was a rich and full contralto, and in whofe
finging and afting there were more of grandeur and dignity
than tendernefs and expreffion, which charafterizcd Ten-
ducci's ftyle ; and whofe voice was a high foprano of a clear
filvery tone, which by great pains he had rendered very
flexible ; but he had formed himfelf more on CafFarelli's
ftyle than on that of Senefino.

He arrived in England, as fecond man, in 1 758, when
Potenza was principal. The firft notice he obtained was in
a cantabile air, fet by Caffarelh for liimfelf, in a fine ftyle of
grand pathetic, fuch as fix years after, Manzoh's fine adagio
in Ezio, "Caro mio bene addio," was compofed in by
Pefcetti.

It was in 1759, during the reign of Cocchi's " Ciro
riconofciuto," that he became a favourite of the public ;
for though a young performer, and only fecond in rank under
Potenza, he had a much better voice and manner of finging
than the performer to whom he gave precedence.

In 1760 he went to Scotland, and we hear no more of
him till 1763, when he returned to London, and performed
the principal man's part in Dr. Arne's Artaxerxes, of which
the fuccefs was greatly owing to his talents.

At this period, Bacii and Abel eftabliftied a weekly fub-
fcription concert in Hanover-fquare, which was better
patronized and longer fupportcd than perhaps any one had
ever been in this country, having continued full twenty years
with uninterrupted profperity, at which, during the cliicf part
of the time, Tenducci was the principal finger.

In 1770 he fucceeded Guadagni as firft man at the great
opera, performing that year with the GralTi in " Corroe,"
and the next year in " Semiramide riconofciuta."

In 1764 he went to Ireland, where he and Mifs Brent
performed together in Artaxerxes.

In 1765 an Italian opera was performed in Dublin, in
which he and the Cremonini fung principal parts in Mithri-
datcs, in the principal cities of that country.

Some time after he returned to London, and was engaged
at the opera, where, in 1785, he revived Gluck's Orfeo.

Such is the outline of his profelTional career in public.
The events of his priv.ate hfe are ftill more varied.

He had not been long in England before he was thrown
U u 2 into

TEN

into the king's bench for debt, where he embeUifhed that
rL-(idcnce by his talents, and amufed its inhabitants. He
xvas, however, allowed to attend evening concerts elfewhere,
awended by a -arde du corps. But on thefe occafions, a
Jewift lady, his patronefs, carried him in her carnage to the
performance, and conduced him fafe back with his attend-
ant to his limited relidence ; where, during a part of the
time, he had the honour of Dr. Smollot for his neighbour.

In Scotland he fung at the Edinburgh concerts, and gave
IcITons in Tinging ; by which occupation he improved his own
talents fo much, that he returned to London a much better
finger than when he left it. So true is the obfervation of
Ariilotle, that no art or fcience is well learned but. by
teaching, when it is neceffary to give reafons for what in
private pradlice is done mechanically.

In Ireland he married a lady of confiderable fortune, who
was enciianted by his talents.

In Italy, whither he carried this lady, he was unmarried,
the laws of that country forbidding conjugal union to
caftrati. And on his application to the pope for a difpen-
fation, it was refiifed ; though the petitioner faid that his
reafon for marrying was, tlic opei-ation in his youth not
having been completely performed : " why then," fays his
holinefs, " let it be done more ctfeAually ;" and he was
obliged to feparate himfelf from his tender fpoufc, and fhe to
confole herfelf with a more efficient hufband.

When he quitted the ftage, he employed his whole time in
teaching to fing ; had many fcholars, and a good method of
inttrudion ; giving to his pupils, in Englifh, a fet of axioms
or rules of fludy and prafticc tran Hated from the ItaHan,
drawn up, as he faid, by himfelf; but which, after his de-
ceafe, were found in the Solfeggi of Aprile.

Notwithftanding the great number of his fcholars, his
income was infufficientto keep him out of debt, or even the
king's bench, without the ingenious expedient of becoming
a bankrupt, by which he defrauded all his creditors, and
died infolvent, being, as has been reported, buiied at the
expence of his countrymen, who made a colleftion for that
purpofe at the Orange cofFee-houfe. But from better
authority, we have been informed that he died at Genoa.

Tenducci had much profeflional merit ; but as to probity,
honour, and ideas of right and wrong, they never feem
to have extended further than convenience and perfonal
fafety.

TENDUNCULO, in Geography, a river of Africa,
which runs into the Indian fea, S. lat. 19° 20'.

TENEA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Corinth, on
the frontiers of Sicyonia, S. 01 Epicria. It pretended to
derive its foundation from the Trojans made prifoners in the
ifle of Tenedos, and brought into this country by Aga-
memnon. Apollo was much honoured here.

TENEBRiE, Darkness, in the Rom'i/]} Church, a
fervice performed on the Wednefday, Thurfday, and Friday
before Eafter, in commemoration of the agony of our
Saviour in the garden ; and the darknefs that overfpread the
earth at the time of his crucifixion.

TENEBRIO, in Entomology, a genus of the Coleop-
tera order of infefts, the generic charafter of which is,
that the antenna are moniliform, with the laft joint rounded ;
the thorax plano-convex, margined; the head exferted, and
vving-flieaths ftiffifh.

In the infefts of this genus the body is oblong-oval, and
in moft fpecies fomewhat pointed at the extremity. Several
fpecies are alfo deftitute of wings. This is a numerous
genus, and is divided by Fabricius and others into feveral
diftina genera, under the appellations of Pimelia, Bleps,

TEN

Aturnus, &c. In Gmelin's edition of Linnasus it compre-
hends 63 fpecies. The European fpecies are denoted by
an afterifc.

A. Six Jiliform Feelers; anterior Legs formed for digging,
palmatc-dentated ; including the Scarita of Fabricius and
Pallas.

Species.

CoMPLANATUS. Black, with a fubquadrate thorax,
and fmooth Ihells or wing-fheaths ; of a laige fize. Found
at Cayenne.

Margixatus. Black, with a fubquadrate thorax ; ful-
cated Ihells ; blue margin. Found at Cayenne.

GiGAXTEUS. Black, with fulcated mandibles, and fmooth
(hells. Found in Africa ; nearly allied to the next fpecies,
but thrice as large.

SuBTERRANEU.s. Black, with the fore-part of the head
fulcated, and ilriated fhells.

CvANEUS. Blue, very fmooth ; antennge and feet black.
Found in New Holland.

* FossoR. Pitchy. Found in fand-hills, which it
perforates.

* Cursor. Brown ; oblong thorax ; five ^angles denti-
culated. Found as the former.

Arabs. Black ; ferrated thorax ; antennas and feet tef-
taceous. Found in the Eaft.

MixuTLv-:. Black; thorax margined ; antennje clavated,
and feet pitchy. Found in Sweden ; and twice as large in
Saxony.

Coli,aris. Black, with Ihells punftate-ftriated, and
head brown ; antennx and feet pitchy ; the anterior fpinous.
Found at Berlin.

Bucephalus. Wholly biown, pundlated ; eyes black.
Found in India.

B. With unequal filiform Feelers.

Atratus. Wholly black, fmooth. Found in Egypt.

C. With four Feelers ; the anterior fulclavatc ; the poflerior
filiform ; the Tenebriones of Fabricius, and Mylarides of
Pallas.

Laminatus. Black; thorax fubquadrate, fmooth ; Ihells
fulcated ; anterior legs incurvated at the apex, and ferru-
ginous lamina acute. Found in India ; the largeft of the
genus.

GiGAS. Black ; (hell ftriated ; thorax fmooth. Found
in Surinam.

PuNCTATULUS. Black ; thorax quadrate ; margin fub-
denticulate ; (hells ftriate-punftated. Found in India ; of
a large lize.

Serratus. Black, fmooth ; fhells ftriated ; pofterior
legs ilriated. Found in Sierra Leone.

* MoLiTOR. Wholly black ; thighs anterior thicker : —
an infeft often feen in houfes, one of the fmaller kinds, pro-
ceeding from a larva commonly known by the name of meal-
worm, from its being fo frequently found in flour, &c. ;
it is of a yeUowi(h-white colour, aboTJt an inch long, (lender-
bodied, and of a highly poli(hed furface, and is confidered
as the favourite food of the nightingale, in its captive (late,
and faid to remain two years before it changes into a
cliryfalis.

LuRiDUS. Black, with brown feet. Found in Brafil.
Chalybeus. Violet, with feet and antennae pitchy.
Found in Guinea.

Maujiitanicus. Black, beneath pitchy; margins of

the

TEN

the thorax anterior and pollcrior aiigulatod. Found in
Algiers.

Variegatus. Oblong, with varied brown and cinere-
ous. Found in Africa.

Abbreviatus. Ovate, black, with fliell llriated, and
head tuberculatcd. Found in India.

Capensis. Ovate, black ; flicU flriated ; anterior legs
dentated-fpinous. Found at the Cape of Good Hope.

CoRNUTUS. The margins of the double-homed thorax
crenated, and the angles projefting. Found in Smyrna.

Sanguinipes. Black, with antennx and feet fanguine-
ous. Found in New Holland.

BuPRESTOiDES. Black ; oval, thorax margined ; the
connate {hells fmooth. Found at the Cape of Good
Hope.

Dermestoides. Black ; thorax oval, margined ; fhclls
ftriatcd. Found in Saxony.

CuLlNAKls. Ferruginous ; fhells ftriated ; (liield emar-
ginated. Found in Spain and Sweden.

Barbarus. Black, very fmooth; thorax orbiculated ;
the fhield of the head on the fore-part, with the margin
elevated. Found in Mauritania.

* Erraticu.s. Black ; the antenna, fuborbiculate thorax,
and {hells ferruginous ; brown at the apex.

Fallens. Palely tcftaceous ; thorax tranfverfe. Found
of a fmall fize at the Cape of Good Hope.

Ferrugikeus. Ferruginous, with {hells {Iriated tefta-
ceous. Found in Africa.

* ViLLOsus. Brown, cinereous-villofe, lliells fmooth
and ferruginous.

* Caraboides. Black ; thorax oval, margined ; fliells
ftriated.

Brunnipes. Black, fmooth ; {hells ftriated ; antennx
and feet ferruginous. Found at Drefden.

L«Vigatus. Oblong, black, with fmoothilli {liells.
Found in Africa, of a lei's fize than the mohtor.

GiBBOSus. Subovate ; wholly braffy, fhells gibbous-
convex ; the very fine ftris crenulated. Found in Brafil.

Spinimanus. Thorax margined, fmooth, {hells very
fmooth ; pofterior obtufe ; fore-legs produced with a very
ilrong arched fpine. Found in Southern Ruflia.

Uncinus. Apterous, black ; thorax margined, fub-
equal ; (liells {Iriated-punftated and angulate ; thighs an-
terior, clavated, very large, biuncinate. Found in Spain.

PiCEUS. DeprefTed, black ; beneath pitchy ; {hells ftri-
ated. Found in Saxony.

Cylindricus. Very black ; thorax with elevated points ;
antennas brown ; the tarfi beneath yellow-haired. Found
at Berlin.

MoNTANUS. Wholly black ; {hells opaque. Found in
Hungary.

Tristis. Black, fub-opaque, varied with excavated
points. Found in Carniola.

PoMON.'E. Above pitchy, beneath black ; fnells with
five elevated ftriae. Found in Carniola.

Capre^e. Black ; points imprelfed on the thorax and
fhells teftaceous. Found in Carniola and Switzerland. '

F'lavus. Yellow, with black eyes. Found in Carniola.

iEsTivus. Black ; feelers and feet yellow. Found in
Denmark.

Striatum. Black ; the abdomen beneath denfely ftri-
ated. Fo«nd in Denmark.

Festinans. Wholly black, fmooth ; thorax ferruginous.

Globosus. Black ; thorax globofe ; two rough lines
elevated. Found in Siberia.

Incurvatus. Wholly pitchy ; ftiells ftriated acrofs the
middle. As the laft.

T E N

Ovatus. Ovate, blacki{h-browii ; HielU whU e\sr\it
llrix, fmooth.

RoTUNDATt's. Black, wholly fmooth : the colcoptra
rotundata.

SuBViLLOSls. Wliolly ferruginous, fubvillofe.

Glaber. Wholly ferrugiirnis, fmooth. Tlie four laft
found in France.

* LlGNAUiL's. Thorax with two cavities; Ihells violet
or red ; antenna: and feel 'ferruginous.

Lardarius. Oblong, yellow-fulvous ; eyes black ;
ftiells with punftated Una-. Found iii Belgium.

*CliUViPES. Ovate, pitchy; Ihells punC^atcd-ftriatc ;
thighs crenated ; the hinder beneath cdiated.

* Bicolor. Ovate ; (hells ftriated ; above black ; the
antenna; beneath and feet ferruginous.

* Atek. Black ; antennae ferruginous.

* LuNATUS. Black ; deprefled thorax -lunatcd ; ftiells
ftriated ; feet ferruginous.

* HlsPiiH^s. Black, rough ; (h^Us ftriated ; a fpot at
the bafe on both fides red ; the antenna- and legs red.

* Glaber. Ferruginous ; head and thorax fmooth, and
ftiells black ; thefe ftriated ; mouth ferruginous ; feet hvid.

Teneeuio Morlifagus, a fpecies of the Pimelia, (which
fee,) in the Gmelinian edition of the Linnxan fyftem, thus
delcribed by Dr. Shaw. It is a coal-black in("e6t, meafuf-
ing about an inch in length, of rather flow motion, and dif-
tinguiftied by the remarkably pointed appearance of the
wing-ftieaths, which at their extremities project a little
beyond the abdomen ; they are alio perfeftly connate or
undivided, forming a complete covering to tiie body, and
being carried over the fides to fome dillance beneath, and
the infeft is totally deftitute of real or under wings. It
is ulually found in dark negled^ed places, beneath boards,
in cellars, &c. and if handled, efpecially if crulhed, dif-
fules a very unpleafant fmell.

TENEBRllTM, in Jincknt Geograpl.y, a promontory of
Spain, belonging to the Ibercaones. Ptol. It lay S. of
the mouth of the river Ibcrus.

TENEDOS, in Geography, an iftand of the Grecian
Archipelago, near the coaft of Afia, and very near the
Troade. This ifiand has been fuccelTively celebrated by
Homer and Virgil. The latter thus dcfcribcs it :

" Eft in confpeftu Tenedos, notilTima fama

Infula, dives opuni, Priami dum regna manebant ;
Nunc tantum finus et ftatio malefida carinis."

According to Diodorus Siculus, it had anciently been
called Leucophris; but when Tenes or Tennes built a town
upon it, he called it Tenedos. Bochart, however, derives
its name from the Phoenician word Tin-edum, red clay,
which was found here, and ufed for making e.irthen-warc.
Paufanias fays, that this ifland, which was fituated within
light of the city of Troy, became miferable alter the cap«-
ture of that city, and was obliged to furrender to its neigh-
bours, who had built Alexandria upon the ruins of Troy.
It was one of the firft conquefts of the Perfiaiis, who made
themfelves mafters of it, after having defeated the lonians
.at the ifle of Lada. It took part with the Athenians
againft the Lacedaemonians, when an admiral of the latter
people ravaged it, and drew from it contributions. The
Romans had pofleftion of it, and Verres pillaged the temple,
and carried away the ftatue of Tennes, the fuppofed founder
of the town. Strabo reprefents it as 24 (tadia in circum-
ference, and places it at the diftance of 1 1 ftadia from the
continent; but Pliny llatcs this diftance to be 12 milee.
Olivier computes the diftance to be nearly 3000 toifes : and
he fays, that the town ie at the diftauce of about five Icagui's

Irom

T K K

tVom the entrance of the Hellefpont. This pofition has
always rendered Tenedos important. Vefllls bound to
Conftantinople find ftieller in the ports of this ifland, or
fafe anchorage in tlie roads, when the winds are contrary
and the weather bad. The emperor Juftinian eftablifhed m
this ifland a magazine for receiving cargoes of corn tranf-
ported from Egypt, l8o feet long, 90 broad, and propor-
tionally high. During the troubles of the Greek empire,
Tenedos fuftaincd many vicifTitudes. It was for many years
a place of rendezvous for pirates. Scantily peopled and
ill defendL-d, it paflTcd betimes under the Ottoman domination.
The caliph Othman feized it in the year 1302, and in the
pofleffion of it, he was enabled to fubdue the other iflands
of the Archipelago. Duriug the minority of Mahomet IV.
the Venetians retook it after the complete defeat of the
Turkilh fleet in the ftrait by the admiral Mocenigo, in 1 656 :
but in the following year, thr; admiral having been killed in a
fecond engagement, the Venetian fleet retired, and this
ifland fell again under the power of the Turks, who have
preferved it without interruption till the prefent day. The
harbour is fmall, and can only receive merchant veflels : it
is formed by a jetty even with the water's edge, and a
tongue of land, on which is conftrufted the citadel that de-
fends the entrance, and can at mod fecure it againfl; being
furprifed by a privateer. The town is built in form of a
femicircle, in a valley, and on the declivity of two hills :
its population is from 5000 to 6000 fouls, judging from its
extent, and from the number of perfons who pay the
karatch. Its inhabitants, who are Turks and Greeks in
equal numbers, are almofl all occupied in the culture of the
lands, few of them being mariners. The ifland is under the ad-
miniftration of a waiwode or governor, an aga commandant
of the citadel, and a cadi or judge. The defenders of the
town are 200 or 300 janizaries. The town is commanded by
a pyramidal mountain of fmall elevation, that feems to have
been formed by the aftion of a volcano, the traces of which
are difcoverable. In the environs is found a granite remark-
able for pieces, of various fizes, of felfpar cryftallized.
On the right of the mountain, in paffing from the town
towards the W., is a fandy plain, far from fertile, and al-
moft entirely covered with vines. The hills, in general, are
naked, dry, and httle fufceptible of cidture. Thofe on the
fouth of the town are calcareous ; and the rock is more or
lefs chalky and loaded with fea-(hells.

Tenedos produces little corn, fruit, or herbage. The
vine is the only article of wealth of this country, and its
culture the principal occupation of the inhabitants. Mufca-
del wine is made in confiderable quantities. From Tenedos
are annually exported upwards of 600,000 okes of wine,
producing to the farmer more than 30,000 piaftres. This
Tvine pafTes to Conftantinople, Smyrna, and Ruflia. This
ifland alfo exports a fmall quantity of brandy. The climate
of Tenedos is more temperate than that of the Dardanelles :
it feldom freezes here, and the fummer heats are moderated
by the N.N.E. wind, which blows regularly during the day.
The houfes have terraces of flat roofs. The Greek inha-
bitants are lefs gay than thofe of the other ifland : in the
ftrcets they are filent and melancholy, avoiding through fear
the attention of the Turks ; but when they can indulge
themfelves in mirth without danger, they furrender them-
felves to a fort of extravagant joy and delirium. The coafl:
of Troy is frequently the theatre of their orgies and the field
of their pleafures : thither they repair on the occafion of a
wedding or of a fefl;ival, and there, under the ftiade of a plane-
tree or oak, they pafs the whole day in dancing, finging,
eating and drinking. The females, however, are kept within
the bounds of decorum, and might be compared, from their

TEN

features and their (hape, to the moft beautiful models which
antiquity has tranfmitted to us. N. lat. 39' 53'. E. long.
z6°. Sonnini. Ohvier.

TENELLA, tuaxa., in /Indent Mujic. As fome con-
querors at the Olympic games were not fo fortunate as to
have poets for their friends, or fo rich as to be able to pur-
chafe odes on their particular viftories, which were rated
very high by bards of the firft clafs ; in honour of fuch, the
old hymn to Hercules, of Archilochus, was fung by the
friends of the conquerors only, if they could not afford to
engage a band of profefled muficians. The fchohaft on
Pindar's ninth Olympic tells us, that to fupply the want of
a cithandift, Archiloehus framed a word in imitation of
the found of a cithara, which word [Tenella, TsviXXjc), when
there happened to be no mufician prefent, the leader of the
chorus chanted forth, and was anfwered by the refl; of the
chorus, in the words of the hymn, n Ka,\XivixE, x'^^t^y 0
glorious ViHor, hail! at every comma, or paufe of which,
this burden was again repeated.

TENEMBER, in Geography, an ifland in the Eaft In-
dian fea, 12 miles long and 3 broad. S. lat. 6^ 50'. E.
long. 132=45'.

TENEMENT, Tenancy, in Law, a houfe or lands,
depending on a manor, or lordfliip ; or a fee, or farm held
of a fuperior lord, and which he may recall, when the term
or condition is expired.

Tenement, Frank, is any lands, houfe, office, or the
like, in which a man has eftate for life, or in fee.

Tenement, Bafe, is where a man holds lands, &c. at the
will of the lord.

Yet Kitchin, Briton, &c. make frank tenement and bafe
tenement oppofites ; on which footing, frank tenement
fliould be where the tenant is at liberty to quit it when he
pleafes.

TENEMENTARY Lands, among our anceftors,
were the outlands of manors, which the Saxon thanes,
or nobles, let out to tenants under arbitrary rents and
fervices.

TENEMENTIS Legatis, in Law, a writ which lies
in London, and other places, where the cuftom is to devife
tenements by laft will as well as perfonal goods and chattels,
for the hearing of any caufe relating to them.

TENEN, or Knin, in Geography, a town of Dalmatia,
fituated on the borders of Bofnia, and the fee of a bifliop ;
48 miles S. of Bihacs.

TENENDUM, in Law, is a claufe in a deed, in which
the tenure of the land is created and limited. The office of
a tenendum is to limit and appoint the tenure to the land
which is held, and how, and of whom it is held. The
tenendum feems now to be incorporated with the habendum,
for we fay, to have and to hold, in which claufe the eftate
is limited, &c.

TENENTES Nativi. See Nativi.

TENENTIBUS in AJifa non Onerandis, in Law, a writ
which lies for him to whom a difleifor has made over land,
of which he difleifed another ; requiring that he be not dif-
turbed in affize, for the damages awarded, if the difleifor
have wherewithal to fatisfy them.

TENEREZZA, tendernefs, feeling, equivalent fo the
French term tendrement.

TENERIA, in Geography, a town of the ifland of
Cuba ; 45 miles N.W. of Villa del Principe.

TENERIFFE, one of the Canary iflands, the fecond
in dignity, but the firft probably with regard to wealth and
fertility. It is about 70 miles in length, and its mean
breadth is about 22 miles ; its furface contains 1540 fquare
miles, having, at an average, about 45 perfons to the fquare

mile.

TENERIFFE.

mile. The number of acres is 985,600, wliicli, upon an aver-
age, allots about 10 acres to every individual in it ; the num-
ber of inhabitants being calculated to be nearly 100,000. Of
thefe there is annually a conliderable migration to the Spanilh
colonics in South America. The poor of TcncrifTe arc ealily
perfuaded to migrate, as the proprietors of the land do not
give them futficient employment throughout the year ; and
they have not the refource of manufaftures, except a trifling
one in filk, chiefly ftockings. The price of labour is under
a fliilling a day ; and, befide corn and roots, the principal
food of the common people is confined to cod-fidi, caui^ht
on the neighbouring coaft of Africa, or imported from
North America. This ifland was formerly called Nivaria,
which appellation it derived from the circle of fnow that
furrounded the peak, of Tenda, now called the peak of Tene-
riife ; which name was given to it, as it is faid, by the in-
habitants of Palma ifland, in whole language tener fignifies
fiiow, and eff'e a mountain. The figure of this ifland is tri-
angular, as it extends into three capes, the neareft: being
about 80 leagues or more from the coaft of Africa. The
hiftorical celebrity of this ifland has been very much owing
to its Peak, elevated to a conliderable height from a bafe
lying a little to the S.W. of its centre. Of its height we
have various ft:atements by different writers, who have af-
cended to its fummit. Dr. Heberden, whofe obfervations
in afcending it are publiflied in the Phfl. Tranf. vol. xlvii.
makes its height above the level of the fea to be 2566 fa-
thoms, or 15,396 EnglilTi feet ; and he fays that this mea-
fure was confirmed by two fubfequent obfervations by him-
felf, and another made by Mr. Crofle, the conful. Never-
thelefs, chevalier de Borda, who meafured the height of this
mountain in Augufl; 1776, makes it to be only 193 1 French
toifes, or 12,340 Englifli feet. Mr. Johnftone, a merchant
of Madeira, being on board fliip in the offing of Orotava,
took the angles made by a line from the horizon to the
fummit of the Peak, at tvi'O different fpots, and meafuring
the diftance between them by the log, determined the per-
pendicular height of the Peak to be 2023 Englilh fathoms,
being nearly the fame as Chev. de Borda had calculated
from a bafe meafured upon land. From the comparative
obfervations of Monf. de Borda's barometers, upon the
Peak, and by the fea-iide, the mountain's heigiit came within
two fathoms of the geometrical meafurement. The Hon.
Grey Bennet, who made a journey to the top of the Peak
in 1 8 10, ftatcs its height to be about 12,500 feet. M. de
Lemanon and Monges, on the 26th of Auguft 1785, afcended
the Peak, and fl;ating its elevation above the level of the fea
to be near 1900 toifes, made lome chemical experiments, in
order to compare the phenomena at that height witli thofe
which occur in our laboratories. They oblerve, that the
crater of the Peak is a perfeft folfatara or laboratory of
fulphur ; its diameter being about 50 toifes by 40, rifing
with a ftcep and rapid afcent from W. to E. On the edges
of the crater, and particularly towards the loweft part, are
feveral apertures or vents, exhahng watery and fulphuric acid
vapours, the heat of which raifed the thermometer from 9°
to 34°. The interior of the crater is covered with yellow,
red, and white clay, and fragments of lava pai-tly decom-
pofed. xUnder thefe were fovmd beautiful cryftals of ful-
phur, forming rhomboidal oftohedra, fome of which were
an inch thick. The fl^eam exhaled from the apertures was
pure water, not at all acid. The evapoa'atiou of liquids,
and the cold thus produced, were very confiderable. The
aftion of the acids on metals, earths, and alkalies was flow,
and the bubbles that efcaped during ihe eff^ervefcence were
much larger than ufual. The production of vitriols aff^urded
a fingular phenomenon. That of iron inftantly- aflumed a

fine violet colour, and that of copper precipitated with *
very vivid hue. The fmell and ilrc ngtii of liquors appeared
not to have loll any thing at this elev.ition, and the volatile
alkali, ether, and alcohol, retained the fame ftrength. Seve-
ral experiments were made with a view of afcertaining the
nature of the vapours exhaled from the crater, and whether
they contained inflammable air, fixed air, or marine acid.
From tiiefe he concluded that no fixed air exhaled from the
crater, and alfo that the atmofpheric air refting upon it con-
tains very little, and that the inflammable vapours and ful-
phuric acid gas alone are confiderable, and indeed perceivable.
The atmofpheric eledricity was confiderable and pofitive.
Many new varieties of volcanic fchorls were difcovered.
See La Peroufe's Voyage, vol. li. p. 226, &c.

Dr. Heberden gave fir Jofeph Banks fome fait which he
coUedted on the top of the mountain, where it is found in
large quantities, and which he fuppofed to be the true na-
trum, or nilrum, of the ancients. Although the vortex ap-
pears fliarp, and of the exadl refemblance of a cone, yet it \*
flat for the extent of an acre of ground, in the centre of
which is a dreadful volcano, whicii frequently breaks out
into flames, fo violent as to fhake tlie whole ifland with an
incredible force. Smoke conftantly iffues from the moun-
tain, near its fummit, but no eruption has occurred fince the
year 1704, when the port of Garrachica was deilroyed, and
the harbour filled by the lava. The ifland of Teneriffc is
divided in the middle by a ridge of mountains, which have
been compared to the roof of a church, the Peak forming
the fpire or fteeple in the centre. An autlior well acquainted
with the ifland fays, that if you divide it into twelve parts,
ten of thefe confill of rocks, woody and inaccefTiblc moun-
tains and vineyards ; and yet, from the fmall remainder of
arable ground, he has feen 250,000 hanackes of wheat, be-
fides immenfe quantities of rye and barley, produced. The
greatefl part of the ifland is volcanic, and all its rocks are
lava. Mr. Bennet (Tranf. of the Geological Society, vol.ii.)
conceives, that formerly a very large crater, i 2 miles in dia-
meter, exifled, the fides of which, under the name of Las
Foldas, may be flill traced a great way. The crater at the
top of the Peak is but fmall, and fomewhat in activity. The
lavas vary in their appearance : fome are compofed ot horn-
blende and felfpar, without any foreign body ; thefe are
porphyritic : fome are compofed of green-ftone, and contain
olivin, augite, and zeolites : fome are bafaltic ; thefe de-
compofe the fooneft, and conftitute the moll fertile foil ;
there are alfo pumice in abundance, tufa afhes, and a lava re-
fembling obfidian. Every circumilance, it is faid, argued
in favour of a volcanic formation, except the form ot the
mountains, whofe irregular ridges, declivities, and afceuts,
appeared very different from thofe exhibited by volcanic
mountains. In the plain beyond Laguna, on the Orotava
fide, the foil was not in the leaft volcanic, but compofed of
fine mould, or virgin earth ; a mixture of clay, vegetable
earth, and fand. Hollows, 30 feet deep, left dry by rivu-
lets, exhibit no volcanic appearance. Immediately under
the fuperficial foil was a layer of deep loam, next, one of
tougli clay, and all below was an irregular mixture of clay
and fand. Elfewherc the hills confifled of indurated clay,
and clay and iron, without any marks of the action ot fire.
In the whole ifland, there is no pure flint or fand-ftone. Its
mountains are of two forts ; one, evidently volcanic ; the
other, primary and compofed of indurated clay, or of clay
a.id calx of iron. In the low plains are layers of loofe and
foft argillaceous earth. (See Dr. Gillan's remarks in the
I ft vol. of the Embafl"y to China, p. 1 18 — 120.) Although
the people live on fcanty and coarfe fare, they are not much
fubjed to difeafe, and inftances of longevity, even to 100

ycar«,

t E N

ycirs, arc faid not to be rare amongft them. The air is di-y
and pure. The variations of the thermometer fcldom ex-
ceed 14°, from 68° to 82°, in the inhabited pait of the idand.
(See GuANCiiEs.) To the eallward of S.inta Cruz, lays
Mr. Andcrfon (Cook's Third Voyage, vol. i. p. 22. &c.)
the idand appears perfoftly barren. Ridges of hills run to-
wards the fea, between which ridges are deep vallies, termi-
nating at mountains or hills that run acrofs and are higher
than the former. Thoic that run towards the fea are marked
by impreflions oa their fides, which make thefe appear as
a fucceflion of conic hills, with their tops very uugged.
The higher ones that run acrofs are more uniform in their
appearance. The bafis of the hills is a heavy, compaft,
blueifh ftone, mixed with fome fhining particles ; and on the
furfice, large maflTes of red friable earth, or ftone, are fcat-
tered about. The little earth, that appeared here and there,
was a blackifii mould. There were likewife fome pieces of
flag, one of which, from its weight, and fmooth furface,
feemed almoil wholly metalline. The mouldering ftate of
thefe.hilkis, without doubt, owing to the perpetual aftion
of the fun, which calcines their furface.. " After walking
about three miles," fays Mr. Anderfon, " I found no alte-
ration in the appearance of the lower hills, which produce
great quantities of the euphorbia Canarienfis. I met with
nothing elfe growing there, but two or tliree fmall (hrubs,
and a few fig-trees near the bottom of the valley. Moft of
the laborious work in this ifland is performed by mules,
horfes being to appearance fcarce, and chiefly referved for
the ufe of the officers : they are of a fmall fize, but well
fhaped and fpirited. Oxen are alfo employed to drag their
calks along, upon a large clumfy piece of wood. In my
walks and cxcurfions I faw fome hawks, parrots, which are
natives of the ifland, the fea-fwaUow or tern, fea-gulls, par-
tridges, wagtails, fwallows, martins, blackbirds, and Ca-
nary birds in large flocks. There are alfo lizards of the
common, and another fort ; fome infe&s, as locufts ; and
three or four forts of dragon-flies." Mr. Anderfon was in-
formed that a ftirub is common here, agreeing exaftly with
the defcription given by Tournefort and Linnaeus of the
tea flirub, as growing in China and Japan. Another bota-
nical curiofity, mentioned by him, is what they call the im-
pregnated l;'mon. It is a perfeft and diftinft lemon, in-
cloled within another, differing from the outer one only in
being a little more globular. The leaves of the tree that
produces this fort, are much longer than thofe of the com-
mon one ; and it was reprefented to him as being crooked,
and not equal in beauty. Mr. Anderfon learnt alfo, that a
certain fort of grape growing here is reckoned an excellent
remedy in phthifical complaints ; and the air and climate in
general are remarkably healthful, and particularly adapted
to give relief in fuch difeafes. This he endeavoured to ac-
count for by its being always poflible to procure a different
temperature of the air, by refiding at different heights in
the ifland : and he expreffed his furprize that the Englifti
phyficians had never thought of fending their confumptive
patients to Teneriff'e, inftead of Nice or Lifl^on. They
reckon that 40,000 pipes of wine are annually made, the
greateft part of which is either confumed in the ifland, or
made into brandy, and fent to the Spanifli Wefl^ Indies and
North America.

In the Embaffy to China (vol. i.) the quantity of wine,
confifting principally of white wine, faid to be exported
from Teneriffe, is about 25,000 pipes annually made in the
ifland. Part is fent to South America : and the Englifli
take off a confiderable quantity in return for manufaftures ;
and the North Americans in payment of corn, ftaves, horfes
and tobacco, which laft article is contraband and fmuggled.
10

TEN

Tobacco or fiiuff" is in uiiiverfal ufe ; aiifl that which is le-
gally imported is fold at fo high a price, that the temptation
to fmuggling is irrefiftible. The royal monopoly extends
even to orchilla or archil, a fubftance ufed in dyeing. Formerly
there was made at Teneriff'e a great quantity of Canary fack,
which the French call " vin de Malvafia," and we, corruptly
after them, name Malmfcy (from Malvafia, a town in the
Morea, famous for fuch lufcious wine.) In the 17th cen-
tury, and ftill later, much of this was imported into Eng-
land, and little wine is now made there except that defcribed
by Capt. Cook, and whicli he compares with Madeira, the
latter being as much fuperior to the former, as ftrong beer
is to fmall. But the gi-eat diff^erence of price is a recom-
mendation of it. Befides wine, which is the chief produce
of the idand, beef may be had at a moderate price. The
oxen arc imall and bony, and the meat lean. Hogs, flieep,
goats, and poultry, may alfo be bought at a moderate rate :
and fruits, fuch as grapes, figs, pears, mulberries, plan-
tains, and muflc melons, are in great plenty. Their pump-
kins, onions, and potatoes, are alfo very good of their kind.
The Indian corn, which is their produce, and alfo their
fruits and roots, may be had at a very reafonable rate. They
have no plentiful fupply of fifli from the adjoining fea ; but
a confiderable fiftiery is carried on by their veflels upon the
coaft of Barbaiy ; and the produce of it fells at a reafon-
able price. Capt. Cook fays that he found Teneriffe to be
a more eligible place than Madeira for fliips bound on long
voyages to touch at. At Teneriffe they make a little filk ;
but imlefs we reckon the filtering-ftones, brought in great
numbers Irom Grand Canary, the wine is the only confider-
able article of the foreign commerce of Teneriffe. None
of the race of inhabitants found here when the Spaniards
difcovered the Canaries, now remain a diftinft people, hav-
ing intermarried with the Spanifli fettlers ; but their de-
fcendants are known from their being remarkably tall, large-
boned, and ftrong. The men are in general of a tawny
colour, and the women have a pale complexion, entirely
deftitute of that bloom which diftinguiflies our northern
beauties. The Spanifli cuftom of wearing black clothes
continues amongft them ; but the men feem more indifferent
about this, and in fome meafure drefs like the French.
According to Capt. Cook, the peak of Teneriffe is fituated
in N. lat. 28° 18', and upon this fuppofition its longitude
will be

r The time-keepers 17° o'3o''T
By < Lunar obfervations 16 30 20 >Weft.
(.Mr. Varila - 16 46 o J
But if its latitude be z8° 12' 54", as in Mafltelyne's Britifli
Mariner's Guide, its longitude will be 1 3' 30" more wefterly.
The variation (Auguft 1776) by a mean of all Capt. Cook's
compafles was found to be 14° 41' 20" W. The dip of the
N. end of the needle was 61^52' 30".

Teneriffe, a town of South America, in the govern-
ment ef the Caraccas, and province of St. Martha ; 80
miles S.S.W. of St. Martha. N. lat. 10° 2'. W. long.

74" 30'-

TENESMUS, in Medicine, an inceffant and urgent de-
fire to go to ftool, while the evacuations are exceedingly
fcanty, of a mucous or bloody appearance, and are attended
with fcarcely any relief of the diftrelfing fenfation which
preceded them. It may be brought on by any caufe which
excites exceflive irHtation in the reftum, either direftly, or
by fympathy with neighbouring organs, fuch as the bladder,
uterus, proftate gland, or urethra. Thus it is frequently a
fymptom of a ftone in the bladder, of inflammation of the
neck of that organ, of fiftula, of gonorrhcea virulenta, and
alfo of pregnancy. In its moft acute form, tenefmus more

commonly

T E N

TEN

commonly occurs as a confequence of difeafe affefting the
intoftincs themfelves, and more efpecially of dyfentcry : it
is alfo frequently excited by afcarides, or haemorrhoidal tu-
mours within the reftum. See Dysemtery.

The treatment of this affeftion muft of courfe be adapted
to the nature of the irritation which has occafioned it ; and
the removal of the irritating caufc will generally be followed
by the ceffation of the cffcft. Wlien lliie, however, cannot
be accomphlhed, the introduction of opium as a fuppofi-
tory into the reftum, or united with a ftarch glyfter, will
often procure eflential relief.

TENESSEE, in Geography. See Tennessee.
TENESUR, a town of Egypt, on the weft branch of
the Nile ; 3 miles S. of Amrus.

TENET, a particular opinion, dogma, or doftrine, pro-
feffedly held by fome divine, philofophcr, &c.

The diftinguifliing tenets of the feveral fefts in religion,
and philofophy, fee under the names of the fefts them-
felves.

TENEZ, or Tenes, in Geography. See Tennis.
TENEZA, a town of Morocco ; 43 miles W.S.W. of
Morocco.

TENGA, in Botany, a name by which fome authors
have called the cocoa-nut tree, or palma indica nucifera of
other writers.

TE-NGAN, in Geography, a city of China, of the firft
rank, in Hou-quang ; 550 miles S. of Peking. N. lat. 31°
20'. E. long. 1 13° 17'.

TENGAPATAM, a town of Hindooftan, on the fea-
coaft, ill the country of Travancore ; 20 miles S.W. of
TraTancore.

TENGI, a town of Perfia, in the province of Schirvan ;
25 miles N. of Scamachie.

TENGILO, a river of Lapland, which falls into the
Tornea, which, as well as the lake and mountain of Niemi,
has been celebrated by Maupertuis for pifturefque beauty.

TENGIS, a lake of Independent Tartary, about 140
miles in length by half that breadth, being the largeft lake in
Afia after the feas of Aral and Baikal. It is alfo called
Balkafh or Palcate. This lake, with two others that are
very confiderable, belong to the Kalmucks fubjeft to
Cliina.

TENGMO, a fmall ifland on the E. fide of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 63° 10'. E. long. 21° 52'.

TENG-TCHOUEN, a city of China, of the fecond
rank, in Yun-nan ; 1182 miles S.W. of Peking. N. lat.
26^ 2'. E. long. 99° 49'.

TENGZEGZET. See Tenzegzet.
TENIA. See Taenia.

TENIERS, David, the elder, ia Biography, was born
at Antwerp in 1582. He received his education in painting
in the fchool of Rubens, and under that great artiil's imme-
diate tuition, obtained the mode of preparing his grounds,
and managing his materials. Intending to continue the ftudy
of hiftoric painting, he went to Rome ; but there aban-
doned it, and attached himfelf to his countryman, Adam
Elrtieimer, under whom he continued for fix years to ftudy
landfcape, and from him moft probably acquired the neat-
nefs of pencilhng for which his works are efteemed.

On his return to his native country, he blended the ftyles
of both his mafters, and employed the compound in a novel
and ingenious manner, upon fubjcfts original and at the
fame time agreeable ; fuch as merry-makings, both interior
and at the doors of cabarets ; rural fports , cattle, ftieep, and
thofe who tended them ; numerous groups and grotefque
combinations ; fuch as the temptation of St. Anthony, &c.
For piftures of thefe kinds, he wae fortunate enough to find
Vol. XXXV.

admirers and purchafers ; and they would ftill havf been th(?
theme of admiration, had not his fon, following the fame
track, have proved how pofTiblc it was to proceed infinitely
farther. He died in 1649, aged fixty-fcvcn.

Tknjkks, David, the younger, fon of the foregoing
artiil, was born at Antwerp in 1610, and was ^nitiatcd in
the art of painting by his father ; but he afterwards became
a difciple of Adrian Brauwer, and is alfo faid to have hud the
happinefs and honour of receiving inftruftions from Rubent.
The fubjefts and the ftyle he adopted were, as we have faid,
the fame with thofe em])loyed by his father ; but with a
more fertile imagination, he produced compofitions infiiiitely
more varied and ingenious, with colouring and eflcft more
vivid and engaging, more rich and traiifparent ; and with a
facility of execution pcrfeftly enchanting. It it true they
feldom exhibit much refearch of character or expreffion ;
what there may be of thofe qualities, was more probably a
fortunate hit, than any refult of meditation or intention.
In this refpedt Jan Stein, and our own Wilkie, have as much
the fuperiority over Teniers, as he poftefTes by the power of
his execution.

At the firft difplay of his powers he was not fo fucccfsful
as he merited, but it was not long that he lay neglefted : the
archduke Leopold being made acquainted with his merits,
iremediately diftinguilhed him by his patronage ; appointed
him his principal painter ; honoured him by making him a
gentleman of his bed-chamber ; prefcnted him with a chain
of gold, to which his portrait was affixed ; and gave him tlie
fuperintendance of his gallery of pifturcs, which contained
works of the moft diftinguiflied mafters of the Italian and
Flemifh fchools. Of this gallery, Teniers made feveral pic-
tures, in which he imitated the manners of the various maf-
ters fo fucceisfully, as to obtain the name of the Proteus of
painting. He alfo amufed himfelf by making compofitions
in the ftyles of different painters of renown, as Titian, Tin-
toretto, the Baffans, Rubens, &c.; and in their execution
endeavoured to imitate the touch of tiiofe great men. Thefe
imitations are generally known under the name of pafticcios,
and have frequently been miftaken for originals, and fold a«
fuch.

Thefe were the amufements or indulgcncies of idle fancy ;
his fame refts for more full and honourable fupport upon his
original produftions in his own proper ftyle. He was a con-
ftant and faithful obferver of nature ; and in his favourite
fubjefts, village feftivals, fairs, and merry-makings, he has ex-
hibited, with a moft engaging freedom, the manners and cha-
rafters of his countrymen. That he might conveniently
mingle with the fcenes he chofe to reprefent, he eftablifhcd
himfelf in the village of Perk, between Antwerp and Mech-
lin, and there, with a painter's eye, he obferved the undif-
guifed impulfe of the natural charaftcr of the lower clafs
among the people, and has left many beautiful and plcafing
remembrances of occurrences uninterefting, nay fometimea
difgufting ill themfelves, but rendered i'iig.iging by his de-
lightful mode of reprefenting them. One peculiar charm
there is to be found in the beft pifturcs of Teniers, more per-
feftly obtained than in the works of other artifts, and that
is, the complete effeft of atmofphcre, filvery, pure, and
natural ; Claude de Lorraine himk-lf docs not furpafs him ;
and this truth, though yielded on fimple materials, in fcenes
flat aiid infipid in their forms, yet makes amends for their na-
tural want of intcreft by its truth and fimplicity.

In the interior of apartments, of the cottage, the cabaret,
the guard-room, or chemift's laboratory, he is not Icfs ad-
mirable by his clcarncls and precifion than in his exteriors.
He furpalfcd Oftade in his knowledge of perfpeftive, and
in his freedom! as much as he is excelled by the latter in trutj-.
Xx of

TEN

of tone and completion of cliaraaer. His pencil is exceed-
ingly light and dexterous ; and by continual praiftice upon the
fame fyllcm, lie liad acquired a promptncfs almoft unparal-
leled. This freedom of execution enabled him to paint an
immeufe number of pifturcs : it was not unufual for him to
finidi a picture in a day ; and he ufcd jocofely to obferve,
that to contain all the piftures he had painted, it would be
iieceffary to have a gallery two leagues long. He not un-
frequently affiiled the landfcape painters of his day, by
putting figures into their pidures ; and many works of Ar-
tois, Van Udcn, Breughel, and many others, owe an in-
creafed value to this circumftance. His works are numerous
in the coUcftions of this country, and ftill bear very high
prices. Teniers lived to the advanced age of eighty-four,
and died at BruiTels in 1694.

He had a younger brother named Abraham, who alfo
painted the fame kind of fubjcfts in the fame ftyle, and from
this circumftance his works are fometimes miftaken for
thofe of David, though they are much inferior in tafte and
execution.

TENINE, in Geography, a town of South America, in
the province of Tucuman ; 20 miles S.W. of St. Yago del
Eftero.

TENIS, a lake of Ruffian Tartary, 60 miles in circum-
ference. N. lat. 53° id. E. long. 74° 4'.

TENISON, Tjiomas, in Biography, aixhbilhop of Can-
terbury, was the fon of the Rev. John Tenifon, reftor of
Mundefley, in Norfolk, and born in the year 1636. He
received his univerfity education at Benet college, Cam-
bridge, of which he became a fellow in 1662. Having
officiated for fome time as a tutor in his college, he was pre-
fented in 1 665 to the cure of St. Andrew the Great in Cam-
bridge, and continued his attention to his parochial duty
during the plague. In 1667 he became chaplain to the earl
of Manchefter, and obtained a reftory at Huntingdonfhire.
His firft publication appeared in 1670, and was entitled
" The Creed of Mr. Hobbes examined, in a feigned Con-
ference between him and a Student in Divinity." In 1674
he was chofen principal minilter to the church of St. Peter's
Mancroft, Norwich ; and in 1678 he publiflied a " Difcourfe
of Idolatry," and in 1679 " Baconiana," or fome pieces of
the great lord Verulam, with a general account of his
writings. As he was one of the royal chaplains in 1680, he
graduated D.D., and was prefented by the king to the vi-
carage of St. Martin's-in-the-Fields, London. As an an-
tagonift. to popery, the apprehenfion of which was then
very prevalent, he wrote feveral works againft it, and alfo
againil Socinianifm ; and whilft he was guarding the church
againft thofe whom he conceived to be its enemies, he ac-
quired ftill greater honour by liberal benefaftions to the
poor, and by laying the foundation of an endowed fchool and
public library, which he afterwards completed. He blended
gravity with moderation to fuch a degree, as to command
general efteem ; and accordingly he was felefted by the un-
fortunate duke of Monmouth to prepare him for his execu-
tion. He alfo conduced himfelf with fo much prudence at
court, that he is faid to have had a perfonal intereft even
with James II. In the reign of William he avowed himfelf
a friend to the dift'enters and toleration ; and after his pro-
motion to the archdeaconry of London, he was appointed
one of the commiffioners for reviewing the Litany, with a
\-iew to the comprehenfion of the Separatifts. He thus re-
commended himfelf to queen Mary, and by her intereft he
obtamed the fee of Lincoln, in 169 1. Within three years
he was unexpededly advanced to the archiepifcopal fee of
Canterbury, more on account of his moderate and pacific
principles, than for any preeminence to which he had at-

8

TEN

lained among men of letters or theologians. He attended
queen Mary on her death-bed ; and incurred the feverc
animadverfions of the deprived biftiop Ken, for not having
reminded her majefty of her culpable want of duty to her
father, by confenting to wear a crown which rightfully be-
longed to him. His conduft during the reign of king Wil-
liam was uniformly confiftent with his principles, and both
were fo pleafing to his majefty, that he diftinguilhed the
prelate by many tokens of refpedl and confidence. In the
reign of queen Anne, he was not, as we may naturally ima-
gine, much regarded ; more efpeciall)' as he retained his juft
ideas of toleration, and refifted, though not without a ftiarc
of obloquy, fome of the high-church meafures which were
then countenanced. Neverthelefs he difplayed on various
occafions his attachment to the eftabliftied church, as well as
his habitual bounty to the indigent. His laft public aiS.
was the corpnation of George I.; and afterwards finking
under the decay of advanced age, he clofed his life at Lam-
beth, December 17 15, in the leventy-ninth year of his age.
As he left no iffue, he bequeathed a confiderable part of his
property to charitable purpofes. His charafler was uni-
formly refpeftable ; and his conduft in difficult times was ir-
reproachable and exemplary. Biog. Brit. Gen. Biog.

TENMENTALE, or Tenmantale, in our indent
Cujloms, originally fignifies the number of ten men, which
number, in the time of the Enghfli Saxons, was called a
decennary ; and ten decennaries made what we call an
hundred.

Thefe ten men were bound for each other to preferye the
public peace ; and if any of them was found guilty of a
breach of it, the other nine were either to make fatisfac-
tion, or to bring the criminal before the king.

Tenmentale was alfo ufed for a duty, or tribute, paid to
the king, confifting of two (hillings for each ploughland ;
probably thus called, becaufe each perfon of the decennary
was bound to fee it paid.

TENNA, in Geography, a river which rifes in the Apen-
nines, and crofling the marquifate of Ancona, runs into the
Adriatic, about 4 miles E.N.E. of Fermo.

TENNE', Tenny, or Taiuney, in Heraldry, a bright
colour, made of red and yellow mixed ; fometimes alfo
called briijk, and exprefl'ed in engraving by diagonal lines
drawn from the dexter to the finifter fide of the ftiield, ti'a-
verfed by perpendicular lines from the chief ; and marked
with the letter T.

In the coats of all below the degree of nobles, it is called
tenny ; but, in thofe of nobles, it is called hyacinth ; and, in
princes' coats, the dragon's head.

TENNEAH, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 35 miles
N. of Midnapour.

TENNEBERG, a mountain of Saxony, in the princi-
pality of Gotha ; 4 miles S.W. of Gotha.

TENNELIE'RES, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Aube ; 4 miles E. of Troyes.

TENNESSEE, one of the United States of America,
fituated between 35° and 36° 30' N. lat., and 4° 26' and
13° 5' W. long, from Waftiington. It is bounded on the
north by Kentucky end part of Virginia, on the fouth by
Georgia and the Miffifippi territory, on the eaft by North
Carolina, and on the weft by Mifiburi territory. Its extent
from north to fouth is 102 miles, and from eaft to weft
420 miles. Its area is 40,000 fquare miles, or 25,600,000
acres. The Indian claim has been extinguiflied in X.\ro por-
tions of this country, the eaftern and the weftern, compre-
hending one-third part of the ftate. The former is bounded
north by Virginia, from the fouth-eaft corner of Kentucky,
to the north-weft of North Carolina ; eafterly by North

Carolina ;

TENNESSEE.

Carolina ; wofterly by Cumberland mountain, Emery's
river, &c. ; and fouthcrly by a line marked from place to
place, as a continuation of the Cherokee boundary. The
wellern traft, thus purchafcd of the Indians, lies on Cum-
berland river, and is bounded north by Kentucky ; callerly
by a line running from the nortli-ea(l to the fouth-wcil ; and
fouth and weft by a line of feveral thoufand angles, run ac-
cording to the TennelTee Ridge, which feparatcs the waters
of the Cumberland from thofe of the Tcnncflee river. The
general courfe of this ridge-line is firfl wefterly, and then
north-wefterly ; which, imagining the zigzag rtduccd into
two ttraight lines, makes the figure of the Iraft a trapezium.
The longeft fide is that adjoinmg Kentucky, the length of
which, afcertained by meafurement, is nearly i6o miles.
The length of the eafterly fide is about 90 miles. The
eaftern is generally called the Holfton fettlement, and the
weftern the Cumberland iettlement, from thofe two prime
rivers, which traverfe the countries refpeftively. Between
thefe fettlements lies a fpacious wildernefs, which the Che-
rokees claim and traverfe in hunting, and which, from one
limit of their claim to the other, as the road goes, is about
70 miles wide.

This ftate, as it was ercfted and organized in 1796,
is divided into three diftridts. The eaftern fettlement
is divided into two diftrifts, Waftiington the eaftern dif-
trift, and Hamilton the middle diftrift. The weftern
fettlement is the third or Mero diftrift. The number of
counties, &c. may be feen in the following topographical
table.

Counties.
Anderfon
Bledfoe
Blount
Campbell
Carter
Claiborne
Cocke
Granger
Greene
Hawkins
JefFerfoii
Knox
Rhea
Roano
Sevier
Sullivan
Waftiington

Eajl Tennejfee.

No. Inhabiiants.

Cliief Towns.

3959
- 8839

3259
2668

Maryfville.
Maryville.

4190

Elizabethtown,

4798

Tazewell.

5154
6397

Newport.
Rutledge.

9713

Greenville.

7643

7309

■10171

Rogerfvillc.
Dandridge.
Knoxville.

2504
- 5581

Waftiington.
Kingfton.

4595

- 6847

7740

SevierviUe.

BlountCville.

Joneftjorough.

101367

Wejl Tennejfee.

Bedford -

-

8242

Shelbyville.

Davidfon -

.

15608

Nafhville.

Dickfon

.

4516

Franklin -

-

5730

Winchefter.

Giles

-

4546

Pulafld.

Hickman -

-

2583

Humphrey

-

1511

Jackfon

.

5401

Williamfon.

Lincoln

-

6104

Fayetteville.

Montgomery

-

8021

Clarkefvilfe.

Maury

-

10359

Columbia.

Overton

-

5643

Monroe.

Brought forward

78264

Robertfon

-

7270

Springfield.
Jefferfon,

Rutherford

-

10265

Summer

-

13792

Gallatin.

Smith

-

11649

Dixon's Spi

Stuart

.

4262

Wilfon

.

1 1952

Lebanon.

WiUiamfon

-

'3^53

Franklin.

White

-

4028

Sparta.

Warren

-

5725

M'MinviUe.

Carry forward

78264

160360

Tiie following counties have been laid out fince the laft;
cenfus was taken :

Greenville,
Wayne.

The eaftern part of this ftate is mountainous, the
middle part hilly, and the weftern part moftly level. The
climate among the mountains is faid to be delightful ; in the
middle pai-t, temperate and agreeable ; in the weftern part,
hot in fummer, and mild in winter. The difeafes to which
the adult inhabiiants have been moft liable are pleurifics,
rhenmatifms, and rarely agues and fevers ; but, upon the
whole, the inliabitants are generally healthy, and tliis falu-
brity of the ftate has been partly attributed to its having
few ftagnant waters. The principal rivers of this ftate are
the Cumberland, the Holftein or Holfton, the Tenneftee,
the Clinch, the Notachuckey or Nolichucky, the French
Broad, the Hiwaffce, the Duck, the Redfoot, the Obian
or Oby, the Forked Deer, and the Wolf. The chief of
thefe rivers ai'e defcribed under their appropriate names.
The mountains in this ftate are numerous ; fome of tliem,
particularly the Cumberland (which fee), or Great Laurel
Ridge, are the moft ftupendous piles in the United St.-ite8.
Stone, Yellow, Iron, Bald, Smoky, and Unaka mountains
adjoin each other, and form, in a dircftion nearly north-
eaft and fouth-weft, the eaftern boundary of the tlate. In
thefe mountains are innumerable caverns and cafcadee.
North-weft from thefe, and fcparated from each other by
vallies from 5 to 15 miles wide, rife Bay's mountain. Cop-
per Ridge, Clinch mountain, Powell's momitain, and WeU
ling's Ridge. The four laft terminate north of the TennefTee
river, and thefe, as well as the others, are branches of Vir-
ginia mountains. They are all encircled by vallies, which
open channels for rivers and roads for paftagc. Although
the foil on the mountains is poor, that of the vallies is fer-
tile ; improving in the middle of the ftate, and in the weflem
part becoming rich. It produces cotton, which is tlie ftaple
commodity, and the principal article of export, tobacco,
indigo, Indian corn, hemp, flax, rice, wheat, rye, oats,
barley, and all kinds of vegetables in high perfeftion. The
trees and plants found in this ftate are poplar, hickory,
black and white walnut, all kinds of oaks, buck-eye, beech,
fycamore, black and honey locuft, aih, hornbeam, elm,
mulberry, cherry, dogwood, faftafras, papaw, cucumber-
tree, coffee -tree, and the fugar-tree. In the eaftern dillrift
is a fpecies of pitch-pine, ufeful for boards, timber, and tar.
The under-growth, in many places, and efpecially in low
grounds, is cane, fome of which is upwards of 20 feet high,
and fo thick as to prevent any other plant growing : there
are alfo Virginia and Seneca fnake-root, ginieng, Carolina
pink, angelica, fenna, lobelia, Indian phyfic, Ipice-wood,
wild plum, crab-apple, haws, hazel-nuts, fweet anifc, red
bud ginger, fpikenard, wild hop and grape vines. The
glades are covered with wild rye, wild oats, clover, bufTalo-
X X 2 gtafs,

TENNESSEE.

grafs, ftrawbtrrics, and pea vines. On the hills, at the
heads of rivers, and in fome high cliffs of Cumberland, aie
found majellic red cedars ; many of thelc trees are four feet
in dramcter, and forty feet clear of limbs. The commerce
of this (late is much facilitated by the rivers TennelTee and
Cumberland, and their refpedive branches. Both thefe
rivers empty into the Ohio, (horlly after they pafs the north
boundar)- of the ilate. As the waters of the Cumberland
from Na(hville, and of the Tenncffee from the Mtfcle Shoals
to the Ohio, arc navigable to the Ohio and Miffifippi, the
people of courfe, who live in this or the adjacent country,
have the fame advantages of water conveyance for trade, as
thofe who live on the Ohio or MilTifippi, to New Orleans
or elfewhere. Befidcs, there is another probable avenue
through which trade will be carried on with this and the ad-
jacent country, which is from Mobile, up the waters of the
Mobile river as far as it is navigable ; thence by a land car-
ria<re, of about 50 miles at moil, to Ocoehappo creek,
which empties into the Tenneflee at the lower end of the
Mufcle ftioals. The mouth of this creek is the centre of a
piece of ground, the diameter of which is five miles, ceded
by the fouthern Indians at the treaty of Hopewell, on
Keeowee, to the United States, for the eftablifhment of
trading pods. The iron works of Tenneflee are large and
numerous. The minerals of this country are iron-ore, lime-
ilone, coal, copperas, alum, nitre, lead, and fome illver.
Mineral fprings, ftrongly impregnated with fulphur, are
found in various parts of the country. On the waters ot
French Broad river is a fine, large, clear, medicinal, warm
fpring, the beneficial effedts of which have been experienced
by many perfons who have reforted to it from the Carolinas,
Georgia, and northern parts of Virginia. Salt is manufac-
tured in confiderable quantity, particularly on the north
fork of Holfton. Some herds of the bifon are ftill found
on the branches of the Cumberland river, though multitudes
of them have been wantonly deftroyed. The flag is occa-
fionally found among the mountains ; deer are fcarce ; bears,
panthers, wild cats, and wolves, IHll remain. Beavers,
mu(k-rats, and otters, are plentiful in the upper branches of
Cumberland and Kentucky rivers. Racoons, foxes, opof-
fums, and fquirrels abound ; as do alfo pheafants, partridges,
pigeons, fwans, wild turkies, ducks, and geefe ; as well as
bald eagles, parroquets, loons, cranes, and buzzards. The
rivers are well flocked with all kinds of frefh-watcr fifii.

The chief towns of Tenneflee are KnoxviUe, NaJhviHe,
and Jonejborough ; which fee refpeftively.

The prevailing denomination of Chriftians in this ftate is
compofed of Prefbyterians, intermixed with Baptifts, Me-
thodifts, and Friends. With a view to mental and moral
improvement, feveral fchools and colleges are eilabliftied in
this ftate. Three colleges are eftablilhed, one in Knox, one
in Wafhington, and one in Greene county.

By the conllitution of this ftate, which was formed and
ratified at Knoxville, February 6, 1796, the legiflative au-
thority is vefted in a general aflembly, confifting of a fenate
and houfe of reprefentatives. The number of reprefeatatives
is to be fixed once in feven years, by the legiflature, ac-
cording to the number of taxable inhabitants, who are to be
numbered feptennially ; the number of reprefentatives not
to exceed twenty-fix, until the taxable inhabitants ftiall be
40,000. The fenators are never to be lefs than one third,
nor more than one half the number of the reprefentatives,
and are to be chofen upon principles fimilar to thofe for the
choice of reprefentatives. The eledion for members of
both houfcs is biennial. The executive power of the ftate
it »efted in a governor, chofen by the elecftors of the mem-
bers of the legiflature: he is appointed biennially, and is

commander-in-chief of the army and navy, except in the
fer\ice of the United States. Every freeman of zi years
of age, poflefling a freehold in the county, and liaving been
an inhabitant of the ftate for fix months preceding, may
vote for the members of the legiflature. The houfe of re-
prefentatives has the fole power of impeaching, and the
fenate of trying impeachments. The judicial power is vefted
in courts of law and equity. County ofiicers are flieriffs,
coroners, truftees, and conftables. Military officers are to
be elefted by perfons fubject to military duty. Minifters of
the gofpel are not eligible to a feat in the legiflature. No
perfon who denies the exiftence of God, or a future ftate,
can hold any civil ofRce. The oath of allegiance and of
office is to be taken by perfons holding any office of truft
or profit.

In the charaAer of the inhabitants there is nothing pe-
culiarly difcriminating ; but, in general, a great fimplicity
of maimers prevails. Among the curiofities of the country
we may reckon its numerous caves ; and on the Enchanted
mountain there are on feveral rocks impreflions rcfembling
the tracks of turkies, bears, horfes, and human beings, the
latter having uniformly fix toes each. Befides thefe, there
are many other fanciful figures. The Indian tribes within
and in the vicinity of this ftate are the Cherokee: and
Chukafaivs ; which fee refpeftively.

The country now called Tenneflee was included in the
fecond charter granted by king Charles II. to the pro-
prietors of Carolina ; and in a fubfequent divifion, it confti-
tuted a part of North Carolina. In 1 754, at the commence-
ment of the French war, not more than fifty families had
fettled here, who were either deftroyed, or driven away by
the Indians before the clofe of the following year. It re-
mained uninhabited till 1765, when the fettlement of it com-
menced; and in 1773, (fuch was the rapid accefGon of
emigrants,) the country as far weftward as the long ifland
of Holfton, an extent of more than 120 miles in length from
eaft to weft, was well peopled. In 1789, after fome pre-
paratory meafures, the territory was ceded by the North
Carolina legiflature, on certain conditions, to the United
States. In 1790, February 25, congrefs pafled an aft,
accepting this ceflion ; and, by another aft, pafled May 26,
1790, provided for its government under the title of " The
Territory of the United States of America fouth of the
River Ohio." On the 8tli of June following, the prefident
of the United States, by and with the advice and confent of
the fenate, appointed the Hon. William Blount, efq. a
citizen of North Carolina, governor in and over the faid ter-
ritory ; in which office he continued during the territorial
government, and was prefident of the convention that formed
the conftitution under the title of " The Conftitution of the
State of Tenneflee," of which we have given an abftraft.
The peace of the citizens of this territorj' has been difturbed
many years paft, by Indian wars, or incurfions from the
favages for the purpofes of murder and plunder : they are
now at peace. In the year 1796, this territory' was in due
form erefted into an independent ftate, making the fixteenth
in the Union. Morfe. Meh'fli.

Tennessee Ridge, the moil confiderable range of moun-
tains in the ilate of Tenneflee, fepai-atiiig the ftreams which
run to the Cumberland and Tenneflee rivers. In fome parts
it rifes into abrupt hills, but in others admits of good roads.
See Cumberland Mountain.

Tennessee, called by the French Cherokee, and ab-
furdly by others the Hogohege river, is die largeft branch
of the Ohio : it is 600 yards wide at its mouth. It rifes in
the mountains of Virgioia, N. lat. 37°; and purfues a
courfe of about 1000 miles fouth and fouth-weft, nearly to
2 N. lat.

TEN

TEN

N. lat. ^4", receiving from both fides a number of large tri-
butary ftreams. It then wheels about to the north, in a
circuitous courfe, and mingles with the Ohio, nearly 60 miles
from its mouth. From its entrance into the Ohio to the

Mufcle flioals, 250 miles, the current is very gentle, and
the river deep enough, at all feafons, for the largell row

ry gentle,
he largell
boats. The Mufcle fhoals are about 20 miles in length.
The bed of the river in this dlllance confilts of broken floncs,
eafily removed ; and the navigation will admit of much im-
provement. At thefe flioals the river fprcads to the width
of three miles, and forms a number of idaiids, and is of dif-
ficult paiTage, except when there is a fwell in the river.
From this place to the " Wliirl," or " Suck," where the
river breaks through the Great Ridge, or Cumberland
mountain, is 250 miles, the navigation all the way excellent.
The Whirl, as it is called, is in about N. lat. 35°. It is
reckoned a greater curiofity than the buriling of the Patow-
mack through the Blue Ridge. The river, which a few
miles above is half a mile wide, is here compreffed to the
width of about 70 yards. ,Tuft as it enters the mountain, a
large rock projefts frem the northern fliore, in an oblique
direftion, which renders the bed of tlie river ftill narrower,
and caufes a fudden bend : the water of tlie river is of courfe
thrown with great rapidity againft the foutheni fhore,
whence it rebounds around the point of the rock, and pro-
duces the whirl, which is about 80 yards in circumference.
Boats pafs the whirl witliout danger or difficulty. Such is
the fituation of the fliore, that boats afcending the river may
be towed up. In lefs than a mile below the whirl, the river
fpreads into its common width, and except the Mufcle fhoals,
already mentioned, flows beautiful and placid, till it mingles
with the Ohio. Six miles above the whirl are the Chicca-
mogga towns, on the banks of the river, and of a large creek
of tlie fame name.

TENNIS, a paftime, or well-known g.ime at ball, in-
troduced among our anceftors about the year 1222, the
fixth year of Henry III., by perfons of fuperior rank and
family, who erefted courts or oblong edifices for the per-
formance of this exercife. Some have afcribed the etymo-
logy of the word (ennis to the French language, and ac-
cordingly have derived the game from France. But the
word tene-z, does not aflbrd fumcient evidence of its French
origin. , For the holding or keeping pofleffion of the ball is
no part of the game ; for, during the play, the ball is in
continual motion, or palling from one to another. Others
feek the etymology of the name and the origin of the game
in a place in France called Tcniiois, (or, by a change of
one letter, Sennois, in tlie diftricf of Cliampagne, ) where
balls were firll made, and the game, as it is laid, firfl: in-
troduced.

Tennls, in Geography, the ruins of a town of Egypt, fitu-
ated on an ifland in a lake of the fame name ; once a large
city, built by the Romans, on the fcite of a more ancient
Egyptian town ; 28 miles S.E. of Damietta. N. lat. 31° 2'.
E. long. 32° 14'.

Tennis, a lake of Egypt, 55 miles long, and about
feven wide, which reaches from Damietta to Tineh, fepa-
rated only by a narrow tongue from the Mediterranean.

Tennis, or Tnifs, a fea-port of Algiers, in the province
of Tremecen, at the mouth of a river which riuis into the
Mediterranean oppofite a fmall ifland. Some geographers
fuppofe this to be the ancient Jol, or Julia Casfarea. Be-
fore the Turkifli conquefts, it was the metropolis of one of
the petty royalties of this country ; though a few miferable
hovels are all that remains of it at prefent. Tennis has been
long famous for the many loads of corn that are rtilpped off
from thence to Chriftendom ; but the anchoring ground (for

a harbour it cannot be called) that lies before it, being too
much cxpofed to the north and weft winds, is the ocealion
that vefFels are frequently call away, uiilefs they meet with
calm weather. The Moors have a tradition, tiiat the Ten-
nlflians were formerly in fucli reputation for forcery and
witchcraft, that Pharaoh fent for the wifeil amongll iliem to
difpute miracles with Mofes. It is certain that they are the
greatefl cheats in this coimtry, and arc to be as little trulled
to as their road i 24 miles W. of Sherfliell. N. lat. 36' 33'.
E. long. 1° 10'.

TENNOLTEI, a town of Thibet; 63 miles N.E. of
Haraeliar Hotun.

TENO, a river of Norway, which runs into the fea,
S6 miles W.N.W. of Wardhuys.

TENON, in Building, &c. the fquare end of a piece of
wood, or metal, diminifhed by one-third of its thicknefs,
to be received into a hole in another piece, called the morlife,
for the jointing or faflening the two together.

Among joiners, &c. the tenon is made in various forms,
fquare, duve-tailed, for double mortifes, &c.

Vitruvlus calls the icnom, cardiius ; dove-tailed tenons he
calhful/fcutles, or fecuricule.
Tv.so\- Saw. See Saw.

TENOR, Tenouu, the purport or contents, or tran-
fcript, of a writing, or inllrument in law, &c.

Warrants iflued for the confirmation of fentences, exprefs,
that they fliall be executed according to their form and tenor.
— It was impoffible to retain fo long a fpeech word for word,
but the fubllancc, or the tenor, is this.

Tenor, Tenure, Ital., in Vocal Mufic, implies tlie natu-
ral pitch or tenouroi a man's voice In finglng. In the vocal
mufic of Italy, France, and Germany, there are three feve-
ral tenor clefs in ufe at prefent : the foprano ot\ the firit line,
for the highefl part ; the contrallo on the third line, for the
counter-tenor part ; and the alio tenore on the fourth line, for
the tenor part. (See Clef.) In old mufic of the 15th,
l6th, and 17th centuries, a tenor clef, called the mezzo
foprano, on the fecond line, and even on the fifth line, fre-
quently occurs, inilead of the barilono, or F clef, 011 the
third line.

In lullrumental mufic, the tenor clef on the third line is
ufed for the alto viola, and fimply viola, or tenor part. The
tenor clef on the fourth line frequently occurs in violoncello
parts and harpfichord leflbns of the early part of the lall
century ; but at prefent, the high notes in the violoncello part,
and in the bafe of pieces for the piano forte, are more fre-
quently written in the treble clef.

Tenok, or Tenorijla, is alfo ufed for a pcrfon who fmgs
the tenor part in concert ; and alfo for an inllrument proper
to play it.

TENO R E Indifiamcnli mittendo, in Lain, is a writ by which
the record of an indiftment, and tlie procefs thereupon, are
called out of another court into the king's bench.

TENOS, in Jlncient Geography, one of the iflands called
Cyclades, S.E. of the ifland of Andros, and very near it,
N.W. of Delos, and N.E. of Syroe. All hillorians agree
in reporting that tills Ifland abounded with ferpents, whence
it took the name of OpIiluHa, and in Greece that of the
viper, or Ta;nla. It is faid that the inhabitants muft have
abandoned it on this account, if Neptune had not refcued it
from them. In confequence of this deliverance, they ercdlcd
a magnificent temple to his honour, in a wood near the town
of Tenos, and here they celebrated feafls in commemoration
of him. This temple had very cxtenfive rights of afylum,
which were afterwards regulated by Tiberius. The ifland
was alfo called Hydraffa, on account of its waters. The
town of the fame niimc was fituated near the fea, in the

S.W.

TEN

S.W. part of tlio inand. See TiNo.— Alfo, a town of
Greece, in TliciTsIy.
TENOUR. SocTenok.

TENSA, in Geography, a river of Louiliana, which
forms with the Walhita and bayou Long, an ifland of an
oval fhape, about 50 miles in circumference. Immediately
above this idand, there is another, called Sicilly idand,
about 30 miles in circumference. At the lower end of Sicilly
iHand, the bayou Tenia fpreads into a lake of 15 or 20 miles
in length, and nearly parallel with the Miffilippi. The
Tenfa lake receives two confiderable ftreams, the river Aux
Bocufs, and the bayou Maf§on.

TENSE, Time, in Grammar, an inflexion of verbs, by
which they are made to fignify, or dillinguifh, the circum-
ftance of time of the thing they affirm or attribute.

The affirmations made by verbs are different as to point of
time ; fmce we may af&rm a thing Is, or -was, or luill be :
hence a necelTity of a fet of inflexions, to denote thofe fe-
veral times ; which inflexions our Englifli grammarians call
by a barbarous word, h-rifes ; from the French lemps : mofl;
other languages call them fimply times.

There are but three fimple tenfes ; the prefent, as, / love,
amo; ihe preler, preterite, or pajl, as, I have loved, amavi ;
and the future, as, / ivill love, amabo.

But, in regard that in the preter tenfe one may either ex-
prefs the thing as juft done or pall, or indefinitely and barely
that it was done : hence, in moft languages, arife two kinds
of preterite ; the one dejinitive, marking the thing to be pre-
cifely done ; as, / have luritten, I have faid: and the otlier
indefinite, or aorijl, denoting a thing done indeterminately ;
as, / -wrote, I luent.

The future tenfe admits alfo of the faipe variety.
Befides the three fimple tenfes, others have been invented,
called compound tenfes ; exprcfGng the relation of the fimple

ones to each other The firft exprefles the relation of the

pafi to the prefent, and is called the preterimperfed tenfe, be-
caufe it does not mark the thing fimply and properly, as
done, but as imperfeft, and prefent with refpeft to another
thing paft ; as, / -was atfupper ijhen he entered ; cum intravit,
eitnabam.

The fecond compound tenfe marks the time paft doubly,
and is therefore caOed the plufquamperfeU tenfe ; as, / had
fupped; cienaveram.

The third compound tenfe denotes the future with refpeft
to the paft ; as, I Jhall have fupped ; ccenavero.

The feveral tenfes, or times, it is to be obferved, are pro-
perly denoted in the Greek and Latin by particular inflexions ;
in the Englifti, French, and other modem tongues, the
auxiliary verbs to be, and to have, etre and avoir, are called
in. As to the Oriental languages, they have only two fimple
tenfes, the pajl ^nd future, without any diftinftions of imper-
feft, more than perfeft. Fee; but this renders thofe languages
fubjeft to abundance of ambiguities, from which others are
free.

The ingenious Mr. Harris, in his Hermes, p. 119, &c.
propofes the following theory of tenfes. The tenfes, he
lays, are ufed to mark prefent, paft, and future time ; either
indefinitely, without reference to any beginning, middle, or
end ; or elfe definitely, in reference to fuch diftinftions. If
indefinitely, then we have three tenfes, an aorift of the pre-
fent, an aorift of the paft, and an aorift of the future. If
definitely, then we have three tenfes to mark the beginnings
of thefe three times ; three to denote their middle ; and three
to denote their ends : in all, nine. The three firft of thefe
tenfes he calls the inceptive prefent, the inceptive paft, and
ihe inceptive future. The three next, the middle prefent, the
middle paft, and tlve middle future. And the thjee laft, the

TEN

completive prefent, the completive paft, and the completive
future. Thus the tenfes in their natural number appear to be
twelve ; three to denote time abfolute, and nine to denote it un-
der its refpcftive diftinftions. The following examples will
illuftrate the application and ufe of each tenfe. Aorift of the
pTe{cnt,yf^fw,fcribo, I -write; aorift of the p?i{i.,'lyfoc'ltt.,fcripJi,
I -wrote ; aorift of the future, yfxiv, fribam, I fljall -write.
Inceptive prefent, fj-lxXu ypT^siv, fcripturusfum, 1 am going to
-write ; middle or extended prefent, Tvyx^'''') 7paf a", fcribo,
or fcribens fum, I am -writing ; completive prefent, ■yeypaffia,
fcripfi, I have -luritten. Inceptive paft, ifi^^^ol■ yfciy^iv, _/fr;^-
turus eram, I -was beginning to -write; middle or extended
paft, s'yox^ov, or \~v^-xy.io-i ypa^piv, fcribebam, I -was -writing ;
completive paft, lyiy^oiyH-j, fc'ripfcram, I had done -writing.
Inceptive future, /j.i'KXria-ui y^c'^av, fcripturus ero, /Jhall be be-
ginning to -write ; middle or extended future, lai^'u.iyfdTui, fcri-
bens era, I Jliall be -writing ; completive inture, fcripfero, I Jhall
have done -writing. The author has particularly ftiewn what
traces are difcoverable in favour of this fyftem, either in
languages themfelves, or in thofe authors who have written
upon this part of grammar, or in the nature and reafon
of things. Dr. Ward enumerates feven tenfes ; viz. the
prefent, paft, and future imperfeft ; the paft indefinite ; the
prefent, paft, and future imperfeft. See his Four Eftays
upon the Englifli Language, p. 84.

TENSIFT, in Geography. See Tansift.

TENSION, Tensio, the ftate of a thing bent, or the
effort made to bend it.

Animals only fuftain and move themfelves by the tenfion
of their mufcles and nerves. A chord or ftring gives an
acutcr or deeper found, as it is in a greater or lefs degree of
tenfion.

Tension, Tenfto, Tcxo-ij, in the Ancient Mufic, was ufed to
fignify any pitch of found, whether produced by intenfion
or remiflion. Vide Ariftoxen. p. 10. 13. edit. Meibom.

Ariftoxenus obferves, there are five things to be confidered
about founds, vi%. laa-i:, tenfion ; lTrC[a.<m, intenfion ; avto-tf,
remiflion ; almnc, acumen ; and (Sapu-rric, gravitas.

TENSITES, in Geography, a mountain of Africa, in
'the empire of Morocco, on the borders of SugulmeflTa ; 60
miles E. of Morocco.

TENSOR, in Anatomy, a name given to different
mufcles.

Tensor Palati, a mufcle of the foft palate. See De-
glutition.

Tensor Tympani, a mufcle of the internal ear. See
Ear.

Tensor Vagina femoris ; muf cuius fafcix lata ; is an elon-
gated and flattened mufcle, narrow above, and becoming con-
fiderably broader below, fituated at the upper and outer
part of the thigh, and extending from the anterior fu-
perior fpine of the ilium, to a fliort diftance below the great
trochanter. It is covered by a tliin layer of the fafcia ; and
it lies upon the reftus cruris, the vaftus externus, and a fmall
part of the gluteus medius and minimus, feparated from them
by a thin produftion of fafcia, and by copious cellular tiffue.
Its front edge is parallel, above, with the outer margin of the
fartorius : below, they are parted by an interval, occupied by
the reftus anterior. The pofterior edge is connefted above
to the gluteus medius ; being feparated from it below by cel-
lular tiflue. The upper extremity is attached to the ante-
rior fuperior fpine of the os innominatum, between the far.
torius and the gluteus medius. The mufcle, which is here
narrow, pafles obliquely downwards and outwards, growing
confiderably broader and thinner, and terminates below the
great trochanter, at the angle of ieparation of the two layers
of the fafcia, between which it is fituated ; this angle is its

poinc

TEN

TEN

point of iiifi'vtion. Its upper atvachnicnt is by means of a
tendon, from which the fibres run to the fafcia.

It will bend the thigh on the pelvis ; or carry it outwards ;
or rotate it inwards. When tlie thigh is fixed, it will incline
the pelvis on that limb.

TENSTADT, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in
Thuringia ; 1 1 miles N.W. of Erfurt.

TENT, Tabernacle, a pavilion, or portable lodge,
under which to fliclter, in the open field, from the injuries
of the weather. See Tabkkn'acle.

The word is formed from tiie Latin, tentorium, of lendo, 1
Jlretcli ; in regard tents are ufually made of canvas, flretched
out, and fullained by poles, with cords and pegs.

Armies encamp under tents : thefe are made of canvas,
and are of various fizes. A captain's tent and marquee is
jrenerally lo^ feet broad, 14 deep, and 9 high ; thofe of the
tubalterns are a foot lefs ; the major's and lieutenant-colonel's
a foot larger ; and the colonel's two feet larger. The fubal-
terns of foot lie two in a tent, and thofe of the horfe one.
The tents of private men are 6^ feet f(|uare, and 5 feet
high, and accommodate five foldiers. The tents for the
horfe are 7 feet broad, and 9 feet deep ; they hold five men,
and their horfe -accoutrements.

Tents, Bell, are fo called from their refcmblance to a bell,
and ferse to (lielter the fire-arms from rain.

7^0 pitch the tents, is to fix them up ready for habitation,
by the afiiftance of a ridge-pole, two ftandards, and a number
of tent-pins.

Moft of the Tartars and Arabs are wandering people, that
always lodge under tents.

The Hebrews lodged forty years under tents in the de-
farts ; which gave occafion to the Scenopegia, or feaft of
tabernacles.

Tent, JDarL See Dark.

Tent, in Surgery, fignifies a roll of lint or linen, for
preventing the healing of openings, from which matter, or
fome other fluid, makes its efcape. Tents are alfo employed
for dilating openings. There ai-e fome tents which are
made of fponge that has been comprefTed into as fmall a
compafs as poflible, while filled with fluid wax, and then
allowed to become cold. Thefe are called fpongc-tenls, and,
on becoming warm, after being introduced into parts, they
have the property of fwelling in a remarkable degree. We
ihall only fay further upon this fubjeft, that, upon the
whole, tents are not fo much employed in modern as in an-
cient praftice ; and there is no doubt, that, imlefs their ufe
be guided by moderation and judgment, they may do con-
fiderable raifchief.

TENTAMOODy,in Geography, ztown of HindooRan,
in thecircar of Rajamundry ; 35 miles S.E. of Rajamundry.

TENTATIVE is fometimes ufed adjedtively : thus we
fay, a tentative method, meaning a kind of unartful or in-
direft method, which only proceeds by trying.

Tentative is alfo ufed fubftantively, tar an eflay or
effort, by which we try our ftrength, or found an affair. Sec.
to fee whether or no it will fiicceed.

In the French univerfities, tentative is the firft thefis, or
aft, which a ftudent in the theology-fchool holds, to fliew
his capacity : if he anfwers well in this, the degree of
bachelor is conferred on him.

TEN-TCHEOU-FOU, or Ten-choo-foo, in Geo-
graphy, a city of China, of the firft clafs, in the province
of Chang-tong, having under its jurifdiftion one city of the
fecond clafs, and feven of the third. It is fituated on a
rifmg ground, and fortified by a ftrong wall round it, and
defended by a numerous garrifon. The fortifications of this
city include a large fpace not occupied by buildings ; and

when it was laid out, it mud cither have been cxpeilcd that
it would incrcafe in houfcs to a greater number than that of
thofe who now occupy it, or the vacant fpace was allotted
for military or other exercifes. The bay, or rather road,
of Ten-choo-foo, is not only open to the call and weft, but
partially (heltered towards the north by groups of fmall
iflands, fcattcred about at different diftances, from five miles
to twice as many leagues, off the main (hore. The Mi-a-tau
iflands are too diftant to break off much of either wind or
fwcU from that quarter. Tlie anchoring ground confifts in
great part of hard fharp_ rocks ; and at about i \ mile from
the Hiore is a dangerous reef, covered at high water, ex-
tending nearly a mile eall and weft, round which the water
fhoals fo fuddei\ly as to render any approach to it very
perilous. At Ten-t-hoo-foo is conftrufted a kind of dock,
or bafon, for veffels to load or difcharge their cargoes. The
entrance into it is between two piers, and is from 30 to 40
feet wide. The ground near the coaft of the Yellow fea is
richly cultivated, and riies in a gentle afcent, which is ter-
minated by liigli, broken, and barren mountains, apparently
granitical. The paflage between Ten-choo-foo and the
Mi-a-tau iflands is called in the ch.irt the llrait of Mi-a-tau,
in which ilrait the rife and fall of the tide are about feven
feet. Staunton's Embafly, &c. vol. i.

TENTER, TiUEu, or Provcr, a machine ufed in the
cloth manufaftory, to tlretch out the pieces of cloth, ftuff,
&c. or only to make them even, and fet them fquarc.

It it ufually about four feet and a half high, and, for
length, exceeds that of the longeft piece of cloth. It con-
fifts of fevcral long, fquaj-e pieces of wood, placed like thofe
which form the barriers of a manege ; fo, however, as that
the lower crofs-pieces of wood may be raifed or lowered, as
is found requifite, to be fixed at any height, by means of
pins. Along the crofs-pieces, both the upper and under
one, are hooked nails, called tcnter-hoohs, driven in from
fpace to fpace.

To put a Piece of Cloth on the Tenter. — While the piece is
yet quite wet, one end is faftened to one of the ends of the
tenter ; then it is pulled by force of arms towards the other
end, to bring it to the length required : tiiat other end being
faftened, the upper lift is hooked on to the upper crofs-piece,
and the loweft lift to the lovveft crofs-piece, which is after-
wards lowered by force, till the piece ' have its defired
breadth. Being thus well ftretched, both as to length and
breadth, they brufli it with a ftift liair-briifli, and thus let it
dry. Then they take it off; and, till they wet it again, it
will retain the length and breadth the tenter gave it.

TENTERDEN, in Geography, is a fmall market-town
in the hundred of the fame name, in the lathe of Scray,
and county of Kent, England, fituated 18 miles S.S.E.
from Maidilone, and 56 miles S.E. by S. from London.
N. lat. 51° 4' 8". E. long, o''^ 41' 8". At a remote
period it was incorporated by the name of the " barons
of the town and hundred of Tenterden ;" which ftyle
was changed to that of the " bailifi" and commonalty,"
by letters patent of Henry VL, who at the fame time an-
nexed it as a member to the town and port of Rye, in
SufTex, to which it is yet fubjeft. Queen Elizabeth, in
her forty-fecond year, granted the inhabitants a new charter,
by which, in the place of a bailiff, &c. the future govern-
ment of the town was vefted in a mayor, twelve jurats,
twelve common-council men, a chamberlain, and a town-
clerk. The prefent town-hall, which is occafionajly ufed
as an affembly-room, was built about the year 1792 ; the old
one having been burned by an accidental lire. The market-
houfe is a fm.all, mean edifice of timber, now little fre-
quented ; the market itfelf being almoft difufcd, though ftill

nominally

TEN

nominally held on Fridays. A large fair is annually held
for the fale of cattle, wool, (hop-goods, &c. According
to the returns under the population aft of the year i8li,
the number of inhabitants in this town was 2786, that of
houfes 459. Many of the latter are refpeftable buildings,
occupied by perfons wliofe families have derived affluence
from the grazing bufiiiefs carried on in the neighbouring
mardics. The parirti church is" a fpacious ftruftnre, and
confills of a nave, north aille, and chancel, with a well-built
and lofty tower at the weft end, on whicli is fculptured the
arms of St. Auguttinc's monaftery, to which foundation this
church was appropriated in 1259. Bcfides the church, here
are two places of religious worfhip for diffenters of different
denominations. Dr. Harris mentions an ancient free-fchool,
founded here by one of the family of Heyman of Somerfield,
and records fome donations made for its fiipport. The
trufteesare the mayor and jurats, who, accordmg to Hafted,
are fo inattentive to the charity, that not any children are
now educated on this foundation.

The chapelry of Small Hithe, in Tenterden parifli, was
formerly, according to traditional report, a very confiderable
place, but is now reduced to a few farm-houfes and cot-
tages. The chapel was licenfed by archbilhop Warham, in
IC09, " on account of the badnefs of the roads, and the
dangers which the inhabitants underwent in their vvay to the
parifh church, from the waters being out." — Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. viii. Kent, by E. W. Brayley.

TENTH, in Englifi Hiftory. See LAND-r^.v.

Tenths are faid to have been tirft granted under Henry II.,
who took advantage of the falhionable zeal for croifades to
introduce this new taxation, in order to defray the expence
of a pious expedition to Paleiline, which he really or feem-
ingly had projefted againfl Saladine, emperor of the Sara-
cens ; whence it was originally denominated the Saladine
tenth. But afterwards fifteenths were more ufually granted
than tenths.

Tenth, Dec'ima. See FiRST-Fn/rfj', and Tithe.

Tenths, OJice of, is kept in the Temple, under the di-
rection of a receiver and his clerks.

Tenth, in Mufic, the oftave above the third, and an
oftave below the feventeenth, or ftop in the organ called the
tierce. The tenth is a vei-y plealnig confonance, but in-
ferior in fuavity to the third ; for which reafon the duets at
the opera, fince the principal firft man's part has been per-
formed by a tenor, have never given the .audience that ex-
uifite pleafure which they ufed to do, when fung by two
opranos.

TENTH REDO, in Entomology, a genus of the Hy-
menoptera order of infefts, the charafters of which are, that
the mouth has a horny, arcuated mandible, witliin dentated ;
a flraight jaw, obtufe at the apex ; a cylindric, trifid lip, with
four unequal filiform feelers ; the wings flat, and tumid or
nightly inflated ; the piercers confifting of two ferrated,
fcarcely prominent laminx ; and the fcutellum with two
diftant granules.

The larvae of this genus refemble thofe of the order
Lepidoptera, or real caterpillars ; but are diftinguiflied from
them by their more numerous feet, which are never fewer
than fifteen, cxclufive of the three firft or thoracic pairs.
When difturbed or handled, they ufually roll themfelves into
a flat fpiral. They feed, hke the caterpillars of the lepi-
doptera, on the leaves of plants ; and undergo their chryfahs
ftate in a llrong gummy cafe or envelopement, prepared in
autumn, out of which, in the enfuing fpring, emerges the
complete infeft. The tenthrcdines fonn a numerous genus,
and are divided into tribea or feftions, according to the form
of tht' antenus, Gmelin reckons 143 fpecies,

TEN

N. B. The European fpecies are marked with a ftar *,
and the EngUfti with a crofs f .

I

A.

Species.
Antennis clavated.

♦Femouata. Antennae yellow ; black body; hinder
thighs largell ; the larva green, with a blueifh fine on the
back, and yellow at the fides.

*Marginata. AntennsE yellowifh at the ap-x; black
body ; the hinder fegments of the abdomeB white at the
margin.

Lutea. Antennas yellow ; fegments of the abdomen
moftly yellow. This infeft proceeds from a large greei*
larva, of a finely granulated furface, with a double row of
black fpecks on each fide, and a duiky dorfal line bounded
on each by yellow. It feeds on various fpecies of willow,
alder, and beech. The parchment-hke cafe in which it en-
velopes itfelf in autumn is of a pale yellowifh-brown colour ;
and the chryfalis, which is of a pale dufl<y or brownifti caft,
exhibits the hmbs of the future fly, in fize equal to a com-
mon wafp, and of a yellow colour, bound with black ; the
antenns rather (hort, and ftrongly clavated.

AMERiN.ffi:. Body cir.ereous ; abdomen beneath red ;
white lip. This infeft is fomewhat fmaller than the pre-
ceding : its caterpillar, like that of tlie former, is of a green
colour, and of a finely roughened furface, powdered with
numerous whitiflt fpecks. Feeds on the willow.

Tristis. Black, with yellow antenna, and wings browa
at the apex ; green larva, with an azure line on the back,
black and yellow fringed.

ViTELLiN/E. Abdomen above black; fides red ; hinder
thighs dentated ; larva greenifb.

LucoRUj . Antennas black ; body villous black. Found
on the beech and alder.

* Fasciata. Black ; antennae black ; primary v/ings
with a brown band.

*Sericea. Antennae yellow; thorax black ; abdomen
braffy ; larva green, with two yellow fines.

Obscura. Body fmooth and black. Found in the
groves of Sweden.

Connata. Black ; abdomen with yellow bands. Found
on the alder.

* Nitens. Antennae yellow ; abdomen green -blueifh,
fliining. Suggefted to be a variety of the fericea.

B. Antennx exarticulate, the outer ones thkler.

Clavicornis. Black ; abdomen yellow ; apex black*
Found in North America.

Annulata. Black; abdomen yellow; hinder tarfi black,
annulated with white.

* Enodis. Antennx fmooth ; body black-blueilh ; larva
green, fpotted with black, a rough lateral Hne yellow,
iharp tail.

CiLiARis. Antennx beneath ciliated ; hinder legs white.
Found in Germany.

* Ustulata. Body black; abdomen blueilh ; legs pale.
On the canine rofe. Larva green, with two white- lines;
head teftaceous ; obfcure band.

f Cyanocrocea. Head and thorax bright-blue ; abdo-
men fafFron-coloured.

■}■ Atrata. Black ; back, zone, and three arcs, yel-
low-greenifh.

BicoLOR. Black-blue ; abdomen and bafe of the wings
yellow ; wings with a black band. Found in Auftria.

* Melanochba. Black ; abdomen yellow ; a fmali black

line

TENTHREDO.

legs and foles yellow ; wings
black ; wings and feet

liiip on both fides of the anus
with a hhick fpot.

*Ti(ic<)LOK. Head a;'.d thorax
brown ; abdomen yellow.

•OcHROPiis. Head, thorax, middle of the bresft, and
opeic of the hinder legs, black ; abdomen and feet yellow.

C. Jlnlamce pcHinated.

Cepiialote.s. Black ; abdomen with four yellow zones
or bells. Found in Germany.

t DoRsATA. Whitifh ; head and back of the thorax and
abdomen black.

D. yhitenna pamaicd.
Antenna: lanceolate, and thorax fubvillous ;

apix
legs

* PiNI

larva blueilh, and yellow at the tail ejid

JuNii'ERi. Antennae obtufe ; thorax
green, pointed with black.

E.

Found at Upfal.
witli the four fore

Antennx filiform, luith from feven to nine Joints.

Americana. Thorax yellow ; abdomen blue ; wings
black. Found in Surinam.

CesTALis. Black, with the rib of the wings ferruginous.
Found in Germany.

Lateralis. Black ; middle of the back red ; fides white.
Found on the flowers of Sweden.

f Akcuata. Abdomen black ; five arcs, with a band at
the bafe and fides, yellow-greenifh.

* RusTiCA. Black ; abdomen with three yellow belts,
the hinder two interrupted ; larva cinereous, with triangular
brown fpots on the back.

* Scrophulaki.t;. Antenna yellow ; abdomen with five
yellow belts, the firft more dillant.

Abietis. Body black, with four ferruginous fcgments
of the abdomen.

Germanica. Body black ; tliorax before and abdomen
red. Found in the groves of Germanv.

Padi. Black, with thighs and legs white.

Cyniph'ORMis. Green-brafTy ; yellow feet ; hinder thighs
brafly.

Cerasi. Body black ; fcutellum and feet yellow ; larva
gelatinous, black.

Salicis. Body variegated. Found on the elder and
willows.

Flavicornis. Yellow ; head and tail black. Found in
Germany and Italy.

LuTEicoRNis. BIa> k ; with antenna:, mouth, bafe of
the abdomen, and legs, yellow.

Me.somelas. Abdomen yellowilh ; back black ; arcs
yellowifli.

PuNCTUM AI,BU^f. Body black ; abdomen at the fides
white ; hinder thighs red. Found in Germany.

f Blanda. Black ; abdomen in the middle red ; hinder
thighs with a white fpot.

Quadrimaculata. Black; hinder feet red ; two fpots
at the bafe white.

* RuFiPEs. Body black ; abdomen with two yellow
belts ; feet red.

*Campestris. Body black ; abdomen with an unequal
yellow belt ; antennae and legs yellow.
*Atra. Body black ; feet red.
*ViRiDls. Body green ; abdomen above brown.

* Ovata. Body black ; thorax above red ; larva grecnilli,
fprinkled with a kind of white powder.

Alni. Body black ; head and thorax red.

* C^RtXESCENS. Violet ; abdomen yellow ; wings with wings fulvous, or deep yellow
a brown fpot. * SfLPirURATA. Black ;

feet,

legs

and fcutellum

*Pavida. Black; llie abdomen with liuee fugmcals,
and feet ferruginous ; larva green, fjirinkletl wkli \Wiitc fa-
rina ; head yellow.

* Ros;i:. Black ; abdomen yellow, and ridge of the
primary wings black ; larva yellow, [xjintod with black.

• BiciNrpA. Body black ; bell of the abdomen, anus,
mouth, and legs yellow.

CiNCTA. Body black ; the abdomen with a white belt ;
perhaps a variety of the fornvcr.

•LiviDA. Body black; antcnnx before tlic
white.

AlbicORNIS. Black ; antenna: at the apex white ;
tellaceous ; wings at the apex brown. Found in Italy.

GoNOGRA. Body black ; knees tcftaccous. Found in
Gt-rmany.

Nigra. Whole body black,
fmooth ; larva * yEriiiOPs. Smooth, black ;
pale.

Rap.?^;. Body black ; belly,
whitifh.

Septentriomalis. Feet pofterior, comprelTed and di-
lated ; larva gregarious, green, fpotted with black ; yellow
apices.

Opaca. Black ; thorax with a fpot on both fides, red
at tlie apex. Found in the gardens of Sweden.

Carbonaria. Black, with a white month ; fore-legs
teftaccous. Found in Germanv.

* Na.'.sata. Yellow ; fcutellum and point of the wings
white.

* I 2-Punctata. Body black, with twelvt white points.
Capke^j;. Yellow ; head, tliorax, and abdomen above,

black ; wings with a yellow point.

MoRio. Black ; with pale feet. Found in Germany.
Annularis. Black, fliining ; antennse white at the
apex ; legs ferruginous. In tiie gardens of Auftria, pery,
haps a variety of the livida.

Fkiuiucinea. Antenna black, annulatcd with white ;
body ferruginous ; thorax, breaft, and vertex black. Found
as the laft.

Crassa. Black ; feet and double points under the fcu-
tellum elevated, red. In Audria and Carniola.

ALDiCiNXTA. Black; the belt at the bafe of the
abdomen and legs with a ring milky. In Auilria and
France.

Vesi'iformis. Antennae yellow; all the fcgments of
the abdomen with yellow margins. In Auftria.

Semicincta. Black ; the belt of the abdomen broken
behind, yellowifh ; the feet atid abdomen beneath yellow, iu
Auftria.

Viennensis, Black ; abdomen with five yellow belts ;
the bafe of the antennae fulvous. In Vienna.

RiBis. Black ; legs and apophyfes of hinder thighs
white at the exterior fide. In Auftria.

FuLlGiNOs.\. Black, with fuliginous wings. In Auftria.

Dealbata. Black; the abdomen on both fides maijted
with a white fpot, hinder thighs clavated, yellowifli. In
Auftria.

Alneti. Yellow ; abdomen above black. In Auftria.

H.*:matodes. Black, thorax before on both fides red.
In Auftria.

Erythrogona. Black ; the apex of the thighs and
bafe of the legs red. In Auftria and France.

FuLVlVENTRis. Black ; with red and deep yellow ab-
domen. Found in Auftria and Carniola.

FuLVf\'ENMA. Black ; with the exterior margin of the

Found at Vienna,
antcnns fubclavatcd ; four

Vol. XXXV.

Yy

fore-

TENTHREDO.

fore-feet fulphurcous ; the hinder foles with three interme-
diate white joints. ,,,,,,- .u

* Flaveola. Antcnnar fubclavatcd, black ; bale, mouth,
fides, and five fird fegments of the abdomen and feet,

•a'nnulata. Yellow; antennx fubclavated, black;
apex of the thighs and foles anniilated with black.

* RuBiciNOsA. Black ; antcnns fubclavated, and bafe
with feet yellow; third, fourth, and fifth fegments of the
abdomen ferruginous,

* SuBLLATA. Black ; antennse fubulate at the apex ;
fecond to the fifth fegments of the abdomen, as far as the
hinder margin, legs and foles, yellow, and thefe annulated
with black.

* MucRONATA. Black, with the feven-knotted antennx
and abdomen yellow ; the laft fegments from the fecond to
the fourth black ; the apex of the wings brown.

* Varia. Black ; mouth, fcutellum, and fcutellar fpots,
white ; the hinder fegments of the abdomen and feet fer-
ruginous.

« Sanguinolenta. Black ; witli the hmder feet lan-
guineous.

* Dealbata. Black ; the three laft joints of the an-
tennae and jaws white ; legs and foles yellow.

* Canescens. Grey -downy, brown, with grey wings.

* Bifasciata. Brown, with black thorax ; mouth, fcu-
tellum, and four fpots at the fcutel, white ; abdomen with
two interrupted yellow bands ; margin of the wings and feet
yellow.

* BiiACfATA. Black, with red thighs ; the bafe of the
four hinder legs, and the three penultimate joints of the an-
tesm, white.

* RuFiPES. Black ; the bafe of the abdomen, with a
fpot on both fides, and jaws, white ; four fore-legs red.

* Melanoleuca. Black ; mouth, thorax with a fmall
line on both fides before the wings ; a fpot on the hinder
thighs ; legs, the fides of the abdomen from five to feven
fegments, ajid apex, white.

* Melanochra. Black ; mouth, four fore-feet, and
bafe-flexure of the hinder thighs, yellow.

* Leucopus. Black ; the bafe-flexures of the thighs
white ; four anterior legs without, and middle of the liinder,
white.

* Varicornis. Black, with red feet ; fourth and fifth
joints of the antennas and hinder legs at their bafe, white.

* Obscura. Brown ; with the rib of the wings as far as
the fpot and feet teftaceous.

* Lixibata. Black ; the hinder margins of the fegments
of the abdomen white ; feet reddifli.

* ExALBlDA. Black ; with feelers and four legs obfo-
letely white.

* Ferruginosa. Black ; the antennx ferruginous for-
wards ; the bafe and anterior margin of the wings, the
firft. and fifth fegment of the abdomen, the legs and foles,
white.

* Angusta. Black ; body narrow and grey-downy.

* LuTEsCENs. Black ; with the abdomen beneath and
feet yellow-reddifh.

* Albipes. Black ; with legs and foles white.

* Flaviventris. Black ; mouth white ; abdomen yel-
low ; back and apex black ; feet teftaceous.

* PiCEA. Pitchy ; anterior legs before, fpot of the hinder
thighs, and bafe, white ; hinder feet red ; the knees and foles
black.

* FusciPEs. Black ; feet red ; pofterior foles brown.

* BiMACULATA. Pale ; eyes, abdomen above the bafe,
kreail and two fpots, black.

* Lata. Broad, black ; the pofterior fegments of the
abdomen white, from the fecond to the fifth interrupted.

* Annalicornus. Pale, the antenna: fpotted with black
at the bafe ; vertex of a branchy figure, eyes, and the
conjugate points at the back of the thorax and abdomen,
black.

* Scripta. Pitchy; mouth, and on the middle of the
fore-part of the thorax the mark refembles V ; the fpot
on both fides the fcutellum white ; two fcutellar points
wliite ; feet, and under margin of the fegments of the belly,
yellow.

* Literata. Black ; fegments of the abdomen from
the fecond to the fifth in the back, ovated fpot on both fides
and margins white ; anterior feet, and four hinder legs on
tlie fore-part, white.

* MELANORUff.A. Black, with yellow abdomen ; the
tranfverfe fpots of the back and anus black.

* Geminata. Black, with geminated antennse, and
joints and legs pale.

* Oc'HROGi'STES. Pitchy ; with the abdomen beneath
and feet yellow.

* RuFiCAPlLLA. Head and thorax red ; the pofterior
margin of the latter and eyes black ; the abdomen and feet
yellow.

*DuBlA. Black ; thorax before red ; joints whitifh.

* Pallescens. Black ; mouth and feet pale.

F. Antennts fetaceous ; many Joints.

Erythrocephala. Body csruleous ; head red.

* Sylvatica. Body black : feet and marks of the tho-
rax yellow.

* Nemoralis. Body black ; fegments of the abdomen
white at the fide.

* Cynosbati. Body black ; feet ferruginous, hinder
annulated with white and black.

Signata. Pale ; thorax and three dorfal longitudinal
fpots black. Found in Germany.

PopULi. Black-blueiib ; mouth, feelers, and legs yellow.

Vafra. Head black, variegated with white ; feet tef-
taceous. Found in Sweden.

Reticulata. Wings varied with pale and brown,
with elevated veins, white and reticulated. Found in
Finland.

* Betul^:. Body red ; thorax, anus, and eyes black ;
wings behind brown.

* Flava. Yellow, with the fpot on the wings ferru-
ginous.

H^morrhoidalis. Black ; with the anus and feet tef-
taceous. In Germany.

f Nemorum. Middle of the abdomen red ; fcutellum
and point on the wings white.

Depressa. Head and thorax black ; marks yellow ;
abdomen and feet ferruginous. In Auftria and France.

Linearis. Black ; legs, and five bands of the filiform
abdomen, yellow. In Auftria.

BiPUNCTATA. Antennse fub-fetaceous ; nine joints black,
and two points of the black fcutellum white.

G. Of doubtful Order.

Intercus. Black ; with yellow feet and fubclavated
antennx.

RuMicis. Found on the dock.

Ulmi. Found on the leaves of the wild elder.

Pruni. Found on the plum-tree.

Lonicer^. Brown, tomentofe, ftiining, with fubclavated
antennae, and fubfcrruginous wings.

* PoLYGONA. Black ; antennx fubclavated with eighteen

9 knoti ;

TEN

knots ; the hinder margin of the fegments of the abdomen
from the third to the fifth ycUow-grecnilh ; the thighs black ;
the face anterior at the apex and the legs yellow ; the hinder
at the. apex black; the folcs yellow; the linear abdomen
comprefl'ed.

TENTOLI, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Ce-
lebes, near the north extremity, on the weft coaft, which
gives name to a road. N. lat. i '.

TENTORES, among the Romans, were perfons ap-
pointed to hold the clothes of tlie cliariotecrs that contended

in the circns.

TENTUGAL, in Geogrnphy, a town of Portugal, in

the province of Beira ; 7 miles W.N.W. of Coimbra.
TENTYRA, or Textyuis, in Ancient Geography, a

town of Egypt, and capital of a nome, which took the

name of Taityri'i-s, according to Strabo, Pliny, Ptolemy,

and Steph. Byz.

TENTZEL, William-Ernest, in Biography, a Ger-
man antiquary and hiftorian, was born, in 1659, at GreiifTen,

in Thuriiigia, and fiiiidied his education at Witteniberg, di-

refting the courfe of his ftudies to philofopliy and the Orien-
tal languages, and alfo to hiilory, both facred and profane.

In 1685 he was appointed a teacher in the gymnafium at

Gotha, and entrulled with the care of the duke's colleftion

of antiquities and coins. In order to qualify himfelf for the

more honourable difcharge of his duties as hiftoriographcr

to the houfe of Saxony of the Erneftine line, to which

office he was appointed in 1696, he vifited various courts in , , , j-

Germany, and carried .^n an epiftolary corrcfpondence with ^""^ }^"° ^'-'^^ ^' ?^""^ ''^ y^"' purchafe under the price of

many diftinguifhed foreigners. In 1702 he removed to ['"'-''^'lojd, accordmg^to the Report of the ftate of agricul-

TEN

has been remarked in the Shropthire Agricultural Report,
that it appears beautiful in theory, that there fliould be one
rule of defcent in a kingdom only, one tenure of property,
and one fcale of political rights ; but that it may be doubled
whether fo much uniformity is fuitable to an imperfeA ftate ;
or at leall to our prefent degree of improvement. At all
events, irregidarities that are not attended with much prac-
tical inconvenience, Ihould not be pointed out as obnoxious,
in a fcheme that has produced fo much pofitive happinefi,
and fo mucli comparative good, as the cunllitution of ihefc
kingdoms has afforded.

It is Hated too, in the Agricultural Survey of EJTex,
tilat freehold ellates are the moil valuable to the immediate
proprietor, there can be no doubt ; but the purchafer of 3
copyhold may remember, that the original purchafe is by fo
mucii the lower ; and whether he liUs tlie occupation to a
tenant, or farms and cultivates it himfelf, he may poflibly
make as good interell of his capital as if he had bought a
freehold. Perhaps, alfo, its general and final utility to the
public, may be nearly or quite the fame. This, the writer
thinks, is certain, that copyhold ellates, whether in the handi
of the proprietors or tenants, are as well cultivated .as the free,
excepting only in the article of timber, and even in that the
difference is feldom viCble. The hke may be faid of leafe-
hold ellates, and even of thofe in mortmain.

In Hertfordfhire, where a large portion of the property
is held by copyliold tenure, with a fine certain or at the will
of the lord, but which fine never exceeds two years' rent.

Drefden, where he was made hiftoriographer to the elcftor
of Saxony, king of Poland, by whom he was honoured with
the title of counfeUor ; but his manners not being adapted
to a court, he obtained leave to retire. What remained of
his life was devoted to literary purfuits ; and he died, very
poor, in November 1 707, in his 49th year. His works
were numerous, among which we may reckon the following :
•via. " De Phenice," Vitemb. 1682, 4to.; " De Ritu Lec-
tionum Sacrorum,'" Vitemb. 1685, 4to. a work highly
commended by Bayle ; " Judicia Eruditorum de Symbolo
Athanafiano Iludiofe colleCla et inter fi? collata," Francf.
et Lipf. 1687, l2mo. ; " Animadverfiones in Cafimiri Or-
dine Supplementum de Scriptoribus Ecclefiaflicis," 1688,
l2mo. ; " Cafparis Sagittarii Hiftorici Saxonici Hiftoria
Gothona plenior, &c." Jena, 1700, 4to.; " Supplementum
Hiftorias Gothonx," ibid. 1701, 410. ; " Supplementum
Hill. Goth, fecnndum," ibid. 1701, 4to. ; " Saxonia Nn-
mifmatica, ParjI." Francf. et Lipf. 1705, 4to.; " Pars II."
1705. Tentzel was alfo a contributor to feveral literary
journals. Gen. Biog.

TENUIROSTRjE, in Ornithology, the name of a genus
of fmall birds, which feed on infedls, and have flender and
ftiarp beaks ; of this genus are the lark, fwallow, red-bread,
and a number of others. Ray's Ornithology.

TENUME, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the
province of Nedsjed ; 40 miles N. of Aniza.

TENURE, in Agriculture, the manner in which pro-
prietors and tenants hold their lands, &c. of their land-
lords, or other perfons.

It may be noticed, that the tenures of lands are extremely
various in almoft every diflrift of the kingdom, being, how-
ever, chiefly freehold, free-farmhold, copyhold, long-leafehold,
or life-leafehold, though there are many other local forts of
tenures of land. The freehold is moft probably in the largeft
proportion over the whole country, the copyholds in the
next, and the leafehold tenures in the fmallcfl, extent. It

ture for that diflrift. And it is further fuggefted"in the
latter of the two former of the above agricultural furveys,
that, with regard to the tenures by which the more tempo-
rary occupiers hold their farms, they arc, as already ob-
ferved, extremely various, fomc upon leafes of longer or
ftorter dumtion, fome without any leafc at all, agreeably to
the taftc and pleafure of the landlord ; though by far the
greatefl number, cfpecially of thofe in the pofleflion of Uie
fmaller proprietors, are let upon leafes of from eight or ten
to twenty-one years. And it is obferved, from what has
been done in Norfolk and other counties where the tenures
are of more length, as from feven to twenty-one years, that
the improvement of the land is much conncfted with the
pratlice of fuch tenures. And it is likewife fuggefted in
the Glouceller Report on Agriculture, that it were much
to be wifhed that a general rule could be adopted for the
commencement and end of tenures ; as it would ultimately,
the writer thinks, be highly advantageous to landlords and
tenants, and will probably be one refult of the labours of
agricultural focieties.

Some fupjiofe tlie freehold tenure to pofTefs the moft
numerous advantages, with the feweil inconveniences, of any
fort of holding. But many are of opinion that fome other
kinds are equal to it, or nearly fo. The forms of tenure
throughout moil of the fouthern parts of England, arc prin-
cipally thofe of the freehold, copyhold, life-leafe, church-
leafe, and college-leafe kinds, both for lives and years. In
Cornwall they are for the moil part freehold, with the ex-
ception of the lands of ccclefiailical corporations and ancient
duchy land, wiiicli is equivalent to copyhold in fee, held
under the duke of Cornwall, fubjeft to a fmall annual rent.
This fort of land pafles by furrender in the duchy courts,
nearly in the fame form as other copyhold lands. But the
modern duchy is different from the above ; the occupiers
being leffees under the duke, and, in general, arc purchafer*
ot an intereil in the land during the continuance of the
longefl liver of three lives, the confideration bcijig, in part,
Y y 2 _ a fine

T E N

a fine paid at the time of tl.e grant, and alfo a referved rent
durintr the coiitimiaiu-o ot tlie leale. , r • i • jr

TIrti- are three different kinds of ci)urcli-leale in this dil-
tria ; as demifes to tenants for tlie longcil of tliree lives ;
the eonfiderations being money and referved rents ; demifes
to manorial tenants for three lives in the fame way ; the
takers having the liberty, during the whole time, to under-
leafe to other tenants in the manner of copyholds for three
lives ; and grants of leafes for twenty-one years abfolute,

ving fre(h leafes at the end of every feven

g"

TEN

more injurious and extenfive tlian is generally apprehended*
The fame capital employed in the purehale of a leafe for
ninety-nine years, determinable on three lives, applied to the
(locking, cultivating, and improving a more extenfive occu-
pation held at a fair annual rent, and under an encouraging
term of years, mull, it is fuppofed, produce, in the contem-
plation of fuch property, very different emotions in the mind
of the owner : to the occupier the refults are infinitely more
advantageous ; and to the public at large, a more abundant
fupply is produced than can poflibly be derived from a capi-
tal employed in the purchafe of a more narrow occupation
on an eventually undifturbed poflefhon of ninety-nine years.
But notwithftanding, an opinion prevails with fome noblemen
and others in this county, that it is better to realize at forty
years' purchafe, than to fuffer the lifehold tenures to fall in
without renewal. Fortunately for the future improvement
and profperity of the county, the writer fays, this fpecies of
tenure is become much leffened within the laft twenty years.
In order to accomplilh this prepofterous objeft of the tenant's
indojence and pride, it is obferved, he will employ his kft (hil-
ling, and incur very heavy obligations among his friends and
neighbours, to pay eighteen years' purchafe for a leafe only
of that very farm, the fee of which might readily have been
bought for about one -third more. Deftitute of capital, and
encumbered with obligations contrafted with his family and
friends, the farmer enters his new occupation, depending
upon cafual and agiftment ftock for the confumption of his
pafture herbage. Having httle or no referved rent to pro-
vide for, the efforts of himfelf and family are direfted to the
annual cultivation of fo much of his land as will pay the
parochial and other fmall difburfements, and fupply the bare
wants of the mod comfortlefs life it is poflible to conceive,
leaving no brighter profpedls to his offspring, than what the
lapfe of ninety-nine years may do, by terminating a leafe fo
injudicioully purchafed. The fame is the cafe with thefe forts
of tenures in many other diflrifts of the kingdom.

There is a great number of tenures bt fides tlie above
forts hi the midland and more northern counties, fome of
which are very curious and fmgular. Tenures under the
crown are likewife met with in thefe as well as mod other
parts of the kingdom.

In that part of the country ufually denominated Scotland,
the tenures by which lands are principally held may be
clalTed and confidered as thofe of fuperiority, property, and
tack ; the firll of which i» merely nominal, and goes no far-
ther than that of conferring the right of franchife ; the
fecond is a valuable tenure of land, as yielding and implying
tlie full ufe and command of it to the fubjeft for all the
purpofes of human life, excepting merely political power,
which is attached as above, and may or may not be attached
to the property ; and the lafl is tlie tenure for a term of years,
by which proieffional farmers hold land from proprietors for
the purpofes of agriculture. The origin of thefe forts of
tenures, which feem to have been of a military or feudal na-
ture, is more fully explained in Finlater's Agricultural
Survey of the County of Peebles, to which the inquirer on
this fubjeft is referred.

Tenure, Tenurii, in Law, the manner or condition in
which a tenant holds lands or tenements of his lord ; or the
fervices performed to the lord, in confideration of the ufe and
occupancy of his lands.

The kinds of fervicc, and confequently of ten-ures, are
almoft inlinite. See Sehvice.

Thofe for lands held of the king are either great, or petty

which is a re-
nevral of the firft. Thefe are firft made in confideration of
fines and referved rents, but in the renewals fines only.

In the fame diftrift, it has been much the cuftom, in
refpeft to the tenure of tenants, to grant leafes tor lives,
for the term of ninety-nine years, detenninable on the
death of the longeft liTer of three hves, to be named by the
taker. On the death of one of the lives named in the leafe,
it was ufual for the landlords to confcnt to the adding a new
life to the two which remained. The confideration in the
primary grant was uniformly a fine in hand of from fourteen
to eighteen years rent of the landed eftate, with a fmall
referved rent, and fuit and fervice to the manor court ; the
renewal commonly a fine only of three years' rent for one
life, or feven for two lives, without any alteration of the
other rent.

A large proportion of the lands here are now held by the
tenantry under thefe leafes or tenures, but it muft be noticed,
that the number of new grants, or the renewal of old ones,
is on the decreafe ; and feldom takes place, unlefs under par-
ticular circumftances and motives.

The holders under thefe leafes or tenures, which are called
leafeholds or fine-leafes, are conftantly fubjefted to all
taxes and repairs of every kind, excepting that a fmall pro-
portion of the land-tax in fome manors is repaid the tenant,
as the land-tax of the referved rent. Under the property-
tax, they were rated both as proprietor and occupier, except
only that the landlord was liable to the property-tax for his
referved rent.

It admits of fome doubt whether this mode of leafing or
holding property be more detrimental to the lord, the tenant,
or the public in general ; but it is certainly a very injudicious
and unwife method of proceeding, as it is highly injurious
to the agriculture of the county, though at firft fight the
fecurity and great length of the leafes might be fuppofed to
have the contrary effeft. It is found, however, in praftice,
that the circumftance of moft of the holders under thefe
leafes having not only exhaufted in their purchafe and re-
newal the whole of their capitals, but often confiderably
more raifed on them with great difadvantage, counterafts
every good that might olhcrwiie have been expefted. It
is afTerted that, in common, cultivators of this fort, from the
want of capital and other means, as well as the fpeculative
nature of aU fuch tenures, are neceffarily feeble and fpirit-
lefs, and that they live worfe, work harder, and are more
inconvenienced, than any other kind of holders of land. And
that where the landlords do not renew, they are frequently
fufferers from the dilapidated and exhaufled ftate of the
premifes.

It is aUb remarked by Mr. Vancouver, in his Account of
the Agriculture of the County of Devon, in regard to thefe
kinds of life-leafe tenures, that the mifchievous confequences
infeparably connefled with, and refulting from, the want of
agricultural knowledge in thofe who have the direftion and
management of fuch cftates, and who, to cover the want of
the necc/fary qualifications of a land agent, moft commonly /emanly, in capite, knight' s fervice. Sec.

Thofe held of the lords were very various, hnfe, p-anif See

advife the proprietors to grant thofe life-hold tenures fo
frequently heard of in this county and South Wales, are

by homage, facade, &c. See Base, Frank, &c.

The

T E P

T K 1'

The common tenucea at tliis day are, fec-fimplc, ftc-tail,
ty courti.fy, in dower, for life, or for years, or by copy of
court-roll.

Tknuke, Barons by ancient. See Bauos.

Tenure, D'ljlurbance of, is a fpecics of injurv which con-
fifts in brt'aklng that connetlion which fiibiills between the
lord and his tenant, and to which the law pavs fo hij^h a
regard, that it will not fuffer it to be wantonly diflblved by
the acl of a third pcrlon. If, therefore, tiiere be a tenant
at will ol any lands or tenements, and a ilranger, either by
menaces or threats, or by unlawful diilretfes, or by fraud
and circumvention, or other means, contrives to drive him
away, or inveigle him to leave his tenancy, this the law very
jnftly conftrues to be a wrong and injury to the lord ; and
gives him a reparation in damages againtl the offender by a
fpecial aftion on the cafe. Blackil. Com. vol. iii.

TENUTE, Ital. in Mujic, generally written ten, from
the Italian verb tenere, to hold on, fullain to the lall moment
of a note's duration. See Sostf.nuto.

TENYA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the country
of Foota. N. lat. io° 15'. W. long. 10° 25'.

TEN-YANG, a town of Corea ; 73 miles E.S.E. of
King-ki-tao.

TENZEGZET, a town of Algiers ; 16 miles S. of
Tremecen.

TENZY^, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Cra-
cow ; 20 miles W. of Cracow.

TEOATZINCO, a town of Mexico, in the country of
Tlafcala, where a bloody battle was fought between the
natives and the Spaniards under Cortez ; 20 miles E. of
Tlafcala.

TEOLO, a town of Italy, in the Paduan ; 7 milee
S.S.W. of Padua.

TEOLY, a town of Hindoallan, in the circar of GwKud ; '
15 miles S.E. of Gwalior.

TEOMAHAL, a fmall ifland in the Sooloo Arohipe-
lago. N. lat. 6° 15'. E. long. 120° 51'.

TEONA, a fmall iiland near the well coall of Scotland.
N. lat. 56= 47'. W. long. 5^ sy.

TEOPISCAN, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Chiapa ; 60 miles S.E. of Chiapa dos Efpagnols.

TEOS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor, in
Ionia, on the fouthern coall of a peninlula, which became
an iiland when the fea was high or much agitated. It
was fituated over-againll the ifle of Samos, S.W. of Smyrna,
and E. of the promontory of Coryceon. It is celebrated
for having been the birth-place of Anacreon. The inhabit-
ants were renowned for their courage : they preferred aban-
doning their city to living under the tyranny of the Pcrfiane.
Teos was treated with mildnefs by the Roman emperors.
Bacchus had a magnificent temple here, which Vitruvius has
particularly defcribed. Here alio was held a general coun-
cil for the management of all the affairs of Ionia, becaufe
this city was in the centre of Ionia. — Alfo, the name of a
t )wn of Scythia.

TEOWENISTA Creek, in Geography, a rircr of
Pennfylvania, which runs into the AUeghany, about 5 miles
below Hickery.

TEPAPA. See Taroatauietoomo.

TEPEACA, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Tlafcala; 15 miles S.S.E. of Pucbla de los
Angelos.

TEPEGUANA, a diflria of New Brafil, fituated on
the Nazas.

TEPELLENE', a town of Albania, the birth-place
and favourite refidence of Ali, fituated on the banks of a
river, which at the diflancc of 60 miles from the fea appears

to be «s broad .ns tlie Tiiamcs at Weilaiinlkr brnli^e. The
ilrcets of the town, containing about 400 ill-liiiill huufet,
are extremely dirty ; but the palace of the vizier ib very
magnificent.

TEPE-MAXTL ATON, in Zoology. Sec Y^L\sTigrUia.

TEPETISTAC, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in
the province of Guadalajara ; 60 milts N. of Guadalajara.

TEPETOTOIT,. in OrmthMgy, the name of a' Bra-
filian h'.rd of the gallinaceous kind, more ufually called
m'Uuporauga. Sec CliAX Alcciur.

TEPHLIS, or Tklphis, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Alia, in the vicinity of Media.

TEPHRIA, in the Natural Hiflory of the Ancients, a
name given to the grey ophites.

TEPHRICA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in the neighbourhood of Cilicia and Armenia.

TEPI-IROMANTIA, Tsjfo/iws.a, \n Antiquity, a fpe-
ciej of divination, performed with afhes ; for which fee
Potter, ArcliKoL Grxc. tom. i. p. 353.

TEPHROSIA, in Botany, from t.;'^v, ajb-coloured, in

allulion probably to the ho.^y afpeft of the herbage

" Perf. Syii. v. 2. 329." Purfh 489. (Erebinlhus ;
Mitchell in Ephem. Nat. Curiof. v. 8. 210?) — Clafs and
order, Diadelphia Dccandria. Nat. Ord. PapUionaccji,
Linn. Legutuinofs, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, deeply
divided into live flraight, awl-fhaped teeth ; the upper ones
rather the Ihortefl ; the loweft rather longer than the reft.
Cur. papilionaceous. Standard recurved, l;irgc, roundifh-
obovate. Wings half-obovate, obtufe, flraight, rather
fhorter than the flandard. Keel broad, rounded, gibbous,
compreffed, the length of the wings. Slam. Filaments ten,
all firmly united along the middle into a membranous tube ;
the tenth feparate at tlie bafe, and in its upper half; all
capillary and diflinft at the extremity, fomewhat unequal
in length ; anthers terminal, uniform, ovate-oblong. Pifl.
Germen feflile, oblong, compreffed, very hairy ; uyle awl-
fhaped, angular, afcendlng, hairy along the back ; fligma
fimple, recurved, flightly hairy. Pcric. Legume oblong,
coinprcffed, hairy, fomewhat falcate or afcending, of two
valves and one cell. Seeds feveral, compreffed, kidney-
fhapcd, rather angular, flightly feparated from each other
by thin, imperfe£t, membraivous partitions.

EfT. Ch. Calyx with awl-fhaped, nearly equal, teeth.
Stamens all connefted. Legume compreffed, rather coria-
ceous, of one cell, with mar.y feeds. Stigma acute.

Obf. We have tak'^n our characters f^rom one certain
fpecies, T. virg'miana, comparing it with authentic original
fp; cimens of Mitchell's Erebinthus, which Linnxus thought
the very fame fpecics, but in this he was certainly millaken.
It appears to be Mr. Purfli's third fpecies, T. hfpidula;
and as far as we can judge, from fpecimens that will not
admit of diffeftion, and from Mitchell's dcfcrlption, it is
mofl probably of the fame genus, for Mltclicll might over-
look the partial union of the llamens, even fuppofing that
characlcr to cxill in his plant. If we were certain of this,
his name ought, by every right, to be preferred to the more
modern one of Perfoon. (See Erehinthus.) The genus
moreover is improperly placed in the fixth fcAion of Dia-
delphia, while its cffential charaAer indicates that it belongs
to the firft.

I. T. virginiana. Virginian Grey-Vetch. Purfh n. I.
(Galega virginiana ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1062, excluding Hort.
ChfF. and Mitchell's fynonyms. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3.
1244. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 355. Cicer adrag.iloides
(fortS) virginianum, hirfutie pubefccns, 6oribus amplis
lubrubentibus ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 23. f. 2.)— Ercd, hoary,

and

T E P

T E P

and fhaggy. Leaflets nvimcrous, oval-oblong. Clufter
terminJ, manv-flowend — In dry fandy woods, from Ca-
nada to Florida, flowering in .Iimc and July. Root peren-
nial. Plant about a foot higli. Flowers very handfome,
rofe^oloured and vellowilh-white. Purjl}. The fern is
fimple, leafy, angular, brown, clothed \yith hoary pu-
befcence. Leaves alternate, nearly fefiile, pninate, of from
17 to 21, not quite oppofite, entire leafets, each about an
inch lontr, hain,' on both fides, tipped with a minute point.
Clujler folitary, various in length, compofed of numerous
large _/7oTi;wj, not unlike thofe of a Lupine. Calyx denfely
hairy. Legume an inch and a half long, pointed, linear,
hairy, fomewhat undulated, and a little curved upward,
tumid where the feeds are lodged. Miller appears to have
cultivated this plant in 1765. We have never feen a living
fpecimen. That we have here defcribed was fent by Kalm
to Linnteus. The legumes came from Jacquin's herbarium.

2. T. chryfophylla. Golden-leaved Grey-Vetch. Purfli
n. 2. (Galega villofa; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 67 ?
PaiJ],. ) — Proilrate, downy. Leaflets five, fomewhat wedge-
fliaped, very obtufc. Flower-flalks oppofite to the leaves.
Legume nearly ftraight. — Gathered in Georgia by Mr.
Enflen, flowering in July and Augufl:. Perennial. Leaf-
lets wedgefliaped-obovate ; fmooth above ; filky at the back.
Stalis elongated, bearing about three purple ^oiyi";v. The
Angular circumftauce of the nearly feffile leaves gives it the
appearance of a trifoliate plant, the lower pair of leaflets
refembling_/?i^u/rtj. Michaux's fynonym is rendered doubt-
ftJ by his not mentioning the fmall number of leaflets, one
of the moft ftriking charafters. Purjh.

3. T. hifpidula. Hifpid Grey-Vetch. Purfh n. 3.

f' Galega hifpidula; Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. 2. 68. G?
picata; Walt. Carol. 188. Erebinthus ; Mitch, as above.
Clitoria, n. 3 ; Linn. Hort. Cliff. 498, excluding the very
erroneous reference to Burmann. ) — Slender, diffufe, downy.
Leaflets numerous, oblong-elliptical, abrupt, pointed.
Flower-flalks oppofite to the leaves. Legume falcate, hif-
pid. — \\\ pine woods and on flate hills, from Virginia to
Georgia. Perennial, flowering from July to September.
Leaflets 13 or 15. Stalls elongated, bearing from three to
five pale-red^^oTOcrj. PurJh. Every part of this defcrip-
tion anfwers to the original fpecimens of Mitchell's plant,
but he, as well as Linnceus, fpeaks of the ten\.)\ flamen as
being really feparate from the reft. We cannot from our
fpecirr.ens determine this point. The ferns are long,
branched, trailing, round, and hairy. Leaflets with ftrong
oblique tranfverfe veins ; fometimes fmootli above ; always
filky beneath ; their length about an inch. Bra&eas lanceo-
late. Calyx very briflly. Perhaps the union of the tenth
Hamen to the reft, which is not in the ufual mode continued
quite to the bafe, even in T. virgtniana, may exift lefs, or
not at all, in the fpecies before us, and yet the plants may
together conftitute one natural genus.

TEPID, in Natural Hiflory, a term ufed by writers on
mineral waters, to exprefs fuch of them as have a lefs fen-
fible cold than common water.

They diftinguifli all the medicinal fprings into three
kinds ; the hot, the tepid, and the cold : but the middle
term might eafily be mifunderllood to mean a great deal
more than they exprefs by it : all that have what can be
called the leaft fci.fible warmth, are called hot; and the
tepid are diftinguifhed from the abfolutely cold, only by
their being lefs cold.

Some of this clafs of mineral waters, and fome few alfo
of the cold ones, have a (harpifti vinous tafte, which is
never obferved in any of the hot ones. This tafte is loft
on giving the waters the flighteft heat, and is therefore very

difficult to be guelTed at as to its origin. It is not only
found in the aluminous and vitriolate waters, but alfo in
thofe whicli are manifcftly nitrous, and which abound in
fulphureous falts, quite different in their nature from acids.
It is therefore an additional fomewhat, quite diftinft from
the faline properties of the fluid, and as eafily connefted
with one kind of that as with the others.

The caufe of heat in the mineral waters remains yet
wholly unknown, notwithftandiiig all that has been written
concerning it. It is hard to believe, that there are con-
tinual fubterranean fires near enough the furface, to give a
heat that preferves itfelf in fo great a degree to the very
place of their eruptions ; and it is equally hai-d to conceive,
that there can be beds of fermenting mineral matters, fuffi-
cient in quantity and force to have given the fame degree of
heat to waters for fo many ages, as fome of our hot fprings
are known to have fubfitted. Duclos's Exam, des Eaux
Miner.

TEPIDARIUM, among the Romans, a tepid or
blood-warm bath, which was joined to the cold and hot
baths, and was a medium between the two ; fo that if any
perfon wanted to go from the hot to the cold bath, or vice
verfd, he always took the tepid bath in his way.

TEPIQUE, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Xalifco ; 5 miles N. of Xalifco.

TEPIRU, a town of South America, in the province
of Tucuman ; 18 miles N.W. of St. Yago del Eftero.

TEPKAS, a Ruffian fettlement in North America, on
the eaft fide of Beering's ftrait. N. lat. 66°. E. long.
112° 4'.

TEPLITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Leit-
meritz, celebrated for its warm baths, difcovered in 762 ;
14 miles W.N.W. of Leitmeritz. — Alfo, a town of
Croatia ; 8 miles S. of Varafdin.

TEPLOW, Gregory Nicolaicuitsch, in Biography,
a Ruffian writer, educated in a feminary at Novogorod,
where he diftinguifhed himfelf by a Latin tranflation of
prince Cantemir's Satires, and a work on the geography of
Ruffia, neither of which was ever printed. In 1740 he
was employed in the Academy of Sciences, and in forming
a catalogue of objefts contained in the Cabinet of Natural
Hiftory. He thus acquired a tafte for that fcience, and
particularly for botany ; in confequence of wliich he was
made an adjunft of the Society in 1741, and in the follow-
ing year delivered leftures on moral philofophy, that were
much approved. The emprefs Elizabeth appointed him
tutor and travelling companion to her favourite, count
Rafumoufky, who, on his return from his travels in 1 746,
was made prefident of the Academy of Sciences. Teplow
then became an honorary member, direfted the inftitution
in the name of the prefident, and drew up rules for its
better regulation. At the time of 'the emprefs's death he was a
counfellor of ftate ; but as he was an enemy to Peter III., he
was arrefted : afterwards he was rcftored to favour ; never-
thelefs, two months after bis being made a member of the
council of ftate, it was difcovered that he had joined in a
confpiracy to dethrone that unfortunate prince. After the
depofition of Peter, he publifhed manifeilations, in order to
render him odious, and, as Bufching fays, was the principal
agent in putting him to deatli. For this fervice he is faid
to have received a reward of 20,coo rubles. The emprefs
afterwards made him a privy-counfellor and member of the
fenate, and honoiu-ed him with the orders of Alexander
Newfliy and St. Ann. He died in March 177';; and his
works, in the Ruffian language, are, " A General View of
Philofophy ;" " Liftruftions to his Son ;" " A CoUeaion
of Songs, with Melodies for three Voices ;" " Inftruftions

for

T E II

T E R

for the Cultivation of foreign Tobacco, in Lcifer RuJTia,"
diftributcd by order of the emprefs through that province,
in 1763. Gen. Biog.

TEPOTI, in Geography, a river of Paraguay, which
runs into the Paraguay.

TEPPELWODA. See Toppliswoda.

TEPTERE, a name originally Tartarian, and fignify-
ing a man who cannot pay his taxes, given by the RulTiaiis
to a peculiar tribe formed of Finns and Tartars in the
middle of the l6th century, during the dilTolution of the
Kliazan-Tartarian empire. They eftablifhed thenifelves
at firft in that part of the Ural mountains, which belongs
to the government of Ufa. At prefenLthey are fo much
intermingled, that their origin is fcarcely difcernible. They
are found to incrcafe in number at every fucceeding cenfus.
In the year 1762, about 34,000 of them paid the impofts.

TEPTON, in Geography, a town of Thibet ; 30 miles
N.W. of Sgigatchee.

TEPWIA, a town on the W. coaft of the ifland of
Celebes. S. lat. 1=4'. E. long. 119° 10'.

TEQUENDAMA, a cataradt near Bogota, the capital
of New Granada (fee Bocsota), which, according to Bou-
guer, is one of the higheft in the world, being 200 or 300
fathoms in height, and its fall vertical. Its real height is
probably about 1320 feet. The river Funza, which is here
very confiderable, pafTes along a narrow channel, on a high
table land, and is poured as from the fpout of a vafe,
in one arch of the enormous height above fpccified, the
noife being hoard at the diftance of feven leagues. This
fall is received in a vatt cauldron of more than a league
in circumference ; and the quantity of water, and violence
of its defcent, form a continual mafs of clouds, which ren-
ders it fcarcely vifible in the evening ; but in the morning it
is more ftriking, being decorated with numerous rainbows
according to the pofition of the fpeftator. The vafl rocks
which form the cauldron alfo excite admiration, being as
regular and polifhcd as if cut with a chiflel : the furround-
ing heights are covered with trees, Oirubs, and flowery
plants, while the fplendid appearance of fome of the birds,
and the mufic of others, render the cataradl of Tequen-
dama alike fublime and beautiful.

TEQUEPA, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Mechoacan, on a river near the Pacific ocean ; 80 miles S.E.
of Zacatula. N. lat. 17° 50'. W. long. 102° 26'.

TEQUERY Bay, a bay on the louth-eaft coaft of
Cuba, near Cape Cruz.

TEQUIA, a town of New Grenada; 32 miles S.W.
of Pamplona.

TEQUIXQUIACATZANATL, in Ornithology. See
Gracula Qu'ifcala.

TER, in Geography, a river of Spain, which rifes in the
county of Cerdagne, and runs into the Mediterranean, about
30 miles E. of Gcrona.

TERA, a fmall river of Spain, which runs into the
Orbega, in the province of Leon.

TERACE, in Rural Economy, a term provincially ap-
plied to a coarfe hair fieve, for feparating the inferior flour
from the bran.

TERAIN, in Geography, a river of France, which runs
into the Oife, near Creil.

TERAKACO, a peninfula on tlie eaft coaft of New
Zealand, of which Cape Table forms the euftern point.

TERAMNUS, in Botany, fo called by Browne, appa-
rently in aU>ifion to its delicately-fliaped legume, vr^xfivoTUi
being ufed particularly to exijrefs the tendernefs of eatable
pulfe : aif^aixvof was a weed hollile to leguminous plants. —
Browne Jam. 290. Swartz Prodr. 105. Ind. Occ. 1238.

I. 25. Schreb. 489. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3 971. Mart.
Mill. Ditt. V. 4. — Clafs and order, Diadelphia Decaiidria.
Nat. Ord. Papilionacea, Linn. I.egum'mofa, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cat. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, two-
lipped, permanent ; its upper lip ratht-r the Urgell, divided ;
lower three-cleft ; all the teeth acute, erecl, converging.
Cor. papilionaceous. Standard inverfely lieart-fhapcd,
fpreading, fomewhat deflexed. Wings nearly as long,
ereft, approximated, rounded at the extremity. Keel very
fmall, concealed in tlie calyx between the bafes of the
wings, and covering the ftamens, feparabie into two petals.
Slam. Filaments ten, all united iu their lower part into
one fet ; only live of them perfetl, the live intermediate
ones being minute, without anthers, and fliorter ; anthers
five, roundilh. Pijl. Gcrmcn cylindrical, flender, downy ;
ftyle none ; ftigma capitate, roundifli. Peru. Legume
linear, bordered, comprcfled, with ninnerous conftridlions.
Seeds feveral, roundilh, comprelTed, abrupt at the fummit.

Eft. Ch. Keel minute, concealed in the calyx. StamcHk
all connefted ; the i-wi alternate ones without anthers.
Stigma feftile, capitate. Calyx two-lipped. Legume li-
near, with many feeds.

1. T. voluLUis. Smaller Teramnus. Swartx Ind. Occ.
1 24 1, t. 25. Willd. n. I, excluding all the fynonyms. —
Leaflets ovato-lanccolate, downy beneath. — Native of rather
moift bufliy alpine places, in the fouthern part of Jamaica.
The^^fm is herbaceous, or flightly woody at the bafe only,
from two to four feet high, twining, (lender, triangular,
downy, fimple or divided. Leaves alternate, diftant,
ftalked, each of three leajlets, moftly obtufe with a fmall
point, entire, ribbed and veiny, fmooth and bright-green
above ; downy beneath ; fometimes accompanied by a pair
of fmaller ones at the bafe. Their common y"o&//?aW is about
an inch long, channelled, downy, with a pair of minute
Ime-Ai- Jlipulas at the bafe. Chijlers axillary, (lender, fimple,
longer than the leaves, of feveral fmall reddi(h-blue_/7(/':ffrj,
in diftant couples, on (hort partial ftalks. Legume an inch
long, flender, hairy, its point finally hooked ; the valves
fpiral after burfting. ,

2. T. uiic'watus. Great Hooked Teramnus. Swartz
Ind. Occ. 1239. Willd. n. 2. (T. n. 1 ; Browne Jam,
290. Dolichtos uncinatus ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1019. Plia-
feolus hirfutus, fihquis reftis et aduncis ; Plum. Ic. 215.
t. 221. Ph. fylveftris minor, flore minimo, fihquis longis
teretibus alba lanugine hirfutis ; Sloane Jam. v. i. 182.) —
Leaflets oblong ; (ilky bene.ith ; hairy above. — Native of
dry bulhy places, in various parts of Jamaica. The root
is long and flender. Stem herbaceous, fubdivided, twining,
flender, triangular, its angles hairy and fomewhat bordered ;
the bafe woody. Leajlets one and a half or two inches
long ; their common Jlalk an inch, or inch and a half.
Stipulas fmall, downy, deciduous. Clujlers axillary, ftalked,
often a fpan long, twice the lengtli of the leaves, many-
flowered. Floiuers in diftant pairs, fmall, reddifli. Le-
gume two inches long, ftraight, narrow, comprelTed, hairy,
ending in a bluntifli liookcd point.

TERAMO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo
Ultra ; the fee of a bifliop, immediately under the pope ;
22 miles N.N.E. of Aquila. N. lat. 42° 37'. E. long.

13° 49'-

TERANE', a town of Egypt, on the weft branch of

the Nile ; 18 miles N.W. of Cairo. N. lat. 30° 30'. E.

long. 30"' 45'.

TERANO, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra ; 3 miles
W. of Bifignano.

TERASA RSUK, a town of Eaft Greenland. N. lat.

59^55'. W.long.43^ ^^^^3^

T E R

TERASPURG, a town of Airllm; 2 miles N. of

Egenbur^. ,, ,

TERATOSCOPIA, formed of T^faf, prodigy, ajid
<n„r,^., / confder, a kind ..f divination by tlie appearance
and view of monllcrs, prodiijies, fpeftres, and phantoms.

TERBEDH, in tlie Materia Medka, a name given by
Avicenna to the turbilh, a purging drug, mentioned by
aU the authors of his time ; but, in general, in a very con-

fuf?d maimer.

Garcias tells us, that the Indians ufe it to purge phlegm,
and that they add jC'"g^"'" 'o 't by way of correftive ; and
Avicenna fays tiic fame thing of its ufe in his time.

TERBURGH, Gkhakd, in Biography, a painter of
domeftic fcenes of cxquifite fljill, was born at Zwoll, m
tiie province of Overydel, in 1608, the fon of a pamter
little known, from wliom he received the rudimeats of tlie
art. He began his career as a painter of portraits in fmall,
and had acquired confiderable reputation, when he determined
upon travelling through Germany and Italy. Unengaged by
the fublimcr beauties of art which the latter country offered
to his view, he never [changed his ftyle, but went thence to
Paris to praftife it ; and there met with confiderable fuccefs.
From theace he returned to Holland, and was highly ap-
preciated, and fully employed. He attended the congrefs
adembled at Manlier in 1648, for the negociation of the
treatv of peace, and there painted his celebrated pidure
centaining portraits of the plenipotentiaries and principal
perfonages affembled on that occafion, which is regarded as
his maller-pi^ce ; and of which there is a print by Suyder-
hoef. While engaged upon tliis work, he was invited by
count Pigorando, the Spanifh ambafiador at the congrefs,
to vifit Spain, and went there in confequence ; where he
was mod favourably received, and much employed. The
king conferred upon him the order of knighthood, and re-
warded him munificently for the piftures lie painted. Be-
fides portraits, which conftituted the principal part of his
praftiee, he frequently painted converfations, muiical parties,
ladiej at their toilettes, and domeftic fubjefts, which he
executed with a free, but rather a heavy pencil, not equal
to the brilliancy of Metzu and Netfcher, but neverthelefs
exceedingly meritorious and agreeable ; particularly in the
clofe imitations of his draperitjs. He died in 1 681, at
Deventer, where he fettled on his return from Spain.

TERCERA, or Terceira, in Geography, one of
the Azores iflands, fuppofed to have derived its name
from its ftanding the third in this clufter of iflands
in point of fituation, though the firll in dignity, as ap-
pears from a number of circumftances, and particularly
from its communicating its naisie to the reft. This
ifland is computed at 54 miles in circumference, and
about 25 miles in length, by 15 in medial breadth.
Its figure is almoft circular, the coafts high, and fo fur-
rounded with craggy rocks, that it is deemed impregnable ;
every acceftible part on the coaft being defended by ftrong
forls, heavy cannon, and a numerous and regular garrifon.
The only tolerable port in the whole ifland is the harbour
of Angra. The ifland of Tercera is fertile, pleafant, and
lioalthy : the very rocks, which elfewhere are dry and
barren, produce here excellent vines, though not equal to
thofe raifed in the Canaries and Madeira. The land yields
large crops of wheat and other grain, pafture for cattle,
and a prodigious variety of lemons, oranges, and all thofe
fruits peculiar- to hot and cold climates, which are obferved
to be propagated to the greateft advantage in temperate
countries. Befides Angra, there are feveral other towns
and large villages in Tercera, with a number of forts and
garrifons, under the direftion of the governor, who has the

T E R

power of filling up all vacancies tliat happen ajnong the
military officers. N. lat. 38° 45'. W. long. 27° 6'.

Teii'ci!RA, a fmall iflajid in the Atlantic, near the coaft
of Sierra Leone.

TERCERO, a river of South America, which rifes in
Tucuman, and joins the Salado on the borders of P;vra-
guay.

TERCHIZ, or Tekshiz. See Turshish.

TER-CHOOUZ, in Ornithology. See Upupa Epops.

TERDINA, in the Materia Medica, a name by which
Paracelfus, and fome other authors, have called the great
garden-valerian. Ger. Emac. Ind. 2.

TERDOPIO, in Geography, a river of Italy, which
runt into the Po, 12 miles E.S.E. of Lumello.

TEREBELLA, in Natural Hijlory, a genus of the
MoUufca order of Vermes ; the charafters of which are,
the body oblong, creeping, naked, furnifhed with branchiaj
at the fides, more frequently in the tube ; the mouth la-
biat?d, toothlefs, and projefting a clavated probofcis ; the
tentacula or feelers about the mouth numerous, capillary,
and ciliated. Gmeliu enumerates eleven

Species.

CiRRATA. Round, body \rith triple lateral pencils.
Found in the fandy bottom of the Iceland fea.

Lapidaria. With eight cirri at the anterior parts of
the body, about the mouth four. Found in the Mediter-
ranean fea, within the clefts of rocks.

Cos'CHiLEGA. Whitifli, with numerous filiform cirri at
the mouth, the upper longeft ; the branchiae very red.
Found in the fea waftiing the coaft of Holland.

CoMPLANATA. DeprelTed, mouth with four cirri ; the
lateral pencil-bearing warts of the body arranged on both
fides in a two-told feries.

Carunculata. Depreffed-quadrangular, with a four-
fold feries of ventral pencils, and no cirri. Found in the
American and Indian teas.

RostrAta. Tetraedrous, with a quadruple feries of
pencils from the body, and palate elongated. Found 5n the
Indian fea.

Fi,ava. Deprefled, with thirty-feven branchis on both
fides, and bifurcated tail. Found in the Indian fea.

Rubra. Red, deprefled ; tail terminating with two
cirri ; the head with two horny moveable jaws. Found in
the fea furrounding the iflands of Zealand.

Aphroditois. Round, gradually attenuated backwards,
below fomewhat deprefled with an obfolete furrovif ; no
branchiae in the eight firft fegments, in the following three
fiinplc, in the laft fenfibly greater, one being turned, pin-
nated. Found in the Indian fea.

BicoRNl.s. With a fimple terminal two-horned difc of
the probofcis. Found in the America ocean.

Stellata. With a pcrfoliated triple difc of the pro-
bofcis ; the anterior anned with a truncated horn, radiated
with prickles. Found in the American ocean.

Terebella, (dim. of terebra,) in Surgery, a trepan, or
circular faw, for removing portions of the fl^uU.

TEREBIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, \n.
the Greater Armenia, E. of the fources of the Tigris.
Ptolemy.

TEREBINTACE^, in Botany, the 94th order in
JufTieu's fyftcm, the 12th of his 14th clafs, fo denominated
from the genus for which he choofes to retain the old name
of T'f/-£A;H//^KJ-, but which is the Pi/lacia oi Linnaeus. Many
of the plants of this order abound in an eflential oil of the
nature of turpentine, or fomething like it. The characters
are as follow.

CalyK

T E 11

T E K

Calyx of one leaf, inferior, witii a definite number of
fegments. Petals definite in number, (rarely wanting,)
iiiierted into the lower part of the calyx, alternately with
its fegments, with whicli they agree in number. Stamens
either the fame number, alternate with the petals, or twice
as many, inferted into the fame fpot. Germen fuperior,
cither fimple, or more than one, of a determinate number.
When the germen is fmgle, the Jfy/e is folitary, (rarely defi-
cient,) with a fimple or a divided y?;^ffw ; when there arc
fevcral germens, the ftigmas equal them in number. Fruit
either capfular, a berry, or a drupa, of one or more fingle-
fecded cells. Where there are feveral germens, there are as
many llyles, or fimple ftigmas ; and the fame number of
diftinft fingle-feedcd capfules. The feeds are generally
lodged in a bony nut. The corculum is without an albumen,
its radicle lateral, and reflexed upon the lobes. Stem arbo-
refcent or ihrubby. Leaves alternate, without Jlipuhu,
either firaple, or ternate, or pinnate with an odd leaflet.

Sedion I. Germen fimple. Fruit of one cell, with a foli-
tary feed.

This comprifes Cafuvium of JufTieu and Lamarck, which
is the Linna:an Anacardium ; Anacardium of the fame authors,
which is Semecarpus of Linnius ; Mangifra ; Connarus ;
Rhus; and /{ourca of Aublet, Schreber's Robcrgia.

Seft. 2. Germen fimple. Fruit of many cells, fome of
'which are occafioiially abortive.

Cneorum ; R umphia ; Cemoeladia ; Canarium ; Idea, of
Aublet ; Amyris ; Toddalia, which is Crantzia of Schreber,
Scopolia of Sm. Plant. Ic. (fee Scopolia) ; Scinus ;
Spathelia ; Terebinthus of Tournefort and Juffieu, the Lin-
naean Piflacia ; Burfera ; Toluifera; Tapiria of Aublet,
which is Schreber's Jonquetia; Poupartia of Commerfon,
perhaps not different from our Spondias Mangifea ; and
Spondias itfelf, compofe this feftion.

Se6l. 3. Germen feveral. Fruit of many fmglefeeded
capfules.

Here ai'e only three genera ; Simaha of Aublet, which is
Schreber's Z'wingera ; Aylar.thus of Desfontaines ; and
Brucea of L'Heritier.

Se6t. 4. Genera akin to Terebintacea; but differing in
being furnifhed with ajlefiy albumen, -which brings them near to
Rhamni ; fee that article.

Cneflis of Juffieu, Lamarck Illuftr. t. 3R7 ; Fagara;
Zanthoxylum ; BldA Ptelea.

iSeft. 5. Genera akin to Terebiniacen, and (like the true
plants of this order) deflitute of afefy albumen.

Dodoniea ; Aiierrhoa ; and Juglans.

.Tufiieu announces an intention of dividing this order into
Cajjuvia, true Ferebintaces, and Zanthoxyla ; the firft having
fimple leaves, a fingle-feeded fruit, and an afcending radicle;
the fecond generally pinnate or ternate foliage, a drupa with
feveral fingle-feeded nuts, and a defcending radicle ; and
the tliird pinnate or ternate foliage, moftly marked with
pellucid dots ; fruit of many ccDs or many capfules, each
with fohtary feeds ; and a flefhy albumen furronnding a
ilraight corculum. A fourth order would arife out of cer-
tain genera now intermixed with the reft, but not properly
coming under any of the three juft defined, being thcmfelves
perhaps entitled to lay the foundation of future orders, not
as yet difcovered.

TEREBINTHINA, in Medicine, Natural Hijlory, Sec.
See Turpentine.

TEREBINTHUS, in Botany, Tjp^oOo; of Diofcoridcs.
See PisTAClA and Tekebintace.*.

TEREBOTIN, a word ufed by Paraeelfus for the com-
mon turpentine.

TEREBRA, from xEfji', to bore, a trepan, or trephine.
Vol. XXXV.

Alfo, an inftrument called a perforator, fuch as is contained
in die generality of cafes of trephining inftrumcnts, and i«
uled for making a hole, in which the centre pin of the tre-
phine is to work.

TEREBRATULA, in Natural Hflory, a name given
by Mr. LIuiyd and Gu.ilticri to fomc fpccies of the fmooth
conchx- anomijc, which have near the head of the fhcll a fmall
hole, which looks as if bored by art. See Con( ii.t, Ano-
niiit, and Shells.

TERECOL, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Concan ; 16 miles N.N.W. of Goa.

TEREDO, in Natural Niflory, a genus of the Tcftacca
order of Vermes, the characters of which are, that the ani-
mal is a terebella, with two liemifphcric calcareous valves,
cut off" before, and two lanccolatcd ; the fhell is round,
flexuous, and capable of penetrating wood. Gmelin reckons
three

Species.

Navalls. The Ihell very (lender, cylindric and fmooth.

Utriculus. Shell folid, cylindric and undulated.

Clava. Shell clavated at one end, the other curved,
narrower, obtufe, and perforated in the middle.

The head of the Teredo navalis, called by Linnxus cda-
mitas na-vium, is well prepared by nature for the hard offices
it is to undergo, being coated with a ftrong armour, aiid
furnidied with a mouth like that of the leech ; by which it
pierces wood, as that animal does the (kin : a httle above
this it has two horns, which feem a kind of continuation of
the (hell ; the neck is as ftrongly provided for the fervicc of
the creature as the head, being furnifhed with feveral ftrong
mufcles ; the reft of the body is only covered by a very
thin and tranfparent (l<in, through which the motion of the
inteftines is plainly feen by the naked eye ; and by means of
the microfcope, feveral other very remarkable particulars be-
come vifible there.

This creature is wonderfully minute when newly excluded
from the egg, and at its utmoft bignefs is a foot long ; three
or four inches are however its more frequent length.

When the bottom of a veffel, or any other piece of wood
conftantly under water, is inhabited and injured by ever fo
great a number of thefe worms, there is no fign of the da-
mage to be perceived on the furface, nor are the creatures
vifible till the outer part of the wood is cut or broken
away ; then their ihelly habitations come in fight : thefe lie
fo near the furface, however, as to have an eafy communi-
cation with the water, and there is a multitude of httle per-
forations in the very furface through which the inhabitant
infeds throw out the extremities of their little (helly horns ;
thefe are of a reddifh colour, and may be diftingui(he<l
by an accurate obferver in form of fo many red pro-
minent points ; they all are retraced on the leaft touch, and
are thrown out again as foon as all is quiet. From thefc
points, or the fmall apertures which give them a way out,
are the cells of the teredines to be traced. They are com-
pofed of a pearly or fliclly matter, which forms a long
tube with various windings and turnings, which marje
the abode of the creature ; but which ufually neither ad-
heres to the body of the animal nor to the wood. Thefe
cafes or tubes are always more or lefs loofe in the wood, and
there is ever a large fpace within them, for the body of the
animal to be furroundcd every way with \«ater. They are
very fmooth on the inner furface, and fomewhat rougher
without ; and are much harder and firmer in the cells
of the older and larger animals than in thofe of the young
ones.

Thefe (helly tubes arc compofcd of feveral rings, or an-
Z z nular

r E K

nular parts ; but thefe differ greatly in their leuglli. Tliere
is an evident care in ihefe creatures, never to nijure one an-
other's habitations ; by this means each tubule or cafe is
prcferved entire, and in luch pieces of wood as have been
Lund eaten by them into a fort of honey-comb, there never
ii feen a paflage or communication between any two ot
the tubules, though the woody matter between them often
U not thicker than a piece of writing-paper.

The vail iiicreafe of thefe anmials, and their flielly tubules,
naturally lead to a conlideration of the manner of their
generation ; and when we confider that each of thefe crea-
tures is, from the time when it is produced from the egg,
inmediately lodged in a cell, in which it lives without the
leaft pofllb'iity of getting into that of another animal of its
own kind, or receiving one of them into its own, it is not
eafy to account for the propagation of the fpecies in the
common way. This, however, is folved by an accurate
anatomical obfervation of the animals themfelves, fince in
every individual the parts of generation in both fexes, and
both the femeii and ovula are found. Each individual there-
fore evidently fei-ves by itfelf for the propagation of the
fpecies ; and this is probably very often the cafe in earth-
worms, and other of the hermaphrodite animals. All the
yet known kinds of thefe being foft-bodied ; and probably,
though they often meet one another, and copulate in pairs,
yet when they have not opportunity, the parts copulate in
the individual.

Eggs are found in great plenty in the bodies of thefe ani-
mals in June, and are difcharged with the water into the
fea, where the far greater part of them, doubtlcfs, become
food for other fmall marine animals ; and the few that affix
themfelves to any piece of wood they are wafhcd againft,
hatch and get into its fubftance in the manner of their
parents.

The kind of wood in which thefe worms are lodged,
makes a great difference in the appearance of their cells, as
they work much more fpeedily and fuccefsfuUy in fome kinds
than in others. The Er and alder are the two kinds they
feem to eat with the greateft eafe, and in which they grow
to the greateft. fize. Ii. the oak they feem to make but a
■5?ry flow progrefs, and ufually appear very fmall, and
poorly nourilhed. The colour of their fhelly tubules is often
brown in this wood ; which feems plainly owing to the
effeft of its juices.

Poifonous ointments are alfo found to be of fome ufe in
deftroying them, on rubbing over the wood : fome have
thought that burning the furface was an effeftual way of
preferving them, but this has been found to be otherwife.
The fureil method of avoiding them in particular works,
is the ufing of bitter or very folid woods ; the firft kind they
are found never to touch, and in the other they make but
flow progrefs. Mixtures of hme, fulphur, and colocynth,
with pitch, for covering over the furfaces of boards, &c.
have been found of fome ufe.

It feems very evident, that boards and other pieces of
wood have been fubjeft to be eaten by thefe animals, from
all times that we have any knowledge of ; for the flone called
lapis fyringoides is evidently no other than wood thus eaten,
petrified by long lying in the earth, together with the tubules
of the worms. The mafles of this with the grain of wood
yet plain in them, are common in many places among fea-
ihells, and other marine remains at great depths, and have
evidently been brought thither in very diftant times, and
before thofe changes were made in the furface of the earth
of which we have no accounts in our earlieft hiftorieB.
Sellii Hift. Natur. Teredims.

TEREDON, in Antieot Ceo^rafhy, a town of Afia> in

T E R

Babylonia, on an ifland which was formed by the Tigris ac
its mouth. (Ptol.) Dionyfius Periegetes places the town of
Teredon at the mouth of the Euphrates.

TEREK, in Geography, a mountain of Alia, between
Great and Little Bucharia.

Tkrek, one of the rivers that fall into the Cafpian fea-
It originates in the Caucaiian mountains, runs at firll to-
wards the W. and S., but turns afterwards entirely to the E.
and in about N. lat. 44°, and E. long. 65°, difcharges itfelf
into the Cafpian. It takes up in its courfe the Bakfan, the
Malka, and the Soonflia, among many other mountain-
brooks and rivers. Its fource lies properly in the Snow-
mountains of Caucafus, on the higheft partition-ridges of
the frontiers of Georgia. It is rapid in its courfe ; and, in
the months of July and Auguft, when the fnow melts,
fwells to the height of eight or ten feet above its ufual
level in autumn, winter, and fpring ; overflowing its banks,
and inundating the adjacent cojintry, forming for itfelf new
beds, and choaking the old with fand. In its lower courfe,,
as far as Kitzliar, it is almofl; entirely unaccompanied by
woods ; farther up, to Starogladka, by a few ; and thence
upwards, its banks are richly garnifhed with forells, parti-
cularly of oaks, wild fruit-trees, and a variety of others.
It does not freeze over every year, though in winter it
abounds with driving ice. In this feafon its water is tole-
rably clear, which at other times, above Kitzliar, is turbid,
with earthy particles ; but when taken up, it foon becomes-
clear, and is then bright, well-taft^ed, and of good quality.
Below Kitzliar, the river has a lefs fall, and ieparates into
feveral arms, in which the parted ftream flows fo gently,
that it has time to depofit its earthy particles, which alter-
nately fill up thefe arms ; fo that one or the other occa-
fionally reprefents the main river. In the lower regions, on,
the fliores of the Terek, are feen vineyards, mulberry and
other fruit-trees, to which fucceed fait -lakes, and fprings of
the fame nature. Its bed is formed moftly of fand and
clay. With regard to fifli, the Terek, as well as all its
collateral rivers, is poor. Yet there are caught in it ft:ur-
geon (acipenfer fturio), beluga (acipenfer hufo), ferruga
(acipenfer ftellatus. Pall.), plenty of falmon, fat-fifh (cy-
prinus chalcoides), carp, barbel (cyprinus barbus), fllad>
pike, fudak (lucio perca), perch (perca fluviatilis), lefchtfe
(cyprinus barba, ) otters, beavers, tortoifes, &c.
Terek, in Ornithology. See Scolopax Cinerea.
TERELLA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the
Mohfe ; 4 miles N. of MoUfe.

TERENCE, PuBLlus Terentihs, in Biography, a
Latin writer of comedies, was born, as it is fuppofed, at
Carthage about the year pf Rome 560 (B.C. 194.) Being
brought to Rome as a flave, when young, he was in the
fervice of a perfon named Terentius, a fenator, from whom
he derived his name- The purity and politenefs of his lan-
guage evince his having enjoyed the benefit of a good-
Roman education. After his emancipation, he was ho-
noured with the friendftiip of feveral Romans of rank, fuck
as Scipio Africanus the younger, and the younger Lelius-
His comedies were founded upon the Greek model, and
tranflated, either wholly or in part, from the Greek. The
firft comedy which he is faid to have brought upon the ftage,.
was the- " Andrio," reprefented in the year B.C. 166-
But though this was the firft of his comedies that was afted,.
it appears that it was not the firft which he had written-
The fix comedies of Terence that are ftill extant were ex-
hibited at Rome from the year B.C. 166 to 160. They
were heard with great applaufe ; the " Eunuchus" was
repeated twice in the fame day, and he is faid to have
received for it 8000 fefterces (about 64/.) Scipio and

Lclius»

T E R

T E 11

Lelius, as tradition reports, had a great part in tlie com-
pofition of Terence's comedies. Terence himfelf in a
prologue fecms tacitly to acknowledge the faft. But
modern writers and critics, who have rcafoncd on this faft,
think it very improbable. Generals and ftatelmen were
not perfons likely to poffefs the habit of dramatic com-
pofition, whatever previous hints or fubfequcnt correftions
they might furniil\ ; and befides it is obfervcd, that no
writings more ftrongly indicate by their ftyle and manner
that they are the produftion of a fingle hand than thofe of
Terence. After he had prefented thefe comedies to the
public he departed for Greece, and never returned to
Rome. Some liave accounted for this circiunllance, by
fuppofing that he periilied by Hiipwreck ; others affirm that
he died in Greece, from the grief he experienced on account
-of tlie lofs of his baggage and feme new comedies, which
he had compofed, by an accident at fea.

The judgment of critics on the performances of Terence
lias been very different though their real merit is faid not
to be of difficult eitimation. It is generally allowed that he
is defeftive in invention and originality of obfcrvalion. This
•fufficiently appears from his having Greek manners and
charafters in all his plays. He was likewile a plagiarill,
with regard to the fentiments, as well as to the plots and
incidents of his pieces ; but a very competent Judge ob-
serves, " that he is juftly entitled to the praife of judicious
feleftion, happy difpofition, and purity and neatuefs of
language ; and that, as a Latin writer, in a flyle of elegance
of which there are fo few examples, he was highly prized
in his own times, and is invaluable in ours. Cicero, who
fpeaks of him as a tranflator of Menander, applauds him as
the only one who had exprefTed in the Latin language all
the politenefs and amenity of the original ; and Caelar, in
fome well-known lines, calls him ' the lover of pure
diftion ;' and alfo by the epithet of the halved Menander ;
and his regret that Terence did not poffefs the vis comlca, as
well as the other excellencies of his model, points out his
■deficiencies." Of the numerous editions of Terence, the
moft efleemed are the following; •viz. the " Variorum,"
Amft. and Lugd. fiatav. 1686; " Bentleii," Cantab. 4to.
1726; " Wefterhovii," Hag. C. 4to. 1726; " Zeunii,"
Lipf. 8vo. 1774; '" Brunckii," Bafd, 410. 1779. Voff.
Poet. Lat. Gen. Biog.

TERENJABIN, in the Materia Medica of the Ancient
Arabians, a word ufed to exprefs a kind of manna called
by fome manna majlichina, from its round globules refembling
the drops of maftich, and by the phyficians of many parts of
the world at prefent. Manna Perficum; wliich fee. See
farther about this drug in Philof. Tranf. N" 472. vol. xliii.
p. 87.

TERES LiGAMENTUM, in Anatomy, one of the liga-
ments of the hip-joint. See Extremities.

Teres Ligamentum Uteri. See Generation.

Teres Major and Minor, two mufcles of the fhoulder, fo
called, becaufe their figure is fomewhat rounded.

The teres major (fcapulo-humerien, le grand rond) is
elongated and flattened, placed at the lower and back part
of the fhoulder, and extending from the inferior angle of
the fcapula to the pofterior edge of the bicipital groove of
the humerus. The latiffimus dorfi, the flcin, and the long
head of the triceps, cover it behind ; in front, it is covered by
the latiflimus, the axillary veffels and plexus of nerves, the fhort
head of the biceps, and the coraco-brachialis. Its upper
edge correfponds firfl to the teres minor, then is feparated
from that mufcle by the long head of the triceps, and laflly
correfponds to the fubfcapularis, fi-om which the circumflex
vefTel and nerve feparatc it. The lower edge, covered by

tlic fl<in, forms, with the latiffimus, the border of the axilla.
The inferior or external extremity of the mufcle is fixed to
the external furface of the inferior Angle of the fcapula, and
to the neighl)Ouring part of its lower edge : thence it aftends,
paffmg obliquely outwards, retaining nearly an uniform
breadth (.ibout three fingers) throughout ; and is attached to
the pofterior margin of the bicipital groove. The latter at -
tachment takes place by means of a flattened tendon, about an
inch broad, which correfponds in front to that of the latlffmiuii
dorfi. There is a fmall burfu niucofa between its pollervor
furface and tlvc humerus. It lines the bicipital groove by
fome fibres, which meet thofeof the pedoralis major. Mufcu-
lar fibres arife from the outer furface and inferior angle of the
fcapula, from the lower portion of the inferior cofta, and from
a feptum between this mufcle and the infrafpinatus ; and they
terminate on the tendon juil defcribed. It carries the arm
backwards ; depreffes it when it has been raifed ; rotates
the humerus on its axis, fo as to turn the arm inwards or
forwards. In conjunftion with the latiffimus, and pettoralii
major, it will fix the arm againft the fide. It will pull the
fcapula forwards or upwards to the arm, when that is fixed.

Teres minor (petit rond) M a fmall elongated mufcle,
lying at the pofterior and under part of the (houlder, extending
from the inferior edge of the fcapula to the external tubercle
of the humerus. Covered behind by the deltoid and fkin, it
covers in front the edge of the fcapula, the infi-afcapular
artery, the long head of the triceps, and the orbicular ligament
of the fhodlder-joint. Its upper edge is either continuous
with the infrafpinatus, fo that they form but one mufcle, or
rs feparated from it by a cellular line. Towards the back
part there is an aponeurotic feptum between them. The
lower edge is clofe to the teres major behind, but feparated
from it anteriorly by the long head of the triceps. X^"^
lower or pofterior extremity is fmall and pointed, and begins
its attachment to the fcapula, juft where that of the teres
major ends, between the latter mufcle and the infrafpinatus:
it paffes obliquely upwards and outwards, fixed to the lower
and outer edge of the fcapula, and is inferted in the lower
or back part of the great tubercle of the humerus. This
infertion is effefted by means of a tendon, clofcly conncfted
to that of the infrafpinatus, difperfing fome of its fibres on
the orbicular ligament, and receiving the flefhy fibres in all
direftions from the origin of the mufcle. Its aftion has
exaftly the fame cffedl with that of the infrafpinatus f
which fee.

Teres Folium, in Botany. See Leaf.

TERESA, or Theresa, in Biography, a faint in the Ro-
man Catholic church, was born, of a noble family, at Avila,
in Old Caftile, in March 1515. Her father, by reading the
fives of faints to his family, infpired her, at an early age, with
an cnthufiaftic fervour, whicji induced her to elope with one of
her brothers, to feek martyrdoms among the Moors. When
they were brought back, they indulged the fame paffion by
conftrufting little hermitages in the garden, wliither they
retired to perform their exercifes of devotion at twelve years
of age. Terefa loft her mother, and was boarded in an
Auguftine convent, and this fituation prevented her being
feduced by the pleafures of the world, for which fhe began
to indulge a propenfity in confequence of reading romances ;
but for her farther fccurity flie took the veil in the Carmelite
monaftery of the Incarnation at Avila, in her twcnty-fecond
year. Her perfon was beautiful, and attrafted the admira-
tion and love of all who faw Iter ; but her religious ideas,
though tender and rapturous, were aufterc ; and perceiving
that the difcipline of the houfe in which fhe rcfidcd was
relaxed, fhe luidertook a reform of the Carnirlitc order.
After much oppofition, fhe fuccceded in cftablifhimr the
Zk2 firft

T E R

full irvonaftery of the female reform at Avila, in 1562, and
Raving extended her plan tc the rclii^ious males of the order,
ihe founded in 1568 the monaftery of Dorvello, which was
iU origin of the more rigid, or barefooted, Carmelites. Her
■ieal and affidiiity enabled iK-r to found thirty religious
houfes of the reform, fourteen for men and fixteen for
women ; and after her death it extended through all the
C'athohc countries of Chriftcndom. Tcrcfa died at Alva in
Oftober 1582, in the 68th year of her age. She was
canonized by Gn'gory XV. in 1621 ; and afterwards be-
came the patron faint of Spain. See Carmelites.

Tere-sa, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the province
of Valencia ; 10 miles N.W. of Segorbe.

TERESSA. See Teruessa.

TERETES, in Horfes, one of the three forts of worms
which in/eft the bodies of them, and which are very trouble-
fome and injurious. See AscA rides, Bots, and Worms.

This fort of worm, which is found in horfes, refembles the
common earth-worms in many refpefts, being only (harper
at both ends, callous towards the middle, and they do not
contraft or dilate themfelves fo eafily. Some of thefe, which
have been feen to come from horfes, hinder them from thriv-
ing till they are diflodged by proper remedies.

TE RET RUM, in Surgery. See Terebra.

TERFEZ, in Natural Hijlory, the name given by the
Africans to the truffles found in the defarts of Numidia,
and other places in that part of the world, in great
abundance.

Thefe are much more delicately tailed than the European
truffles, and are white on the outfide. They are called by
fome of the Africans kema, and by the Arabian writers
cantha and camahe.

TERFOWA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Tunis ; 1 20 miles S. of Tunis.

TERFOWY, a town of Nubia ; 150 miles S. of Syene.
N. lat. 21° 40'. E. long. 34=5'.

TERGA, a town of Morocco, on the Morbeya; 90
miles N. of Morocco.

Terga. See Hair.

TERGARRY, a town of Hindooftan, in Bednore ; 14
miles S.E. of Simogu.

TERGAZA, in /Indent Geography, a town of Africa,
which was one of thofe which Manhus took pofleffion of
in the third Punic war, and which he pillaged.

TERGESTE. See Trieste.

TERGESTICUS Sinus, a gulf of Italy, on the coaft
of the Adriatic fea. It took its name from the town
Tergcfle, which was fituated there.

TERGIFOETOUSPLANTS.fuchasbeartheir feeds on
the backfides of their leaves : fuch are the capillaries. See
Capillary.

TERGIL, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
the province of Erzerum ; 30 miles E. of Palu.

TERGIS, in ^Indent Geography, a town of Africa, in
Libya, on the confines of Ethiopia.

TERGISONUS, a river of Italy, in Venetia, N. of the
river Padus.

TER-GOUD, or Ter-gouw, in Geography. See GouD.

TERGOVITZ, or Tergovista, a town and capital of
Walachia, where the waiwode has a palace ; 64 miles S.E.
of Hermenftadt. N. lat. 45° 3'. E. long. 25" 29'.

TERHALTEN, a fmall ifland near the coaft cf Terra
del Fuego. S. lat. 55° 20*.

TERHEY, a town of HoUand ; 10 miles W. of Delft.

TERIDATA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
iMefopotamia, on the banks of the Euphrates. Ptolemy.

TERINA, a town of Italy, upon the weftern coaft of
10

T E R

Br\itium, and in the northern part of the gulf Hipponium. —
Alfo, a town of Afia, fituated in the mountains W. of
Moxoun6.

TERIUM, a town of Macedonia, in Pieria.

TERKAT, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
the government of Sivas ; 20 miles N.W. of Tocat.

TERKELA, a river of Africa, which joins the Tafilet,
20 miles S. of Togda.

TERKI. See Terek.

Terki. See Turkin.

TERKIRI, a lake of Thibet, about 80 miles long and
25 broad. N. lat. 32°- E. long. 91° 14'.

TERKUL, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Ural,
at Uralflc, in the government of Caucafus.

TERLIZZI, a town of Naples, in the province of Bari ;
7 miles S.E. of Trani.

TERLON, a river of France, which runs into the
Sambre, about 3 miles below Landrecy.

TERM, Terminus, the extreme of any thing, or that
which bounds and limits its extent. See Extreme.

Term, in Geometry, is fometimes ufed for a point, fome-
times for a line, &c. A line is the term of a fuperficies,
and a fuperficies of a folid.

This is what the fchools call terminus quantitatis.

Term, in Laiv, fignifies a boundary, or limitation of time,
or eftate.

In this fenfe we fay, a leafe for term of life, for term of
years, &c.

Terms, Termes, Termini, in ylrchitedure, denote a
kind of ftatues, or columns, adorned at top with the figure
of a man's, woman's, or fatyr's head, as a capital ; and the
lower part ending in a kind of (heath, or fcabbard. See
Hermes.

Some write the word thermes, from Hermes, a name the
Greeks gave the god Mercury ; whofe ftatue, made after
this manner, was placed in feveral of the crofs ways in the
city of Athens, &c. Others bring the etymology of the
word from the Roman god Terminus, the protedlor of land-
marks ; whofe ftatue (made without hands or feet, that he
might not change his place) was ufed to be planted at the
bounds of lands, to feparate them.

Terms are fometimes ufed as confoles, and fuftain enta-
blatures ; and fometimes as ftatues, to adorn gardens. Of
thefe termini, the architefts make great variety ; viz. angelic,
rujlic, marine, double, in bujl, &c.

Terms, Miliary, termini mi/iares, among the ancient
Greeks, were the heads of certain divinities, placed on
fquare land-marks of ftone, or on a kind of ftieath, to mark
the feveral ftadia, &c. in the roads. Thefe are what Plautus
calls lares viahs.

They were ufually dedicated to Mercury, whom the
Greeks believed to prefide over the highways.

Some of them were reprefented with four heads, fuch as
we ftill fee in Rome, at the end of the Fabrician bridge ;
which is hence called ^on/c eli quattro capi. It is known that
Mercury was thus reprefented, and alfo called by the Latins
Mercurius quadrijrons ; as being fuppofed the firft who in-
vented the ufe of letters, mufic, wreftling, and geometry.
See Hermes.

Terms are alfo ufed for the feveral times or feafons of
the year, in which the tribunals, or courts of judicature, are
open to all who think fit to complain of wrong, or to feek
their rights by due courfe of law, or action ; and during
which the courts in Weftminfter-hall fit and give judgment.
But the high court of parliament, the chancery, and inferior
courts, do not obferve the terms ; only the courts of king's
bench, common pleas, and exchequer, which are the liigheft

courts

T E R

T E K

courts at common law. In contradiftindtion to ihcle, the
rcil of the year is called •vacation.

Of thefe terms there are four in every year, during which
time matters of juftice are difpatched.

/^/7«rv term, which, at London, begins the 23d of Janu-
ary, or if that be Sunday, the next day after ; and ends the
I2tli of February following.

Eajter term, which begins the Wednefday fortnight after
Eafter-day, and ends the Monday next after Afcenfion-day.
Trinity term, beginning the Friday next after Trinity-
Sunday, and ending the Wednefday fortnight after.

Michaehias term, whicli begins the 6th of November,
and ends the 28th of November following.

Each of thcfc terms has alfo their returns ; which fee.
Thefe terms are fuppofcd by Mr. Selden to have been in-
ftituted by William the Conqueror ; but fir H. Spelman hath
fhewn, that they were gradually formed from the canonical
conftitutions of the church ; being no other than thofe leifure
feafons of the year, which were not occupied by the great
fcftivals or f.ifts, or which were not liable to the general
avocations of rural bufmcfs. Throughout all Chriftendcr.i,
in very early times, the whole year was one continued term
for hearing and deciding of caufes. For the Chriftian magi-
ftrates, in order to diftinguifh themfelves from the Heathens,
who were very fuperftitious in the obfervation of their dies
fajli and nejajli, adminiftered juftice upon all days alike ; till
at length the church interpofed, and exempted certain holy
feafons from being profaned by the tumult of forenfic liti-
gations ; as, particularly, the time of Advent and Chriftmas,
which gave rife to the winter vacation ; the time of Lent
and Eailer, which created that in the fpring ; the time of
Peatecoft, which produced the third ; and the long vacation,
between Midfummer and Michaelmas, which was allowed
for the hay-time and harveft. All Sundays alfo, and fome
peculiar feftivals, as the days of the Purification, Afcenfion,
&c. were included in the fame prohibition, which was efta-
blifhed by a canon of the church, A.D. 517, and fortified
by an imperial conftitution of the younger Theodofius, com-
prifed in the Theodofian code. Afterwards, when our own
legal conftitution was eftablifhed, the commencement and
duration of our law terms were appointed, with a view to
thefe canonical prohibitions ; and it was ordered by the laws
of king Edward the Confeflor, that from Advent to the
oftave of the Epiphany, from Septuagefima to the oftave
of Eafter, from the Afcenfion to the oftave of Pentecoft,
and from three in the afternoon of all Saturdays till Monday
morning, the peace of God and holy church fliall be kept
throughout the whole kingdom.

And fo extravagant was afterwards the regard paid to
thefe holy times, that though the author of the Mirror men-
tions only one vacation of conliderable length, containing
the months of Auguft and September, yet Britton lays, that
in the reign of king Edward L no fecular plea could be
held, nor any man fworn on the Evangelills, in the time of
Advent, Lent, Pentecoft, harveft, and vintage, the days of
the great litanies, and all iolemn feftivals. He adds, that the
biftiops and prelates granted difpenfations for taking afiizes
and juries in fome of theie holy feafons, upon reafonable
occafions ; and foon after a general difpenfation was efta-
blifhed in parhament by ftat. Weftm. i. 4Edw. L cap. 51,
that affizes of novel difleifin, mort d'anceftor, and darrein pre-
fentment, fhould be taken in Advent, Septuagefima, and
Lent, as well as inquefts ; at the fpecial requeft of the king
to the bifhops. The portions of time that were not included
within thefe prohibited feafons, fell naturally into a fourfold
divifion ; and from fome feftival, or faint's day that imme-
diately preceded their commencement, were denominated the

terms of St. Hilary, of Eafter, of the Holy Trinity, and of
St. Michael : which terms have been fince regulated and
abbreviated by feveral afts of parliament ; particularly
Trinity term by ftat. 32 Hen. VHL c. 2. and Michael-
mas term by llat. 16 Car. L c. 6. and again by ftat.
24 Geo. n. c. 38. Blackft. Com. vol. iii.

Terms, Oxford. Hilary or Lent term begins January
14th, and ends the Saturday before Palni-Sunday.
Eafter term begins the tenth day after Eafter, and end* the
Thnrfday before Whitfuoday. Trinity term begins ttie
Wednefday after Trinity-Sund.iy, and ends after th^ aft,
or 6th of July, fooncr or later, as the vice-chancellor and
convocation pleafe. Michaelmas term begins Odlober loth,
and ends December 17th.

Terms, Cambridge, Lent term begins Janu.ary 14th, and
ends the Friday before Palm-Sunday. Eafter term begins
tne Wednefday after Eafter-week, and ends the week before
Whitfunday. Trinity term begins the Wednefday after
Trinity-Sunday, and ends the Friday after the commence-
ment, or 2d of July. Michaelmas term begins Oclobcr loth,
and ends December 1 6th.

Terms, Scott'Jh. In Scotland, Candlemas term begins
January 23d, and ends February 12th. Whitfuntide term
begins May 25th, and ends June 15th. Lammas term begins
July 20th, and ends Auguft 8th. Martinmas term begins
November 3d, and ends November 29th.

Terms, Irijh. In Ireland the terms are the fame as at
London, except Michaelmas term, which begins Oflober
1 3th, and adjourns to November 3d, and thence to the 6th.
Term, in Grammar, denotes fome word or expreffion in
a language. See Word.

The word term, terminus, is borrowed metaphorically, by
the grammarians and philofophers, from the meafurers or
furveyors of lands : as a field is defined and diftinguiftied by
its termini, or limits, fo is a thing or matter fpoken of, by the
word or term by which it is denoted.

Term, in the jlrts, or Term of Jlrt, is a word which, be-
fides the literal and popular meaning which it has, or may
have, in common language, bears a farther and peculiar mean-
ing in fome art or fcience. See Art.

Or, a term is a word which has one or more meanings
befide its grammatical one ; or which has a peculiar force or
import in the language of fome particular fcience or art.

A word then becomes a term when its idea is rendered
more complex, confifts of more parts, and includes more
fpecial circumftances, on fome occafions than others.

It is this greater complexnefs, this excefs of conftituent
parts of the idea, that denominates it a term in the general.
Farther, as the parts of the idea, fignified by any word, are
arbitrary ; and as one may not only add new parts to thofe
contained in the literal meaning, but alfo fuperadd others
to them, alter them, extend them, and otherwife modify
them at pleafure ; hence the fame word becomes a term of
this or that art, or both, as the inventors or improvers of
thofe arts have thought fit to adopt it for the common balis
of certain ideas, and to modify and circumftantiate its
meaning to the ufe of their refpedlive arts. See De-

IINITION.

Terms, abflraS, complex, concrete, equivalent, equivocal, ge-
neral, relative, fynonimous, univocal. See the adjeftives.

Term, in Logic. A propofition is faid to confift of two
terms, i. e. two principal and elTential words, the fuijecf and
the attribute.

A fyllogifm confifts of throe terms, the major, minor, ar.d
conclufion. See Syllogism.

Terms of an Equation, in Algebra. See Equation.

Terms of Proportion, in Mathematics, are fuch numbers,

letters.

T E R

letters, or quantities, as are compared one witli anotJier.
Soo PitoroifTiON.

Tkhms, or courfei, in Mtdicinc, tlie menfcs, or women s
montlily purgations. r tt- i a

TERMALY, in Giography, a town of Hindooilan, m
Myfore ; i 5 miles N.E. of Anantpour.

TERMED, or Taumad, a town of Grand Buchaiia, at
the union of two large rivers, wliofc united ftreams form ttie
.lihon ; the capital of a confiderable dillria. In 1221, this
town was boiiegcd by Jenghis Khan, and, after eleven days,
taken by alTauh : after which the conqueror put moit of the
inhabitants to tiie fword, and deftroyed the town. It was
rebuilt in the following century ; i. 30 miles S. of Saraarcand.
N. lat. ^7° ^o'- E. long. 65^48'.

TERMEH, or Kaumili, a river of Afiatic Turkey,
which runs into the Black fea, 30 miles N.E. of Samfoun.

TERMERA, or Tekmkrilm, \\\ ArKient Geography, a
free town of Afia Minor, in Caria.

TERMES, called Tterme, a town of Hither Spain,
belonging to the Arevaci, S. of Numantium.

Ter.mes, in Entomology, a genus of the Aptera order
of infeds. Its charafters are, that it has fix legs formed for
running ; two eyes ; fetaceous antennx, and a mouth with
two jaws. According to Gmelin, the charafters are, that
tlie mouth has two horny jaws, with a horny, quadrifid lip,
linear acute fringes, four equal filiform feelers, or palpi,
antennae (moftly ) monilifonn, and two eyes. Linnseus enu-
merates three, and Gmelin eight

Species.

Fatale. Above brown ; thorax with three fegments ;
wings pallid, and cofta, or rib, teftaceous. This is the de-
ftruftor of Degeer, and T. bellicofum of Smeathman. It is
found in the (hady parts of the equinoftial regions of India
and Africa. See the fequel of this article.

Destructor. Above teftaceous ; head black ; antenna
yellow. Found in the iflands oppofite to South America,
Africa, and India.

Arda. Black ; abdomen with fegments white at the
apex ; legs paUid. Found in the equinoftial parts of Africa.

MoKDAX. Black ; the fegments of the abdomen white
at the apex ; legs black. Found in the equinoftial parts of
Africa.

Capense. Yellow, with hyaline wings ; brown at the
margin. Found in India and Southern Africa.

FATrDKTJM. Abdomen ovate ; mouth pallid ; brown
eyes ; antennae fetaceous. Found in Europe, chiefly the
fouthern part.

PuLSATORiUM. Abdomen oblong ; mouth red ; eyes
yellow ; antennae fetaceous. Found in Europe and Ame-
rica.

DiviNATORiUM. Abdomen tranfverfely falcated ; brown
mouth, and black eyes. Chiefly found in books ; very lively,
irritable, and whitifh.

It is obferved, that the European fpecies of termes are
very fmall, compared with thofe of the warmer regions of
Africa and America ; and infl:ead of being gregarious, as
in thofe climates, are ufually found fingle. Of thefe, the
mofl; known is the T. pulfatorius of Linnsus, a fmall infeft
of a whitifli colour, and diftinguilhed by Derham and fome
other naturalifts, by the appellation of " Pediculus pulfa-
torius." During the months of fumraer it is common in
houfes, particularly in decayed wainfcots, and is remarkable
for emitting a long-continued found, refembling the ticking
of a watch ; it is commonly met with in coUeftions of dried
plants, &c. to which it is very injurious. It cannot bear,
on acccwnt of its tender frame, the flighteft prefl'ure, and it

T E II

is very quick in its motion. When magnified, the head appears
large, tlie eyes very confpicuous, of a beautiful golden
colour, and divided into innumerable hexagonal convexities ;
the antennae long and fetaceous ; the palpi two in number,
moderately long, and terminating in a large club-diaped top ;
the thorax rather narrow, and tlie abdomen obtufely oval ;
the thighs, or firft joints of the legs, thick, the remaining
ones flender, and the feet furniflied with very fmall claws.
The whole animal is bcfet with fcattered hairs. This infeft,
according to the obfervations of Derham, when firfl; hatched
from the egg, is white, oval, and very fmall, exaftly refem-
bling a common mite ; furniflied with eight legs, and befet
with long hairs. After a certain time it cafts its fliin, and
appears in the form already defcribed. Degeer has found
on each fide of the thorax the appearances of rudiments of
wings, refembling a pair of oblong fcales ; and Dr. Shaw
affirms, from his own obfervations, that fome individuals of
this fpecies become winged at their full growth ; the wings,
four in number, being very large, of a flightly indiftinft
appearance, and variegated with blackifli and brown clouds
or fpots. In the beginning of July this change takes place,
and feveral infefts may be feen wi-th the wings half-grown ;
in a few days they gain their full fize.

Dr. Derham is of opinion, that the ticking found of thefe
animals is analogous to the call of birds to their mates during
the breeding feafon ; and this opinion is very probable. This
found, fays Dr. Shaw, as well as that produced by the " Ptinus
fatidicus," or death-watch, feems to prove in a convincing
manner, that infefts poffefs the faculty of hearing, though
this be-denied by fome naturalifts.

Of the exotic termites, the moft remarkable is the
T. bellicofus. The animals of this fpecies have lately
been minutely defcribed by Mr. Smeathman, from whofe
account the following particulars are extrafted.

The termites, which have been taken notice of by various
travellers in different parts of the torrid zone, and called by
the name of white ants, refcmble the ants in their manner of
living, which is in communities, forming extraordinary nefts
in the furface of the ground, and various fubterraneous paf-
fages, and alfo in their provident and diligent labour ; but
in both refpefts much furpafs them. The termites are re-
prefented by Linnaeus as the greateft calamity of both
Indies, becaufe of the havoc they make in all kinds of
wooden buildings, utenfils, and furniture, fb that nothing but
metal or ftone can efcape their deftruftive jaws.

Smeathman obferves, that the infeft in its perfeft ftate has
four wings without any fting, and fliould therefore be ranged
under the neuroptera, and not under the aptera of the Lin-
nsan fyftem. The communities of termites confift of one
male and one female, generally the parents of all the reft,
and of three orders of infefts, apparently of very dif-
ferent, though really of the fame fpecies. Thofe of the firft
order are the working infefts, or labourers ; the fecond
comprehends the fighting infefts, or foldiers, which do no
labour ; and the third are the winged ones, or perfeft in-
fefts, which are male and female, and capable of propa-
gation, but neither labour nor fight ; the kings and queens
belong to this order, and within a few weeks after they are
elefted and elevated to this rank, they migrate, and either
eftabhfli new kingdoms, or perifli within a day or two. The
largeft fpecies, called termes beUicofus, is the beft known on
the coaft of Africa ; it erefts immenfe buildings of well-
tempered earth or clay, which are conftrufted with fignal
ingenuity : it does infinite mifchief in one refpeft, and in
another it is peculiarly important and ufeful, by deftroying
thofe vegetable or animal fubftances which incumber the
earth, and are noxious on Recount of their putridity. The

buildings

TERMES.

buildings (ul'ually termed hills) which tlicfe infefts ercft, are
ja tLeii general form like fugar -loaves, and about ten or
tvvelve feet high ; and confift of an exterior part, which is
hrge and ftrong, intended partly for defence, and partly for
preferving a regular degree of warmth in order to hatch the
ego-s and cherifh the young : and an interior, which is the
l.abitable part, divided into many apartments for the refi-
Jence of the king and queen, the nurfing of their progeny,
the accommodation of the foldiers and labourers, or maga-
zines of provifion. The royal chamber, in the interior
building, or that occupied by the king and queen, is fituated
near the centre, and ufually in the fliape of a fcmi-oval
within.

In the infant (late of the colony, it is not more than about
ar. inch in length, but in time it is enlarged to fix or eight
inches in the clear, being in fize adapted to that of the
queen. It has doors or entrances, at pretty equal dif-
tances from each other, which entrances are of a fize not to
adiTiit any animal larger than the foldiers and labourers : fo
that the kino' and queen, when once immured, can never go
out. The royal chamber is furroundcd by many others of
different fizes, (hapes, and dimenfions ; and they either open
into each other, or communicate by paflages fuitably con-
trived. Theie apartments are connefted with the maga-
zines, formed altogether of clay, and nurferies. The provi-
fions lodged in the former appear by the microfcope to con-
lift principally of the gums or infpiflTated juices of plants.
The nurferies are compofed entirely of vifooden materials,
joined together apparently with gums. Thefe nurferies are
occupied by the eggs, and young infefts, which appear at
firft in the fhape of labourers, but white as fnow. They are
very compaft, and divided into fmall chambers, not one of
which is to be found of half an inch in width. They are
placed round and near the royal apartments. As the queen
enlarges, her chamber is alfo enlarged ; and new apartments
are fitted up for her attendants ; and alfo new nurferies at a
remoter diftance. Thus, fays Mr. Smeathman, they con-
tinually enlarge their apartments, pull down, repair, and re-
build, according to their wants, with a degree of fagacity,
regularity, and forefight, not even imitated by any other
kind of animals or infeAs which he has ever heard of. Thefe
nurferies are always found flightly overgrown with or
plentifully fprinkled with fmall white globules, about the
fize of a fmall pin's head, firft fuppofed to be the eggs, but
found by the microfcope to be fmall mufhrooms. The
royal chamber is fituated at about a level with the furface
of the ground, at an equal diftance from all the fides of the
building, and in every direftion fnrrounded by the apart-
ments of labourers or foldiers, for the purpofe of attend-
ance. Thefe apartments compofe an intricate labyrinth,
extending a foot or more in diameter, from the royal
chamber on every fide. Here the nurferies and magazines
of provifions commence, and being feparated by fmall empty
• cliambers or galleries, are continued on all fides to the out-
ward fhell, and reaching up within it two-thirds or three-
fourths of its height. All thefe chambers, and pafTages
leading to and and from them, being arched, help to fupport
one another : and the exterior building fupports them on
the outfide. Our limits will not allow our defcribing all the
fubterranean galleries or pafTages, and the manner in which
they are artfully made to communicate with different parts of
the building, and to fuit the convenience of the labourers
and foldiers, as thoroughfares for pafTmg and repafling with
their loads of materials and provifions.

There are other nefts or habitations conftrufted by other
fpccies, which are in the form of turrets, or upright cy-
linders, and contain a number of ceils : they ai-e of two fizes,

for the accommodation o a larger" and fmafler fpceies : and
again anotlier kind of iiells, which is the habitation of a dif-
tinfl fpecies ; this is generally fpherical or oval, and built
in trees.

Of the three orders above-mentioned, the labourers,
which are about one-fourth of an inch long, and twenty-five
of them weigh about a grain, are the moft numerous ; e. g.
in the T. bellicofus, tliere lecni to be at leaft one hundred
labourers to one of the fighting infefts or foldiers. The
foldiers are about iialf an inch long, and equal in bulk to
fifteen of the labourers ; the mouth of the latter is evidently
calculated for gnawing and liolding of bodies, whereas that of
the former, or foldiers, has its jaw (haped like two fliarp
awls, a little jagged, and as hard as a crab's claws, fo that
they are incapable of any thing but piercing or wounding :
in infefts of the third order, which Iiave arrived at their per-
feft ftate, the head, thorax, and abdomen, are wlioUy dif-
ferent from thofe of the otlicr orders, and they are furnifhed
with four large browniili tranfparent wings ; their length is
fix or feven-tenths of an inch, and each is equal in bulk to
thirty labourers : they have now two eyes which are vifible,
whereas if they had them before they are not diftinguifhable.
Thefe infefts are gathered and eat by the inhabitants, and
reckoned both delicious and nourifliing food. The king and
queen are lodged in apartments, which are clofed up, fo that
a paffage remains merely for the ingrels and egrefs of the
labourers and foldiers, but at which (as we have already faid)
neither of the royal pair can come out : and in the bufinef^
of propagation the abdomen of the female extends to an
enormous fize, fo that an old queen's will be fifteen hundred
or two thoufand times the bulk of the reft of her body, and
twenty or thirty thoufand times the bulk of a labourer, and
by its periftaltic motion, are protruded eggs to the amount
of fixty in a minute, or eighty thoufand and more in twenty-
four hours : the eggs are removed by the attendants into the
nurferies, and after they are hatched, the young are provided
with every thing neceffary till they are able to fhift for
thcmfelves. It is remarkable of all the difterent fpecies of
termites, that the working and figiiting infefts never expofe
themfelves to the open air ; but either travel under ground,
or within fucli trees or fubftances as they deftroy, or through
pipes made of the fame materials with their nefts. The ter-
mites v\hich build in trees, frequently conftruft their nefts
within the roofs and other parts of houfes, to which they
do confiderable damage, unlefs foon extirpated ; and tlie
larger fpecies enter under the foundations of houfes, through
the floors, or bore through the pofts of buildings, making
lateral perforations and cavities, as they proceed. They are
equally deftruftive when they get into a trunk containing
clothes aiid other things, and into ftores, &c.

Upon opening the hills in which the termites lodge, the
behaviour of the foldiers excites admiration. AVhen a breach
is made, however quickly it be done, a foldier will run out,
and walk about the breach, as if to fee whether the enemy is
gone, or to examine what is the caufe of the attack. He
will fometimes return again, as if to give the alarm ; but in a
fliort interval he is followed by two or three others, running
as faft as they can, and thefe are followed by a large body,
others alfo fucceeding them, as long as any one continues to-
batter their building : nor is it eafy to delcribe the rage and
fury which they manifeft on the occafion ; biting every
thing in their way, and making a vibrating noife. Tike the
ticking of a watch, perceptible at the diftance of three or four
feet. If they get liold of any one who attacks their habit-
ation, they will in an inflant fuck out blood enough to weigh
againft their whole body ; and if they chance to wound the
leg, the ftain upon the ftocking will be feen to extend an inch

ti iit

T E R

in width. They make tlicir hooked jaivs to meet at the firft
llrokc, nor will they quit their hold, but fuflcr themfelves to
be pulled away leg by leg, and piece after piece, without the
leail attempt to elcape. If, however they are left to them-
felv.s undillurbed, they will in lefs than half an hour retire
into the neft, as if they conceived their caftle to be fecure.
Before they all get in, the labourers will be feen in moUon,
haftecing to bring materials for repairing the breach. 1 his
they do without mutual obftruc^ion, though their number be
immenfe, and the work is foon finiftied. While the labourers
are thus employed, the foldiers take no part with them. On
a renewed attack, the labourers run with celerity into the
numerous pipes and galleries with which the building is per-
forated ; and the foldiers ru(h out as numerous and as vin-
dictive as before. One circumftance more deferves to be
mentioned ; and that is the loyalty and fidelity difplayed by
the labourers and foldiers in their attendance on the royal
chamber. This chamber is a large neft, is capacious enough
to hold many hundreds of the attendants, befides the royal
pair, and it is always found full. Thefe faiihful fubjeds
never abandon their charge in the laft diftrefs, but rather die
in their defence than defert them. If in an attack upon the
hill, you ftop fliort of the royal chamber, and cut down
about half of the building, and leave open fome thoufands of
galleries and chambers, they will all be fhut up with their
fteets of clay before the next morning. If even the whole
is pulled down, and the different buildings are thrown to-
gether in a heap of confufed ruins, provided the king and
queen are not deftroyed or taken away, every interftice
between the ruins, at which either cold or wet can poflibly
enter, will be fo covered, as to exclude both ; and if the in-
fefts are left undillurbed, in about a year they will raife the
building to ne.irly its priftine fize and grandeur.

There is another fpecies, called the inarching termites,
■which is much lai-ger, and feems to be lefs frequent thai} the
other. For an account of thofe, and many other curious
particulars, we mull refer to Philof. Tranf vol. Ixxi. part i.
art. II. p. 139 — 192.

TERMIGON, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of Mont Blanc, on the Arc ; 12 miles E.N.E.
of St. Andre.

TERMINALIA, m Antiquity, feafts celebrated by the
Romans, in honour of the god Terminus.

Varro is of opinion, that this feaft took its name from its
being at the term or end of the year ; but Feftus is of a
different fentiment, and derives it from the name of the deity
in whofc honour it was held.

In reality, the Terminalia, or feafts of land-marks, were
held in honour of Jupiter, coniidered in the capacity of con-
fcrvalor of land-marks or bounds. Dionyfius Halicai-nafleus
tells us, that it was Numa Pompilius who firft confecrated
land-marks to Jupiter ; and adds, that the fame prince ap-
pointed an anniverfary day, on which the country-people,
aflembhng together on the bounds of the lands, fliould offer
facrifices in honour of the tutelary gods thereof.

The Terminalia were held on the feventh, or, as Struvius
will have it, on the tenth of the calends of March. No
animal is to be facrificed herein, it being deemed unlawful to
ftain the land-marks with blood : they only offered facriiices
of the firft fruits of the earth ; and this in the open air, and
on the fpot where the land-marks were.

Terminalia, in Botany, from the terminal mode of
growth and foliation in feveral of the fpecies, the ftem being
a ftriking example of what Linnsus latterly called deter-
minate ramofus, and the leaves being crowded at the ends

o' the branches, which are fwelled in that part Linn.

Mant. 21. Schreb, Gen. 728. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 967.

T E R

Mart. Mill. Dift. v. '4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5:. 441.
Jacq. Coll. V. I. 130. Juff. 76. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 848.
( Pamea ; Aubl. Guian. 946. Tanibouca ; ibid. 448 ? Ba-
d.-imia ; Gajrtn. t. 97. Myrobalanus ; Gsertn. ibid. Lam.
Illuftr. t. 849.) — Clafs and order, Polygamia Monoecia,
Linn. Rather Dccandria Monogynia.

Gen. Ch. Col. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, internally
coloured, in five ovate, acute, equal fegments. Cor. Petals
none. Neftary pitcher-fhapcd, compofed of five fmall hairy
lobes, in the bottom of the calyx. Stam. Filaments ten,
awl-ftiaped, flightly fpreading, longer than the calyx, in-
ferted into its lower part ; anthers roundifh, eredl. Pijt-
Germen inferior, ovate-oblong ; ftyle thread-ftiaped, erecl,
the length of the ftamens ; ftigma fimple. Peric. Drupa
oval, fomewhat compreffed, acute. Seed. Nut oval-oblong,
angular, fmooth, with an oblong folitary kernel.

Numerous flowers, above the others, and later, are en-
tirely male.

Eff. Ch. Calyx in five fegments, internally coloured.
Petals none. Nedlary five-cleft, hairy. Drupa inferior.

1. T. Catappa. Broad downy-leaved Terminalia. Linn.
Mant. 128. WiUd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Jacq. Coll. v. i.
130. Ic. Rar. t. 197. (Adamaram; Rheede Hort.
Malab. v. 4. 5. t. 3, 4.) — Leaves obovate, obtufe, very
flightly toothed, deftitute of glands at the bafe ; finely
downy beneath. — Native of the Eaft Indies, in Java and in
woods on the coaft of Malabar, where the foil is fandy.
Meffrs. Lee and Kennedy are faid to have introduced this
tree into the Englifti ftoves in 1778, but it has not yet blof-
fomed, nor, confidering its natural and lofty growth, is that
event to be expefted. The branches grow in a whorled
manner ; their extremities, clothed with rufty down, bearing
each a clofe tuft of large broad leaves, a foot long, on fliort
downy ftalks. Each leaf is tipped with a fmall point, and
is abrupt or fomewhat heart-fliaped, though much coiitradl-
ed, at the bafe. Clujlers numerous, axillary, llalkcd, cylin-
drical, denfe, many-flowered. Floivers greenifti-yellow,
half the fize of a currant-bloffom, moft of them males.
Fruit o\-d\, compreffed, larger than that of the almond-tree,
reddifli, with a cylindrical kernel, which taftes like a filberd,
but is more tender and foluble. Its oil is faid never to tuni
rancid. The wood is hard and durable, and the tree is much
planted about houfes, for the fake of its ftiade.

2. T. moluccana. Molucca Terminalia. Lamarck Dirt.
V. 1. 349. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. (T. glabrata ; Forft.
Prodr. 74. PI. Efcul. 52. Spreng. Antiq. Bot. 102. t. 2.
Catappa; Rumph. Amboin. v. i. 174. t. 68.) — Leaves
obovate, obtufe, entire, deftitute of glands at the bafe ;
fmooth on both fides. — Native of the Molucca and Society
ifles. Introduced into the Enghfti ftoves by the earl of
Powis, in 1 804. This is faid to be of a more humble fta-
ture than the foregoing, and the leaves are fmaller, fmooth
at the back, though \\\t\x Jootjlalks are covered with denfe
rufty down. The fpecific name of glabrata ought to have
been retained in preference to moluccana. This is confidered
as a facred tree in Otaheite, though ufed in building boats as
well as houfes.

3. T. fubcordata. Heart-leaved Terminalia. WiUd.

n. 3 " Leaves obovate, obtufe, fomewhat wavy ; fmooth

on both fides, heart -ftiaped at the bafe, without glands." —
Gathered by Humboldt and Bonpland, in South America.
Willdenovv, who had examined one of their dried fpecimens,
fays " this fpecies is very like the laft, but the bafe of the
leaves is heart-fliaped, and their margin very flightly and un-
equally waved ; the footjlalks fomewhat downy. It differs
from T. Catappa, in having the leaves fomewhat wavy, very

fmooth

TERM IN ALIA.

fmooth on both fides, and heart-fliaped at the bafe." — Tliis
laft charafter feems to us to exift in T. Calappa.

4. T. latifolia. Broad wedge-leaved Tcrminalia. Swartz.
Ind. Occ. 747. Willd. n. 4. (Arbor maxima, forti! pru-
nifera, cortice cannabino, foho longlflimo latilTimoquc ;
Sloiae- Hid. v. 2. 130.) — Leaves obovate, obtiifc, fomc-
what ferrated, fmooth 011 both fides, deftitute of glands at
the bafc : their midrib dovtfny beneath Native of moun-
tainous woods in the north part of Jamaica. A tall, ilout,
umbrageous t7-ec, rifing to the height of one hundred feet, or
more, with horizontal branches, downy when young. Leaves
crowded about the ends of the branches, on fmooth ftalks,
thickifh, fcarcely pointed, bluntly ferrated, or nearly entire,
tapering (not dilated or heart-ihaped) at the bafe. Flowers
fmall, whitidi or yellowilh, in long axillary clufters ; the
upper ones chiefly male. Fruit pulpy, greeni(h-red, fweet,
bu it-i'haped, larger than a peach, eaten chiefly by hogs.
Il- kernel taftes like an almond. The wood is valuable for
its hardnefs. The inhabitants of Jamaica know this fpecies
by the name of Broad-leaf Tree. Siuartz.

5.' T. Chebula. Oval-leaved Terminalia. Retz. Obf.
fafc. 5- 31. Willd. n. 5. Ait. 11. 3. Roxb. Coromand.
V. 2. 52. t. 197. ( My robalanus Chebula ; Gjertn. v. 2.91.
t. 97.) — Leaves obovate-oblong, obtufe, entire, oppofite,
fmooth on both hdes ; filky when young. Footllalks with
two glands near the top. Clufters terminal. — Native of
hills in the Eaft Indies. Retzius, who received his fpeci-
mens from Koenig, defcribes this tree as not more than three
or four times the height of a man, with no very widely
fpreading top. Our fpecimens, from Dr. Rottler, agree
with every particular of his defcription. The young leaves
ai-e beautifully filky. We find none of the marginal glands
reprefented by Roxburgh, nor are our leaves pointed, as in
hia plate. Thejlowers in both are yellow, in terminal, often
aggregate, cluilers. Dr. Roxburgh mentions the wood of
the tree he defcribes as hard and valuable, and the head as
evergreen, and widely fpreading. The rind of its fruit is
much ufed by painters of chintz for drawing a permanent
outline, and by dyers to fix their colours. With fait of
tteel it makes an excellent ink.

6. T. elliptica. Rounded-leaved Terminalia. WiUd.
n. 6. — " Leaves oblong-elhptical, bluntly rounded, enlii-e ;
flightly hairy beneath, with two glands at the bafe." — Native
of the Eaft Indies. The branches are round, brown ; downy
when young. Leaves two or three inches in length ; con-
ti-afted at the bafe ; very obtufe at the extremity, with a
flight point ; dark green and fmooth above ; pale, and be-
fprinkled with clofe-prctTed fcattered hairs, beneath ; furnifhed
at the bafe with two cup-(haped, fomewhat ftalked, glands.
Spikes terminal, panicled. IVilldenoiv. We have been in-
clined to fufpeA this might not be diilinft from the follow-
ing, but the injlorefcence does not agree, nor could Willde-
iiow furely have omitted to notice the great length of the

Jootjlallis in T. Bellerica.

7. T. Bellerica. Long-ftalked Terminalia. Roxb. Co-
rom. V- 2. 54. t. 198. (Myrobalanus Bellerica ; Breyn. Ic.
18. t. 4. Gaertn. v. 2. 90. t. 97. Tani ; Rheede Hort.
Malab. v. 4. 23. t. 10.) — Leaves obovate, wavy, fmooth.
Footftalks about half as long as the leaves, with two glands
at the top. Spikes axillary, folitary, hardly longer than
the footftalks. — Native of hills in the Eaft Indies. A
large tree, with a very widely fpreading head ; the wood is
white} but foft, and not durable. The bark, when wounded,
exudes a .copious infipid gum, Ijke gum arable, foluble in
water. The leaves are firm and fmooth, fix or feven inches
long when full-grown, but in the flowering feafon they fcem
Icarcely to exceed their footjlalks, which then meafure half

Vol. XXXV.

that length. Flowers fetid, dirty yellow, in copious axillary
fpikes, not clufters. Fruit the fize of a nutmeg ; its kernel
eatable, but reported to intoxicate if taken in any great
quantity.

8. T. ntauriliana. Mauritius Terminalia. Lamarck
Diet. V. I. 349. Willd. 11. 7. (Badamia Commerfoni ;
Gsertn. v. 2. 90. t. 97 I Pamca guiancnfis ; Aubl. Guian.
V. 2. 946. t. 349 ?) — Leaves lanceolate, flightly crenatc,
tapering at each end, fmooth on both fides. Spikes

axillary, the length of the leaves Native of the ifles of

Mauritius and Bourbon, and probably of Madagafcar. Com-
merfon defcribes it as the largell and talleft tree of the two
former iflands. He took it tor a new genus, and named it
Refmaria, under which name, and that of lefaux benjoin, his
fpecimens are preferved in the Linnxan herbarium. The luood
is much efteemed for making canoes. The branches are
fwelled at the ends, where they bear ample tufts of leaves
three or four inches long, on downy ftalks, three-quarters of
an inch in length ; when full-grown both appear, by La-
marck's account, to be much larger. Flowers copious, in
fimple axiUary fpikes. Fruit an inch or inch and half long,
with a dilated compreflcd border, not altogether anfwcring
to Gsertner'g figure, which makes us doubt his fynonym.
He has formed his barbarous generic name, Badamia, out of
the French Badamier, which is fynonimous with Terminalia.
Aublet's plate of his Pamea greatly refembles our plant, and
our chief doubt arifes from their diftant places of growth.
That they are of the fame genus cannot be difputed.

9. T. angujlifolia. Narrow-leaved Terminalia. Jacq.
Hort. Vind. v. 3. 51. t. 100. Willd. n. 8. Ait. n. 4.
(T. Benzoin ; Linn. Suppl. 434. Lamarck Dift. v. i.
349. Croton Benioe ; Linn. Mant. 297. Willd. Sp. PI.
V. 4. 533.) — Leaves linear-lanceolate, wavy, downy ou

both fides Native of the Eaft Indies. Jacquin reports

that feeds of this fpecies were fent him by Lemonnier, under
the French name of Bien-joint, from the ifle of Bourbon.
Hence he ingenioufly and fatisfaftorily conjeftures, that this
appellation, which alludes to the mode of growth of the
tree, may have been confounded with Benjoin or Benzoin,
the French word for gum Benjamin, or Benzoe, and thus
the faid gum was fuppofed to come from the plant before
us. (See Styrax.) T. angujlifolia has long been culti-
vated in our ftoves, but the flowers are unknown. Its man-
ner of branching is like T. Catappa, mauritiana, &c. nor
does it much differ from the laft named, except that the
leaves are narrower, often quite linear, and clothed, more or
lefs completely, with brown, rather rigid, hairs. Their
veins, rib, and margin are tinged with a blood-colour. The

fruit appears to be fimilar to the laft. Liiinieus raifed a
plant from feed in the Upfal ftove, and remarked that the
feed-leaves were of a blood-red. The leaves of his fpecimen
hardly exceed a line in breadth.

10. T. Vernix. Varnifli Terminaha. Lamarck Dift,
v. I. 350. Willd. n. 9. (Arbor vernicis ; Rumph. Am-
boin. V. 2. 259. t. 86.) — Leaves hnear-lanceolate, entire,
fmooth on botTi fides. — Native of the Molucca ifles. It is
prefuraed to belong to this genus from the imperfeft defcrip-
tion of Rumphius, and its evident refemblance to the two
laft fpecies. The leaves however are more difperfed, and of
larger dimenfions, being from nine to eleven inches long, ar.d
the breadth of three or four fingers, fo that they are fcarcely
to be termed /;n('«/--lanceolate. The rib is very prominent
beneath. Flowers yellow or whitifli, with red Jlamens, m
drooping clufters or fpikes. Fruit oblique and comprefled,
two inches broad. The nut exudes a large quantity of refjn,
foon turning brown, and a milky refinous fluid is lodged
under the bark of the tree, at firft of an acrid quality, but

3 A hardening

T E R

liarJening into a valuable van.ifli, dclliuitc of acrimony, and
much ufed in the Moluccas. A noxious vapour is faid to
proceed from this tree, fo tliat the natives of the countries
where it Rrows avoid fleepina:, or even fitting for any length
of time, under its fliade. ^Vhcthcr this be the moft famous
varni(h-trcc of the Cliincfe, as Runiphuis indicates, may
perhaps admit of doubt.

n. T. Tanibouau Guiana Terminaha. (Tanibouca
guiauenfis; Aubh Gnian. 448. t. 178.)— Leaves fcattered,
obovate, pointed, entire, fmooth. Clullers terminal and axil-
lary. Native of marfliy places in Guiana. For an account
of this fpecies, fee Taniboita. Its genus muft be very
doubtful, unlcfs the fruit were known, but the fugc;eftion
of our learned friend Mr. Brown, Prodr. Nov. HolL v. I.
351, induces us, for the prefcnt at leaft, to refer the plant
hitlier.

TERMINANDO et Audicmlo. See Audiendo.

TERMINANS, Pu.vctim. See Puxctum.

TERMINATION, Termixatio, in Grammar,, the
ending of a word, or the lafl fyllable of it.

Tiiey are the different terminations of one and the fame
words on different occafions, that conftitute the diiTerent
cafes, numbers, tenfes, moods, &c.

Termination IJland, in Geography, an ifland in the
South Pacific ocean, fo named by captain Vancouver, as
being the termination of his refearches on the S.W. coaft of
New Holland, near which it lies. S. lat. 34° 32'. E. long.
122° 8'.

TERMINATOR, in Ajlronomy, a name fometimes
jjiven to the c'lrck of illuminaUou, from its property of ter-
minating the boundaries of light and darknefs.

TERMINE, in Commerce, a weight for gold, filver, and
pearls at Tunis ; 8 termini being equal to an ounce ; and
80 ounces of Tunis being equal to 81 ounces Englifli
troy.

Terming, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Prin-
cipato Ultra ; lo miles S.E. of Avellino.

TERMINER, in Law. See Over.

TERMINI, m ArchlteBure. See Terms.

Termini, in Geography, a town of Sicily, in the valley
of Mazai-a, fituated on the north coaft, celebrated for the
warm baths near it, from which it received its name ; 1 8 miles
E. of Palermo. N. lat. 38° 5'. E. long. 13° 45'.— Alfo,
a river of Sicily, which runs into the Mediterranean, a little
to the W. of Termini.

Termini. See Termoli.

TERMINISTS, Terminist/e, in Eeclefwfical Hijory,
a left or party among the Calviniils, whofe particular tenets
are reducible to five points :

1. That there are feveral perfons, both in and out of the
church, to whom God has fixed a certain term before their
death, after which lie no longer wills their falvation, how
long'foever they live afterwards. 2. That God has fixed
this fatal term of grace by a fecret decree. 3. That this
term once elapfed, he makes them no farther offer of re-
pentance or falvation, but takes away from his word all the
power it might have to convert them. 4. That Pharaoh,
Saul, Judas, moft of the Jews, and many of the Gentiles,
were of this number. 5. That God ftill bears with feveral
of this fort of people, and even confers benefits on them
after the term is expired ; but that he does not do it with
any intention they fhould be converted.

All the other Proteftants, and particularly the Lutherans,
look on thefe articles with abhorrence, as repugnant to the
goodnefs of God, and deftruftive to all Chriftian virtue ;
and as contrary to Scripture, particularly the following
texts, Ezek. xviii. 23. 30, 31, 32. xxxiii. ji. i Tim. iv.

T E R

I. 16. 2 Pet. iii. 9. Adis, xvii. 30, 31. Matt. xi. 28.
Ifa. Ixvi. 2. Heb. iii. 7. 13. Rom. ii. 5, &c.

TERMINOS, in Geography, a lake or bay on the coaft
of Tabafco, in the bay of Campeachy. N. lat. 18° 12'.
W. long. Q2° 46'.

TERMINTHUS, from T!p|U..e«/, a />/»(■-««/, in Surgery,
a large painful tumour, or puftule on the fkin, thought to
refemble a pine-nut.

TERMINUM, ad qui praieriii. See Ad Terminum.

Terminum, Infra, quare ejecit. See QuARE.

TERMINUS, t'ijjLc, fignifies a bound or limit.

Terminus, a quo, in Metaphyftcs, denotes the place
from whence any motion commences : in contradiilinftion
from the other extreme, which is called the terminus ad
quern.

The fchoolmen call privation a terminus a quo, in fpeak-
ing of generation, which they confider as a fpecies of
motion.

Terminus, in Mythology, the god of fields and land-
marks. M. de Boze, in a learned differtation on this fub-
jeft (Mem. de I'Acad. t. i.), obferves, that the Egyptians
received from the Hebrews the cuftom of bounding the fields.
In procefs of time, as the laws eftabhfhed for the fecurity of
the land-marks were not a fufficient reftraint on avarice,
Numa perfuaded the people that there was a god who pro-
teftcd land-marks and avenged incroacliments. He built a
temple to him upon the Tarpeian mount, and regulated the
ceremonies of his worfhip. He caufed this god to be repre-
fented under the form of a ftock or ftone, as we learn from
Tibullus and Ovid : but afterwards this god was reprefented
with a human body placed upon a, pyramidical land-mark.
It is faid that this god acquired peculiar honour by main-
taining his ftation when the olher gods were removed by
Tarquin the Proud, for the purpofe of building the temple
which Tarquin the elder had vowed to ereft to Jupiter.

TERMIOVA, in Geography, a town of Iftria ; 18
miles N.E. of Pedena.

TERMISSUS, or Telmissus, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Afia, in the fouthern part of Pifidia.

TERMITES, \n Entomology. See Termes.

TERMOLI, or Termini, in Geography, a town of Na-
ples, in the province of Capitanata ; the fee of a bifhop,
fuffragan of Benevento ; 57 miles W. of Viefte. N. lat.
42° 2'. E. long. 15° 5'. •

TERMOR, Tenens ex termino, in Lain, he that holds
lands or tenem.ents for a term of years, or life.

TERMUS, in Ancient Geography, a river in the ifle of
Sardinia.

TERN, in Geography, a river of England, which rifes
in Staffordfhire, 5 miles N.E. of Drayton, and runs into
the Severn, 7 miles below Shrewfbury.

Tern. See Tyran.

Tern, in Ornithology. See Sterna.

Tern, Brown, or Sterna ohfcura of Linnajus, is by
fome authors called the irozvn gull. Mr. Ray defcribes it as
having the whole under fide white, the upper brown ; the
wings partly brown, partly afh-colour ; the head black ;
and the tail not forked : but Mr. Pennant conjeftures,
that this bird is the young of the greater tern. See
Sterna.

Tern, Great, or Sea-ftuallow, Sterna hirundo of Linnasus,
has the bill and feet of a fine crimfon, the former tipt with
black, ftraight, (lender, and iliarp-pointed ; the crowTi and
hind part of the head black ; the throat and whole under
fide of the body white ; the upper part, and coverts of the
wings, a pale grey ; the tail confifting of twelve feathers, the
outer edges of the three outmoft grey, the reft white, and

the

T E II

T E R

the exterior on each fide two inches Uxigcr than the other,
and c'.ofed in flying, fo as to appear one (lender feather.

Thefe birds frequeiit the fea-fliores, banks of lakes, and
rivers ; they feed on fmall fifli and water infecls, hovering
over the Wattr, and fuddenly darting into it to catch tiieir
prey. They breed among fmall tnfts of rufhes, and lay
three or four eggs of a dull olive-colour, fpotted with black.
All the birds of this genus are very clamorous. Pennant.

Tern, Black, or Scare-croiu. See SteiiNA Filipes.

Teun, Surinam, cr Darter. See Plotus Surinamcnjis.

TERNA, a word ufed by fome authors to exprefs an
impetigo.

Terna, Folia, in Botany and Vegdable Phyjiology, are
leaves, whether fimple or compound, feffile or ftalked, which
grow three together in a whorl, on any Hem or branch, as
in Verbena triphylla. Curt. Mag. t. 367. Such a difpoh-
tion of the foliage appears to prevail remarkably among the
plants of Mexico, Chili, and Peru, of which, befides the
example jull named, many others may be found. (Seethe
genera Fuchsia and Hemimeris. ) Among Britilh plants,
Erica cinerea has naturally ^o/ia tcrna ; while the generally op-
pofite leaves of Lyfunachia 'vulgaris and Lythrum Salicaria
occafionally become fo. See Leaf.

TERNALLA, in. Geography, a town of Hindoollan, in
Myfore ; 45 miles E. of Rettinghery.

TERNARY Measure. See Measure.

Ternary Numler, in Antiquity, was efteemed a fymbol
of perfeftion, and held in great veneration among the an-
cient mythologifts. Whence Virgil,

" Numero Deus impare.gaudet." Eel. yiii. ver. 75.

Servius on this place remarks, that the Pythagoreans
afcribed the ternary number to the Supreme God, as being
the beginning, middle, and the end of all things. All the
heathen gods had a three-fold power attributed to them, as
the tria -virginis ora Diana, the three-forked thunderbolt of
Jupiter, the trident of Neptune, the three-headed dog of
Pluto. Again, the Parcx were three, the Furies three,
Hercules was three nights in begetting, the Mufes were an-
ciently three, the Graces three, &c.

This number was likewife ufed in moft rehgious ceremo-
nies, but efpecially in luftrations ; whence Virgil, jEn.
Irb. xi. V. 188.

" Ter circum accenfos, cinfti lulgentibus armis,
Decurrere rogos."

TERNATA, Folia, in Botany and Vegetable Phyfiology,
are compound leaves, each of wliich confiils of three leaf-
lets, as in the Trefoil and Strawberry. Thefe are called in
Enghlh Ternate Leaves, and mud not be confounded with
Folia Terna, fee that article, for which laft we have no ap-
propriate term in our language. Some plants bear twice,
or thrice, ternate leaves. See Leaf.

TERNATE, in Geography, an ifiand in the Eaft In-
dian fea, and the principal, though not the largeft, ajnong
thofe called Moluccas or Spice Iflands, of a circular form,
and about 21 miles in circumference. In the centre is a
lofty volcanic mountain, whofe bafe extends almoft to the
fea every way. The upper parts are uncultivated, and co-
vered over with Ihrubs and low trees ; but in the plain are
many gardens, and abundance of fruit-trees. On this moun-
tain are found many hollows or caverns full of fulphur,
which emit a thick fmoke, and flame fometimes appears
from the fummit, with a noife refembling thunder. The
produftions are cocoa-nuts, bananas, yams, oranges, and
other fruits ; but the principal article of commerce is cloves :

many birds of paradife, and other beautiful birds, are found
here, and plenty of game. The chief quadrupeds are goats,
deer, and hogs. The boa ferpent is fometimes found of the
length of thirty feet. This ifland was firll fettled by tlic
Spaniards, who were driven away by the Dutch, to whom
the king of the ifland is, in fome degree, iubjedl. The
Europeans have two forts, called " Orange" and " Ter-
loehe," between which is a lake, called " Safle," three miU'S
in circumference, and 60 fathoms deep, feparated from the
fea by a narrow dike, which the Spaniards made a fruitlefs
attempt to cut through, to form a port. On this ifland arc
three mofques, and a Dutch church, but no place of wor-
fliip for the Portuguele. The province or government of
Ternate includes the iflands of Ternate, Tidore, Motir,
Machian, and Bachian, which are what are properly the
Moluccas ; they are the original places of growth of the
finer fpices ; and larger nutmegs are dill found in the woods
of Ternate, than any other produced out of Banda. Some
places, fituated in the eaftern part of the ifland of Celebes,
belong likewife to this government ; and the objeft of the
Company in fettling there is principally to furnifli provifione
tor Ternate, that part of Celebes being very fruitful in rice
and other necelfaries. They alfo yield ? confiderable quan-
tity of gold, about 24,000 taels, of a dollar and a half in
weight, yearly, amounting, at ^L per tael, to 120,000/., and
efculent bird's-nells, which are efteemed a great delicacy by
the Orientals, and efpecially by the Chinefe ; in exchange
for which the inhabitants take opium, Hindooftan piece-
goods, chiefly blue cloth, fine Bengal coiTacs and hummums,
together with fome cutlery. Ternate does not, in general,
require any fupply of provifions from Java, as the ifles of
Banda do. This ifland fufured greatly in Auguft 1 770, by
earthquakes. More than fixty violent fliocks were felt in
the fpace of twenty-four hours, and the fortifications were
much injured. N. hit. 0° jo'. E. long. 127° 10'.

TernaT£, in Zoology, a fpecies of bat. See Vampvri;,
and Vespertilio Vampyrus.

TERNATE A, in Botany, a genus fo named by Tourne-
fort, from Ternate, the native country of the plant. See
Clitoria.

TERNAVASSO, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Po ; 6 miles N.E. of Carmagnola.

TERNAY, Bay of, a bay or harbour on the E. coaft of
Chinefe Tartary, fo called by M. Peroufe in 1787. The
Dutch navigators called it Port Acqueis. N. lat. 45° 13'.
E. long. 137^29'.

TERNBERG, a mountain of Auftria, near the river
Enns ; 6 mites S. of Steyr.

TERNEUSE, a town and fortrefs of Flanders, fituated
on the W. branch of the Schcld, tailed the " Hondt," be-
gun by the count of Hohenloe, lieutenant of the prince of
Orange, in the year 1583, afterwards augmented by the
States : the fortifications have been fince jieftroyed ; 1 2 miles
S.E. of Fluihing.

TERNI, a town of the Popedom, in the duchy of Spo-
leto, fituated between two arms of the Nera, and, therefore,
anciently called " Interamnium," or " Interanina." It is
well built, and the fee of a bilhop, immediately fubjeft to
the pope. Its greatefl: trade confifts in oil, befides which it
alfo reaps confiderable advantage from its exceUent vine-
yards. This was the birth-place of the emperors Tacitus
and Florianus, and of Tacitus the famous hiftorian. Be-
tween fix and feven Itahan miles frcmi Terni, to the N.W.
clofe by the httle town of Cefi, is Mount Eolo, remarkable
for its cool breezes, which, efpecially in fummer, ifl'ue from,
the chafms and crevices in the rocks of this mountain ; 14
miles S.S.W. of Spoleto. N. lat. 2° 34'. E. long. 12° 37'.
3 A 2 TERNIER,

r E R

TERNIER, a town of France, in the department of
the Leman ; c miles S.S.W. of Geneva.

TERNOIS, Le, a river of France, which runs mto
the Caiich'.-, near Hefdin. ^ • . r

TERNOSKAIA, a town of Ruma, m the comitry ot
the Codacs, on the Don ; .36 miles' E.N.E. of Azoph.

TERNOVA, n town ot European lurkey, m iiul-
earia. This town was anciently one of the rtrongeft in the
country, and the reiidence of the princes; at prcfent it is
thinly inhabited, and the fortifications are rmned. It is the
refidcnce of an ecclcfiaftic, wiio is called the archbifhop ot
Bulgaria ; 95 miles E. of Sophia. N. lat. 43". E. long.
nr^ ■..'.— Alio, a town of European Turkey, in Tliellaly ;
hrgc and commercial ; on the Peneus ; 5 miles W.N.W. of

LarifTa.

TERNSTROEMIA, in Botnuy, was fo called by l.in-
■naius at the fugg-lUon of Mutis, in memory of one of the
pupils of the foi-mer, named Ternftroem, who having under-
taken a voyage to China, in 1745, died at Poulicandor, at
an early age. His illuftrious teacher has not, as in other
inftances, given us any account of the voyage, difcoveries,
or talents of this unfortunate young man, who, though not
one of his favourite pupils, deferves commemoration as a
martyr to fcicntific refearch — Linn. Suppl. 39. Schreb.
347. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 1 128. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4.
"Sw'artz Prodr. 81. Jufl". 262. (Cleyera ; Thunb. Jap. 12.
Nov. Gen. 68. .Tuff. 433. Taonabo ; Aubl. Guian. 569.
Tonabea ; Jufl". 262. Tanabea ; Lamarck lUuftr. t. 456.)

Clafs and order, Polyandria Monogyma. Nat. Ord. akin

to Thea and CanuHia. JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five
deep, orbicular, concave, rather unequal fegments, with two
fmaller ones clofely apphed to its bafe, all permanent and
coriaceous. C';r. of one petal, bell-fliaped, in five deep,
orbicular, concave, emarginate fegments, longer than the
calyx, without any tube. Stam. Filaments numerous, avvl-
Ihaped, fliorter thr.i the corolla, and inferted into its bafe
in a double row ; anthers linear, ereft, the length of the
filaments. Pijl Germen fuperior, roundilfi ; ftyle cylin-
drical, as long as the llamens ; lligma capitate. Perk.
Berry dry, ovate, fmooth, of two cells. Seeds about eight,
convex on one fide, flat on the other.

Efl". Ch. Corolla bell-fhaped, in five deep fegments,
without a tube. Calyx in five deep fegments, with two
fmaller at the bafe. Berry dry, of two cells.

I. T. meridionaiis . Mexican Ternftroemia. Linn. Suppl.

264. Willd. n. I Leaves obovate, obtufe, emarginate,

entire. Flower-ftalks axillary, compreffed, recurved. Two
outer fegments of the calyx orbicular, fharply keeled. —
Gathered by Mutis in Mexico and New Granada. A tree,
determinately branched ; the branches thick, rigid, leafy,
nearly round, with a fmooth grey bark. Leaves alternate,
an inch or rather more in length, on fhort, thick, chan-
nelled, purplifh footftalks, obovate, or nearly elliptical, pe-
culiarly rigid and coriaceous, fingle-ribbed, fmooth, with a
thick fomewhat revolute margin ; their upper furface often
dotted with either prominent or deprefTed points ; the under
purphfli or rufty, efpecially when young. Stipuhis none.
Floiver-Jlalks numerous, axillary, folitary, half the length
of the leaves, very thick and rigid, two-edged, brown or
purple, curved downwards, deftitute of pubefcence, but,
in the dried plant at lead, wrinkled and uneven. Flotvers
larger than a hawthorn-bloffum, white. The two fmaller
external fcales of the calyx furnifhed with a fharp keel, end-
ing in a minute point ; the reft without any keel, thin and
membranous at the edge ; all fmooth, orbicular, coriaceous,
permanent. Corolla occafionally with fix fegments, at firil

T E R

globole, then bcU-ftiaped. Berry dry, deftitute of valves.
Seeds filky, deep red. Such is the plant of Mutis. Wc
have no means of afcertaining whether the Welt Indian one,
dcfcribcd by Swartz in his Obfervationes, be the fame or
not ; but he fays thefoivcr-Jalks arc terminal, nor does he
advert to their clumfy two-edged figure, fo different from
the reft of the fpccies, that it could fcarcely have efcaped
his notice.

2. T. ellipt'tca. Elliptical Ternftroemia, or Rottenbane.
Swartz Ind. Occ. 939. Willd. n. 2. Vaiil Symb. v. 2. (>i.
— Leaves obovate, obtufe, entire. Flower-ftalks lateral,
elongated, nearly thread-fliaped. Outer fegments of the
calyx ovate, acute, bluntly keeled. — Native of the Weft
Indies, on the Sulphur mountains of Montferrat and Guade-
loupe, as well as in St. Vincent's. It is faid to be the pre-
tended Jefuit's bark, mentioned by Labat. This is Tijljyub
with ftout, round, fmooth, difperfed or cluftered branches,
leafy towards their extremities. Leaves like the laft, but
twice as long, and not emarginate ; their fnotjlalks longer
and more flender. Flower-Jlalks an inch and half or two
inches long, but flightly drooping or recurved, nearly round,
not a quarter fo ftout as the laft, (lightly fwelling upward,
red or purplilh. Floiuers rather larger than the foregoing,
yellowifh-white, fome of them deftitute of a piftil. The
fcales of the calyx are all pointed, the outer ones narrow and
ovate, of a fmaller proportion than in T. meridionaiis, and
fometimes more than two.

3. T. japonica. Japan Ternftroemia. Thunb. Tr. of
Linn. Soc. v. 2. 335. Willd. n. 4. (Cleyera japonica ;
Thunb. Jap. 234. Mokokf; Kxmpf. Am. Exot. 873.
t. 774. ) — Leaves obovato-lanceolate, obtufe, nearly entire.
Flower-ftalks lateral, fomewhat angular. Outer fegments
of the calyx triangular, pointed, (lightly keeled. — Gathered
by Thunberg, near Nagafaki m Japan, flowering in autumn.
This is a trci', fmooth in every part. Specimens lent us by
the finder are fo very nearly akin to the two foregoing
fpccies, th.1t it is hard to eftablifh a fpecific dilference be-
tween them. The leaves of the Japan plant however are
rather more lanceolate, and their margin is fometimes, not
conftantly, crenate towards the point. Their furface is
quite fmooth, not vifibly dotted. T\\e Jlowerjlalks, about
an inch long, are fcattered on the branches, below the leaves,
but (lightly recurved, ufually triangular, not comprefTed,
Flowers white, (carcely fo large as in T. meridionaiis. Style:
fliort and thick. Berry the fize of a currant, red, pointed,
with a white, fweet, fubaftringent pulp, and, according to
KiEmpfer, only one pellucidyif^.

4. T. pimBata. Dotted-edged Ternftroemia. Svrartz
Prodr. 81. Willd. n. 3. (Taonabo punctata ; Aubl.
Guian. 571. t. 228.) — Leaves elliptic -oblong, dotted at
the edge. Flower-ftalks axillary, elongated, nearly thread-
(baped. Segments of the calyx all pointed. — Gathered by
Aublet on the fides of the Serpent mountain in Guiana,
bearing flowers and fruit in Auguft and September. A
large tree, whofe leaves are bordered with minute glandular
points, rough to the touch ; their extremity ulually emar-
ginate ; their length about three inches. Floiuer-jlalhs (len-
der, about half as long as the leaf with its footftalk. Sta-
mens about fixty. Fruit ovate, pointed, of five or fix cells.
Aublet having feen it in an unripe ftate only, took it for a
capfule, but Swartz aiferts it to be a berry.

^.T.dcntata. Toothed Ternftroemia. Swartz Prodr. 81.
Willd. n. 5. (Taonabo dentata ; Aubl. Guian. 569. t. 227.)
— Leaves elliptical, pointed, ftrongly ierrated. Flower-
ftalks lateral or axillai-y, fingle-flowered Gathered by

Aublet, in the fame place as the preceding, and at the fame
feafon. A tree, whofe trunk is twenty-five feet, or more,

in

T E R

MI heiglit, and two in diameter, crowned with an ample tuft
of fpreading brandies. Tlie Icnvfs are four iiiehes long,
and an inch and lialf or two inches broad, thick, fmooth,
tapering at each end, befet with tooth-hke f rratures in the
margin. Footjlalks llender, an incii long. Floivcr-JlalLs re-
curved, fcatti red, hardly an inch in length. Fluivers yel-
lowifh, ill'" fize of hawthorn. Fruit like the lall. The
lark of the tree is ufed for tanning leather. The tuood
ferves inftead of tiles for houfes.

6. T ? corymhofa. Corymbofe Ternllroemia : — Leaves op-
pofite, elliptical, pointed, entire. Panicle forked, corym-
bofe, many-flowered, terminal. — Native of Guiana. Mr.
Rudge. This appears to be moft akin to the laft in the
fhape and fize of its leaves, but differs in their entire margin,
and oppofite infertion. The three-forked ^(jn/V/f is, more-
over, a kind of inflorefcence unexampled in Ternjlroemia,
and the calyx wants the two fmall external fegments. All
thefe circumilances induce a fufpicion of the genus, whicii
ive have not materials to clear up.

We cannot take leave of Ternjlronma without adverting
to the mifchiefs which arile from the barbarous and iinfettled
principles of French nomenclature. .TufTicu profefles to
adopt the uncouth names of Aublet, only til! the genera of
that author are better fettled ; yet he has tried to foften
down Taonabo into Tonahea, a needlefs change if the name
were not to remain. Lamarck prefers Tanabea; fo our
memories and our indexes would have become burthened with
three names inftead of one, all intolerable to a clafTical or
literary botanift, if the genus had not happily been fuper-
feded.

TEROE, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 25 miles E.
of Ramgur.

TEROUANNE. See Tjterouanne.

TEROWA, a town of the ifland of Junkfeilon, near the
eaft coaft ; the ulual reiidence of a Siamefe governor or
viceroy. Here is a pagoda, with about twenty priefts.
N. lat. 8° 13'.

TERPANDER, in Biography, and Muftc of the Jncinits,
one of the moft renowned muficians of antiquity. It is re-
corded in the Oxford M;u"bles, that he was the inventor of
charafters to exprefs mufical founds in the feveral genera ;
■which event is placed about fix hundred and feventy years
before the Chriftian era. Indeed all writers who mention
the progreffive ftate of mufic in Greece, are unanimous in
celebrating the talents of Terpander ; but though there is
fuch an entire agreement among them concerning the obli-
gations which the art was under to this mufician in its
infant ftate, yet it is difficult to find any two accounts of
him which accord in adjufting the time and place of his
birth. It does not, however, feem neceflary to lead the
reader over hedge and ditch with chronologers, after a
truth, of which the fcent has fo long been loft. The
Oxford Marbles, which appear to us the beft authority to
follow, tell us, in exprefs terms, that he was the fon of Der-
deneus of Left>os, and that he flouriftied in the 381ft year of
thefe records; which nearly anfwers to the 27th olympiad,
and 671ft year B. C. The Marbles inform us likewife, that
" he taught the nomes, or airs, of the lyre and flute, which
he performed himfelf upon this laft inftrument, in concert
with other players on the flute." Several writers tell us
that he added three ftrings to the lyre, which before his
time had but four ; and in confirmation of this, Euclid and
Strabo quote two vcrfes, which they attribute to Terpander
himfelf.

" The tetrachord's reftraint wc now defpife.
The feven-flringed lyre a nobler flrain fupplics."

T E R

If the hymn to Mercury, which is afcribcd to Homer,
and in which the feven-ftringed lyre is mentioned, be
genuine, it robs Terpander of this glorj-. The learned,
however, have great doubts concerning its authenticity.
But if the lyre had been before his time furniflied witli
feven ftrings in other parts of Greece, it feems as if
Terpander was the firft who played upoii them at Lace-
dasmon. The Marbles tell us that the people were offended
by his innovations. The Spartan difcipline had deprived
them of all their natural feehngs ; they were rendered
machines ; and whether Terpander difturbed the fpriiigs
by which they ufed to be governed, or tried to work upon
them by new ones, there was an equal chance of giving
offence. The neivjhiiigs, or new melodies, and neiv rhythms,
upon the old ftrings, muft have been as intolerable to a
Lacedxmonian audience, at firft hearing, as an organ, and
cheerful mufic would have been, to a Scots congregation
fome years ago, or would be at a Quaker's meeting now.
" It is not at all furprifing," fays Alcibiades, " that the
Lacedaemonians feem fearlefs of death in the day of battle,
fince death would free them from tiiofe laws which make
them fo wretched."

Plutarch, in his " Laconic Inftitutions," informs us, that
Terpander was fined by the ephori for his innovations. How-
ever, in his " Dialogue on Mufic," he likewife tells us, that
the fame mufician appeafed a fedition at Sparta, among tiie
fame people, by the perfuafive ftrains which he fung and
played to them on that occaCon. There feems no other
way of reconciling thefe two accounts, than by fuppofing
that he had, by degrees, refined the public tafle, or depraved
his own to the level of his hearers.

Among the many fignal fervices which Terpander is faid
to have done to mufic, none was of more importance than
the notation that is afcribed to him for afcertaining and
preferving melody, which was before traditional, and wholly
dependent on memory. The invention, however, of mufi-
cal charafters has been attributed by Alypius and Gauden-
tius, two Greek writers on mufic, and, upon their authority,
by Boethius, to Pythagoras, who flouriftied full two cen-
turies after Terpander. It will be neceffary therefore to
tell the reader upon what grounds this ufeful difcovery has
been beftowed upon him.

Plutarch, from Heraclides of Pontus, affures us that Ter-
pander, the inventor of nomes for the cithara, in hexameter
verfe, " fet them to mufic," as well as the verfes of Homer,
in order to fing them at the public games. And Clemens
Alexandrinus, in telling us that this mufician wrote the
laws of Lycurgusin verfe, and " fet them to mufic," makes
ufe of the fame expreffion as Plutarch, which feems clearly
to imply a ivritten melody. See Mufical Games.

TERPELING, in Geography, a town of Thibet; Smiles
S.W. of Painom Jeung.

TERPENTARIA, in Bolany, a name ufed by fome
authors for the betonica aquatica, or great water-figwort,
called ivater-betony.

TERPILLUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Mace-
donia, in Mygdonia. Ptolemy.

TERPONUS, a town of Illyria, belonging to the
Japodes, of which Csfar took poffeflion, according to
Appian.

TERPSICHORE, the Jovial, as her name imports,
in Mythology, the name of one of the nine Mufes, (which
fee.) This mufe is reprefented on medals and other'monu-.
ments, by the flutes which ftie holds in her hands.

TERRA, in Geography. T

Terra, in Chemijlry. > Sec Eartu.

Terra, in Natural Hiflory. j

Terra

T E R

Tekua Alana, a name given to the yeUowifh-while

'"terka Mamlea, a name given to the alkaline red mould.
See A DA MIC Earlh.

Terra Armenia. See Bole.

Ti-RU \ de Baira, the name given by fome to an earth
of a white colour, found about Baira, near Palermo.

It is cfteemed a very great medicine in the cure of ma-
lignant fevers, and in the (topping of hemorrhages of all
kinds. The powder of it is commonly fold m Italy under
the name of Claramont-powder ; a name it obtamed from a
norfon who firft found out its virtues, and communicated
them to the world in a treatife exprefsly written on the fub-
jcft. Boccone, Muf. de Fific.

Terra Carlo/a. See Tuii'Ol.i.

Terra, Chio, in the Materia Medica of the Ancients, an
earth of the marie kind, found in the ifland of Chio, and
given internally as an aftringcnt ; but its chief ufe among
them was as a cofmetic, the ladies efteeming it the fineft of
all things for clearing the fl<in, and fmoothing wrinkles.
What title it has to thefe qualities the world has not of
late ages inquired into ; but the fubftance is ftill in being,
and to be had in any quantities from the fame place. And
the defcriptions Diofcorides and Galen have left us of
it are fo accurate, that there is not the leaft room to
doubt but that the earth now found there, was the very
kind they ufed. It is a denfe compafted earth, yet very
foft, and of a texture eafily difunited and broken by
water.

Terra CUicia. See Cilicia.

Terra Cimolia. See Cimolite.

Terra Cimolia Purpurafcens. See SiOAV-Earth.

Terra Colonienjis. See CoLOGNE-^ar//>.

Terra Damnata. Sec Caput 3iortuum.

Terra Foliata Tartari, foliated earth of tartar, is a name
improperly given to a neutral acetous fait, with a bafis of
fixed vegetable alkali ; or to a combination of the acid of
vinegar, faturated with the alkali of tartar, or of other
vegetable matter. This fait has alfo been called regenerated
tartar, becaufe the alkali of taitar is united with an acid,
which is in fome refpeCls fimilar to the acid of tartar, but
is in others very different.

The terra foliata is made by pouring upon a quantity of
alkaline fait of tai-tar, in a glafs cucurbit, a fufficient quan-
tity of good diftilled vinegar, at different times, to faturate
all the aikah, or even a little more than is neceffary for that
purpofe, till the effervefcence entirely ceafes. This faturated
liquor is to be filtrated and evaporated to dryhefs, with
a gentle heat. The dry fait thus obtained is to be diffolved
• in fpirit of wine, and the folution again evaporated to dry-
nefs ; by which means a fait is obtained more or lefs white,
of a filky appearance, and compofed of fmall fcales or leaves,
whence it has been c^&e A foliata. When the fait is di-ied, and
wliile it is hot, it muft be fhut up in a well-clofed bottle,
becaufe it quickly becomes moid by expofure to air.

When diftilled vinegar is poured upon fait of tartar, little
or no effervefcence is made at firft, becaufe a part of the
alkaline fait employed is generally cauftic, or deprived of its
gas, which part unites with the acid preferably to the mild
part of the alkali, and abforbs any gas that is extricated
from the latter part ; and, therefore, tiU all the cauftic part
of the alkali be nearly faturated, little or no effervefcence can
happen. But when more vinegar is added, the effervefcence
becomes fo confiderable, that fome of the liquor will,
without care, flow over the velfel. This effervefcence is oc-
cafioned by a large quantity of air that is difengaged during
tlie faturation. When the faturation is advanced to a car-

T E R

tain degree, the effervefcence diminifhes ; but the combination
of the laft portions of the acid and alkali may be facilitated
by frequently agitating the liquor, whicl; will renew the
effervefcence. The tafte of the foliated earth is (harp, pun-
gent, a little cauftic, and partaking at the fame time of the
tafte of vinegar and that of fixed alkah. It is foluble in
fpirit of wine, and may be decompofed merely by the aftion
of fire, and from it may be obtained by diftillation, a very
penetrating and concentrated radical vinegar. It is little
ufed except in medicine. Macquer's Chem. Dift.

Preparations of this kind are given in dofcs of ten or
twenty grains as mild aperients, and to a drachm or two as
purgatives and diuretics. Lewis.

Terra Goltbergenfa. See Goltbergensis Terra.

Terra Japonica. See Japan Earth, and Catechu.

Terra Lemma. See Lemnian Earth.

Terra Lignicenfis. See Lignicensis Terra.

Terra Liiionica. See Livonica Terra.

Terra Melia. See Melia Terra.

Terra Melitenfs. See Melitexsis Terra.

Terra Merita, in the Materia Medica, a name given by
fome authors to the curcuma, or turmeric-root.

It is from a falfe pronunciation of this name, terri merit,
that the Englifti turmeric has its origin.

Terra Mifcetta. See Thraustomicthes.

Terra Noceriana. See Noceriana.

Terra Samia. See Samia Terra.

Terra Selensufiaca. See Seleneusiaca.

Terra Sigillata. See Sigillata.

Terra Sigillata Magni Ducts. See Etrusca Terra.

Terra Sigillata Fufca, a bole of a beautiful brown colour,
found in Germany, England, and America.

It is of a denfe texture, makes no fermentation with the
ftrongeft acids, and if thrown into water, it foon feparates
into a number of thin flakes.

The Germans give it in fluxes and malignant fevers, being
an excellent aftringent, and worthy to be introduced into
our ftiops.

Terra Sikfiaca, Silejian Earth, a fine aftringent bole,
called by fome authors axungia folis.

It is very heavy, of a firm compaft texture, and in colour
of a brownifh-yellow. It breaks eafily between the fingers,
and does not ilain the hands, is naturally of a fmooth furface,
and is readily diffufible in water, and melts freely into a
butter-Hke fubftance in the mouth ; it leaves no grittinefs
between the teeth, and does not ferment with acid menftrua.
Thefe are the charaAers by which it is known from all other
earths of a like colour ; it is found in the perpendicular
fiffures of rocks near the gold-mines at Strigonium, in Hun-
gary, and is fuppofed to be impregnated with the fulphur
of that metal. It is, however that be, a good aftringent,
and better than moft of the boles in ufe. Hill.

The terra Silefiaca is alfo called terra Jigillata Strigonienjit.

Terra Sinopica. See Sinopica Terra.

Terra SoUs, a name given by the German naturalifts to
a kind of black fpungy earth, fomewhat approaching to the
nature of that Englifh black earth which we call kella-w, but
contjiining gold. It is not properly an ore of gold, but is
an earth into which fame fm.all particles of gold have been
wafhed from fome other place, and there detained. A good
microfcope will difcover thefe particles in the richer pieces
of the earth, and they are bright and pure, though very
fmall : the earth is found in fiiTures of the other ftrata, not
in any beds or ftrata of itfelf. It is not to be had in any
great quantity, nor does it contain any large portion of
gold.

Terra Strigonienfis. See Stbigokiensis Terra,

6 Terra

T E R

T E R

Terra Tiirchn. See Turcica Terr/i.
Tf.rka Virghie ylurea, in N a! lira! i'ljlory, llie name of a
medicinal eartli, meutioned by Boccone.

It is found at a place called Sanfto Paolo, in the (late of
Modena ; and is thence fent to Venice, and many other
places, where it is eileemed a very famous medicine.

Its great ufe is in hsemorrhages of all kinds ; but it is alfo
given witli fuccefs in malignant fevers. Boccone, Muf. de
Filic.
Terra Vlrldis, See Terrk Ferk.
Terra Umbri. See Umber.

Tkrra Zoica, a name given to the alkaline red mould,
called alfo Adamic earth.

Terra Petita, in Law. See Summons.
Terra, in our Ancievt Laiu-Boohs, occurs in the fenfe
of land, or ground, joined with divers additions ; as.

Terra Normamwrum, the lands of fuch Norman noble-
men as were forfeited to the crown, by the owners taking
part with the French king againft Henry III. Terra
frufca, fuch land as had not been lately ploughed. Terra
gUliflorata, land held by the tenure of paying a gilliflower
j'early. Terra vejlita, land fown with corn, and the crop
ilill remaining thereon. Terra tejlamentalis, land held free
from feudal fervices, and devifable by will. Terra ciilta,
land that is tilled and manured, in contradiflinftion to terra
iticulta. Terra ajirmata, land let out to farm. Terra ilomi-
nica, or indom'wica, demefne land of a manor. Terra hydata,
was land fubjeft to the payment of hydage. Terra liicrabiUs,
land that may be gained from the fea, or enclofed out of
a wafte or common to particular ufes. Terra luairiabilis,
tillage-land. Terra auareda, fallow-land. Terra bofcalis,
■wood-land, &c.

Terra Extendenda, is a writ direfted to tlie efcheator,
&c. ordering him to inquire and find out the true yearly
value of any land, &c. by the oath of twelve men, and cer-
tify the extent in chancery.

Terra or Tierra ^ujlralis del Efpirku Santo, in Geography,
an ifland in the South Pacific ocean, and the moil wefterly
as well as the largcll of thofe called New Hebrides: dif-
covered by Quiros, and vifited by captain Cook in the
year 1774; 22 leagues long, 60 miles in circuit, and 12 in
breadth. The land of it, efpecially the well fide, is ex-
ceedingly high and raoimtainous : and in many places the
hills rife direftly from the fea. Except the cliffs and
beaches, every other part is covered with wood, or laid out
in plantations. Befides the bays of St. Philip and St. Jago,
the ifles which lie along the fouth and eaft coafl cannot, in
the opinion of captain Cook, fail of forming fome good
bays or harbours. S. lat. 14° 40' to 15° 40'. E. long.
166' 45' to 167° 32'.

Terra Firma is fometimes ufed for a continent, in con-
tradiftinftion to iflaiids.

Thus Afia, the Indies, and South America, are ufually
diftinguifhed into terra firmas and iflauds.

Terra Firma, in a m.ore reftridlcd feafe, denotes an im-
menfe extent of country under the authority and government,
direft or indireft, of the crown of Spain, comprehending
feveral extenfive provinces, and three audiences, fixed at
Panama, Quito, and Santa Fe de Bogota : the large pro-
vinces are Terra Firma Proper, Popayan, Quito, and New
Granada, all of which ai'e again fubdivided into feveral
fmaller provinces or jurifdiftlons.

Terra Firma, or Tierra Firme, in a ftill more confined
fenfe, comprifes three diftrifts in the viceroyalty of New
Granada, T)iz. Darien, Panama or Tierra Fii'me Proper, and
Veragua.

Terra Firma, or Tierra Firme, Preper. See Panama.

Terr.a. del Fiiego, a largo ifland, feparatcd from the
foutliern extremity of America by a narrow fea, called
the " Straits of Magellan:" fo named from the volcanoes
obf^Tved on it. Capt. Cook was the firll navigator wiio
had the honour, from a ferics of the moll fatisfatlory ob-
fervations, beginning at the W. entrance of the Straits of
Magellan, and carried on with unwearied diligence round
this iiland, through the ftrait of Le Maire, to conftruft a
chart of the fouthern extremity of America. The fouth -
weft coaft of Terra del Fuego, fays this diftinguifhed navi-
gator (Second Voyage, vol. ii. p. 199, &c.) " with reipcft
to inlets, iflands, &c. may be compared to the coafl of
Norway ; for I doubt if there be an extent of three leagues
where there is not an inlet or harbour, which will receive
and fhclter the largeft fliipping. The woril is, that till
theie inlets are better known, one has, as it were, to fifh for
anchorage. There are feveral lurking rocks on the coaft ;
but happily none of them lie far from land, the approach
to which may be known by founding, fuppoling the wea-
ther fo obfcure that you cannot fee it. For to judge of
the whole by the parts we have founded, it is more than
probable that there are foundings all along the coaft, and
tor feveral leagues out to fea. Upon the whole, it is by no
means the dangerous coaft it has been reprefented. The
currents between Cape Defeada and Cape Horn fet from
weft to eaft, that is, in the fame direftion as the coaft ; but
they are by no means confiderable. To the eaft of the
cape, their ftrength is much increafed, and their diretlion is
north-eaft to Staten Land. They are rapid in Strait le
Maire, and along the fouth coaft of Staten Land, and fet
like a torrent round Cape St. John, where they take a north-
weft direAion, and continue to run very ftrong both v/ithin
and without New Year's Ifles. While we lay at anchor
within this iiland, I obferved that the current was itrongeft
during the flood ; -and that on- the ebb its ftrengtli was fo
much impaired, that the fhip would fometimes ride head to
wind, when it was at weft and weft-north-weft. This is
only to be underflood of the place vvhei'e the fhip lay at
anchor ; for at the very time we had a ftrong current let-
ting to the weftward, Mr. Gilbert found one of equal
ftrength near the coaft of Staten Land fetting to the
eaftward ; though probably this was an eddy current or
tide."

Moft writers who have mentioned the ifland of Tej-ra
del Fuego, defcribe it as deftitute of wood, and covered
with fnow. The latter circumftance may occur (fee
Hawkefworth's Voyages of Cook, &c. vol. ii.) in winter.
And by thofe who faw it at that feafon, it might be con-
ceived to be without wood. Lord Anfon was there in the
beginning of March, anfwering to our September ; but
Capt. Cook was there in the beginning of January, cor-
refponding to our July ; and thus we may account for their
different ftatements. We fell in with it, fays Cook,
about 2 1 leagues W. of the ftrait of Le Mai'-e, and trees
were vifible with glafles ; and though upon approaching it
patches of fnow were difcoverable, yet the fides of the hills
and the fea-coaft appeared to be covered with a beautiful ver-
dure. The hills are lofty, but not mountainous, though
their fummits are quite naked. The foil in the vaUies is rich,
and of a confiderable depth ; and at the foot of almoft every
hill there is a brook, the water of which has a reddifti hue,
but it is not ill-tafted. The moft remarkable land in Terra
del Fuego is a hill, in the form of a fugar-loaf, which ftands
on the W. fide, not far from the fea ; and the three
hills, called the " Three Brothers," about nine miles W.
of Cape St. Diego, the low point that forms the en-
trance of the ftrait of Le Maire. ( Set Le Maire. ) In

his

T E R

his fecond voyage, Capt. Cook, dofirous of coafting the
S. fide of Terra d.l Fuego, rouiul Cape Horn, to the
ftrait of Le Mairc, reached the W. coaft of the ifland
Dec. 17, 1774, and having continued to range it till the
20th, carae to an anchor in a place wiiich he called " Chrift-
mas Sound." Through the whole courfe of his naviga-
tions, he had never feen fo defolate a coaft. It feems to
he entirely compofcd of rocky mountains, without the leaft
appearance of vegetation. Thefe mountains terminate in
horrible jirecipices, tlie crni^gy fummits of which fpire up
to a vaft height ; fo that fcarcely any thing in nature can
appear with a more barren and favage afpedt than tlie whole
of the country. But barren and dreary as the land is about
Chriftmas Sound, it was not wholly deftitute of accommo-
dations. Near every harbour our navigator found frefh
water, and wood for fuel. The country abounds hkewife
witli wild fowl, and particularly with geefe : which, with
their Madeira wine, enabled them to keep a cheerful Chrift-
mas. The inhabitants of Terra del Fuego were found by
Capt. Cook to be of the fame nation which he had formerly
leen in Succefs Bay, and the fame with thofe denominated
by M. de Bougainville " Pecharas." They are a little,
ugly, half-ftarved, beardlefs race, and go almoft naked :
but it is their own fault that they are not better clad, as
nature has furniftied tliem witli ample materials for that
purpofe. By lining their feal-flcin cloaks with the (kins and
feathers of aquatic birds, by making the cloaks themfelves
larger, and by applying the faine materials to different parts
of clothing, they might render their drefs much more warm
and comfortable. But while they are doomed to exift in
one of the moft inhofpitable climates on the globe, they
have not fagacity enough to avail themfelves of thofe means
of adding to the conveniencies of life, which Providence
has put into their power. The captain, after having wit-
neffed many varieties of the human race, pronounces the
Pecharas to be the moft wretched. Thofe on the S. are
faid to be uncivihzed, treacherous, and barbarous ; while
thofe on the oppofite fide are reprefented as fimple, affable,
and perfeftly harmlefs. The tents which they inhabit
are made of poles, difpofed in a conical form, covered with
(kins, or the bark or leaves of trees. The country, though
barren, abounds with a variety of unknown plants, for ex-
citing the curiofity of the botanift. The extent of Terra
del Fuego, and confequently of the ftraits of Magellan,
was afcertained by Cook to be lefs than had been laid down
by the generality of navigators : nor was the coaft, upon
the whole, found to be fo dangerous as it has been repre-
fented : the winter was alfo remarkably temperate. The
fea-lions and fea-bears, the (hags and penguins on the coaft,
are abundant, and intermix, like domeftic cattle and poul-
try in a farm-yard, without attempting to moleft one an-
other. Eagles and vultures were feated on the hills
among the (hags in perfeft tranquillity. Sir Jofeph Banks,
Dr. Solander, and fome others, landed here in the month of
.January 1769, which is the time of fummcr in that part of
the globe, notwithftanding which, two of the company fell
a facrifice only by deeping one night, and Dr. Solander
himfelf hardly efcaped. S. lat. 52° 30' to ^f 35'. W.
long. 51° 20' tc 58^.

Terra Magellanica. See Patagonia.

Terra Ni-va, a bay in Hudfon's Bay. N. lat. 62° 4'.
W. long. 67^.

Terra ilos Fumos, a trad of country on the S.E. of
Africa, N. of Natal.

TERJtA Nova, a fea-port town of Sicily, in the valley of
Noto, fituated in a gulf or bay of the Mediterranean,
founded about the middle of the 13th century, by the era-

T E R

peror Frederick II. near the fcite of the ancient Gela. The
number of inhabitants is about 700 ; 50 miles W. of Syra-
cufc. N. lat. 37°. E. bng. 14° 10'. — Alfo, a river of
Sicily, which runs into the fea on the S. coaft. N. lat.
37°. E. long. 14° 10'.

Teuua Nuova, a town of the ifland of Sardinia, fituated
in a bay of the Mediterranean, at the bottom of which is
the harbour, built on the ruins of Civita, an ancient cpif-
copal town ; 57 miles E.N.E. of SafTari. N. lat. 40° 52'.

E. long. 9° 40' Alfo, a town of Etruria ; 14 miles N.W.

of Arezzo.

Terra del Paluccl, a town of Sicily, in the valley of
Mazara, on the fcite of the ancient Pelinus.

Terra Vecchia, a town of Naples, in Calabria Citra ;
2 miles' S. of Cariati Nuovo.

Terra a Terra. Gallies and other veffels are faid to go
terra a terra, when they never go far from the coaft.

The phrafe is alfo applied, in the manege, to horfes that
make neither curvets nor balotades, but run fmoothly on
the ground in a prefTed gallop, only making httle leaps
or rifings with the fore-feet.

The gallop is the foundation of the terra a terra, for iu
thefe two motions the principle of the adtion is the fame,
fince the terra a terra is only a fhortened gallop with the
croupe in, and the haunches following in a clofe and quick
time. And as the mezair is higher than the aftion of terra
a terra, and lower than that of curvets, it may be con-
cluded that the terra a terra is the foundation of the mezair,
as well as of curvets.

In the terra a terra the horfe fhould be more together
than in the gallop, that he may mark his time and cadence
more diftinAly ; although in a true terra a terra there are
no times to be marked, for it is rather a gliding of the
haunches, which comes from the natural fprings in the
limbs of a horfe.

When a horfe works terra a terra, he always ought, as
in the gallop, to lead with the legs that are within the
volte, his two fore-feet being in the air, and the moment
they are coming down, his two hind feet following. The
aftion of the gallop is always one, two, three, and four ;
the terra a terra is performed upon two lines and in two
times.

To work a horfe terra k terra upon large circles, take
care to keep the body ftraight, fteady, and true in the
faddle, without leaning to one fide or the other. Lean
upon the outward ftirrup, and keep the outward leg nearer
the fide of the horfe than the otlier leg, taking care to do
it fo as not to be perceived. If you go to the right, keep
your bridle-hand a little on the outfide of the horfe's
neck, turning your little finger up without turning your
nails at the fame time ; although, if need be, you muft
turn them in order to make the inner rein work which
paffes over the httle finger. Keep your arms and elbows
to your hips ; by this means you will affure and confine
your hand, which ought to accompany, and, as it were,
run along the line of the circle with the horfe. Berenger's
Art of Horfemanfhip, vol. ii. c. 17.

The term is alfo appHed by the French to dancers, who
cut no capers, nor fcarcely quit the ground.

And hence, alfo, it is figuratively apphed to authors,
whofe ftyle is low and creeping.

TERRACE, in Gardening, is a fort of raifed bank of
earth, &c. regularly formed in an oblong ma.iiner to any
length, broad enough to admit of a fpacious level walk at
top, and elevated confiderably above the level of the gene-
ral furface ; having the fides uniformly (loped, and laid with
grafs, and the top formed into a fl^t or level, fufftcicntly

broacl

T E R

T E 11

hroad for a grafs or gravel walk of proportionable vvidtli ;
defigned in gardens as a high, airy walk, to command a
better profpeft of the adjacent places around, within and
without the garden occafionally, as well as to enjoy the
frefh air in fummer more freely. In tiie former ityle of
laying out gardens, it was confidered as very ornamental,
but is at prcfent much in difufe.

It may be remarked, that the height of a terrace-walk
may be more or lefs, as the fituation admits, as from one foot
to one or two yards, or even three or four yards or more
in particular fituations ; and where there is plenty of earthy
materials, rubbifli, &c. to form it, allowing breadth in pro-
portion, from five to ten or twenty feet or more, and ex-
tended to any length required. They arc fometimes formed
on fome naturally high rifing ground, to fave as much
troable as poffible in bringing ftuff from a diftance ; and
fometimes raifed wholly of forced materials. But the fitua-
tion for a terrace may be varied as the natural fituation of
the place may require.

In refpeft to form, they fhould always be broader at the
bafe than the top, and extend lengthways to any diftance
required ; having the fides regularly (loped, of more or lefs
acchvity, as the width, height, and fituation admit. Some-
times both fides are Hoped, and fometimes only one fide,
the other perpendicular, and faced with a fubilantial wall,
&c. or formed againft the fide of a hill, or fome naturally
rifing ground, being finifhed always broad enough at top
to admit of a proper walk. In fome naturally elevated
fituations, terraces are fometimes formed one above another,
in two or more ranges, each having its feparate fide fiopes,
and elevated walk ; in all of which the Hopes are to be
neatly laid with grafs, and the walk at top occafionally of
grafs or gravel.

The entrances leading to terrace-walks were formerly
fometimes formed by an eafy acclivity of a grafs or gravelled
flope, and fometimes by a grand flight of ftone fteps.
Where a rifing ground of confiderable elevation naturally
prefents itfelf in a proper fituation, it is an eligible oppor-
tunity for forming a terrace with the leaft expence and
trouble, on account of its not requiring the addition of fo
much earth and rubbifh, as when raifed entirely on a per-
feft level, wholly of made earth. Where there are any
excavations of ground intended to form ha-has, pieces of
water, &c. the excavated earth may be employed in form-
ing terraces, &c.

In the bufinefs of forming a terrace, the bafe muft be
ftakedout wider than the intended width at top for the walk,
in order to admit of the afcent of flopes being moderate. And
the whole of the made earth and rubbifli muft be well ram-
med and rolled down from time to time as it is applied, in
order to render the whole equally firm, that it may not fettle
irregularly after being finiftied. The flopes may either be
laid with turf, or fown with grafs-feeds ; but the firft is
much the beft method, where it can be employed. See
Grass Ground.

Terraces are now but little attended to, and, of courfe,
but feldom employed in modern ornamental gardening, as
they are moftly confidered as having a too ftiff and formal
appearance, and as not conftituting that fort of neatnefs
and tafteful elegance, which is fo much eftecmed and ad-
mired at prefent in all forts of works of the garden kind.

Terrace, Counter, is a terrace raifed over another to
join two grounds, or raife a parterre.

Terrace is alfo applied to the roofs of houfes that are
flat, and on which one may walk ; as alfo to balconies that
projeft.

The terrace is properly the covering of a building which
Vol. XXXV.

is in platform ; as that of the jjcriftyle of the Louvre, or
that ot the obfervatoiy, paved with flint and mortar. All
the buildings of the Oriental nations arc covered with ter-
races, to take the frefli air on, and even to lie on. See Pave-
WRNT of Terrace.

Trriiace, or Terras, ufed for mortar. See Tarrace.
TERRACINA, in Geography, a town of the Pppe-
dom, in tlic Carnpagna di Roma, fituated in a very fruitful
but marfliy country, which makes the air unwholcfonie.
This town was anciently the capital of the Volfci, and
named Anxur. The Greeks called it Trachyna, corrupted
into Terracina. In the year of Rome 348, it was taken
and plundered by Fabius Ambuftus ; and in 424 was made
a Roman colony. Being built on a rock, in the reign of
Tiberius 20,000 perfons viere killed by the fall of a theatre.
It is now a poor place. It had once a harbour : but that is
choaked up ; near Terracina are confiderable fragments of
the Via Appia, made from Rome to Capua by Appiui
Claudius Coccus, and begun by him while ccnfor, in the
year of Rome 440 : this road was paved with hard ftone of
various fizes, but uniformly twelve inches in thicknefs ;
and was wide enough for two carriages; 47 miles S.E. of
Rome. Near this place was a fountain of Neptune, the
water of which was faid to be fatal.

TERRADEGLIAS, or Terradellas, Domenico,
in Biography, a native of Barcelona, in Spain ; but who
went early into Italy, where he ftudied mufic at Naples
under Durante, as an accomplifliment ; but was reduced, by
accidents in his family, to praftife it as a profelTion.

He began to flourifli about 1739, when he compofed the
opera of " Aftarto," and part of " Romolo," in con-
junftion with Latilla, for the Teatro delle Dame, at Rome.

In the latter end of the year 1746 he came to England,
where he compofed two operas, " Mithridatce" anil
" Bellerophon." But unfortunately for the compofjr, none
of the fingers of this time ftood high in the favour of the pub-
lic. Yet his opera of " Mitridate," we well remember, received
much applaufe, as mufic, diftindl from what was given to
the performers. And liis compofitions, when executed in
Italy by fingers of the firft clafs, acquired him great re-
putation.

Befides the favourite fongs in the two operas juft men-
tioned, which are printed by Walfli, Terradellas himfelf,
while he was in England, pubhflied a coUedlion of twelve
Italian airs and duets in fcore, which he dedicated to lady
Chefterfield. In thefe he feems lefs mafterly and original
than in his other produftions that have come to our know-
ledge. , In the fongs he compofed for ReginelU, a very
learned finger in ruin, we find boldnefs and force, as well as
pathos. And fome arte di bravura of his compofition, for
the celebrated tenor finger Babbi, at Rome, abound with
fire and fpirit. If his produftions are compared with thofe
of his contemporaries, his writings, in general, muft be
allowed to have great merit ; though his paflages now feem
old and common. This corapofer having fpent his youth in
Catalonia, was not regularly initiated into the myfteries of
counterpoint in any Neapolitan converfatorio, having been
placed under Durante, for a fliort time, only as a private
fcholar ; and we think we can fometimes difcovcr in his
fcores, through all his genius and elegance of ftyle, a want
of ftudy and harmonic erudition.

Terradellas was remarkable, not only for attending, in
every fituation of tiie finger, to the fpirit of the drama
which he had to compofe, but for giving good mufic to bad
fingers, and not uni/cr-writing, as Mr. Bayes calls it, the
inferior parts of his theatrical pieces. Indeed, it has always
appeared to us, that an exquifite finger who can command
3 B attcntioe

T I', R

atfntion bv the mere tone of his voice, and who nqmrcs
on?/ a cj„A.aj, or outline, to colour at his plc-afure, is m lefs
want of artificial and captivating compoiition, than an ordi-
nary- finger, who is neither pofTi-ffed ot voice nor tafte fuffi-
cient to intcrcft the audience. And Terradelks feems to
have written all his fongs for performers of abilities ; for his
airs are never made eafy and trivial in order to fpare the
linger. Joinelli's pen always flowed with this fpirit ; for
he never rcjeiftcd a pafTage that prefented itfelf, becaufe it
would he difficult and troublefome in the execution ; but
this freedom of ftyle, twenty years a^o, might be more
fifely praftifed than at prefeiit : for it is well known, that
a company of fingers is now reckoned good, in Italy, if the
two iirft performers are excellent ; and an opera is fure to
pleafe if two or three airs and a duet dcferve attention ; the
audience neither expefting nor attending to any thing elfe.
And the managers, who find this cuftom very convenient,
take care not to interrupt play or converfation by the ufe-
lefs and impertinent talents of the under-fingers ; fo that
performers of the fecond or third clafs are generally below
raediocnty.

He died at Rome in 1751, of grief and mortification, for
the failure of an opera which he had compofed with more
care and hopes of fuccefs than ufual.

TERRiE -^g^r, Amittere, Aratrum, Aratura, Denartatus,
Legem, Lex, Librata, Obolata, Quadraniata, Quadrugata,
Trinoda, and Uncia. See the feveral articles.

Terr.s Filiustfon of the earth, a ftudent in the univeriity
of Oxford, formerly appointed in public acts to make jeft-
ing and fatirical fpeeches againft the members of them, a-nd
to tax them with any growing corruption, &c.

Terr.i Oleum. See Oil of the Earth.

TERR^JEBIN. See Terenjaeik.

TERRACE, or Terragium, anciently Cgnified a fer-
vice, in which a tenant or vaflal was bound to his lord, to
plough and reap the ground for him.

Others Tvill have it to have been money paid for digging
or breaking the ground in fairs and markets.

" Quieti fint de thelonio, pavagio, paflagio, laftagio, tal-
lagio, carvagio, prifagio, et terragio."

TERRAIGNOL, in the Manege, a horfe that cleaves
to the ground, that cannot be made light upon the hand,
that cannot be put upon his haunches, that raifes his fore-
quarters with dif&culty, that is charged with fhoulders, and,
in genera!, one whofe motions are all fliort, and too near the
ground.

TERRAIN, is the manege ground, upon which the
horfe makes his pifte, or tread.

TERRANTONA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in
Aragon ; 8 miles S.E. of Ainfa.

TERRANUOVA,atown of Naples, in Calabria Citra ;
9 miles N. of BiCgnano.

TERRAON, or ToRRAov, O, a town of Portugal, in
Alentejo ; 24 miles N.W. of Beja.

TERRAPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Baglana ;
32 miles N. of Baffeen.

TERRAQUEOUS, compounded of terra and aqua,
earth and •water, an epithet given to our globe or earth, con-
fidered as confifting of land and water, which together
conditute one mafs.

Some philofophers, particularly Dr. Burnet, charge the
frame and faftiion of the terraqueous globe as rude, unartful,
and difordtrly, and conclude it highly abfurd to fuppofe it
came thus cut of the hands of the Creator ; and, therefore,
have recourfe to the deluge for making it thus.

But others can perceive much art and conveniency, even

9

T E R

iTi this apparent diforjer : Dr. Derham particularly obferves,
that the diltribution of land and water is admirable ; tlie one
being laid over the other fo ikilfully through all the world,
that there is a juft equipoife or balance of the whole glob?.
Thus the Northern ocean balances the Southern, and t!v
American continent is a counterpoife to the Eiu-opean,
African, and Afiatic.

And what forae may object, that the waters occupy too
great a part of the globe, which they imagine would be of
more ufe if it were dry land, he obviates, by fhewing that
this would deprive the world of a due quantity of vapours
and rain ; for if the cavities which contain the fea and other
waters were deeper, though the quantity of water were the
fame, and only the furface lefs and narrower, the evapor-
ations would be fo much the lefs, inafmuch as they are made
from the furface, and confequently are in proportion to it.

TE R RA R. See Terrier.

TERRAS. See Terrace and Pavement.

Terras, Marble. See Marble.

TERRASSE, La, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Ifere ; 13 miles N.N.E. of
Grenoble.

TERRASSON, John, Abbe, in Biography, a man of
letters, was born at Lyons in 1670, and fent by his father,
who was a very religious man, to the houfe of tlie Oratory
in Paris ; but the fon, quitting this congregation, and difap-
pointing his father's viewa, incurred his refentmcnt, fo that
he was left with a very moderate pittance. However, the
abb6 Bignon procured him zdmiffion into the Academy of
Sciences in 1707 : he foon became a member; and in 1721,
profeflbr of Greek and Latin in the Royal College. Under
the famous fyilem of Law, he acquired temporary opulence,
but was foon again reduced to penurious circumftances.
He then retired from the world, ftudying and exercifing
that philofophy which raifed him above it. He died at
Paris in 1750, at the age of 80 years. His works are,
" A Critical Differtation on Homer's Iliad ;" " Refie&ions
in favour of Law's Syftem ;" " Sethos," a moral romance ;
"A Tranflation of Diodorus Siculus," 7 vols. l2mo. with
preface, notes, and fragments. It was one of Terraflbn's
fayings, "What is the moft credulous of all things ? Igno-
rance. What is the moft incredulous ? Ignorance."

Andre^w Terrajfcn, the elder brother of the former, a
prieft of the Oratory, was a celebrated preacher, and died at
Paris in 1723. His "Sermons," in 4 vols. i2mo. were
published in 1726, and reprinted in 1736.

Gajpard Terrajfon, another brother, and prieft of the Ora-
tory, was more celebrated as a preacher than the former, and
officiated at Paris during five years. Haring incurred perfe-
cution, he quitted the pulpit and the congregation of the
Oratory. He died at Paris in 1 752. His " Sermons," in
4 vols. i2mo. appeared in 1749. His anonymous work,
entitled " Lettres fur la Juftice Chretienne," was cenfured
by the Sorbonne.

Another perfon of the fame family, -j/z. Matthew Terrajfon,
was born at Lyons in 1 669, ftudied the law, and pleaded caufes
with great reputation. He was for fom.e time an affociate in
the " Journal des Sjavans," and alfo cenfor royal. He
died, mi/ch efteemed, at Paris, in 1734. A "CoUeftionof
his Pleadings, &c." was pubhftied in 4*0.

The fon of the preceding, Anthony Terraffon, was bom at
Paris in 1 705, brought up to the bar, and excelled in jurif-
prudence. By order of chancellor d'Agueffeau, he com-
pofed a " Hiftory of Roman Jurifprudence," with a collec-
tion of Ancient Contracts, &c. in fol. 1750. In 1760 he
was promoted to the chancellorfhip of Dorabes, and died in
1 782. He was the author of " Melanges d'Hiftoire, de

Liter-

T E R

T E R

Literature, de Jurifprudcnce, de Critique, &c." 1768 ; and
of other works. Morcri. Nouv. Dift. Hift. Gen. Biog.

Terkas.sON, in Geography, a town of I'Vance, and feat of
a tribunal, in the department of tlie Dordogne ; 1 8 miles
N.E. of Montignac. N. lat. 45° 7'. E. long. 1° 23'.

TERRAUBE, a town of France, in the department of
the Gers ; 4 miles S.W. of Leftoure.

TERREBONNE, a town of Canada ; 1 2 miles N.N.W.
of Montreal.

TERREGLES, a town of Scotland, in the county of
Dumfries ; z miles W. of Dumfries.

TERREL, a town of North Carolina ; 30 miles N. of
Greeneville.

TERRELLA, ^v.^^yr,, Uttle earth, is a magnet turned
of a juft fpherical figure, and placed fo as that its poles,
equator, &c. do exatlly eorrcfpond with thofe of the world.

It was thus firll called by Gilbert, as being a juft repre-
feutation of the great magnetic globe we inhabit.

Such a tenella, if nicely poifed, and placed in a meridian
like a globe, it was fuppoled, would be turned round like the
earth in twoaity-four hours by the magnetic particles per-
vading it ; but experience has fhewn this to be a miftake.

TERRE-PLEIN, in Fortif ration, the top, platform, or
horizontal furface of the rampart, on which, the canno.i are
placed, and the defenders perform tlieir office.

It is thus called as lying level, having only a litth (lope
outwardly to bear the recoil of the cannon.

It Is terminated by the parapet on that fide Cowards the
champaign ; and by the inner talus on that fide towards the
place. Its breadth is from 24 to 30 feet.

TERRESCHOW, in Geography, a town of Bohemia,
in the circle of Pilfen ; 16 miles N.E. of Pilfen.

TERRESSA, one of the Nicobar iflands, about fifteen
miles long, and from two to five broad, of an oval form.
N. lat. 8° 20'. E. long. 93° 36'.

TERRESTRIAL Birds. See Birbs.

Terrestrial Gloie. See Globe.

Terrestrial Line. See Line, Terrejlrial.

Terrestrial Paradije. See Paradise.

Terrestrial Roads. See Road. ^

TERRE-TENANT, is he who has the adtual pof-
fcflion of the land, othcrwife called the occupant. See
Tenant and Occupant.

Thus a lord of a manor having a freeholder, who letteth
out his freehold to another to be occupied , this occupier
who has the aftual pofFefiion is called the terre-tenant.

TERRE-VERTE, in the Colour-Trade, the name of a
green earth much ufed by painters, botli fingly for a good
Standing green, and in mixture with other colours.

The name is French, and fignifies green earth.

It is an indurated clay, of a deep blueifh-green colour,
and is found in the earth, not in continued ftrata or beds, as
moft of the other earths are, but in large flat malfes of dif-
ferent fizes, imbedded in other ftrata ; thcfe break irre-
gularly in the cutting, and the earth is generally brought
out 01 the pit in lumps of different fizes. It is of a fine,
regular, and even ftrufture, and very hard. It is of an even
and glofly furface, very fmooth to the touch, and in fomc
degree refembling the moroclithus, or French chalk, but
adhering firmly to the tongue. It does not ftain the hands
in touching it ; but being drawn along a rough furface, it
leaves an even white line, with a greenifti caft.

It does not ferment with acids, and is burnt to a dufky
brown colour.

It is dug in the idand of Cyprus, and io many parts of
France and Italy. That from the neighbourhood of Ve-
rona has been ufed to be eftecnaed the beft in the world ; but

of late there has been fome dug in France that equals it
There is alio an earth dug on the Mendip hills, in the finking
for coals, which, though wholly unobferved, is neaily, if not
wholly, of equal value.

When fcraped, and the finer parts feparatcd, it is ready to
be made up with oil for the ufe of the painters, .ind make,'!
the moft true and lafting green of any fimple body tliey ufe.
Hill and Da Cofta. See BERG-Grudn and Verditer.

TERRIAGULLY, in Geography, a town of Bengal;
20 miles N.W. of Rajcmal.

TERRIAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Rohilcund ;
7 miles S. of Bcrvjilly.

TERRIER, or Tekrar, in our jlncienl Cujloms, a col-
leftion of acknowledgments of the vafTals or tenants of a
lordfhip, containing the rents, fcrviccs, &c. they owe their
lord, and ferving as a title or chiim for demanding and exe-
cuting the payment of them.

At profent, by terrier we mean no more than a book or
roll, in which the feveral lands, either of a private perfon, or
of a town, college, church. See. are defcribed. The terrier
ftioiJd contain the number of acres, and the fite, boundaries,
tenants' names, &c. of each piece or parcel. See Domes-
Day.

Terrier alfo denotes the lodge or hole which foxes,
badgers, rabbits, &c. dig themfelves under groutid, and
in which they fave themfelves from the purfuit of the
hunters. Hence,

Terrier, Terrarius, is alfo ufed for a kind of little hound
to hunt thofe animals, which, like a ferret, creeps into the
ground, and by that means affrights and bites them ; either
tearing them with his teeth, or elfe haling them by force out
of their holes. See Dog and Hound.

Terrier, in Geography, a town of Africa, on the
Senegal ; 25 miles S. of Cayar.

Terrier Rouge, a town of the ifland of St, Domingo ;
15 miles E.S.E. of Cape Frangais.

TERRIFICATIO, a word ufed by fome chemical
writers to exprefs the coalition of the earthy particles of
fome bodies after fermentation, or during the time of it.

TERRILS or Tyrrells Pa/s, in Geography, a poft-
town of tlie county of Weftmeath, Ireland ; 40 miles W.
from Dublin.

TERRIMUNGALUM. a town of Hindooftan, in the
Carnatic ; 25 miles N. of Tritchinopoh.

TERRIORE, a town and fortrefs of Hindooftan, in the
Carnatic; 24 miles N. of Tritchinopoh. N. lat. 11° 12'.
E. long. 78- 45'.

TEKRIS Boniset CataUis, Reliabendis pqfi Purgationem,\\\
Laif, 2v/i\t for a perfon to recover his l.-mds, goods, or chattels
formerly feized, after having cleared liimfelf of a felony,
upon fufpicion of which he was conviAed, and delivered to
his ordmary to be purged.

Terris rt CalaUis Trii/is ultra debitum levatum, a writ
judicial for the reftoring lands or goods to a debtor, who is
diftraincd beyond the quantity of the debt. See Distress.

Terris Liberandis, a writ lying for a man convifted by
attaint, to bring the record .nnd procefs before the king, and
take a fine for his imprifonmeut, and deUver him his lands
and tenements again, and releafe him of the ftrip and
wafte.

It is alfo a writ for the dehvery of lands to the heir after
homage and relief performed ; or upon fcciunty taken that
he fliall perform them.

TERRITORY, District, the extent or compafs of land
within the bounds, or belonging to the jurifdiAion of any
ftate, city, or other divifion. See District.

It is a maxim, that the church has no territory, ;. e, it has
3B 2 no

TERRITORY.

r.o temporal juriMiaioti ; and therefore an ecclefiaftical
judge cannot arrcll any bodv, not even a prieft. It is much
ill this fcnfe that Cujas fays, the church has an auditory, but
no territory.

Terki TOKY or mjlria of Columbia, in Geography, a Q'ltr'"
of America, ceded to the United States by thofe of Maryland
and Virginia, and eftabhihed in the year iSooasthefeat of ge-
neral government. It is bcauttfuliy fituated on both iides of
the Potowmack river, between 38048' and 38^59' N. lat.,and
7' E. and 7' W. long, from Walhington, the capital. The ca-
pital is about 77° o' 22" W. from London. It is bounded
on the N.E., S.E., and partly N.W., by Maryland ; and on
the S.W., and partly N.W., by Virginia : in extent it is ten
miles fquare, and contains an area of 6400 fquare miles.
The face of the country is elegantly variegated, and affords
a great number of beautiful profpeils, of which the Potow-
mack river is the leading feature. This diftricl affords a
variety of ftreams and fprings for watering the city, and for
otlier purpofes : its rivers are the Potowmack or Potomac,
the Tiber creek, Reedy creek. Rock creek, and Four-mile
Run. The foil is thin and fandy, but fufceptible of im-
provement : and the climate is difcriminated by a variable
fpring, a pretty warm fummer, an agreeable autuma, and a
variable, often very cold, winter.

Topographical Tatlf.
Counties.
Wafliington city . . . -

Georgetown, fituated W. of the city
Wafhington county, exclufive of the city and!

Georgetown - - - - - J

Alexandria, on the W. bank of tlie river, in thel

lower part of the dillrift - - - J

Alexandi-ia county, exclufive of the town
Morfe and Melifli. See Columbia and Washington.

Tebritoby, Illinois, a territory of America, and likely
to become foon one of the moil important ftates in the
Union, is fituated between 37° and 41° 45' N. lat., and 10° 15'
and 14'' 15' W. long, from Waftiington city ; and is bounded
on the N. by the North-weft territory, on the S. by Kentucky
and Miflburi territory, on the E. by Indiana territory, and
on the W. by Miffouri territory. Its extent from N. to
S. is 306 miles, and from E. to W. 210 miles : its area con-
tains 50,000 fquare miles, or 32,000,000 acres. The afpeft
of the country is level in the fouth, and to the north ele-
vated and hilly, but not mountainous. The foil is generally
fertile, and produces grain, grafs, fruit, flax, and hemp ;
and in the fouthern part, cotton. The climate is temperate
and agreeable.

Populailon.

8208

4948

23IJ

7227

1325

Counties.

* Edward.

* .Tohnfon.

* Madifon.
Randolph
St. Clair

' Wabafli.

Topographical Table.
Population. Chief Town.

7275
5007

12282

Kafkufl<ia

- 622

* Laid out fince laft cenfus. Melifh. See Illinois.

Territory, Indiana, an interefting country of America,
lately diflinguifhed by this appellation, and now confidered
as a nineteenth fiate, is fituated between 37° 45' and 41° 52'
N. lat., and 7° 40' and 10° 47' W. long, from Wafhington
city ;• and bounded on the N. by Michigan territory, lake

Michigan, and North-v/eft territory, on tlie S. by Kentiick/.
on the E. by Ohio, and on the W. by Illinois territory. Iti
extent from N. to S. is 240 miles, and from E. to W. 138
miles. Its area contains 34,000 fquare miles, or 21,760,000
acres. The afpecl of the country is hilly, but not moun-
tainous ; its fcenery rich and variegated ; and it abounds
with plains and large prairies. Its rivers are the Ohio, Wa-
ba(h. White -water, Tippecanoe, Illinois, and St. Jofeph's :
its minerals are coal, lime-ilone, free-ftone, fait, and filver.
The foil is generally rich and fertile ; and its produce grain,
grafs, and fruit, and in the fouth, cotton. Its climate is tem-
perate, pleafant, and faUibrious. Its legiflature confifts of
a houfe of reprefentatives and fenate ; the former elected
annually, and the latter every three years : they muft hold
no office of profit when elefted. The executive confiils of
a governor and lieutenant-governor ; both elefted for three
years, and capable of being re -elected once : the former
has a compenfation of 1000 dollars per annum, and the
latter two dollars per day, while the legiflature is in feffion.
Its judiciary adminiftration is compofed of a fupreme and
circuit court : the former compofed of three judges, ap-
pointed by the governor and fenate for feven years ; with a
falary not exceeding 800 dollars per annum : the latter con-
fifts of a prefiding judge and two afTociates, who hold
courts in each county : the prefiding judge appointed by the
joint ballot of the legiflature for feven years, and the aflb-
ciates elefted by the people for feven years : fheriffs, clerks,
and juftices, are clefted by the people ; the fherift" for three
years, the clerks and juftices for feven years. The militia
officers are elected by thofe who are fubjeft to mihtary duty ;
and all above colonel, by the commiffioned officers. A
ftate bank is to be eftabliflied at the feat of government,
with one branch for every three counties ; and the branch
banks muft have 30,000 dollars in fpecie each, before they
begin to aft. Involuntary flavery is for ever excluded. The
conftitution may be amended in 12 years : Corydon is to be
the feat of government for nine years. The congrefs, in ereft-
ing the Indiana territory into a ftate, appropriated, in addi-
tion to the fchool feftion, an entire townfhip of land for the
fupport of a feminary of learning, and four fe£lions for
fixing the feat of tlie ftate governor.

Topographical Table.

Counties.

Population. Chief Towns.

Clark -

5760 Jefferfonville

239

Dearborn

7310 Lawrenceburg

165

* Franklin.

* Gibfon.

Harrifon

3595 Corydon.

* Jefferfon.

Knox -

7945 Vincennes

670

* Switzerland -

Vevay.

* Wafhington.

* Wayne.

24520

* Laid off fince laft cenfus. Melifti. See Indiana.

Territory, Michigan, a diftritl in America, which, irv
1796, was denominated Wayne county, has lately been
erefted into a territorial government, and organized with
the ufual offices and powers. It is fituated between 41° 45'
and 45° 35' N. lat., and 5° 5' and 8° 18' W. long. from.
Waftiington ; and is bounded on the N. by the ftraits of
Michilimaokinac, on the S. by Ohio and Indiana, on the
E. by lakes Huron and St. Clair, and Upper Canada, and.

TERRITORY.

on ll.o W. by lake Micliigaii. Its extent from N. to S. is
234 miles, and from E. to W. 138 miles. Its area con-
tains 27,000 fquare miles, or 17,280,000 acres. The cen-
tral part of this territory is high, and from this is a dcfccnt
in all direftions.

The rivers are St. Mary's, Huron, Detroit, Black, Ma-
ramee. Grand, Carrion, Raifin, S:c. The foil is generally
riclj and fertile, and produces wheat, oats, barley, rye, corn,
potatoes, fruit, &c. The climate is temperate and falu-
brious ; winter lalling from the middle of November to the
middle of March.

Topographical Table.

Chief Town.

Diftrias.

Populatii

Detroit

2227

Erie -

»340

Huron

580

Michilimackinac -

615

Detroit

770

4762

Morfe and Melifli. See Detroit.

Territory, Mijfijjippi, an improving country of Ame-
rica, which, it is prefumed, will be divided into two Hates,
the Tombigby being the boundary. It is fituated between
30° 15' and 55° N. lat., and 8^ and 14° 32' W. long, from
Wafhington city ; and bounded on the N. by Tenneflee, on
the S. by Louifiana, Weft Florida, and the gulf of
Mexico, on the E. by Georgia, and on the W. by Loui-
fiana and Miffouri territory. Its extent from N. to S. is
312 miles, and from E. to W. 324 miles; and its area
comprehends 89,000 fquare miles, or 56,960,000 acres. Its
general afpeft is, towards the fouth, level, to the north,
elevated and beautifully diverfified, and on the north-eaft
are fome fpurs of the Alleghany mountains. The foil, ge-
nerally good, and in many places excellent, produces cotton,
corn, rice, wheat, rye, oats, fome fugar, and indigo. The
climate is much commended ; the winters being mild, and
the fummers not warmer than feveral degrees to the north-
ward.

Topographical Table,

Counties.

Population.

Chief Towns.

Adams

10002

Natches 151 1

Amite

4750

Liberty.

Baldwin

1427

Claiborne

3102

Gibfonfport.

* Clarke.

Franklin

2016

Franklin.

'* Green.

Jefferfon

4001

Greenville.

Madifon

4699

* Marion.

* Monroe.

Warren

1 114

Warren.

Wafhington .

2920

Fort Stoddart.

Wayne

1253

Wilkinfon

5068
40352

Woodville.

Melifh. See Mississippi.

Territory, Miffouri, an improving country of Ame-
rica, which may probably be fubdivided into diftinft ftates,
is fituated between 26'' and 49° 317' N. lat., and 12° and
49° 30' W. long.; and bounded on the N. by an unfettled

country, on the S. by Louiliana and the gulf of Mexico,
on the E. by Upper Canada, the North-well territory,
Illinois territory, Kentucky, Tenneifec, MiffifTippi territory,
and Louifiana, on the W. by the Pacific ocean, and on the
S.W. by the Spanilh internal provinces. Its extent from
N. to S. is about 1380 miles, and from E. to W. about
l68o milts; and its area contains 1,580,000 fquare miles,
or 1,01 1,200,000 acres. The afpeft of tlie country, fouth-
warj, is level, in many places overflowed by rivers ; to the
north, elevated, fwelling out into large hills ; and to the north-
weft and weft, very lofty mountains. The rivers of the terri-
tory are the Millillippi, Miffouri, Kanfes, Grand, Ofage,
Maramee, St. Francis, White, Arkanfaw, Wachitta, Red,
Sabine, Moines, Rio Colorado, Rio Bravos dc Dios, Rio
Guadalupe, Rio del Norte, &c. Its minerals are abun-
dant, particularly lead, the mines of which near St. Gene-
vieve are extenfive and valuable. The foil is various in qua-
lity, but much of it is rich and fertile ; and produces grain,
grafs, fruit, cotton, and fome fugar and indigo. The cli-
mate is, in the fouth, warm, in the middle temperate, to the
north and weft cold ; on the Pacific ocean temperate.

Topographical Table.

niRnfls.

Cape Girardeau
New Madrid -
St. Charles -
St. Louis
St. Genevieve
Settlements of Hopel
Fieldand St. Fraiicis J
Ditto on Arkanfaw -

'opuldtion.

Chief Towns.

3888

Cape Girardeau.

2103

New Madrid.

3505

St. Charles -

450

5667

St. Louis

1600

4620

St. Genevieve.

874

20845

Melifh. See Missouri.

Territory, North-Wejl, an extenfive territory of Ame-
rica, not yet organifed into a regular government, is fituated
between 41° 45' and 49° 37' N. lat., and 7° and 18^50' W.
long, from Wafhington city ; and bounded on the N. by
Upper Canada and lake Superior, on the S. by Indiana and
Illinois territory, on the E. by Upper Canada and lake Mi-
chigan, on the W. and S.W. by Miffiflippi river, which di-
vides it from the Miffouri territory. Its extent from N. to
S. is about 360 miles, and from.E. to W. 456 miles; and
its area contains about 147,000 fquare miles, or 94,080,000
acres. The face of the country is generally undulating, in
fome places hilly, but not mountainous. Its rivers are the
MilTiffippi, Ouifconfin, Fox, Monomonie, Chippeway, &c.
The foil is moftly excelleiU ; and the climate, towards the
fouth, is pleafant, and to the north, cold. Few fettlements
have yet been made in this extenfive region, and the inha-
bitants were not included in the laft cenfus. Melilh.

Territory of Orleans. See Louisiana, Orleans, and
United States.

TERROR. The effeft of terror, or of fudden frights,
in difeafes, is often very great.

It is generally obferved, that people who arc moil afraid
of the plague in time of contagion, catch the infeftion foon-
cft ; and that thofe who are moft terrified and difheartencd at
firft in the difcafe, generally die of it. It is indeed uncer-
tain, whether this be attributed to the terror, or whether
the terror itfelf, as a confequence of dejeftion of fpirits,
be not merely a fymptom of the difeafe. Kcrkring, Spi-
cilcg. Anat.

Sudden frights, in acute difeafes, have evidently killed

manyj

T E R

many, by the agitation into whicii they have thrown the
fpirits, already too much diforjord. We have alfo accounts
of perfons abfolutely killed by terrors, when in pcrfed health
at the time of receiving the fhock from them : people ordered
to be executed, but with private orders for a reprieve, have
expired at the block without a wound.

The general efFeds of terror are a contraftion of the fmall
vefiels, and a rcpulfion of the blood in the large and internal
ones ; hence proceed the fuppreflion of perfpiration, the ge-
neral opprefilon, trembling, and anguifh of heart and lungs
overcharged with blood, &c.

When a perfon is affefted with terror, the principal endea-
vour fhould be to reftore the circulation to its due order, to
promote perfpiration, and to allay the agitation of the patient-
For thefe purpofes he may drink a little warm liquor, as
chamomile tea, &c. ; the feet and legs may be put into warm
water, the legs rubbed, and the chamomile tea repeated every
fix or eight minutes; and when the flcin is warm, and there
is a tendency to perfpiration, fleep may be promoted by a
gentle opiate.

TERRYA, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 30 miles
S. of Beyhar.

TERSA, a fmall river of RufTia, which runs into the
Medveditza, in the country of the Coffacs. N. lat. 50° 30'.
E. long. 44.° 34'.

TERSCHUEREN, a town of Guelderland ; 7 miles E.
of Amersfort.

TERSEKAN, a river of RufTia, which runs into the
Ifchim, N. lat. 52° 50'. E. long. 67° 34'.

TERSHIZ. See Turshish.

TERSION, Tersio, formed of teroi I tvear, the aft of
wiping or rubbing a thing. See Abrasion.

TERTA, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated, accord-
ing to Ptolemy, in the interior of Thrace, between Sardica
and Philippolis.

TERTHRON, a word properly fignifying the extreme
part of the fail-yard in (hipping. Hippocrates ufes it in a
metaphorical fenfe, to exprcfs the extremity of a difeafe.

TERTIAN, in Medicine, a fpecies of intermitting fever,
of which the fimilar paroxyfms occur at an interval of about
forty-eight hours. See Fever.

Tertian is alfo an old meafure, containing eighty-four
gallons, fo called becaufe it is the third part of a tun. i R. III.
c. 13. 2 H. VI. c, II.

TERTIANARIA, in Botany, a name given by fome
authors to the fcutcllaria, or hooded willow-herb. J. Bauhin,
vol. iii. p. 435.

TERTIARY Canons. See Canons.

TERTIAS, a word ufed very frequently in the writings
of phyficians, with the addition of ad; but it is capable of
a double fignification. Ad tertias is often ufed to exprefs
how far the liquor is to be boiled away in the medical de-
coftions ; yet it may in this cafe fignify either the boiling
to two-thirds, or to one-third part, of the whole. The more
ufual fenfe, however, is to boil away one -third part of the
original liquor ; and in the fame manner to fill a vefTel adteriias,
does not fignify to fill a vefiel one-third part full, but two-
thirds, leaving only one empty.

TERTIATE, in Guniury. To tertiate a great gun, is
to examine the thicknefs of the metal at the muzzle, whereby
to judge of the ftrength of the piece, and whether it be fuf-
ficisntly fortified or not.

This is ufually done with apairofcJliper compafiTes.

The term is alfo applied to any piece of ordnance for find-
ing whether it has its due thicknefs at the vent, trunnions,
and neck : if the trunnions and neck are in their due order,
<-.r.d the cnafe (Iraight, &c.

T E R

TERTII internodi: poUicis extenfor, in Anatomy. See
Extensor.

TERTIO adjacente, Propofitio de. See Proposition.

TERTIVERI, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Capi-
tanata ; 7 miles N.W. of Troja.

TERTIUM Sal, a third fall, a tei-m ufed in Chemifry
to exprels a fait refulting from the mixture of an acid and an
alkali, which partakes fo of the nature of both, as to be itfelf
neither acid nor alkali, but neutral.

TERTRE, John Baptist du, in Biography, a nailfion-
ary and writer of hillory, was born at Calais in 1610 :
and having fervcd in the army in early life, he joined the
Dominicans at Paris, and made his profeffion in 1635, affum-
ing the name of John-Baptift inftead of James. About five
years afterv/ards, he was fent as a miffionary to the Frencli
American iflajids, where he collefted materials for the work
which engaged his attention after his return to France in
1658 : that was his " Hiftoire Generale des Antilles habitees
par les Francois;" 4 vols. 410. 1667 — 71. After having
filled various pofts in the houfes of his order, he died at Paris
in 1687. Moreri.

TERTUA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, v.\
Bahar ; ^4 miles E. of Bahar.

TERTULLIAN, Quintus Septimius Florens Ter-
TULLIANUS, in Biography, generally reckoned the raoft an-
cient Latin father extant, was born at Carthage, not long
after the middle of the fecoad century. He tvas the fon of
a proconfular centurion, or military officer under the pro-
conful of Africa, and well acquainted with the Roman laws,
though he does not fecni to have praftifed the law as a pro-
feflion. He was alfo intimately converfant with the Greek
and Roman poets, hiftorians, orators, and philofophers, and
other heathen writers of every defcription. His (kill in Greek
was fo confiderable, that he wrote feveral books in that lan-
guage. It has been inferred from, his parentage, and from
fome expreflions in his works, that he was once a Heathen ;
but the time and circumftances of his converfion to Chrifti-
anity are not known. Cave fuppofes that he embraced Cbrifli-
anity about the year 185, and was made a prefbyter of the
church of Carthage about the year 192. According to Du
Pin, he flourilhed chiefly from about the year 194 to 216.
Tillemont is of opinion that he was bom in 160, and that he
died about the year 245, when he was between 80 and 90
years of age, having lived, as St. Jerom fays, to an extreme,
or decrepit, old age. Cave conjeftures that he died about
the year 220. It is faid that he was married, probably after
his converfion to Chriftianity. Having been a member of
the Catholic church for many years, he feparated from it
and became a Montanift, as Cave fays, about the year 199,
but about 205, according to Tillemont. Different accounts
have been given of this change ; but the moft probable feems
to be, that the fpecious pretences of the Montanifts to greater
mortification in fafts and continence had an influence on his
temper, which was fevere. But whatever might have been
his reafons for adopting the principles of Montanifm, they
feem to have made fo little alteration in him as an author,
that there are feveral of his pieces, concerning which it is not
eafy to detemiine, whether they were written by Tertullian
a Montanift, or Tertullian ftill aCathohc. AltJiough, in con-
fequence of this change, his reputation funk in the church,
yet it produced no feparation between him and other Chrif-
tians, except in point of difcipline, which, agreeably to his
temper, he wifhed to be har(h and rigorous. His doftrine
remained the fame with that of the Catholics. In procefs of
time, however, he beheved the divine infpiration of Mon-
tsDus and his two propheteffes, Prifcilla and Maximilla, and
that they were thus enabled to make further difcovcries than

had

'!• E R

had before b?en made, for the greater perfettior. of Chriftians.
He approved of tlie longer, more ftrift, and more frequent
fafts of the Montanifts ; he condemned all fecond marriages ;
and denied that the church was authoiifcd to receive again
into communion any who were chargeable with fornication,
adultery, or any fuch offences, after baptifm. He often
arrogantly calls his own people fpiritual, and the Catholics,
as contemptuoufly, animal or carnal. We have already ob-
ferved that his knowledge w^as extenfive ; his fancy alfo was
Lvely ; and though his temper was fevere, and his mode of
expreffion vehement and pofitive, yet his writings frequently
manifeft unaffefted humility and modefty. Thecharafter given
of his ftyle bv Laftantius muft be univerfally allowed ; that it
is " rugged and unpolidied, and very obfcure ;" and yet, as
Cave oblerves, " it is lofty and mafcuhne, and carries a kind
of majeftic eloquence along with it, that gives a pleafant reljfh
to the judicious and inquifitive reader." His books ftill ex-
tant, though many are loft, are numerous, fome of which
were written before and others after he embraced the errors
of Montaiiifni. Of thefe, the Apology is reckoned his prin-
cipal work ; and has been highly commended both by ancient
and modern writers ; whilft his other performances are writ-
ten with wit and force, and are edifying and inftrudlive.
The time when his " Apology" was written has been differ-
ently ftated by various authors : fome refer it to the year
200, others to 203 and 205 ; but Moflieim, after laborious
examination, concludes that it was compofed in the year 198.
All allow that it was written before he joined the Montanifts.
Learned men generally agree, that it was not addrefled to the
fenate of Rome, but to the governors of provinces, or per-
haps to the proconful of Africa, and the chief magiftrates
fefiding at Carthage, where it was written, according to
Lardner ; though others are of opinion that it was written at
Rome. From this Apology, it appears that Chriftians un-
derwent a variety of grievous fuflerings ; they were, as he
fays, " crucified, hung upon ftakes, burnt alive, thrown to
wild beafts, condemned to the mines, and baniftied into de-
fert iflands." That this was the cafe, appears alfo from Ter-
tuUiaii's book to the proconful Scapula, not written before
the year 211 or 212. The " Apology" is written for the
purpofe of (hewing the injuftice of the perfecutions inflidled
upon Chriftians, and the falfehood of the charges brought
againft them ; and likewife to difplay the excellence of the
Chriftian religion, and the folly and abfurdity of that of the
Heathens. His two books " Ad Nationes" are connefted
with his Apology, and indicate his charafteriftic vehemence.
His addreft to Scapula, already mentioned, was written
under the emperor Caracalla, and contains an avowal of ad-
mirable principles. " It ought," lie fays, " to be left to the
free choice of men, to embrace that religion which feems to
them moft agreeable to truth. No one is injured or bene-
fited by another man's religion ; it is not an aft of religion
to force religion, which ought to be adopted fpontaneoufly,
not by compulfion." He proceeds to vindicate the condudt
of Chriftians, and to fhew that their rehgious princijjles in-
duced them to pay entire obedience to the emperors, and that
therefore they did not deferve to incur the penalties of trea-
fon. Another work of Tertullian has been often cited, iiiz.
" De Prasfcriptionibus adverfus Haereticos." In this work
he treats of herefy in general, and then difcuffes particular
herefies in his five books againft Marcion, in others againft
Praxeas, in defence of the Trinity, and againft Hermogcnes,
and the Valentinians. In his book " On the Soul," he in-
quires into the nature of the foul and its properties. In his
treatifc " On Baptifm," he abfurdly maintains that the moral
ftain of the foul is effaced by the external wafhing of the
body, and that punifliment is likewife remitted ; a doftiine

T E R

which fome late divines have zealoufly fuppoi ted. Baptifm .
by heretics he confidcrs as no baptiiiu, and contends that it
ought to be repeated. In cafes or nccelhty, he thinks infaiit-
baptifm to be allowable, but he recommends deferring rather
than haftening the adminiftration of this lacrament. His
book " On Penance", refutes the opinion advanced by the
Montanifts, that fins committed after baptifm cannot be ab-
folved by the church. In his trcatife " On Idolatry," lie
extends this crime to practices that are almoft unavoidable
in fociety ; fuch as bearing arms for the defence of the empire,
adorning houfes in honour of the prince, and ufing cuftomary
exprcftions that have any reference to Heathen mythology.
In his work " De Corona Militis," he applauds a Chriftian
foldier who rcfufed to place a crown or garland on his head.
In another w'ork he coniiders " flight in time of perfecution"
as prohibited, and alfo giving money to efcapc it. In hio
treatife"DeSpeftaculis," he diffuadcs Chriftians from attend-
ing public (hows. In his moral trafts is an exhortation to
" patience," in which, as well as in a difcourfe addrcffed to
martyrs or confefTors, he dwells in an eloquent ftrain on tlie
motives which ftiould bind a Chriftian to the praftice of that
virtue. After his union with the Montanifts, Tertidliau
wrote four books in oppofition to the difcipline of the Ca-
tholic church ; -viz. " On Modefty ;" " On Monogamy :"
" An Exhortation to Charity ;" and " A Treatife on Faith."

Tertullian, in his various writings, has afforded plain tefti-
monies to all the books of the New Teftament, commonly
received by Chriftians at this time, except the Epiftk of
James, the 2d of Peter, the 2d and 3d of John. The Epiftlc
to the Hebrews he afcribes to Barnabas. This ancient father
has been much admired : Cyprian calls him " my mafter."
Some perfoiis, however, have doubted whether he has done
more good or hann in the Chriftian church. His character
is judicioufly appreciated by one of his biographers (Gen.
Biog.) in the following manner. Tertullian " was certainly
a man of lively parts and large acquirements, of copious
invention, and warm feehngs. In his reafonings, however,
he difplayed more fancy and fubtilty than found judgment ;
and the ardour of his temper inclines him to violence and
exaggeration, while a propenfity to fuperftition renders him
weakly credulous and gloomily auftere." His works have
been frequently printed both feparately and colleftively. Of
his whole works, the editions of Rigaltius, fol. Paris, 1641,
and of Semler, Hal. Magd. 6 vols. 1770 — 76, are moft
efteemed. Dupin. Lardner. Mofheim.

TERVEERE, in Gfo^ra/i^j;. See Veere.

TERUEL, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Ara-
gon, at the conflux of the Guadalavir and the Alhambra ;
the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of 'Saragofta : it is defended
by a citadel. This town v/as deftroyed by the Moors, and
lay a long time abandoned, but was rebuilt and repeopled
by Alphonfo II. in the year 1171. In the year 1365, on
the 25th of April, it was taken and pillaged by Peter, king
of Caftile ; in memorial of which, the inhabitants keep the
day a ftrid faft ; 72 miles S. of Saragoft'a. N. lat. 40° 32'.
W. long. 1°.

TERVIS, a town of Iftria; 8 miles W. of Mit-
terburg.

TERUM, a town of Arabia, in Yemen ; 35 miles
W.S.W. of Schibam.

TERUNCIUS, in jintiqutty, a very fmall brafs coin in
ufe among the Romans.

The inconvenience of fuch very fmall pieces being foon
found, the teruncius "became difufed, but its name is ftill
retained in reckoning, and thus it became a money of
account.

The teruncius at firft was a quarter of the as, or libra ;

hence,

T E S

Jience. as the as coBtained twelve ounce*, the teruncius con-
tained three, whence the name, which is formed of the Latin

tres uncit. r , .

Teruncius was alfo ufed for tlie quarter oi the denanus,
fo that when the denarius was at ten afTes, the teruncius
was worth two and a lulf; and wlicn the denanus was
rifen to fixtecn, the teruncius was worth four. See Dk-

TERVOLA, in Geography, a town ot ISweden, in the
Lapmukof Kemi ; ii6mile8N. of Kemi.

TERWALDE, a town of Holland, in the department
of Guelderland; 12 miles S. of Hattem.

TERZA, La, a town of Naples, in the province of
Otraiito ; l.^ miles S.E. of Matera.

Terza, ital. the 3d in Muftc. The ter-^a maggiore, or
major 3d, is four femitones, or half notes, above the bafe ;
tiie terz.a m'more, or minor 3d, is three. See Concords and
Intervals.

-©- «-e-

T E S

TERZETTO, in tiie Italiati Mufu, a little tune or air
in three parts. Sec Tuio.

TERZINI, Ital. implies, in tlie language of praftical
muficians, triplets, or three notes in the time of two.

TERZO SuoNO, Ital. the third found, difcovered by
Tartini to be produced in the medium by two founds that
can be fuftaincd, and which third found is the true funda-
mental bafe. Upon tliis harmonic phenomenon Tartini has
founded his fyftem ; and Mr. Stillingfleet, in his " Principles
and Power of Harmony," defcribes the terzo fuono in the
following manner.

"Two founds being given on any mufical inflrument,
which will admit of being held out for any time, and of
being ftrengthened at pleafure, as in the trumpet, the Ger-
man horn, the violin, hautbois, &c. a third found will be
heard. On the violin, let the notes C E, C* E, B E,
B G, Bb G, be founded with a ftrong bow, the third
founds will "be heard in the following manner.

•' The fame thing will happen if the fame intervals are
founded by two players on the violin, diftant from one an-
other about twenty-nine or thirty feet ; always ufing a
ftrong bow, and holding out the notes. The auditor will
hear the third found much better, if placed in the middle
between them, than if nearer to one than the other. Two
hautbois produce the fame effefl placed at a much greater
diftance, and even when the hearer is not in the middle, and
ftill more if he is."

Tartini has been unfairly treated by d' Alembert, M. Serre,
and other French writers, who not only difpute his fyftem
built on the ter%o fuono, his own difcovery, but give the dif-
covery itfelf to another.

D'Alembert accufes him of writing in a manner fo ob-
fcure, that it is impoflible to form any judgment of his in-
tentions ; yet he is obliged to own that the fubjeft itfelf is
obfcure, metaphyfical, and uncertain. As to the obfcurity
in the phenomenon itfelf, we deny it ; the third found, pro-
duced by two other founds, we have always found, from
innumerable experiments with two voices, two inftruments,
two founds on one inftrument, as double ftops on a viohn,
violoncello, and on an organ, that the third found thus pro-
duced in the medium was the true fundamental bafe, fuch as
Tartini himfelf has expreffed by mufical notes.

D'Alembert and all the French writers on the fubjeijt,
have ftated the cafe (except Rouffeau) in a difingenuous
manner. Even when difputing Rameau's principles, they
wifh to keep him above Tartini and all foreign claimants to
original difcovery or improvement in mufic. Rouffeau is
envied for being the firft to abufe the old French mufic, even
by thole who thought and allowed it to be bad in their other
writings. See the Abbe Arnauld and M. Suard's critique
upon his Di£tionnaire de la Mufique, with thofe of the Abb^
Rouffier, M. Laborde, &c. &c.

Terzo, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Tanaro ; 2 miles S.W. of Acqui.

TERZOLA, in Botany, a name by which fome authors
have called the eupatorium cannabinum, or water hemp-
agrimony.

TERZOWITZ, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in
she circlf of Rakonitz ; 7 mjics S.S.E. of Rakonitz.

Tartini has added the above, and even given us a 3d found to difcords.

TESA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in Car-
mania, upon the gulf Paragon. Ptolemy. >

TESAKON, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
country of Nalus, on the Nuno Triftao.

TESCAPHE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Mefopotamia, on the banks of t^he Tigris, near Seleucia.
Ptol.

TESCHAR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Lahore ; 42 miles E.S.E. of Bullaufpour.

TESCHEN, a principality of Silefia, bounded on the
N. by the principaUty of Ratibor, on the E. by Poland,
on the S. by Hungary, and on the W. by Moravia. It is
for the moft part hilly, the Moravian chain terminating near
Jablunkau, in the fouthern part, where alfo begin the Car-
pathian mountains. On the other hand, the north part is
very fwampy, and overrun with lakes and meres ; notwith-
ftanding which, there are feveral fertile fpots. Befides
which, it abounds likewife in wood. In the whole princi-
pality are five towns, part of the inhabitants of which fpeak
German, and the others Polifti. The mountains are inha-
bited by Walachians, who make good heyducks, or foot-
foldiers. The excellent fire-arms here, called Tefchins, re-
ceive their name from this country, and more particularly
from its capital, where they ai"-c made in great quantities.

Teschen, or Teiffin, a town of Silefia, which gives
name to a principality, fituated on the Elfa, partly in a
valley, and partly on a hill, and furrounded by a inorafs.
It contains a Roman Catholic and a Lutheran church, a col-
lege, and four convents. The inhabitants carry on fome
commerce in leather, wool, and wine : here is a manufac-
ture of fire-arms, and a particular kind of fnfil, called, from
the town, Tefchins ; 26 miles S.E. of Ratibor. N. lat.
49^43'. E. long. 18° 41'.

TESCHENAU, or Teschna, a town of Bohemia, in
the circle of Bechin ; 8 miles E. of Sobieflaw.

TESCHONOVITZ, a town of Pruffia, in Oberland ;
18 miles E.S.E. of Ortelfberg.

TESCUCO. See Tezcuco.

TESCYLETIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Italy, on the coaft of Magna Graecia, between the temple

of

T E S

T E S

of the Laciiiian Juno and the town of Locri, according to
Diodorus Siculus.

TESE, in Geography. See Test.

TESEGDELT, a town of Morocco, fituated on a
(harp rock, fuppofed to be impregnable ; 80 miles W.N.W.
of Morocco.

TESENI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia ; 34
miles S.E. of Degnizlu.

TESEREN, a town of Africa, in the country of Ta-
filet ; 50 miles N.N.W. of Tafilet.

TESHOO-LOOMBOO, or LuBnoNG,the refidence of
the Tefhoo Lama, and the capital of that part of Thibet
immediately fubjeA to his authority, is fituated in N. lat.
29° 4' 20". E. long. 89° 7'. It is a large monaftery, con-
fining of three or four hundred houfes, tlic habitations of
the Gylongs, or priefts, befides temples, maufoleums, and
the palace of the fovereign pontiff ; in which is comprifed
alfo the refidence of the regent, and of all the fubordinate
officers, both ecclefiaftical and civil, belonging to the court.
It is Included within the hollow form of a high rock, and
has a foothern afpedt. Its buildings are all of (lone, none
lefs than two ftories high, flat-roofed, and crowned with a
parapet rifing confiderably above the roof, compofed of
heath and bru(h-wood, inferted between frames of timber,
which form a ledge below, and are fafhioned above into a
cornice, capped with mafonry. The building is ftained
of a deep garnet-colour ; a cuftom univerfally adopted in
thefe regions, for diftinguifhing places of religious efta-
bhfhment, and which, when contrafted with the white walls,
produces, in the appearance of their town, a very pleafing
effeft. All the houfes have windows, the centre, or princi-
pal one, projefting beyond the walls, and forming a balcony :
they are clofed with black mohair curtains inftead of (but-
ters. The principal apartment in the upper ftory has an
opening over it, covered with a moveable (hed, which ferves
the purpofe of fometimes admitting light and air, and in the
winter fealon, occafionally, the grateful warmth of the fun.
The tops of the walls are adorned with cylindrical monu-
ments ; fome of which are plain, covered with black cloth,
crolfed by a white fillet ; while others are made of copper^
burnifhed with gold : as the palace and maufoleums are thus
adorned with profufion, the view of the monafterv, on ap-
proaching it from the plain, is brilliant and fplendid. The
plain of Tefhoo-Loomboo, v?hich is perfeftly level, is en-
conipafTed by rocky hills : its length is about fifteen miles,
and its fouthern extremity, from E. to W., is five or fix miles
broad. The rock, upon the fouthern face of which the
monaftery is fituated, nearly occupies the v/hole width of the
valley, and approaches fo near to the hills, as to form a nar-
row defile, leaving room only for a road, and the bed of the
river Painom-tchieu, which runs through it, and at a fmall
diftance joins the Burhampooter. A fortrefs commands the
pafs. The rock of Tefhoo-Loombco is the loftieft of all
that are in its vicinity ; and the monaftery near its bafe is
thus guarded from the violence of the N.W. winds. From
the fummit of this rock the eye commands a very extenfive
profpeft, and the moft interefting objieft in view is the cele-
brated river Burhampooter, called in the language of Thi-
bet Erechoomboo. Here it receives the tributary waters of
the Painom-tchieu. Turner's Tibet.

TESI TRAMONTINI, Vittoria, in Biography, one
of the moft renowned female fingers that Italy has produced.
She was born at Florence in 1690 ; began her vocal ftudies
under the maeftro di cappella Francefco Redi ; then went to
Bologna, and became a pupil of Campcggi ; and received
her laft polifh from Bernacchi. But fhe was no lefs admired
\0L. XXXV.

for the dignity, grace, and propriety of her aftion, than her
vocal i)Owers.

Quant/., who heard her at Drcfden in i 7 19, in the famous
opera that was performed on occafion of the nuptials of the
prince royal of Poland, fing with Senefino, the Bcrfelli,
wife of Lotti, Dnreftantc, and the Fauftina, charafterizcs
her in the following mafterly manner.

" Vittoria Tcfi had by nature a mafculine, ftrong, con-
tralto voice. In 17 19 flie generally fung, at Drcfden
aW olliiva, fuch airs as are made for bafe voices ; but after-
wards, befides the majcflic and fcrious ftyle, (he had occa-
fionally fomething coquettifh in her manner, which was very
pleafing. The compafs of her voice was fo extraordinary,
that neither to fing high nor low gave her trouble. She wak
not remarkable for her performance of rapid and difficult
paffages ; but fhe fccmcd born to captivate every fpcftator
by her aftion, principally in male parts, which (he performed
in a moft natural and intelligent manner." Life of Quantz,
written by himfelf.

She fung at Naples in 1725, and at Vienna in 1748, where
fhe remained till the time of her deceafe, in 1775, at 85 years
of age.

She was the miftrefs of the Teubcrinn and the De Amicis,
both as juftly famed for their a£ling as finging.

We were told at Vienna in 1772, that fhe had long quitted
the ftagc, though the remembrance of her talents was fo
deeply impreifed in the minds of many excellent judges, that
whenever fhe was mentioned, it was to the difadvantage of all
fubfequent female fingers. She had been very fprightly in
her day, and yet was in high favour with the emprefs-queen
in her latter years. Her ftory is fomewhat Angular. She
was connefted with a certain count, a man of great quality
and diftinftion, whofe fondncfs increafed by pofTefTion to
fuch a degree as to determine him to marry her : a much
more uncommon rcfolution in a perfon of high birth on the
continent, than in England. She tried to diffnade him ;
enumerated all the bad coiifcqucnces of fuch an alhance ; but
he would liften to no reafoning, nor take any denial. Find-
ing all remonftrances vain, (he left him one morning, went
into a neighbouring ftreet, and addreffing herfelf to a poor
labouring man, a journeyman baker, faid fhe would give him
fifty ducats if he would marry her ; not with a view to their
cohabiting together, but to ferve a prcfcnt purpofe. The
poor man readily confented to become her nominal hufband :
accordingly they were formally married ; and when the count
renewfed his fohcitations, ftie told him it was now utterly im-
pofTible to grant his requeft, for fhe was already the wife of
another ; a facrifice file had made to his fame and family.

Since that time (he had lived many years with a man of
great rank at Vienna, of nearly her own age ; probably in a
very chafte and innocent manner.

TESIA, in Geography, a town of New Mexico, in the
province of Mayo ; 45 miles E.S.E. of Santa Cruz.

TESIN, a town of Syria, celebrated for its ohve oil ; 18
miles N.E. of Antioch.

TESINO, a department of Italy, formed of the Pavefe.
It contains 156,471 inhabitants, who eleft twelve deputies.
Pavia is the capital. — Alfo, a river of Italy, which rifes in
mount St. Gothard, and paffing through lake Maggiora,
empties itfelf into the Po, at Pavia.

Tesino, or Tejftn, a town of the county of Tyrol ; 24
miles N.E. of Trent.

TESKELA, a town of Finland ; 70 miles E. of
Biorneborg.

TESKOWA, a town of Poland, in Volhynia ; 40 miles
E. of Lucko.

3 C TESORO,

T E S

TESORO, a fmall idand in the Spamft Main, near
the coaft of South America. N. lat. io° 8'. W. long.

75° 46'. r ,,- ■ .u •

TESPIS, in ylncifnt Geography, a town of Afia, in the ni-

terior of Carmania, and near Carmana. Ptolemy.

TESS, in Geography, ?^T\ser of Moravia, which runs into
the Marfch, 8 miles N. of Muglitz.

TESSAILAH, a town of Algiers ; 20 miles 6. ot

Oran.

TESSALON. See Tiiessalon.

TESSARACONTA, Tsj-TOpaxo.™, among the Athe-
nians, were forty men who went their circuits round the fe-
veral 'boroughs, and had cognizance of all controvedies
about money, if not above ten drachms ; as alfo of aftions
of aflault and battery. Potter, Archiol. Grsec.

TESSARACONTERIS, in the Naval ^rchlleaure of
the Ancients, a word uTed toexprefs a fort of galley, in which
there were no lefs than forty tiers of rowers one above an-
other. Se Enneris and Polycrota.

TESSARA-COSTA, in our Ancient Writers. See
Quadragesima.

TESSARACOSTON, r-wapaxoro., in ^«/;>%, a fo-
lemnity kept by women on the fortieth day after child-birth,
when they went to the temple, and paid fome grateful ac-
knowledgments for their fafe delivery. Pott. Archxol.
Graec. torn. i. p. 432. and tom ii. p. 335.

TESSARINI, Carlo, in Biography, firft violin, and
leader of the band in the metropohtan church at Urbino, was
born at Rimini in 1 690 ; he was a fpirited performer on his
inftrument, and a very voluminous compofer. His ftyle was
light and flimfy, compared with that of Corelli and Gemi-
niani ; but his concertos not being very difficult, were much
played in country concerts in our own memory, with thole
of Albert], Albinoni, and Vivaldi.

Teflarini's firft publication at Amfterdam has a title-page
of great promife ; but whether the promife was ever per-
formed, fceptics in thefe incredulous days \»ill be much in-
clined to doubt. The title is in French, but Hterally tranf-
lated, is the following : " A new Method for learning theo-
retically, in a Month's Time, to play on the Viohn, divided
into three Clafles, with progreffive LefTons for two Viohns."
Then twelve violin concertos ; twelve flute folos ; the maf-
ter and fcholars ; divertimenti for two violins ; twelve violin
folos ; fix divertimenti for two violins, in canon, &c. &c.
He lived till the year 1672, in the perpetual labour of pub-
lication ; but his produftions would now be as difficult to
find as thofe of Timotheus and Olympus.

TESSE, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Sarte ; 15 miles S.W. of Le Mans.

TESSELiE, a word ufed in Pharmacy, to exprefs
lozenges cut into regular figures.

TESSELARH, among the Romans, artificers of che-
quered or mofaic work.

TESSELATED Pavement, pavimentum tejfelatum, a
rich pavement of mofaic work, made of curious fmall fquare
marbles, bricks, or tiles, called tejfelh, from the form of
dies.

Teflelated pavements were much ufed in the tents of the
Roman generals.

TESSERA, in Roman Antiquity, denoted in its primary
fenfe a cube or dye ; fo called from the Greek word rscj-o-apa,
or TEo-a-epa, four ; refpeft being had to its number of fides,
diftinft from the two horizontal planes, above and below.
And it was thus diftinguifhed from the talus, which, being
round at each end, contained only four planes or faces on
which it could ftand ; and therefore, when thrown, had no

4

T E S

more than two fide faces in view. Hence ludere talis et ludere
tejferis are fpoken of by Roman writers as two different
games. The fyllable tes. occurs often in Roman infcrip-
tions.

The word tejfera was applied to many other things, not fo
much from a fimihtude in the figure, as from the relation
they bore to fome other thing of which they were the figu
or token ; as tlie points on the upper plane of the dye de-
noted the good or ill fuccefs of the call.

The tejfera hofpitalis was either public or private. As to
the former, we find among the infcriptions publilhsd by
Gruter, inftances of two municipal towns which put them-
felves under the patronage of the Roman governor ; and
the reciprocal engagements between them, engraved on two
copper-plates in the form of an oblong fquare, with a pedi-
ment at the top, is called in both tejfera hofpitalis.

The defign of the latter was to cultivate or maintain a
lafting friendftiip between private perfons and their families ;
and gave a mutual claim to the contrafting parties, and their
defcendants, of a reception and kind treatment at each
other's houfes, as occafion offered. For which end thofe
teffers were fo contrived, as beft to preferve the memory of
that tranfaftion to pofterity. And one method of doing
this was by dividing one of them lengthwife into two equal
parts, upon each of which one of the parties wrote his name,
and interchanged it with the other. From this cuftom came
the prevailing expreffion tejferam hofpitalem confringere, ap-
plied to perfons who violated their engagements.

The tejfera frumentariit were fmall tallies given by the em-
perors to the populace of Rome, entitling them to the re-
ception of a quantity of corn from the public at ftated
feafons. The perfon who had the infpeftion of thefe
was called tejferarius. They were made of wood and of
ftone.

There was another kind of teffera which intitled perfons
to a fight of the public games and other diverfions, ufually
made in the form of an oblong fquare.

The tejfera militaris was a fignal given by the general, or
chief commander of an army, as a direftion to the loldiers
for executing any duty or fervice required of them.

This, upon urgent occafions, was only vocal ; but, in
ordinary cafes, it was written on a tablet, commonly made
of wood. Befide the civil and mihtary tefferae, there are
others which related to religious affairs, and may be called
facrcd. Phil. Tranf. vol. xlv. art. 12.

TESSERMUIT, in Geography, an ifland near the S.W.

coaft of Eaft Greenland. N. lat. 59° 59'. W. long. 44"^ 20'.

TESSET, a town and diftrid of Africa, in the country

of Sahara ; 170 miles S. of Morocco. N. lat. 15° 24'. W.

long. 7°.

TESSIN, Charles Gustavus, in Biography, a Swedith
count and confiderable ftatefman, was born at Stockholm in
1695, and received the rudiments of his education under his
father. In 1 7 1 4 he fet out on his travels, and continued them
through various countries of Europe for five years, availing
himfelf of every opportunity that occurred of acquainting
himfelf with their refpeftive conftitution and laws. At the
age of twenty-five he was deputed to the courts of Great
Britain, Denmark, and France, and alfo to the States of Hol-
land, to announce the acceflion of Frederic I. to the Swedifh
throne; and in 1725 he was fent to Vienna, to folicit the
attention of that court to the new treaty of alliance between
Sweden and Ruffia. On the death of his father, in 1728, he
fucceeded him as principal intendant of the court, and in
order to qualify himfelf for the office, he undertook a new
tour at liis own expence. In 1735 he was again difpatched

to

T E S

T E S

to tlie court of Vienna, where he remained two years. He
■was chofcii by the iiobihty fpeaker at the famous diet of
1738, on which occafion he obtained, in recompence of liis
conduct, a gold medal, bearing on one fide his crell, and on
the other the motto " Confcius Refti." He was appointed
in 1739 to conduAan embaily from this diet to France, and
refided at Paris till the year 1742, concluding during this
interval an advantageous treaty of commerce with the king
of the^Two Sicilies, and terminating a fubfidiary treaty of al-
liance with France, by which Sweden was to receive in the
courfe of three years 27 tons of gold. In 1743 l>e was fent
to Denmark, and in the following year to Berlin, on bufi-
nefs of great importance. At Berlin he was honoured with
the Prulhan order of the Black Eagle. He occupied ieveral
other ftations of dignity and truft, the duties of which he
difcharged with Angular wifdom and fidelity. But the moft
important office alTigned him, was that of preceptor to the
crown prince, Guftavus HI., to which he was appointed in
1747. On this occafion he wrote his " Letters addreffed to
a Young Prince," for the ufe of his royal pupil, which
were afterwards tranflated into moft of the languages of
Europe. Retiring from public bufinefs in 1 76 1, he lived
on his eftate till the time of his death, which happened in
January 1770. Count Teffin was a zealous patriot and
enlightened citizen, and a diftinguifhed patron of letters.
With a view of encouraging the arts and fciences, he made
a great collcdtion of books, piftures, drawings, coins, and
other curiofities. But notwithftanding his various excellent
qualities, his enemies were affiduous in fruitlefs attempts to
throw a {hade over his charafter, as may be feen in a work
entitled, " An Hiftorical Account of the State of Sweden
under Frederic I," Gen. Biog.

Tessin, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Mecklen-
burg ; 18 miles S.E. of Roftock.

TESSIURSAK, an ifland near the W. coaft of Weft
Greenland. N. lat. 61° 10'. W. long. 47° 30'.

TESSOUA, aconfiderable town of Africa, in the coun-
try of Fezzan ; 100 miles E.S.E. of Mourzouk. Near
this town, a river, now overwhelmed by the moving fands,
but formerly a deep and rapid ftream, had its courfe.

TES80UELLE, a town of France, in the department
of the Mayne and Loire ; 5 miles S. of Chollet.

TESSUA, a town of Hindooftan, in Rohilcund ; l8
miles S.S.E. of Bereilly.

TESSUE, a town of Perfia, in the province of Adir-
beitzan ; 50 miles W. of Tauris.

TESSUNTEE,' a town of the ftate of Georgia ; 80
miles W. of Tugeloo.

TESSUT. See Teceut.

TESSY, a town of France, in the department of the
Channel ; g miles S. of St. Lo.

TEST, in Metallurgy, is a veflel of the nature of a cop-
pel, ufed for large quantities of metals at once, and formed
of the fame materials.

The coppels, or fmall vefTels, ferve for operations of this
kind, when fmall quantities only are concerned ; but when
larger are worked on, veflels of a larger fize and coarfer
texture are employed, which are diftinguifhed by the name
of tejls.

1 hefe are ufually a foot and half broad, and are made of
wood-aflies, not prepared with fo much care as for coppel-
making, and mixed with finely powdered brick-duft ; thefe
are made into the proper (hape, either by means of a (hallow
veflel, made of crucible earth, or caft-iron, of proper dimcn-
fions, or only an iron ring, or hoop, with three bars arched
downwards acrofs the bottom, about two inches deep, and
of different widths, from three or four inches to fifteen or

more, according to the quantity of metal to be teftcd at
once.

To make them in the firll manner, an earthen veffcl is
to be procured, not glazed within, and by its dcptli and
breadth proportioned to the quantity of metal to be worked ;
the infide of tins veffcl is to be well moiftcned with fair wa-
ter, that tlie allies to be put into it may adhere the better.
Put into this velRl, thus prepared, the aflies and brick-duft
before-mentioned, ajul firll moiilened either with water alone,
or witii water with a little white of an egg mixed in it ; let
the quantity of this be fo much as will h.-ilf fill the veffel,
then prefs the niafa witii a wooden indented peiUe, or, if not
for a very large tell, with a wooden cylinder, only of an inch
thick : when thus preil'ed down add frefli afhcs, and prefs
them a fecond time, as in the making of coppels, and re-
peat this addition of frefh afhcs till the earthen velTcl be
nearly full ; then remove the fuperfluous afhcs witli an iron
ruler, and let the inequahties remaining at the border be
fmoothed with a wooden or glafs ball rolled round about.
This done, you are to cut the cavity with a bowed iron,
that you may have a broad fpherical fegment, not very deep ;
and laftly, Ijy means of a lievc, ftrew this cavity carefully
and regularly over with dry allies of bones of animals, ground
extremcJy fine, and fqueezc tliefc hard in, by the rotation
of the wooden or glafs ball. Thus you have a teft finilhcd,
which, together with its earthen pot, muft be fet in a dry
warm place.

To make the lefts in the other manner, or by means of
an iron ring ; let a ring of that metal be filled with afhes
mixed with brick-duft, and moiftencd as before mentioned,
in fuch manner that they may rife confiderably above the
ring'; then prefs them ftrongly either with your hands, or
with an indented peftle, and afterwards, with gentle blows
of a rammer, prefs the afhes from the circumference toward
the centre, in a fpiral hne, and that in fuch manner, that,
after having been fufficiently prefled, they may be a fmall
matter higher than the brink of the ring. If there are now
any vacancies in the mafs, empty the ring, and fill it again
with more afhes ; for if you fhould attempt to fill up thefe
by adding, were it but ever fo little, afhes, the fecond, or
additional quantities, will never cohere fo firmly with the
firft, but that they may probably fjeparate in the operation.

This done, turn the ring upfide down, and on the other
fide, or bottom, take out the afhes to the quantity of one-
third part of the depth of the ring, and again fill the va-
cuity with the fame afhes, in fuch a manner that there may
remain no fenfible cavity.

When the mafs is thus prepared, cut out a cavity in the
larger furface of the ring, with a bowed iron, as in the
former method.

The Germans have, befide thefe, another kind of tefts,
which they call tre'tbfcherben. Thefe are a fort of veffcls
which refill the moft violent fire, and are fo extremely com-
paft, that they fometimes will retain not only melted metals,
but even the glafs of lead itlelf.

The figure and fize of thefe vefTels may be the fame with
that of the coppel, but they arc ufually made larger ; and
the great difference of thefe tefts from coppels, and from
the ordinary tefts, which are indeed only a kind of large and
coarfe coppels, is, that the matter of thefe is more compaft
and coherent.

The matter for making thefe tefts is thus prepared : take
of the pureft and fineft clay a fufficient quantity, make it
into balls, and dry them either in the air, or on the fire ;
when dried, beat them to powder in a mortar, and pour on

the powder a gieat quantity of warm water ; let this mix-
ture reft a while, and when the clay has fubfided, pour off
3 C 2 the

TEST.

the water wliich fwims at top J and let this walhuig be fo
often repeated, that all the moft minute lumps of the clay
bo broken, and whatever fait it contains perfeftly vvafhed
out : then add to this fine clay, of the pureft fand, of pow-
der of calcined flints, ground, and well walhed, of faulty
but clean Heffian crucibles, or of any mcombuftible ftoncs
ground very line, fuch a quantity as wnll render the mais
thick, and hardly adhering to the hands in kneadmg it, or
pliant when rolled into a thin lamina.

This is the matter for making this fort of tefts ; but, be-
fore any quantity of the velTels be made of this earth, it will
be prudent firft to finilh a fingle one, and try it, by putting
on it a quantity of glafs of lead, and expofing it for an hour
or more to the ftrongeft fire ; by this trial you will be cer-
tain whether or not the mat's is capable of making veflels
that will refift both the fire and the glafs of lead ; and by no
other means but this trial is it poffible to determine the due
proportion of the mixture of the ingredients for this ufe,
on account of the variety of the clays. Nature in fome
places affords a clay fo well tempered, that it is extremely
proper for the making of tefts without any preparation, or
without the admixture of any other matter. Sometimes
this only requires a (imple walhing, but commonly it is ne-
cetrary to make it into balls, and powder or wafh them as
before direfted.

On the trial of a teft made of this, or the former mixed
clay, if it runs into glafs, you mull add to it of the powder
of Hones, efpecially fuch as beft relifts the fire. Great care
is to be taken not to add too much powdered chalk to thele
compofitions, fince if the matter is tempered with that
alone, the tefts will indeed refift the fire very well, but being
too porous, they will yield a paffage to litharge, which will
foften them to fuch a degree, that they will either fall afun-
der of themfelves, or be totally cruftied when taken hold of
with the tongs.

Thefe veflels are to be made in the following manner :
rub over the fides and bottom of a fmall mortar, and alfo
its peflle, with oil, or with the fat of bacon ; fill it two-
thirds full of prepared clay, then make a (light impi-eflion
with your fingers in the middle of the clay ; then place the
bottom of the peftle there, and force it down with blows of
a hammer, the ftronger the better. When thus properly
hollowed, take it out of the mortar, and pare its edges, and
dry it, as the coppek are dried, in the air, in a dry warm
place.

Tefts thus prepared may be ufed as foon as dry, unlefs
for falts or litharge ; but thefe bodies, when melted in vcffels
not firft^ baked or hardened in the fire, always make their
way through them.

Some of the German writers alfo recommend, both for
tefts and coppels, a fort of friable opaque ftone, called
white fpath, which appears to be a fpecies of gypfum,
or of the ftones from which plafter of Paris is prepared.
The fpath is direfted to be calcined with a gentle fire,
in a covered veffel, till the flight crackling, which happens at
firft, has ceafed, and the ftone has fallen in part into powder ;
the whole is then reduced into fubtle powder, which is
paffed through a fine fieve, and raoiftened with fo much of
a weak folution of green vitriol, as is fufficient for making
it hold together. Gellert, however, finds, that if the ftone
is of the proper kind, which can be known only by trials,
calcination is not neceffary. Thefe tefts are liable to foften
or fall afunder in the fire, which inconvenience may be
remedied, according to Scheffer, by mixing with the uncal-
cined ftones fomewhat lefs than equal its weight, as eio-ht-
njnths of fuch as had been already ufed and penetrated by
the fcoria of the lead, taking that part of the old teft which

appears of a green-grey colour, and rejefting the red crull
on the top. But from his account it appears, that thefe
tefts are lefs durable than thofe made of the alhes of bones,
though much fuperior to thofe of wood-afties. Vegetable
afltes, which Hand pretty well tlie tefting of illver, can
fcarcely bear any great quantity of gold, which requires a
confiderably ftronger fire than the other ; but bone-aflies,
fays Dr. Lewis, anfwer fo effeftually, and are among us fo
eafily procured, that it is uiineccflary for the refiner to fearch
for any other materials. Cramer's Art of Allaying, p. 6o.
62. Lewis's Com. Ph. Tech. p. 144.

TEST-Z./yuor, a term ufed by our dealers in brandies, &c.
for a liquor which they ufe as a teft of brandy, &c. to
prove whether they be genuine, or mixed with home fpirit.
The people who ule this, place great confidence in it, but
it is really a very vague and uncertain thing. They pretend
that this liquor will /hew, by the colour which it makes on
its being poured into brandy, whether it be genuine or
adulterated ; or if not genuine, in what proportion the
adulterating fpirit is mixed with it.

The whole faft is this : if a little common green or white
vitriol be diflblved in fome fair water, it makes a teft-liquor,
a few drops of which being let fall into a glafs of old French
brandy, will turn the whole to a purple or fine violet-colour ;
and by the ftrength or palenefs of this colour, the dealers
judge the brandy to be genuine or mixed in different propor-
tions, with home fpirits.

Old French brandy, having long lain in the cafk, takes a
dilute tinfture of the wood of the cafk, that is, of oak ; and
this being of the fame nature with a folution or tincture of
galls, naturally turns blueifh or blackifh with vitriol. A
new diftilled brandy, though wholly foreign, would not give
this teft ; and a common malt fpirit, with oak chips infufed
in it, will turn as dark as the fineft brandy. While our
diftillers, indeed, had nothing in ufe for the colouring of
their fpirits but burnt fugar, it was poffible to make tome
guefs at an adulteration with them, becaufe the brandy, in
this cafe, would not become blackifh in proportion to its
former colour ; the fugar colour not turning to ink with the
vitriol, like the other : but our diftillers have fince found
a way of ufing an extraft of oak for the colouring of their
fpirits, and fince that, this teft-hquor is of very little ufe,
our common fpirits, of any kind, turning as deep with it as
the foreign brandies.

The very beft way of making this teft-liquor, is with a
c.ilcined vitriol of iron, diffolved in a dilute or aqueous mineral
acid. The liquor, when well made in this manner, is of a
fine yellow colour, and will give, for a time, the fineft blue
to any fpirituous tinfture of oak.

The EngHfh were, at one time, ver/ fond of high-co-
loured brandies, .and it was then that the ufe of this teft-
hquor was moft efteemed ; afterwards we, as well as other
nations, finding that this colour was only owing to the cadi,
began to diflike, and to favour the pale brandies : at length
we fell into the ufe of fuch as were wholly limpid and
colourlefs, and the re-diftilling of all the old brandies of which
people were poffeffed, took place ; on this the teft-liquor was
fdund to be of no ufe at all, and accordingly rejefted ; but
as we are of late again come into the efteem of coloured
brandies, and that with great juftice, as the colour, when
genuine, is a certain mark of the age of the liquor, this teft-
liquor is again got into more credit than it dcferves.

The famous Helvetian ftyptic depended wholly on this
accident for its colour ; and it was no fmall mortification
to our chemifts, when, fome years ago, it was introduced
into ufe among us, that they could not make it with our
own fpirits, but muft be at the expencc of true French

brandy

TEST. ACT.

brandy for it ; our own fplrits, though equally coloured,
would never make that violet lind\ure, becaufc their colour
was owing to burnt fugar, not a tinfture of oak. At
length this myftery was explained, and a little fcrapings of
galls made all thofe quantities of this llyptic, which had
been fet by as good for nothing, perfedlly fine and well-
coloured. Shaw's Effay on Diftillery.

TEST-y?ff, in iaw, is the ftatute 25 Car. II. cap. 2.
(1673) which direfts all officers, civil and military, to take
the oaths, and make the declaration againll tranfubftan-
tlation, in the court of king's bench or chancery, the next
term, or at the next quarter feffions, or (by fubfequent
ftatutes) within fix months after their admilfion ; and alfo
within tiie fame time to receive the facrament of the Lord's
fupper, according to the ufage of the church of England,
in fome public church, immediately after divine fervice or
fermon, and to deliver into court a certificate thereof, figned
by the miniiler and churchwarden, and alfo to prove the
fame by two^ credible witneffes, upon forfeiture of 500/. and
difability to liold the fame office. Befides this penalty, if,
without taking the facramental qualification within the time
prefcribcd by the aft, a perfon continues to occupy a civil
office, or to hold a military commiffion, and is lawfully con-
vifted, tlien he is difabled from thenceforth, for ever, from
bringing any aftion in courfe of law, from profecuting any
fuit in any court of equity, from being guardian of any child,
or executor or adminillrator of any perfon, as well as from
receiving any legacy. For an account of the nature and
operation of the Corporation AB, we refer to that article.
The word tejl fignifies proof or trial, being formed of iejlis,
iLHtneJs ; this aft being ellabliffied with a view to exclude
Roman Catholics from any fhare in the government, though
it has operated to the exclufion of Proteilant diflenters in
general. The Corporation aft, enafted in the year 1661,
the 13th of Charles II., was principally, but not wholly,
defigned againft Proteftant Nou-conformifts. It was pafled
in a period of great heat and violence, the year after the
Reftoration ; and it paved the way for the aft of unifor-
mity, which foon after pafled. The king, with his minifters,
and the majority in both houfes, hated the Prefbyterians,
whom they confidered, whether jullly or not, as the authors
of the late rebellion. Great power ftill remained in their
hands, for, during the Proteftorate, they had been appointed
magiftrates in all the country towns. To leave authority
in Uich hands feemed dangerous : it was therefore judged
expedient to regulate the corporations, and to expel thofe
magiftrates, whofe principles were inimical to the conftitu-
tion, civil and ecclefiaftical. This gave rife to the Corpo-
ration aft. The facramental claufe, however, in the Cor-
poration aft was intended againll the Catholics ; for, as
the other provifions of the ftatute, by difpoffeffing the
enemies of the court, had eftabliftied the influence of the
crown in all the corporations of the kingdom, the parliament
was apprehenfive that in the next reign, under a Catholic
king, all corporation offices would be filled with Catholics.
Befides, before the paffing of the aft of uniformity, thofe
that were afterwards called diffenters, were within the
inclofure of the church, and confequently participated in
her facraments, fo that the facramental claufe muft there-
fore have been intended as a guard againft the Cathohcs, to
whom it effeftuaUy applied, and not as a guard againft
thofe who were afterwards called diflenters, on whom, at
that period, it could not operate.

It muft alfo be allowed, that the original defign of the teft
was not fo much to exclude the Proteftant diflijnters, as
the papifts, as the Catholics were then called. It was
brought in by the patriots, in the reign of Charles II.,

under their apprehrnfion of poprry, and a popifli fuccenbr ;
and when, during the debate in the houfc of commons, it
was obferved, that it was drawn in fuch a manner as to com-
prehend the Proteftant diflenters, the court greatly endea-
voured to avail themfelvcs of that circumftance in order to
defeat the bill. But the diflenting members difappointcd
them, by declaring, that they had rather confide in tlie
jufticc and generofity of parliament, to pafs fome future
bill in their favour, than be the occafion of retarding or de-
feating the fecurity, which the i)refent bill was calculated to
aff'ord- to the liberties of their country. Their patriotifm
produced, foon afterwards, a bill for their relief from the
pen.il laws ; but the parliamer.t was prorogued, through
the refentment of the court, to prevent its palling : and
when, notwithftandlng this, a bill in favour of the diflenters
did afterwards pafs both houfes, vi-z,. in the year 1680, and
lay ready for the royal aflent, the court ventured upon a
very extraordinary expedient : the clerk of the crown was
ordered to convey away the bill, and, atJcordingly, it waa
never afterwards to be found. The p.irlicular telt of re-
ceiving the facrament acconiing to the rites of the church
of England, was calculated to exclude the papiits rather
than the Proteftant diflinters ; as it was no uncommon
thing for the latter, at that time, to receive the facrament
occafionally in the church of England, in order to exprefs
their charity towards it, as a part of the church of Chrift.
If it had been the defign of tlie legiflature to exclude all
from civil offices but thofe who have a real aft'eftion for the
conftitution and worftiip of the church, it is apprehended
they would have appointed the tcil to be, not merely once
taking the facrament at church, but a ftated and conftant
conformity to its religious fervices.

It has been alleged, however, that though the Teft aft
was defigned againft the Cathohcs, yet that few, even then,
of the number, merited a treatment fo fevere. They, it is
faid by their advocates, had no concern in the views of
Charles or his brother, in the fchemes of wild minifters, or
in the machinations of bad politicians. They had fuffi?red
much in the rcyal caufe, and were pining in penury and
diftrefs, under the additional prefl'ure of cruel laws. But
whatever might be the reafons, real or pretended, for
paffing an aft, of which Catholics were the principal often-
fible objefts, the cafe is now very much altered, and
Catholics have afl^umed a new charaftcr, which entitles them,
in the judgment of many, not merely to proteftion, but to
a participation of the privileges of their fellow-fubjefts.

As the queftion concerning the repeal of the difqualifying
laws which we have already mentioned, has beeEi, and is
likely foon again to become a fubjeft of public difcuffion,
and as it is a fubjeft, generally confidered, of great im-
portance and intercft, it may not be thought improper to
ftate the arguments for and againft the repeal of thofe ex-
cluding ftatutes, comprehending both Proteftant diflenters
and Cathohcs, in as concife a manner as poffible. The
general principles upon which the equitable decifion of this
queftion depends, are fuch as follow : — Every man has an
undoubted right to judge for himfelf in matters of rehgion ;
nor (hould any mark of infamy, or any civil penalty, be at-
tached to the cxcrcife of this right : — Every man has a
right to the common privileges of the fociety in which he
lives ; and among thefe common privileges, a capacity 1
law for ferving his fovereign and country is one of the
moft valuable, diftinguifliing a legal capacity of fervice, from
a right to an aftual appointment, which depends upon the
choice of his fovereign, or of his fellow citizens ; and this
capacity of ferving the ftate is a right of fuch high cftima-
tion, and of fuch tranfcendcnt value, that e.xclufion from it

is

TEST-ACT.

is deemed a proper punifliment for fome of the greateft
crimes :— Aaions, and not opinions, political or religious, are
the proper objeAs of human authority and cognizance :— No
man, who does not forfeit tliat capacity of ferving his fovercign
and country, which is his natural right, as well as the honour
and emoluments that may happen to be conneaed with it,
by overt-ads, ought to be deprived of them ; and difabili-
ties that are not thus incurred are unjuil penalties, implying
both difgrace and privation :— Punilhmeiit, without the pre-
vious proof of guilt, cannot be denied to be an injury ;
and injuries infliSed on account of rehgion arc undoubtedly
perfecutions : — The ends of civil fociety can never juftify
any abridgment of natural rights that is not cffential to
thefe ends : — The inftitutions of religion, and the ordinances
of civil government, are diftinft in their origin and
their objeds, in the fanAions that enforce them, and the
mode in which they are adminiftered : — The inftitution
of the Lord's fupper, being wholly of a rehgious nature,
and appointed merely as a memorial of his death, is
improperly applied to the fecular ends of civil fociety ;
and if it be fo applied, it is not only an improper, but in
many cafes an infufficient, teft of the principles and cha-
rafter of thofe to whom it is adminiftered. Such are
fome of the leading principles, which have been the fubjefts
of difcuffion in the debates that have occurred, both among
writers and among our legidators, in confidering the expe-
diency of repealing the teft laws. The cafe of the Catho-
Lcs and of the Proteftant diffenters has been repeatedly argued
in both houfes of parhament, and may probably again be-
come the fubjeft of pubhc difcuffion. Many (indeed moft)
of the fame arguments apply to both defcriptions of per-
fons ; but we (hall chiefly reftridt ourfelves to the pleas of
the diffenters. They have urged, that being well-affefted
to his majefty and the eftabhlhed government, and ready to
take the oaths required by law, and to give the fulleft proof
of their loyalty, they think their fcruple to receive the
facrament after the manner of the church of England, or
after the manner of any church, as a qualification for an
office, ought not to render them incapable of holding public
employments, civil or military : they alfo allege, that the
occafional receiving of the Lord's fupper as a qualification
for a place, cannot, in the nature of things, imply that thofe
who thus receive it, mean to declare their full and entire
approbation of the whole conftitution and frame of the efta-
blifhed church ; fome men may be compelled by their necef-
fities, or under the allurement of fecular advantages, to do
what they would not do, if they were left to their free
choice. Others, perhaps, may comply with the facra-
mental teft who are not even Chriftians, and who therefore
cannot be fuppofed to wifti well to Chriftianity itfelf, or to
any national eftablifhment of it whatfoever. Hence they
are led to think, that fuch a teft can be no real or effeftual
fecurity to the church of England. Conceiving that they
have a right, as men, to think for themfelves in matters of re-
ligion, and that this right is prefcribed and fanftioned by the
Author of Chriftianity ; and that they have a right, as ctti-
zau, to a common chance with their fellow-fubjefts for
offices of civil and military truft, if their fovereign or fel-
low-citizens ftiould tliink them worthy of confidence ; they
cannot be of opinion that any of the ends or objefts of civil
fociety require that thefe rights (hould be fupcrfeded, and that
they (hould be excluded from the fervice of the ftate. Their
advocates plead on their behalf, that the continuance of thofe
afts which invade their rights is fo far from being neceffary
to the well-being of the ftate, or to the eftabhfliment of the
national church, that they are actually pernicious both to
the ftate and church, and ought to be repealed. Their in-

utility is (liewn by referring to the higher truft of legiljativc
authority, to which the dilTenters are admitted without hefi-
tation or referve, and without fubmitting to any fuch teft.
An excifeman furely, it is faid, does not fuilain a more im-
portant office, neither is it neceffary that he fhould make a
profeffion of his Chriftian faith more than a member of the
houfe of commons or the houfe of peers. The principles of
the diffenters, their attachment to the cor-ftitution, and their
zeal in fupport of it, have been fufficiently manifefted in a
variety of inftances, from the Revolution to the prefent day ;
and yet can it be afferted, that their exclufion from the
fervice of the public is neceffary or beneficial to the ftate J
Can it be faid that the contiKUance of the difabilities to which
their profeffion fubjefts them, is neceffary for the fafety or
honour of the church ? The eftabli(hment of a church re-
quires a legal provifion for its minifters ; but it does not re-
quire for its laity an exclufive right to civil and militai-y
trufts. The eftablifhment of the church of England coa-
fifts in her tithes, her prebendaries, her canonries, her arch-
deaconries, her deaneries, and her biftioprics. Thefe confti-
tuted her eftablifhment before the Corporation and Teft afts
had any exiftence : and they will equally conftitute her
eftablifhment if thefe afts (liould be repealed. In Scotland
they have had no fuch afts ; and yet Scotland has an efta-
blilhed church. In Ireland thefe ads have been repealed ;
and yet the eftablinied church of Ireland remains. In Hol-
land, Ruffia, Pruffia, Germany, &c. they have no fuch afts.
As to the intimate and beneficial connection between church
and ftate, on which fome have grounded the fuppofed pro-
priety and neceffity of thefe laws, it would be fnfficient to
refer to the authority of archdeacon Palcy, who has ftated
what ought to be the fingle end of church eftablifhments.
(See Religion.) LTpon an appeal to hiftory, it has been
argued that the civil government maintained itfelf in former
times, when unccnneded with the church ; and the dif-
turbances which terminated in the ruin of both church and
ftate, are faid to have originated in the intolerant fpirit and
arbitrai'y proceedings of iome ecclefiaftics, who had them-
felves exercifed powers, and had inftigated their unhappy
fovereign to aftions and claims at leaft as contrary to, and
fubverfive of, the true fpirit of the conftitution, as any of
thofe violences of the times immediately fucceeding, which
have been fo juftly reprobated. In this connedion, we may
refer to the fpeech of an able advocate for the repeal of the
difabHng ftatutes : who maintains that no human govern-
ment has a right to inquire into men's private opinions, to
prefume that it knows them, or to ad on that prefumption.
Men fhould be tried by their adions, not by their opinions.
This, if true with refped to political, was more peculiarly
fo with regard to religious opinions. In the pofition, faid
Mr. Fox, that the adions of men, and not their opinions,
were the proper objeds of legiflation, he was fupported by
the general tenor of the laws of the land. Hiliory, how-
ever, afforded one glaring exception in the cafe of the Roman
Catholics. The Roman Catholics, or rather the Papifts, as
they were then properly denominated, had been fuppofed
by our anceftors to entertain opinions that might lead to
mifchief in the ftate. But it was not their rehgious opinions
that were feared. Their acknowledging a foreign autho-
rity paramount to that of the legiflature ; their acknowledg-
ing a title to the crown fuperior to that conferred by the
voice of the people ; their pohtical opinions, which they
were fuppofed to attach to their religious creed, were
dreaded, and juftly dreaded, as inimical to the conftitution.
Laws therefore were enaded to guard againft the pernicious
tendency of their pohtical, not of their religious, opinions ;
and the principle thus adopted, if not founded on juftice,

was

TEST. ACT.

V»as at lealt followed up with conliltcucy. Tlioir influence
in the ftate was feared, and they were not only reftriAcd
From liolding offices of power or truft, but rendered inca-
pable of purchafing lands, or acquiring influence of any
kind. But if the Roman Catholics of thofe times were
Papifts in the ilrie^ell fenfe of the word, and not the Roman
Catholics of the prefent day, iUU he would fay, that the
legiflature ought not to have afted againil them, till they
put in praftice iome of the dangerous doftrines which they
were thought to entertain. Difability and punifliment
ought to have followed, not to have anticipated, offence.
Thofe who attempted to juftify the diiabilities impofed on
the difTenters, muft contend, if they ai-gued fairly on their
own ground, not that their religious opinions were inimical
to the eftablifhed church, but that their political opinions
were inimical to the conllitution. If they failed to prove
this, to deprive the difTenters of any civil or political ad-
vantage, waa a manifett injuftice ; for it was not fufficient to
fay to any fet of men, we apprehend certain dangers from
your opinions, we have wifely provided a remedy againfl
them, and you, who feel yourfelves aggrieved, calumniated,
and profcribed, by this remedy, muft prove that our appre-
henllons are ill-founded. The onus probandi lay on the other
fide ; for whoever demanded that any other perion fliould be
laid under a reftriftion, it was incumbent on him tirll to
prove that the reftriction was neceffary to his fafety, by
fome overt acl, and that the danger he apprehended was not
imaginary but real. Was it ferioufly to be contended, that
religion depends upon political opinions ; that it can fubiill
only under tliis or that form of government ? It was an
irreverend and impious opinion to maintain, that the church
muff depend for fupport, on its being an engine, or ally, of
the flate, and not on the evidence of its doftrines, to be
found by fearching the fcriptures, and the moral elfefts it
produced on the minds of thofe whom it was its duty to
inftrutt. See Toleration.

Mr. Pitt agreed with Mr. Fox in admitting, as a general
principle, that the religious opinions of any fet of men were not
to be reflrained or limited, unlefs they fhould be found likely
to prove the fource of inconvenience to the ftate : nor ought
the civil magillrate, in any other point of view, to interfere
v/ith them ; but he maintained, that when religious opinions
are fuch as may produce a civil inconvenience, the govern-
ment has a right to guard againfl the probability of the civil
inconvenience being produced ; nor ought they to wait till,
by being carried into afticn, the inconvenience has aftually
arifen. It was not therefore on the ground that the dif-
fenters would do any thing to affeft the civil government of
the country , that they had been excluded from civil offices, but
that if they had any additional degree of power in tlieir hands,
they might. On the other hand it has been pleaded, that to
reftrain men's civil rights from the fuppofed tendency of their
opinions, is a very dangerous principle, as it muft render
their condition precarious and wholly dependent on the pre-
judices and will of the magiftrate, and warranted unlimited
reftraint, and almofl every f'pecies of perfecution.

Mr. Pitt, prcmifing that the eilablilhment of a fettled
form of church and of its minifters is neceffary to the civil
government of the country, fuggefts the impropriety of dif-
tributing the emolumenfs and offices of the eflablifhed
church among perfons who, however refpettable their cha-
ra6f;ers might be, were not members of the fame com-
munion ; but others fay, that the emoluments and offices of
the eflablifhed church are not the objetls contended for, but
thofe of the ftate, unlefs the church and ftate be abfolutely
identified. He alfo fays, that thefe offices may be con-
lidered as matter of favour, becaufe it is confillent with the
govermiient of this country, that all oflices lliould be given at

its difcretion ; and here, he fays, from the dehcatc nature of
the cafe, the legiflature had thought proper to mtcrpofe, and
to reftrain the fupreme magiftrate, the head of the executive
authority, and limit him in his appointment to thefc offices ;
but furely, as ho contends, this differed eflentially from any de-
gradation, difgrace, or punifliment of the diffentcrs. Others,
however, have confidered this kind of reafoning as fallacious,
both in its principle, and in the inference deduced from it.

Mr. Fox concurred with lord North, who, though an
.advocate for the continuance of thefe difqualifying laws,
bore teftimony to the principles and charafler of the dif-
fentcrs, in his avowal of their fteady attachment to govern-
ment ; and he added, that their religious opinions were
favourable to civil liberty, and that the true principles of the
conllitution had been remembered and affirmed by them, at
times when they were forgotten, perhaps betrayed, by the
church. See Dissenters.

Mr. Fox maintained, that the Teft aft was altoge-
ther inadequate to the end it had in view. The purport
of it was, to proteft the eflablifhed church, by exclud-
ing from office every man who did not profefs himfelf well
affefted to that church. But a profeffed enemy to the
hierarchy might go to the communion table, and afterwards
fay, that in complying with a form, enjoined by law, he had
not changed his opinion, nor, as he conceived, incurred any
religious obligation whatever. There were many men, not
of the eflablifhed church, to whofe ferviccs their country had
a claim. Ought any fuch man to be examined, before he
came into office, touching his private opinions ? Was it not
fufficient that he did his duty as a good citizen ? Might he
not fay, without incurring any difablility, " I am not a friend
to the church of England, but I am a friend to the con-
llitution, and on religious fubjefts muft be permitted to
tiiink and aft as I pleafe." Ought their country to be de-
prived of the benefit fhe might derive from the talents of
fuch men, and his majefty prevented from difpenfmg the
tavoura of the crown, except to one defcription of his fub-
jetts ? But whom did the tefl exclude, the irreligious man,
the man of profligate principles, or the man of no principle
at all ? Quite the contrary ; to fuch men the road to power
was open ; the teft excluded only the man of tender con-
fcience ; the man who thought religion fo diftinft from all
temporal affairs, that he held it improper to profefs any re-
ligious opinion whatever, for the fake of a civil office. Was
a tender confcience inconfitlent with the charafter of an
honeft man ? or did a high fenfe of religion fhew that he was
unfit to be trufted ? Allowing that the elf abliftied rhurch
ought to be protected, it was natural to inquire what was
the eflablifhed church ? Was the church of England the
eftabhfhed church of Great Britain ? Certainly not : it was
only the eftablifhed church of a part of it ; for, in Scotland,
the kirk was as much eftablifhed by law as the church was
in England. The religion of the kirk was wifely fecured,
as the eftabliftied religion of Scotland, by the articles of
Union ; and it was furely abfurd to fay, that a member of
the kirk of Scotland, accepting an office under government,
not for the fervice of England excluiivtly, but for the fer-
vice of the united kingdom, ihould be obliged to conform,
not to the religious eftablifhment of Scotland, in which
he had been bred, but to the religious eftablifhment of
England.

To the argument urged in favour of the Corporation and
Teft afts, founded on the apprehenfion that if they were re-
pealed, the difTenters might become a majority of the peo-
ple, Mr. Fox gives a brief reply, 'ci%. that if the majority
of the people of England lliould ever be for the abohtion of
the sftablifhcd church, then it ought to be abohllied. It
has been faid, that by manifcfliiig indulgence to other fcfts,

a candid

TEST-ACT.

andid refpcct for their opinions, and a dcf.re to promote
tiial clianly and good-will, liie cllablilhed church will be

Whilil

a can

nuitiial charily ami go

moll likely to iecure its il;-.bihty and its honoiir.

the cricvanccs of pcrfons of a different proteflion are re-

drelfed, and they are admitted to a- participation of their

civil rid.ts, the church need not fear any combination tor

. f^ . ^ « • r _ .. J 1..', ,^ y-,f ito T\*»*- II li'ii* ;tn(l

the hands of the clergy, who were to be the great arbitrator!!
of qualification or dil'qualilication for offices, and places of
power and emolument. Some have attempted to juftify the
legal eftablilhment of the profanation of a religious infti-
tution, by comparing it with tliofe provifions of our law
which enjoin tlie fanftion of an oath ; but this argument has

fapping its 'foundation, or for depriving it of its peculiar and been confidered as iuapplicable to the prefent cafe, and alto-

dift inguilhing honours or emoluments. Men who are ag
crieved, under a fenfe of what they conceive to be an indig-
nity and iniurv, are the mod likely to manifeft hollihty
againtl an eccleriallical ellabli(hment that engroffes aU civi
and fecular advantages to itfelf.

It has been faid, that it would conduce to the honour ot th*

gether unavailing ; for though it be indeed true that the le-
giflature, by compelling every petty officer of the revenue,
and every coUeftor of a turnpike toll, to fwear deeply on
his admiffion into office, has made the crime of perjury more
common, at this time, in England, than it ever appears to
have been in any other age or country : yet how does the
frequent commiffion of this crime againjl law, juftify the
eftablifhment of a rehgious profanation by law ? But, with-
out any comment on the folly of pleading for a legiflative de-
\y was"iiot uitcnded by its divine founder for the attain- bafement of religion in one way, by (liewing that the legifla-

- ' •■^'■n T r i._ ofes. ture has contributed to its dcbafemciit in another, let it be

aflced, what refemblance the facrament of the Lord's fupper,
which is merely a religious inftitution, bears to the ceremony
of an oath, which is an inftitution fo entirely political, that
it anfwcrs none of the purpofcs of religion, promotes none of
her interefts, forms no part of her eftablifhment, and belongs
as much to the Jew, the Mahometan, and the idolater, as it
does to the Chriftian. The difference, fays Mr. W. Smith,

the
rulers and dignitaries of the church, if they would concur
in abolifhing laws which perpetuate the perverfion and profa-
nation of a'religious inftitution : — an inftitutioR which cer-

taiii-^

ment and promotion of any felfifli and fecular purp
Here, it is maintained, if any where, a hne of feparation
fhould be drawn between religious and civil policy ; nor
fliould the performance of a Chriftian duty be made an indif-
penfible qualification for a fecular office. The difTenters,
fays a well-informed member of the legiflature (Mr. W.
Smith), who, being himfelf one of them, is thoroughly ac

„ ^, , - in^ _ .

quainted with their principles and charafter, would equally

obieft to receiving the facrament as a left in their own places between the facrament, ufed as a teft for office, and an oath,
of worfhip, though many of them would not fcruple to par- as a teft of truth, is too obvious to efcape the moft carelefs
take of it with their brethren of the eftablifhment, and ac- obferver. An oath was neither primarily, nor at all, an aft

cording to their form, when confidered only in its true hght,
as a religious duty, and an expreflion of Chriftian charity.
The wrncr of this article is acquainted with feveral con-
fcientious and avowed members of the eftabhfhed church,
who lament this abufe of a Chriftian ordinance, and who
wifh, for the purity and honour of the church to which they
are attached, that the laws impofmg this teft were repealed.

of worfhip ; nor, though it neceffarily fuppofed a belief in a
fupreme moral governor, was it ever ufed as a teft of
particular religious opinions ; the fole objeft to which it was
direfted was the attainment of truth, (with refpeft either to
the paft or the future,) where other means were infufficient,
— an appeal to a Being who, by the fuppofition, nnift be ac-
quainted with all the circumitances, and muft alfo be both

at \- ti.i.i.u\> tiv-vjj i-iijui- tiii- luiiu *■ " H* ij-^ii-w •--•••.' --.- -■ J — - -J — ■-- ,

It would Hkewife contribute to the fatisfaftion of fcrupulous able and inclined to_ punifti falfehood in fuch cafes, as an in

minifters of the eftablifhed church, to be releafed from the
obligation of adminiftering the facrament, as a quahfication
for office abftraftedly confidered, and more efpecially to per-
fons of known licentioufnefs of principles and conduft. By
the duties of his funftion, by the pofitive precepts of his
religion, and by the rubrick or canons of the church, the mi-
nifter is enjoined to warn from the facred table all blaf-
phemers of God, all llanderers of his word, all adulterers,
and all perfons of a profligate life ; and yet to thefe very per-
fons, if they demand it as a qualification, he is compelled, by
the Teft aft, to adminifter the facrament ; and if he refufes,
a ruinous profecution for damages is the obvious and ine-
vitable confequencc. On the other hand it has been faid,
that if the minifler's conviftion of profligacy of conduft is
fiipported by all the circumftances which oonftitute legal
proof, he may lawfully refufe the facrament. The truth of
this opinion is doubtful ; but it is certain, that if he fhould
fail in that proof, his ruin is inevitable : and if he fhould fuc-
ceed, it is almoft equally certain ; for the expences of his fuit
will devour his fcanty means, and probably confign him to
a prifon for his life. Allowing that any notorious evil-doer,

fult added to a crime, was perfeftly well calculated to attain
the propofed end, and inapplicable to any other purpofe.

If, fays Mr. Fox, in concurrence with fome previous ob-
fervations of Mr. Beaufoy, when a man is feen going to
take the facrament, it fhould be aflced, " is this man going to
make his peace with God, and to repent him of his fins ?"
the anfwer fhould be, " No ; he iS only going there, becaufe
he has lately received the appointment of firft lord of the trea-
fury ;" can any circumftance afford a greater proof of the in-
decency refulting from the praftice of fo qualifying ?

Some have contended, that to grant a remiffion in favour of
Scotland of the Teft and Corporation afts, would be a breach
of the union ; an opinion which fuppofes, that becaufe, by
the articles of union, nothing can be taken from Scotland but
what was then ftipulated, therefore nothing can be given.
Others fay, that as the Teft and Corporation afts are among
the ftatutes which fecure the doftrines, difcipline, worfhip,
and government of the eftablifhed church of England, they
are therefore by the aft of union declared to be unalterable.
In reply to this mode of arguing it has been obferved, that
the government and difciphne, the doftrines and the wor-

ofFering himfelf to receive the facrament, might be rejefted fhip of the Enghfh church, were the fameTDefore the ftatutes

by the minifter, without becoming liable to any puniftiment,

let it be confidered what is the fituation in which A or B,

or the perfon who upon application to a minifter had been re-

fufed the facrament, was placed : from that moment he had

incurred the penalties of the aft, and was puniftied in a man

were enafted, and would continue the fame if thofe ftatutes
were repealed ; and confequently do not derive their fecu-
rity from them : whereas the aft which relates to the pa-
tronage of the church of Scotland, and which did feem to
affeft its difcipline, was held to be no breach of the articles

ner perfeftly new, unexampled, and unauthorized by the of union ; neither was that union underflood to be weakened

laws of the land ; he was convifted without a trial by jury, by the fubfcquent aft, which gave a complete toleration in

and was difabled from enjoying an office which his majefty, Scotland to epifcopal diffenters.

in the legal exereife of his prerogative, had thought proper to When the articles of union were under the confideration

confer on him ; and a perfon was thereby abfolutely put into of parliament, a propofal was made in the houfe of lords,

8 that

T E S

Vhat the perpetual continuance of the Ted aft ; and in the
houfe of commons, tliat the perpetual continuance of the
Corporation aft, fliould be declared a fundamental condi-
tion of the intended union : but the motions were botii re-
joftcd ; a proof that the legiflature did not mean to give to
them the fame perpetual exillence as to the aft of uniformity,
and to the ftatute that was paflTed in tlie thirteenth of Eh-
zabcth, both of which were fpecilically named, as condi-
tions of the compaft, and exprefsly declared irrevocable.

It the teft and corporation laws are deemed imallerable
parts of the articles of union, it follows, of courle, that
every alteration in thofe laws muil be deemed a breach of the
union, and that every luipenfion of thofe laws mull be con-
fidered as a fulpenfion of the union. Now both thcfe afts
are altered, and in part repealed, by fubfequent llatutes, and
for fix months in almoft every year are wholly fufpcndcd.
But who will alTert that the articles of union are dilfolved,
or that their obligation on the two countries is fufpendcd
for fix months in every year ? or who will deny that the
fame power which alters a part may alter the whole of
thofe laws ? Who will deny that the fame authority which
lufpends a law for fix months, may abolifli it for ever ?

In favour of the continuance of thefe laws it has been
urged, that they have exilled for many years with great ad-
vantage ; but many attempts have been made to difprove the
advantage of them, and they have repeatedly been com-
plained of as both ufelefs and unjuft. Befides, this argument
for their exiftence is abfurd, as it tends to perpetuate every
enormity that can plead the fanftion of age. The horror
of iuHovalion may be felt or feigned as a bar to every im-
provement. It ir.ay be neverthelefs aficed, how have thefe
laws fubfifted i By repeated fufpenfions ; for the indemnity
bills are, with few exceptions, annual afts : and where
would be the impropriety of fufpending them for ever, by an
ail of perpetual operation. In order to filence complaints
of thefe partial and injurious laws, it has been faid that the
aft of indemnity, annually palTed, protefts from the penal-
ties of the teft and corporation laws all fuch perfons as have
offended againft them. If it afford fuch proteftion, what
inconvenience can arife from a repeal of the ftatutes them-
felves ? Is not the conftant and invariable praftice of pafling
fuch a bill annually, a tacit acknowledgment that the tell
afts are improper or unneceffary ; that the penalties, if in-
curred, ought not to be enforced ; and therefore no man
could be blamed for reforting to an indemnity, held out as a
proteftion againft puniftiments inflifted by laws which the le-
giflature itfelf continually treated with a kind of difrefpeft,
and which were already almoft repealed in praftice, though
they were ftill preferved in the ftatute-book by a fpecics of
fuperftitious regard ? The only juftification for evading a
ftatute, that can be for a moment maintained, is, when that
ftatute notorioufty ought not to remain in force ; and when
to evade it, on account of its nature and tendency, is meri-
torious. But it has been faid, that the Indemnity aft does
not proteft the diftenters from the teft and corporation laws ;
for its only efFeft is, that of allowing farther time to thofe
trefpaffers on the law, againft whom final judgment has not
been awarded. Should, for example, a profecution have
been commenced, but not concluded, the Indemnity aft
does not difcharge the proceedings ; it merely fufpends them
for fix months ; fo that if the party accufed does not take
the facrament before the fix months allowed by the Indem-
nity aft (hall expire, the proceedings will go on, and, long
before the next indemnity aft will come to his rehef, final
judgment will be awarded againft him. Thus it appears,
that the Indemnity aft gives no effe&ual proteftion to the
diffenter, who accepts a civil office or military command ;

Vol. XXXV.

T K S

for lie who cannot take the facr.iment at all, cannot take it
within the time required by that aft. After all, indemnity
fuppofes criminality, and an obnoxioufnefs to punilhmeiit :
the office and penalty are created by thefe ftatutes : repeal
tlie laws, and indemnity becomes necdlcfs. No man would
wifli, if it were always prafticable, to fhelter himfelf under
an aft of indemnity fiir omitting to do what, independently
of thefe laws, he ought not to do ; or chufe to have it
tliought that he is lefs fit and able to ferve his king and
country than his neighbour, who does not feel the reftraint
of his confcientious fcruples. In corporate towns and many
p^jMic offices, the obhgation to qualify is confidered as a
kind of dead letter, and an informer would be very generally
tliought an odious charafter.

As to the Corporation a6t, it is faid to have been forced from
tlie legiilature as an aft of felf-defcnce ; and this is the pro-
per defcription of an aft, which, after the lapfe of much more
than a century, when the grounds and reafons for paffing it
no longer cxifted, ought to be repealed. The queftion that
forms the fubjeft of this article is, in our opinion, intimately
connefted with the honour of the church and the profperity
of the ftate, as well as with the general interefts of religion
and liberty ; and with thefe views of its importance, wc
refer the decifion of it to the impartial judgment of the
reader.

Test, or Tefe, in Geography, a river of England, v^'hicii
riies in the north-weft part of Hampfliire, bordering
on Wiltfhire, and runs into Southampton Water. Sir
Henry Englefield fecms inclined to think the original name
v?as jint.

TESTA, in Antiquity, the fame with ojlracon. See Os-
tracism.

Testa, in Italian Singing. When a performer fings
through the nofe, the throat, or the teeth, the voice i* called
•voce da tejla, to diftinguifh it from iioee di pclto. Tofi fays :
" let the mafter attend with great care to the voice of his
fcholar, which, whether it be di petto, or di tejia, (hould
always come forth neat and clear, without paffing through
the nofe, or being choaked in tlie throat ; which are two of
the moft horrible defefts in a finger, and paft all remedy if
once grown into a habit." Galhard's Tranfl. of Tofi on
florid Song.

Testa, Pietro, in Biography, called II Lucchefino, from
having been born at Lucca. His birth took place in 1611,
and he was firft inilrufted in painting by Pietro Paolini ;
afterwards he ftudiedat Rome, under Domenichino and Pietro
da Cortona. The principal objcfts of his ftudy were an-
tique marbles, and the remains of ancient architcfturc ; in
which employment fuch was his affiduity, that few veftiges
of antiquity were known which had efeaped his pencil. His
extreme poverty made him morofe and melancholy ; and he
made himfelf many enemies, by the freedom with which he-
fpoke of the produftions of other painters. From this
ftate of trouble he was relieved by Sandrart, who found him
among the ruins, and compaffionating his diftrefs, took him
to his houfe, where he clothed and entertained him, and in-
troduced him to the prince .Tufliniani, who employed liim.
After this he fucceeded ; and the great freedom and eafe of his
pencil procured him many patrons. Several of the churches
and palaces at Rome are adorned with his produftions : the
bell are efteemed to be thofe of the Death of St. Angelo, in.
the church of St. Martino a Monti, and of the Death of
Iphigenia, in the Palazzo Spada. His works, however, are
more frequently to be met with at Lucca. As a defigner,
Pietro Tefta was unequal : he frequently tacked to antique
torfos ignoble heads, and extremities copied from vulgar
models. Of female beauty he appears to have been igno._

3 D rant,

T E S

rant, though he adopted a charaftcr and form which are pe-
vuhar to himfclf. Of his compolhions, generally perplexed
and crowded, the beft known and moll correct is that of
Achilles dragging Heftor from the walls of Troy to the
Grecian fleet. He delighted in allegoric fubjeas, and pro-
duced many of piclurefquc effeft and attitudes : but, in their
meaning, as obfcure as the occalions to which they allude.
Of cxpreflion, he only knew the extremes, grimace, or loath-
lome nefs and horror. As a colourill, he was frequently rich and
effeftive, harmonious and warm : and his execution bears the
llamp of incredible freedom : while his chiaro-fcuro is ma-
naged with great breadth and depth. His juft charafter is that
of a powerful machinift. He was drowned in the Tyber, in
1650, endeavouring to recover his hat, which the wind had
blown into the water ; though fome fufpeft tliat he threw
himfelf in, in a fit of defpondency, to which he was
prone.

He was an eminent engraver as well as a painter, and the
number of his works in both arts atteft his induilry and inge-
nuity, confidering the (liort period of his life.

Testa, in Bolany and Vegdalk Phyfwlogy, is the fl^in of
a feed or kernel, which enfolds the embryo, cotyledons, and,
if prefent, the albumen, giving them their due fhape ; for
this integument is perfedily formed, before they have at-
tained any folidity or diftinft organization. The fliin is ge-
neraliy double, as may be feen in the peach, apricot, and
walnut, that glutinous coat of the latter, which ftains our
lingers in peehng the kernel, being lined with a much finer,
white and fmooth membrane, technically called membrana by
Gxrtner. In true pulpy feeds, like thofe of Jafminum, a
quantity of pulp is lodged between the membrana and the
outer fliin. Both thefe integuments burft irregularly, merely
from the fwelling of their contents in germination.

Testa rtV Mora, in Geography, a Imall ifland near the
E. coaft of Sardinia. N. lat. 40° 45'. E. long. 9° 53'.

Testa di Saori, a town of the ifland of Corfica ; 7 miles
N. of Baflia.

Testa Ncvilli, or Tejla de Nevil, an ancient record kept
by the king's remembrancer in the exchequer, containing
the king's fees throughout the greateft part of England,
with inquifitions of land efcheated, and fergeanties.

It was denominated from its compiler Johan. de Nevil,
one of the itinerant juftices under king Henry III.
Testa Sep'iic. See Cuttle-/7/& Bone.
TESTACEOLOGY, the fcience of teftaceous vermes,
or, in other words, of thofe foft and fimple worms, which
have a Ihelly or teftaceous covering; whether, as in fome
kinds, it be fufficient to envelope and conceal the whole
body, or only to cover a portion of it, as in others. The
term is derived from teJla, a (hell ; or we (hould rather wifh,
in order to fupport our definition, from Tejlacea, the name
t)f the order of thofe vermes which have a Ihelly covering,
and which, in the Gmclinian fyftem, are thus defined :
TeStacea. Animalia Mollufca fimpUcia, domo fsepius cal-
carea propria, obtefta.

Under this idea of its derivation, the word teftaceology
mull be confidered preferable to that of conchology, in
dcfignating the fcience of thofe bodies which have a Ihelly
covering ; becaufe it may imply, or be underllood to imply,
not only the fcience of the {hells which form the covering
or habitation, but tlie animal alio by which it is inhabited,
while that of conchology might be confined to the Ihells
alone. It muft however be confeffed, that, ftridly fpeak-
ing, the terms teftaceology and conchology are fyno-
nimous, and that their application in the manner we propofe,
muft rather be determined by the tafte of the future natu-
ralift than any pofitive rule we might lay down. The

T E S

fcience itfelf is but a branch of vermeology; and either the
term conchology or teftaceology may be applied with much
propriety, at the difci'etion of the writer.

The term teftaceology is certainly of late invention, and
may in fome degree be regarded rather as an innovation than
amendment; for even with the definition we might be in-
clined to adign it, in order that it may be retained, there is
itill no aftual difference in its meaning from the term con-
chology, a term which, to ufe the words of a writer of the
lall century, " comprehends the ftudy of all animals that
are teftaceous, or have fhelly coverings ; not only thofe of the
lea, but alfo thofe of the rivers and land ;" and it has more-
over an evident claim to priority, having been in ufe for at
leafl the lad forty years among the beft Englilh authors.
Da Cofta, a writer of no ordinary information, indeed ap-
pears to have affumed to himfelf the eftablifhment, if not the
attual invention of the term ; for in his " Elements of Con-
chology," publilhed in 1776, he exprefsly obferves, " this
pecuhar branch of the hiftory of nature, I fliall call con-
chology." Many authors call it conchyliology ; and this we
find to be true in compliance both with the French and the
Latin, the " Conchyhologie" of D' Argenville, and " Hiftoria
Conchyliocum" of Lifter, two works of great celebrity, that
had appeared fome time before his " Elements" were pub-
hfhed. We have thus endeavoured to prove that the terms
teftaceology and conchology are purely fynonimous ; and if
any doubt remained, we might finally quote one further
paffage from the Elements before alluded to, in which we
are diltinttly told, that " the term of Conchology, applied to
this branch of natural hiftory by all authors, is quite appli-
cable to its arrangement by the (hells, and not by the fifli."
As we have already endeavoured to exemplify the rife, pro-
grefs, and prefent ttate of the fcience of teftaceous bodies in
a very ample manner under the article Conchology, and
may be allowed to prefume, with fome little confidence, that
we have therein concentrated much ufeful information upon
this truly pleafing and very favourite fcience, it might be
efteemed a wafte of words to enter into any very confiderable
digreffion upon the fame fubjetl; again ; we (hall therefore
merely recommend a careful perufal of that article to the at-
tention of the reader, and trull the refult will be confidered
fatisfaftory.

It was indeed our wilh, and we had made fome general
promife to that effeift, that under the prefent article we
would refume this fubjett, and fubmit the outlines of what
we were induced to think an improvement upon the prefent
prevailing arrangement ; and upon this point it is now in-
cumbent to offer a few remarks.

The moft ardent admirer of the great Linnaeus will
readily concede to us, that the fcience of conchology was
not one of thofe within tlie province of his deep refearch, or
the decided contemplation of his aftive mind. Its introduc-
tion as a fcience, was neceffary to complete the feries of the
vaft chain of animated nature, the clafTification of which he
had undertaken in his " Syltema Naturx," and it was
therefore one he could not omit. But for this, it is believed,
and with tolerable certainty, th.it he would have willingly
avoided the fubjefl altogether in the latter editions of that
work, as it was in the early ones. We have already (hewn,
under our article Conchology, the affual ftate in which
Linnxus found the fcience, as handed down to him by his
predeceffors ; and the var-ious purpofes to which he applied
their labours and afliftance. From a general view of the
v;hole, there can no doubt remain that there is yet much to
amend in the claffification of (hells, and that the fubdivifion
of many of the genera already eftabKfhed into natural genera,
appears defirable. It was under this perfuafien that we

had

T E S

T E S

had iiitenJi'd, when writinjr the article Testaceology, to
luive fuhmittcd our ideas as to a new and more comprehen-
live claffification of the genera ; to have pointed out the
very eflential dillintlions tliat exift in (hells of the fame
Linnsean genera ; and have thence endeavoured to deduce an
arrangement congenial with the charafters of the refpetlive
natural genera which his artificial genera prefent. This we
believe would have been regarded as an improvement in the
claiTical diftribution of the (hell-tribe, but fuch an illuftration
does not appear, upon more mature refledlion, to be admilFible
here. It mud be apparent that no words, unaccompanied
by (igures, could polTibly convey to the reader any adequate
conception of the minute, ambiguous, and intricate elfential
charatlers, which many among the various tribes of (hells
prefent ; and that fuch a feries of plates as it would demand
to illuftrate a fubjeft fo very copious and diffufe, however
defirable in the opinion of the naturahft, could not be ap-
propriated, with any degree of propriety, in addition to the
very coftly feries of plates already devoted by the Cyclo-
pedia to this fcience in particular.

The feries of plates which have already appeared, eluci-
date the whole of the Linn^an genera, and under each of
thofe genera, a number of the more ftriking natural genera
which appertain to them refpeftively. Thefe plates are
numerous, and the fubjetts for them have been feleCled with
every poffible attention ; nor can we helitate to think upon
the whole they will be confidcrcd, without any further addi-
tion, as amply fufficient for every ufeful purpofe of general
information.

TESTACEOUS, in Natural Hiflory, an epithet given
to thofe filh, which are covered with a Itrong, thick (hell ;
as oyfters, pearl-fifh, &c.

In ftriftnefs, however, teftaceous is only applied to fi(li
whofe ftrong and thick fliells are entire ; thofe which are
foft, thin, and confift of feveral pieces jointtd, as the lobiler,
&c. being called crtijlaceous.

In medicine, all preparations of (hells, and fubftances of

the like kind, are called teftaceous Such are powders of

crab's claws and eyes, pearl, &c.

Dr. Quincy, and others, fuppofe the virtue of all tefta-
ceous medicines to be alike ; that tJiey feldom or never enter
tlie lafteals, but that the chief of their aftion is in the firft
palTages ; in which however they are of great ufe in ab-
lorbing acidities.

Hence they become of ufe in fevers, and efpecially in
reftifying the many diftempers in children, which generally
owe their origin to fuch acidities.

TESTAMENT, Testamentum, in Law, a folemn and
authentic aft, by which a perfon declares his will, as to the
difpofal ofhiseftate, effefts, burial, &c.

Teftaments, according to Juftinian, and fir Edward Coke,
are fo called, becauf' they are tcflalio mentis ; an etymon,
fays judge Blackftone, which feems to favour too much of
the conceit, it being plainly a fubftantive derived from the
verb tejiart. The definition of the old Roman lawyers is
much better than their etymology ; voluntatis nujlm jujla
fententia de eo, quod quis pojl mortem fuam jieri 'velit ; i. e. the
legal declaration of a man's intentions, which he wills to be
performed after his death. It is called fententia, to denote
the circumfpeftion and prudence with which it is fuppofed
to be made ; it is -voluntatis nojlra- ftntentia, becauie its efficacy
depends on its declaring the teitator's intention, whence in
England it is emphatically ftyled his mill: it hjujla fentrntia,
that is, drawn, attefted, and pubhfhed witli all due folemnities
and forms of law : it is de eo, quod quis pojl mortem fuam
fieri -velit, becaufe a teftament is of no force till afty the
death of the teftator. Blackftone's Com, vol. ii.

A teftament lias no effcft till after death, and is always
revocable till then. As tellamcnts are afts, of all others,
the moll fubjedl to deceits, furpri'/e, See. it was found
necidary to ufe all kinds of precautions to prevent the wills
of the deceafed from being eluded, and the weaknefs of
dying perfons from being abufed. See Will.

The moll ancient teliaments among the Romans were
made -viva voce, the teftator declaring his will in the prefence
of feven witnefles ; thefe they called nuncupative teliaments;
but the danger of trufting the will of the dead to tlic
memory of the living foon abolidied thefe : and all tefta-
ments were ordered to be in writing.

The Erencli legiflators thouglit holographic teftaments,
i. e. teftaments written wholly with the teftator's h'and,
an abundant fecurity ; but the Roman law, more fevere, did
not admit of teftaments without farther folemnity.

The ealiell, and moft favourable, is the twenty-firft law
in tile code de tejlamentis, which permits fuch as are un-
willing to truft the fecret of their teftaments to others, to
write it with their own hand, and to clofe it in the pre-
fence of feven witnedes, declaring to them, that it is their
teftament ; after which it is to be figned by all the feven
witneffes.

Otherwife, to make a folemn teftament, it was required
to be attefted by feven witneffes, and fealed with their
feals.

Yet the military teftament was not fubjeft to fo many for-
malities : the foldier was fuppofed too much employed in
defending the laws, to be fubjeft to tile trouble of knowing
them. His tumultuary profelTion excufed him from obferv-
ing all the rules. See Military.

Teftaments, wherein fathers difpofed of their cftatos
among their children, had particular privileges, and were
difpenfed from moft of the ordinary formalities.

Testament, Prolate of a. See Phor ate and Will.

Testament, Old and New, in Sacred Hiflory. The moft
common and general divifion of the canonical books of
fcripture, is that of the Old and New Teftament. (See
Canon.) The Hebrew word Berith, from which it is
tranflated, properly fignifies " Covenant." Accordingly St.
Paul {2 Cor. iii. 6 — 18.), when he is ftiewing the fuperior
excellence of the gofpel covenant, or the difpenfatioii by
Chrift above the legal covenant, or the difpenfation by
Mofes, ufes the word teftament, not only for the covenamt
itfelf, but likewife for the books in which it is contained.
The Hebrew term JT"12' berith, invaj-iably rendered cove-
nant by our tranftators in the Old Teftament, is uniformly
tranflated AiaflnHti in the Septuagint ; and in the writings
of the apoftles and evangelifts, the words r, xaim ^irtSux.u
are almoll always rendered by our tranllators the New
Teftament. It is obferved, that the Hebrew term cor-
rcfponds much better to the Englifli word " Covenant,"
though not in every cafe perfeftly equivalent, than to
" Teftainent ;" and yet the word iiJcStuo', in clalTical ufe,
is more frequently rendered Tejlament. Our tranflators,
ancient and modern, have probably been led to render it
Teftament, by the manner in which the author of the epiftle
to the Hebrews argues (ch. ix. 16, 17.), in allufion to the
clalTical acceptation of the term. The term Neiv is added
to diftinguilh the religious inftitution of Jefus Chrift from
the Old Covenant, that is, the difpenfation of Mofes. Ac-
cordingly the two covenants are always in fcripture the two
difpenfations, or religious inllitutions ; that under Mofes is
the Old, and that under the Meffiah is the Netu. Hence,
from fignifying the two religious difpenfations, they came
foon to denote the books in which what related to thefe
difpenfations was contained ; the feveral writings of the
3 D 2 .lews

TESTAMENT.

Jews being called .; caXa.a o\«9«»r, and the writings fuper-
;idded bv the apolUosaiid evanfrclifts, n xa./n hxiw-.

'The New Teftamont confifted very ' anciently of two
codes or coUcaions, called gofpels and epiftlcs. This was
the cafe in the time of Ignatius, and alfo in the time oi
Tcrtullian, who diftinguillies the gofpcls by the names of
the writers, and calls them our " Digefta," or digcils, in
allufion, as it fcems, to fome coUedion of the Roman law-s
digcllcd into order. As to the order of the feveral gof-
pels, it appears, that in Tcrtullian's time they were dif-
pofed, at Icalt in the African churches, according to the
quality of the writers ; thofe two occurring firft which
were written by apoftles, and then the other two written
by apollolical men. In fome of the moft ancient MSS.
now extant, the order of the feveral evangelifts is thus;
Matthew, John, Luke, Mark. The order of the four
gofpels has been generally this: Matthew, Mark, Luke,
John ; then follow^he Afts, St. Paul's epiftles, the Catholic
epiftles, and the Revelation. It fufficiently appears, from a
variety of confiderations fuggefted by the excellent Dr.
Lardner, that the books of the New Teftament, confiftincf of
a coUeftJon of facred writings, in two parts, one called
Gofpel or Gofpels, or Evangelicon ; the other Epiftles, or
Apoftle or Apoftles, or Apoftolicon, were only known,
read, and made ufe of by Chriftians. (See Canon.) It
has been a fubjcft of fome difpute, whether any facred books
of the New Teftament have been loft ; but there are many
coniidcrations, tending to fatisfy us, that no facred writings
of the apoftles of Chrift are loft.

The four gofpels, in our poftefTion, were written' for the
benefit of thofe who would undoubtedly receive them with
refpeft, keep them with care, and recommend them to
others ; and if any other fuch authentic hiftories of Jefus
Chrift had been written by apoftles, or apoftolical men, they
would have been received, and preferved in like manner.
The book of the Afts, which we ftill have, was the only
authentic hiftory of the preaching of the apoftles after our
Lord's afcenfion, which they had in their hands, or had heard
of; confequently there was no other fuch hiftory to be
loft. The epiftles of Paul, James, Peter, John, Jiide, were
fent to churches, people, or particular perfons, who would
fhew them great regard when received, would carefully pre-
ferve them, and readily communicate them to others, that
they might take copies of them, and ufe them for their
eftabliftimunt in religion and ifirtue ; and if other fuch
epiftles had been written, the cafe would have been much the
fame, nor could any of them have been eafily loft. Bclides,
the apoftles and evar.-gelifts, who drew up any writings for
the inftruftion or confirmation of Chriftiau people, mull
have been careful of them. Upon the whole, we have no
fufficient reafons for believing, that any facred writings of
the New Teftament have been loft. All the books of the
New Teftament were written in Greek, except the gofpel
of St. Matthew, who, according to St. Jerom, firft wrote
in Judea in the Hebrew language. Tertullian, as well as
many other ancient writers, afford us various teftimonies to
the integrity and genuinenefs of the gofpels and other books
of the New Teftament in his time, as well as to their divine
infpiration. See Bible.

Although the New Teftament was written in Greek, an
acquaintance with the Greek claflics will not be found fo
conducive to the interpretation of it, as an acquaintance with
the ancient Hebrew fcriptures. The propriety of its being
written in the Greek language will appear from the follow-
ing hiftorical faft. After the Macedonian conquefts, and
the divifion which the Grecian empire underwent among the
commanders ou the death of their chief, Greei foon

became the language of the people of rank through ail tfiir
extenfive dominions which had been fubdued by Alexander-
The perfecutions with which the Jews were haraffed under
Antiochus Epiphanes, concurring with feveral other caufes,
occafioned the difperfion of a great part of their nation
throughout the provinces of Afia Minor, Alfyria, Phcenicia,
Perfia, Arabia, Libya, and Egypt ; which difperfion was
in procefs of time extended to Achaia, Macedonia, and
Italy. The unavoidable confequence of this was in a few
ages, to all thofe who fettled in d.ftant lands, the total lofs
of that dialeft, which tlieir fathers had brought out of
Babylon into Palcftine, excepting only amongft the learned.
At length a complete verfion of the fcriptures of the Old
Teftament was made into Greek ; a language which was
then, and continued for many ages afterwards, in far more
general ufe than any other. (See Septuagint.) The
Jews, who inhabited Grecian cities, where the oriental
tongue was unknown, would be naturally anxious to obtain
copies of this tranflation. Wherever Greek was the mother-
tongue, this verfion would be gradually adopted into ufe
not only in private in Jewifti houfes, but alfo in public in
their fchools and fynagogues, for the explanation of the
weekly leffons from the law and the prophets. The ftyle of it
would confequently foon become the ftandard of language
to them with regard to religious fubjefts. Hence would
arife a certain uniformity in phrafeology and idiom among
the Grecian Jews, wherefoever difperfed, in refpeCt of their
religion and facred rites, whatever might be the particular
dialefts which prevailed in the places of their refidence, and
were ufed by them in converfing on ordinary matters. From
the conformity and peculiarity in language now noticed,
fome critics, in order to diftinguifti the idioms of the LXX
and New Teftament from that of common Greek, have
termed it HeUeniJltc ; which fee. Under that article we
have intimated, that the habit which the apoftles and evan-
geliils had of reading the fcriptures, and heai-ing them read,
whether in the original or in the ancient verfion ; would, by
infefting their ftyle, co-operate with the tendency which,
as natives of Paleftine, they would derive from converfation,
to intermix Hebraifms and Chaldaifms in their writings.
Some modern writers, whilft they have adverted to this cir-
cumftance, have defended the diftion of the facred penmen of
the New Teftament, and extolled it as altogether pure and
elegant. Among thefe we may reckon Pfochenius and
Blackwall, who, with this view, have made diligent refearches
among the writings of the ancient Greeks, for the difcovery
of words and phrafes, which might appeal- to refemblc \vhat
has been accounted Hebraifm or Syriafm in the New Tefta-
ment. Whereas the writings of the New Teftament carry,
in the very expreffion and idiom, an intrinfic and irrefiftible
evidence of their authenticity. They are fuch as, in refpeft of
ftyle, could not but have been written by Jews, and hardly
even by Jews fuperior in rank and education to thofe whofe
names they bear; and yet, under this homely garb, we find
the moft exalted fentiments, the clofeft reafoning, the purefl:
morality, and the fublimeft doftrine.

Abftrafting from that loweft kind of beauty in language,
which refults from its foftnefs and harmony, confidered as
an objett to the ear, every excellency of ftyle is relative,
arifing folely from its fitnefs for producing, in the mind of
the hearer, the end intended by the wTiter. Now in this
view it is evident, that a ftyle and manner may, to readers
of one denomination, convey the writer's fentiments with
energy as well as perfpicuity, which, to thofe of a different
denomination, would convey them feebly, darkly, and,
when judged by their rules of propriety, improperly. This
feems to have been aftually the cafe with the writers of the

Njw

T E S

New Ttllamcnt. The language of Malllicw, Mark, Luke,
and ,l()hn, is better adapted to the readere, for wliofc life
the Gofpels and Afts were at firft compofed, tliaii the hu\-
guage of Plato or Demofthcnes would have been.

If we would enter tliorou£rhly into the idiom of the New
Teilament, we muft familiarife ourfelves to that of the Scp-
tuagint ; and if we would enter thoroughly into the idiom
of the Septuagint, we muft accuilom ourfelves to the ftudy,
not only of the original of the Old Tcftanicnt, but of the
dialeft ipoken in Paleftine between the return of the Jews
from the Babylonifti captivity, and the deflrutlion of Jcru-
falem by the Romans ; for this laft, as well as the Hebrew,
has affefted the language both of the old Greek Iranflatiou
and of the New Teilament.

Such is the origin and the charafter of the idiom, which
prevails in the writings of the apoftles and evaiigelills,
and the remarkable conformity of the new revdation we
Lave by them, though written in a different language, to
tlie idiom of the old. It has been diftinguilhed in the
former by the name Helleniftic, not with critical accuracy,
if regard be had to the derivation of the word, but with
fufficient exaftnefs, if attention be given to the application
which the Hebrews made of the term Hellenift, by which
they diilinguifhed their Jewifli brethren, who lived in Grecian
cities and ipoke Greek. It has been by fome of late, after
father Simon of the Oratory, more properly termed the
Greek of the fynagogue. It is, acknowledged, that it
cannot ftridlly be denominated a feparate language, or even
dialeft, when the term dialctl is conceived to imply pecu-
liarities in declenfion and conjugation. But, with the
greateft juftice, it is denominated a peculiar idiom, being
DOt only Hebrew and Chaldaic phrafes put in Greek words,
but even fmgle Greek words ufed in fenfes in which they
never occur in the writings of profane authors, and which
caa be learnt only from the extent of fignification given to
fome Hebrew or Chaldaic word, correfponding to the
Greek in its primitive and moll ordinary fenfe. This dif-
ference in idiom conftitutes a difficulty of .another kind
from that which is created by a diftcrence in dialeft ; a dif-
ficulty much harder to be furmounted, as it does not afFe£l
the form of the words, but the meanmg.

It is pertinent, however, to obferve, that the above re-
marks on the Greek of the New Teftament, do not imply
that there was any thing which could be called idiomatical
or vulgar in the language of our Lord himfelf, who taught
always in his mother tongue. His apoftles and evangelifts,
on the contrary, who wrote iu Greek, were, in writing,
obliged to tranflate the inftruftions received from him into
a foreign language of a very different ftrufture, and for
the ufe of people accuflomed to a peculiar idiom. The ap-
parently refpeftful manner io which our Saviour was accofted
by all ranks of his countrymen, and in which they fpoke
of his teaching, fhews that he was univerfally confidered as
a perfon of eminent knowledge and abilities. It was the
amazing fuccefs of his difcourfes to the people, in com-
manding the attention and reverence of all who heard
him, which firft awakened the jealoufy of the fcribes and
pharifees.

Although all the writers of the New Teftament wrote in
the idiom of the fynagogue, we are not to conclude from
lience, that there is no difcernible diverfity in their ftyles.
As the fame language admits of a vai-iety of dialefts, and
even of provincial and foreign idioms, fo the fame dialeft
and the fame idiom are fufceptible of a variety of ftyles.
The ftyle of Paul has iomething peculiar, by which, in our
opinion, there would be no difficulty in diiiinguifiiing him
from any other writer. A difcerning reader would not

T E S

readily confound the ftyle of Luke with th.it of cither of
llie rvangclids who preceded him, Matthew or Mark ; and
ftill lefs would he miftake the apoftle .lohn's didiion for that
of any other penman of the New Teftament. The fame
differences of ftyle will be difcovered by one who is but
moderately converfant in Hebrew in the writers of the Old
Teftament. In it we have ftill greater variety than in the
New. Some of the books arc written in profe and fome
in Terfe : and in each, the differences between one book and
another are confiderable. In the book of Job, for inftance,
the charafter of the ftyle is remarkably peculiar. What
can be more diffunilar in this refpcft, though both are ex-
cellent iu their kind, than the towering flights of the fub-
hme Ifaiah, and the plaintive ftrains of the pathetic Jere-
miah ? In tlie books of Scripture we can fpecify the con-
cifc ftyle and the copious, the elevated and the fimple, the
aphoriftic and the diffufc.

How this diverfity of ftyle is reconcilcable with the idea
of infpiration, we have attempted to fticw under the article
Inspikatiox. See Campbell's Prelim. Difl'.

For other particulars in conneftion with the fubjcft of
this article, fee Bible and Canon.

TESTAMENTARY Adoption. See Adoption.

Tkstamentary Caufes, in Law, are thofe that relate to
teftaments, which were originally cognizable in the king's
courts of common law, -viz. the county-courts ; and after-
wards transferred to the jurifdiftion of the cluirch, by the
favour of the crown, as a natural confequence of granting to
the bifliops the adminiftration of inteftates' effefts. This fpi-
ritual jurifdiftion of teltamentary caufes is a peculiar confti-
tution of this ifland ; for in almoft allather (even in popifti)
countries, all matters teftamentary are of the jurifdiftion of
the civil magiftrate. And that this privilege is enjoyed by
the clergy in England not as a matter of ecclefiaftical right,
but by the fpecial favour and indulgence of the municipal
law, and as it ftiould feem by fome public .lA of the great
council, is freely acknowledged by I^indewode, the ablell
canonift of the fifteenth century ; and about a century be-
fore, in a canon of archbidiop Stratford ; alfo by the confti-
tutions of cardinal Othobon ; and likewife by archbifliop
Pai-ker, iu the time of queen Elizabeth. At what period
of time the ecclefiaftical jurifdiftion of teftaments and intef-
tacics began iu England, is not afcertained by any ancient
writer. It appears the foreign clergy were early ambitious
of this power, though they jvere curbed by the edift of the
emperor Juftin, which reftrained the infinuation or probate
of teftaments (as formerly) to the office of the nwg'tfler
ceiifus : but afterwards by the canon law it was allowed, that
the bidiop might compel, by ecclefiaftical cenfures, the per-
formance of a bequeft to pious ufes. And therefore it fell
within the jurifdiftion of the fpiritual courts, by the exprefs
words of the charter of king William I. wliich feparated
thofe courts from the temporal. And afterwards, when king
Henry I. by his coronation-charter, direfted that the goods
of an inteftate (hould be divided for the good of his foul,
this made all inteftacies immediately fpiritual caufes, as much
as a legacy to pious ufes had been before. This therefore,
fays judge Claekllone, we may poffibly conjefture, was the
era referred to by Stratford and Othubon, when the king, by
the advice of the prelates, and with the confent of his b.trons,
inverted the church with this privilege.

This jurifdiftion is principally exercifed with us in the
confiftory courts of every diocefan billiop, or iu the pre-
rogative court of the metropolitan originally ; and in the
arches court, and courts of delegates by ajipeal. It is
divifible into three branches ; the probate of wills, the grant-
ing of adminiftrations, and the fuing for legacies. The two

fonuer

T E S

fonner of which, when no oppofition is made, are granted
merely f.v officio et ihbito jujlitia, and are then the objeft of
what is called the voluntary, and not the contentious junfdic-
tion. But when a caveat is entered againll proving the will
or granting adminiftration, and a fuit thereupon follows, in
order to determine either the validity of the teftaaoent, or
who hath a right to the adminiftration, this claim and obftruc-
tion are remedied by the fentence of the fpiritual court,
either by eftablilhing the will, or granting the adminiftra-
tion. Blackftone's Com. vol. ii. See SuBTRACxroN of

Lfgacits.

Testamentary Guardian, Succejfion, and Tutorage. See
the fubftantives.

TESTAMENTO Annexo, Admmijlration cum. If a
teftator makes his will, without naming any executors, or if
he names incapable perfons, or if the executors named refufe
to aft ; in any of thefe cafes, the ordinary mull grant admi-
niftration cum tejlamento annexo, to fome other perfon.

TESTAMENTS oftheTwehe Patriarchs, mEcclefiaftical
Hiftory, a kind of apocryphal orfuppofititious book, in vi'hich
thofe patriarchs are introduced, fpeaking their laft dying
words, containing prediftions of things future, and rules of
rirtue and piety ; which they deliver to their fons as a choice
treafure, to be carefully preferved, and to be delivered by
them to their children. We have feveral editions of thefe in
Latin ; they were firll pubUftied in Greek, by Grabe, and
from his edition repubhftied by Fabricius ; and tranflated
into Enghfh by Mr. Whifton. Cave places the anonymous
author of this book in the year 192, or nearer the beginning
of the fecond century. They arc cited by Origen, and,
therefore, were probably written before his time. Grabe
thinks they were written before the time of our Saviour, and
afterwards interpolated by a Chriftian. But Mr. Whifton
afterts, that they are really genuine, and one of the facred
apocryphal, or concealed books of the Old Teftament.
Cave fuppofcs that this book was written by a judaizing
Chriftian ; Grabe apprehends that it was written in He-
brew : Beaufobre is of opinion that it was forged at the end
of the firft, or beginning of the fecond century, by fome
Chriftian converted from Judaifm, and he fufpefts that the
author was an Ebionite, and that he believed Jefus to be the
fon of Jofeph and Mary. Dr. Lardner is pofitive that thefe
teftaments are not the real laft words of the twelve patri-
archs ; but the clear knowledge of Chriftian affairs and
principles ftiews this book to have been written, or elfe very
much interpolated, after the publication of the Chriftian
religion. He fays, there is nothing in this work that might
not have been written by a learned Jew of the fecond cen-
tury or later, though he thinks that the author was a Chrif-
tian, and well verfed in the Jewifh learning : and moreover
he is of opinion, that he is placed early enough by Cave, at
the year 192. Lardner's Works, vol. ii.

TESTATOR, or Testatrix, the perfon who makes
his or her will and teftament.

M. Gillet (hews, that a perfon incapable of a legacy can-
not demand any fum which the teftator in his teftament de-
clares himfelf indebted to him in ; in regard fuch a declara-
tion of debt is prefumed a fraud againft the intention of
the law.

TESTATUM, in Law, a writ in pcrfonal aftions ;
where, if the defendant cannot be arrefted on a capias in the
county where the aftion is laid, but is returned non ejl in-
ventus by the (heriff, this writ ftiall be fent into any other
county, where fuch perfon is thought to be, or to have
wherewithal to fatisfy the demand.

It is called tejlatum, becaufe the (heriff has before tefti-
iied, tliat the defendant was not to be found in his bailiwick.

T E S

TESTE, a term commonly ufed in the clofe of a writ,
where the date is contained, which begins with Tejle meipfo,
if it be an original writ ; or, if judicial, Tejle, the lord chief
jujlice, &c. according to the court whence it comes. In
fome ancient formulas, we read Tejle cnjlode Angliic. There
muft be at leaft fifteen days between the tefte and return of
every procefs awarded from the king's bench into any
foreign county. See Writ.

TESTENICH, in Geography, a fmall illand in the gulf
of Venice. N. lat. 44° 54'. E. long. 14'' 47'.

TESTER. See Teston.

TESTES, Testiculi, in j^no/awy ; quia virilitatem tef-
tantur ; glandular bodies, peculiar to the male fex of animals,
ferving the office of fecreting the fecundating fluid : hence
their removal deprives an animal of the power of propagating
its kind. See Generation, Male Organs of. .

The teftes are wanting in moil of the fith kind. The fpinofe
fifties in general have neither teftes nor paraftatas ; but all
the cetaceous fifties have them, and not a few of the cartila-
ginous kinds. Thofe fifti that have them, have always two,
as in land-animals ; but they differ much in figure and fituation
in the feveral kinds, particularly in the whale and flat-fifti.
See Anatomv of Fish.

Testes of the Brain, two fmall hemifperical eminences,
fituated at the pofterior and inferior afpeft of the optic
thalami, and now more generally known, together with two
very fimilar Ones immediately above them, by the name of
tubercula quadrigemina. See Brain.

Testes Synodales. See Synodales.

TESTI, FuLVio, Count,' in Biography, an Italian poet,
was born in 1593, at Ferrara, and fetthng, when young, at
Modena, he rofe to the higheft offices and honours of the
ftate. Neverthelefs, alternate profperity and adverfity vifited
him : inconftant and ambitious, he fell into difgrace with
Francis I. who imprifoned him in the citadel of Modena,
where he died in 1646. His poems are chiefly of the lyric
clafs. The produtiions of his maturer judgment are dif-
tinguiftied above thofe of his contemporaries for vigour and
poetical fpirit ; and fome of them, with refpeft to elevation
of fentiment and beauty of imagery, will bear comparifon
with the productions of the bcft Italian poets. He alfo
attempted tragedy in two compofitions, intitled " Arfinda,"
and " L'Ifola d'Alcina;" but their ftyle is lyric rather
than dramatic compofition. Tirabofchi. Gen. Biog.

TESTIBUS Hiis. See Hiis.

TESTICLE, Testis, in Anatomy. See Generation.

Testicle, Difeafed, in Surgery. See Sarcocele, Hy-
drocele, Fungus of the Tejlicle, Fungus Httmatodes,
Hernia Humoralis, &c.

Testicle, Operation of removing. See Castration.

TESTIGOS, Los, in Geography, a clufter of fmall
iflands, about ten leagues from the continent of South Ame-
rica, and the fame diftayce from the ifland of Grenada. N.
lat. 11° 25'. W. long. 62'^ 5'.

TESTIMON, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Ermeland ; 16 miles S.S.E. of Hilft)erg.

TESTIMONIAL, a kind of certificite, figned either
by the mailer and fellows of the college, where a perfon laft
refided, or by three, at leaft, reverend divines, who knew him
well for three years laft paft ; giving an account of the con-
dutt and learning of the perfon.

Such a teftimonial is always required before holy orders
are conferred ; and the biftiop even ordinarily demands one
of a prieft; before he admits him to a benefice.

Testimonial is alfo a certificate under the hand of a
juftice of peace, teftifying the time and place when and where

I a loldicr

T E S

a foldier or mariner landed, and the place of his dwtlling,
and whither he is to pafs.

TESTIMONY. See Evidknce.

Teftimony is a ferious intimation from another of any faft
or obfervation, as being what he remembers to have fecn,
lieai'd, or experienced. The evidence of ti.'ilimony is either
oral or written. Some have unreafonably fuppofcd, that
this kind of evidence is folely and originally derived from
experience. With regard to this it may be obferved, that
the evidence of teftimony is to be coniidered as ilriftly logi-
cal, no farther than human veracity, in general, or the vera-
city of witneffes of fuch a charafter, and in fuch circum-
ftances in particular, is fupportcd, or hath not been refuted
by experience. But that teftimony, antecedently to expe-
rience, hath a natural influence on belief, is undeniable, in
which refpeft it refembles memory. And in what regards
fmgle fafts, it is a more adequate evidence than any conclu-
iions from experience. When experience is applied to the dif-
covery of the truth in a particular incident, the evidence is
called prej'umptive ; whereas ample teftimony is accounted a
pofitive proof of the faft. Teftimony is capable of giving
us abfokite certainty even of the moil miraculous faft, or of
what is contrary to imiform experience. To this, when we
have no pofitive reafons of miftruft or doubt, we are, by an
original principle of our nature (analogous to that which
compels our faith in memory), led to give an unlimited aflent.
As on memory alone is founded the merely perfonal expe-
rience of the individual, fo on teftimony, in concurrence with
memory, is founded the much more extenfive experience,
which is not originally our own, but derived from others.
See on this fubjeA Campbell's Philof. of Rhet. vol. i. book i.
chap. 5. and Differtation on Miracles, part i. fedt. i. and i.
See Faith.

For the credibility of human teftimony, fee Certitude.

TESTINA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, be-
longing to the Sabines, placed by D'Anville S.W. of Ami-
ternum.

TESTING, in Metallurgy, denotes the operation of re-
fining large quantities of gold and iilver, by means of lead, in
the veflel called a teJI. This operation is performed by the de-
ftruftion, vitrification, and fcorification of all the extraneous
and deftruftible metallic fubftances with which thofe noble
metals are alloyed. It confifts in adding to the alloyed gold
and filver, a certain quantity of lead, and in expofing after-
wards this mafs to the attion of the fire. The lead, by increaf-
ing the proportion of imperfeft metals, prevents them from
bt'ing fo well covered and protefted by the perfeft metals ;
bv uniting with thefe, it communicates to them a property
it has of lofing very eafily a great part of its inflammable
principle ; and laftly, by its vitrifying and fufing property,
which it exercifes with all its force upon the calcined and
naturally refractory parts of the other metals, it facilitates
and accelerates the fufion, the fcorification, and feparation
of thefe metals. The lead, which in this operation is puri-
fied, and fcorifies along with it the impcrfeil metals, fepa-
rates from the metallic mafs with which it is then incapable
of remaining united : it floats upon the furface of the melted
mafs; becaufe by lofing part of its phlogifton, (according
to the former language of chemifts,) it lofes alfo part of its
fpecific gravity, and laftly it vitrifies. The removal of the
vitrified matter in the procefs is procured either by the na-
ture of the veffel in which the melted matter is contained,
and which, being porous, abforbs and imbibes the fcorified
matter as faft as it is formed ; or by a channel cut in the
edge of the veflel through which the matter flows out.

The procefs of telling is generally performed in the fame man-
B-=r as that of cupellation. See Assaying and Copellinc;.

T E S

But when groat quantities of bafe metal are to be worked
off from a little gold, recourfe is had to a more expeditious
method, tliat of telling before the bellows. An oval tcft
is placed in a cavity, made in a hearth of a convenient height,
and fome moiftened land or afties prefled round it to keep it
Heady : the nofc of a bellows is dircftcd along its furface,
in fiuh a niaiuiir, that if afties are fprinklcd in the cavity of
the tell, the bellows may blow them completely out • lonie
have an iron plate fixed before the bellows, to dii. 6t the
blaft downwards. To keep the furface of the teft from
being injured in putting in tiie metal, fome cloths or pieces
of paper are interpofed. The fuel confifts of billets of
barked oak, laid on the fides of the teft, with others laid
crofs-wife on tiufe : the bellows impels the flame on the
metal, clears the lurface of afhes or Iparks of coal, haftens
the fcorification of the lead, and blows ofiF the fcoria, as faft
as it is formed, to one end of the teft, where it runs out
through a notch made for that purpofe. About two-thirds
of the fcorified lead may be thus colkftcd ; the reft being
partly abforbed by the teft, and partly diflif atcd by the
aiilion of the bellows. Care muft be taken lot to urge the
blaft too ftrongly, left fome portion of the gold (hould be
carried away by tlie fumes impctuoufiy forced off from the
lead, and fome minute particles of it entangled and blown
off with the fcorire. Macquer's Chem. Didl. Art. Rejining.
Lewis's Ph. Techn. p. 146.

TESTO, Ital. literally lejl. In Mufic it imphes a fub-
jedl, or words of a fong, or other vocal compofition, to which
fome air, melody, or harmony, is to be compofed.

It is a matter of great concern to underftand well how to
appropriate or adapt the mufic to the words of a fong, to
exprefs the fenfe, and make a juft application of the long
and fhort fyllables to the notes and time with wltich they are
to be connefted.

But this branch of the fcience, which depends greatly on
the knowledge of poetry, has lain a long time almoft unre-
garded ; and even at prefent, very little care is taken in this
point in the modern mufic, which is fomewhat wonderful,
fince it was to this that the ancients attributed the extra-
ordinary effefts of their mufic ; for by them this branch was
moft accurately obferved, and by this they regulated and
governed their meafures, fo that they might produce the
defired eff^efts ; and fome philofophers fay, the human
paffions and affeftions. Voffius dc Poem. Cantu, &c.

TESTON, Tester, the name of a coin ftruck in France
by Louis XII. in 1513, and in Scotland in the time of
Francis II. and Mary queen of Scotland, fo called from the
head of the king, {lijle or fete,) which was engraved upon it.
The filver it contained was 1 1 deniers 18 grains ; its weight,
7 deniers 1 1 ' grains; and its value 10 fols. The coinage of
it was prohibited by Henry HI. in 1575, when the value of
it was augmented to 14 fols 6 deniers. Encycl.

A remarkable Scottifli medal of this kind was that in-
augurative of Francis II. of France with Mary of Scotland,
though it is more properly indeed French, being, as it is
thought, ftruck upon their coronation, as being a queen of
that country. It prefents bufts of Francis and Mar)-, face
to face, with three legends around them, the outermoft of
which contains their titles, the middle one tliis fingular fen-
tence,

" Which wonders how the devil it got there :"

HORA NONA DOMINUS IHS EXPIRAVIT HELLI CLAMANS, a

moft ominous motto, one would imagine, to a fuperftitious
ear. The innermoft legend is only the name of the city of
Paris. There are fine French teftoons of Francis and Mary,
likewife prefenting them face to face, with the arms of

France

T E S

France and Scotland upon the roverfc, as is nlfo the cafe of
the medal lull mentioned. Thefc pieces are fo line and rare,
that Dr. Hunter gave ten guineas for the one m his cabinet,
which contains as vaft and well-chofen a private colkaion,
of all forts of coins and medals, as any in the world.

Telloons, or fliiUings, were firft coined m Scotland about
the vear 1553, and they bore tlie bull of the queen and the
arms of France and Scotland on the reverfe : they were of
the fame intrinfic value with thofe of England, and were
worth four fliillings ; the half-teRoon two, Scottifh money.
The (liver telloon of Mary, chiefly of 1553 or 1562, with
her bull, arc rare, worth about 30J. ; half ftill more rare,
valued at 3/. Pinkerton on Medals.

The tefton, teftoon, or teller, among us, fucceeded the
groat, which was introduced by Edward III. in 1354. It
was alfo called (hilling, and fu-ll coined by Henry VII. in
1503 : and was rated at izd. in the reign of Henry VIII.
and afterwards reduced to 6if. The teiloon of the firft year
of Edward VI. is extremely rare.

TESTOON, or Testoxe, a filver coin in Italy, and
alfo in Portugal. At Florence, the teftoon, or teftone, as
a money of account and a fiWer coin, is worth two lire, or
three paoU. The teftoon is a money of account at Liftjon,
and is valued at 100 rees. And of the gold coins ftruck
fince 172Z, there are the Dezefeis teftoon of 1600 rees, and
the Oito teftoon of 800 rees. The filver coins are teftoons
of 100 and halves of 50 rees.

At Rome the fcudo, as a money of account, is divided
into 3^ teftoni ; and among the filver coins, the teftoni are
valued at 3 paoli, the paoli being worth ^^J, fterlbg nearly.
See Coin.

TESTORE, Carlo Giovanni, in Biography, a violinift
and mufic-mafter, refident at Verfeilles in 1770. In 1767
he pubUfhed a treatife on mufic, entitled, " Mufica ragio-
nata," in 410. This author was perhaps the firft Italian
who adopted Rameau's principles. He fimplified his rules,
and made his treatife more intelligible to principianti: than
Rameau himfelf, or his fcientific commentator d'Alembert.
The full title of his book is " La Mufica ragionata efprefta
familiarmente in dodeci Paffeggiate a Dialogo, ornati 140
effempi Muficali in rami."

TESTOURE, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
country of Tunis, on the Mejerdah ; 40 miles S.W. of
Tunis.

TESTUDO, in Antiquity, was particularly ufed among
the poets, &c. for the ancient lyre, or lyre of Amphion ;
becaufe it was faid to have been originally made, by its in-
ventor Mercury, of the back or hollow (hell of a teftudo
aquatica, or fea-tortoife, which he accidentally fomid on the
banks of the river Nile.

Mr. Molyneux has an exprefs difcourfe, in the Philofo-
phical Tranlaftions, to fhew that the tortoife-ftiell was the
bafis of the ancient lyre, and that the whole inftrument had
thence the denomination teftudo ; which account throws fome
light on an obfcure paffage in Hotace, ode iii. lib. 4. mif-
taken by all the commentators :

" O, teftudinis aureae

Dulcem qus ftrepitum. Fieri, temperas !
O mutis quoque pifcibus

Donatura cygni, fi libeat, fonura !"

TestudO, Tortoife, in the Military Art of the Ancients,
was a kind of cover, or fcreen, which the foldiers, e. gr. a
whole company, made themfelves of their targets, by hold-
ing them up over their heads, and ftanding clofe to each
other.

Thus, if we fuppofe the firft rank to have ftood upright

T E S

on their feet, and the reft to have Hooped lower and lower
by degrees, till the lall rank kneeled down on their knees,
fo that every rank covering with their targets the heads of
all in the rank before them, they rcprefented a tortoife-fttell,
or a fort of Hoping roof.

This expedient ferved to (helter them from darts, ftones,
&c. thrown upon them, efpecially thofe thrown from above
when they went to the aflault. It was alfo ufed in field-
battles as well as in fieges.

Testudo was alfo a kind of large defenfive engine, of
an oval figure, compofed of boards, and wattled up at the
fides with wicker, which moved on feveral wheels, ferving
to (helter the foldiers when they approached the walls to
mine them, or to batter them with rams.

Testudo, in Medicine, denotes a foft broad tumour, or
gathering of impure humours between the /IvuU and the Hcin,
called alio talpa, as refembling the fubterraneous windings
of the tortoife or mole.

Testudo, Tortoife, in Zoology, a genus of animals of the
clafs of Amphibia and order of Reptiles ; the generic charac-
ters of which are, that the body is furuifhed with a tail, and
defended by a bony or coriaceous integument above and be-
low, or above by fcales ; and that the upper mandible of the
mouth clofes over the lower ; without diftinft or proper
teeth, the teeth, as they are called in the generality of tor-
toifes, being no other than the ferratures of the mandibles.

Gmelin enumerates thirty-three fpecies, which are diftri-
buted into the three claffes of marine, Jlwuiatile, and land
tortoifes.

A. Marine Tortoifes, or Turtles •with pinniform Feet, the
former being longer.

The animals of this clafs are diftinguiflied from the land
tortoifes by their very large and long fin-fhaped feet, in
which are inclofed the bones of the toes, the firft and fecond
on each foot being furnilhed with vifible or projetling claws,
the others not appearing beyond the edge. The ITiield, as
in the land tortoifes, confifts of a ftrong bony covering, in
which are imbedded the ribs, and which is coated externally
by hard horny plates, in one or two fpecies much thicker
and ftronger than thofe of the land tortoifes. Mr. Schcepf,
cited by Dr. Shaw, obferves, that the apparent number of
claws or projefting extremities on the feet of the marine tor-
toifes, appears to be no certain criterion of the fpecies ; but,
on the contrary, is found to vary fo as to contradift the Lin-
nxan fpecific charafters.

Species.

CoRiACEA ; Coriaceous Tortoife. Striated lengthwife ;
or brown turtle, paler beneath, with coriaceous fhell, marked
by five longitudinal tuberculated ribs. This is the largeft of
the marine tortoifes, being found eight feet long, and one
thoufand pounds in weight. It is larger than others of its
tribe, and its external covering differs by not being horny,
but refembhng ftrong leather, marked over the furface into
Imall, obfcurely fubhexagonal and pentagonal divifions, with-
out deftroying its general fmoothnefs. The longitudinal ribs
or ridges are five ; and comprehending thofe that border the
fides, the number is feven. It has no under or thoracic (hell ;
the head is large, and the upper mandible notched at the
tip, fo as to exhibit the appearance of two large teeth, be-
tween which, when the mouth is clofed, is received the tip
of the lower mandibles ; the fins are large and long, and
covered with a tough leathery Ikin ; the tail is rather (liort
and (harp-pointed. This fpecies is a native of the Mediter-
ranean, and has occafionally been taken on the cr>afts both of
France and England. It is alfo found, not onU in the Eu-,

ropeaa

TESTUDO.

ropean feas, but in tliofe of Soutli America, and about
UimL- of the African coalls. Tlie Greeks, according to Cc-
p6de, were well acquainted with this fpecinien, and iifed it
in the conftruftion of the lyre or liarp. (See Ti:sixi)0, in
jlnliquUy.) Pennant fays, that this fpccies is extremely fat,
but the flciTi coarfe and bad ; but the Carthufians will cat no
otlier fpecies. The fmall fea tortoife defcribed by Pennant
in the Phil. Tranf. for 1771, is faid to be the young of this
animal. Graehn mentions this and another as varieties.

Imbricata. The imbricated or vaiiegated turtle with
thirteen imbricated fcales on the dilk ; thefe lap over each
other at the extremities like tiles on the roof of a building.
The head is fmaller than in other turtles ; tlie neck longer ;
and the beak narrower, fharper, and more curved, fo as con-
fiderably to refemble the bill of a hawk, and from tliis cir-
cumftance the animal derives its popular name of the
" liawklbill turtle." This turtle is a native of the Afiatic
and American feas, and is fometimes found in the Mediterra-
nean. It has been often known to meafnre five feet in length,
and to weigh 500 or 600 pounds. In the Indian ocean it
attains a prodigious fize. Its (hell was anciently ufed for
a fiiield, and ftill ferves for that purpofe among barbarous
nations. The flelh is not eflecmed as a food ; the lamella:
or plates of the (hell, being much ftronger, thicker, and
clearer than thofe of any other kind, conftitute its fole
value. See ToRTOisE-Wif//.

MvDAS. Brownifh turtle, with tliirteen fcales on the
diflc ; the green turtle of fome writers, with two nails on
the fcre-feet, and lingle ones on the hind-feet. This com-
mon green turtle (efculent turtle), is fo named from the
green tinge, derived from the vegetable fubftances on which
it feeds, often exhibited by its fat, when the animal is in
its higheil perfeftion. It is one of the largeft of this genus,
often meafuring above five feet in length (fometimes more
than fix), and weighing more than 500 or 600 pounds. Its
colour is a dull pali.'h brown, variegated with deeper undu-
lations, but not exhibiting the beautiful colours which dif-
tinguilh the T. imbricata. Its fle(h, however, is in fucb
eftimation, that the inhabitants of the Weft Indian iflands
have long confidered it as one of the mod excellent articles
of food, and have introduced a fimilai' talle into fome of
the European nations. In our own country it is much
efteemed, and confiderable quantities of it are imported to
fupply the luxury of the metropolis. Its introduftion,
however, cannot be traced farther than about 50 or 60 years
backwai'd. Sir Hans Sloane informs us, in his Hiftory of
Jamaica, that forty (loops were employed by the inhabitants
of Port Royal, in Jamaica, for catching them, and that the
markets there are fupplied with turtle as ours are with
butcher's meat. The method of taking them at the Ba-
hama iflands is by ftriking them with a fmall iron peg
two inches long, put in a focket at the end of a llaff
twelve feet long. Two men ufually fet out for this work
in a little light boat or canoe, one to row and gently ftecr
the boat, while the other ftands at the head of it with his
ftriker. The turtle are fometimes difcovered by theu" fwim-
ming with their head and back out of the water, but they
are ofteneft difcovered lying at the bottom, a fathom or
more deep. If a turtle pci-ceives he is difcovered, he ftai-ts
up to make his efcape, the men in the boat purfuing him,
endeavour to keep fight of him, wliich they often loie, and
recoTer again by the turtle putting his nofe out of the water
to breathe : thus they purfue him, one paddling or rowing,
v/hile the other ftands ready with his ftriker. It is fome-
times half an hour before he is tired ; then he finks at once
to the bottom, which gives them an opportunity of ftriking
him, which is by piercing him with an iron peg, which flips

Vol, XXXV.

out of the focket, but is fattened with a ftring to the pole.
If he is fpent and tired by being long purfued, he tamely
fubmits, when (truck, to be taken into the boat or hauled
afliore. There are men who by diving will get on their
backs, and by prefling down tlieir hind parts, and raifing
the fore -part of them by force, bring them to the top of
the water, while another flips a noofe about their necks.

The fea tortoifes, or turtles, fays Catefby, never go on
fliore but to lay their eggs, which they do in April : tlicy
then crawl up from llie lea above the flowing of high water,
and dig a hole above two feet deep in the land, into which
they drop in one night above an lumdrcd eggs, at which time
they are fo intent on Nature's work, that they regard
none that approach them ; but will drop their eggs into a
hat, if held under them ; but if they are difturbed before
they begin to lay, they will forfake the place, and feck an-
other. They lay their eggs at three, and fometimes at four
different times ; there being fourteen days between every
time ; fo that they hatch and creep from their holes into the
fea at dilferent times alfo. When they have laid their com-
plement of eggs, they fill the hole with fand, and leave
them to be hatched by the heat of the fun, which is ufually
performed in about three weeks. It may be proper to add,
that the eggs are about the fize of tennis-balls, round, white,
and covered with a fmooth parchment-like (kin. Gmclin
mentions feveral varieties of this fpecies.

Caretta. The variegated turtle, with fifteen dorfal
fcales, thofe of the middle range gibbous towards their
tips. This fpecies is larger than any yet difcovered, ex-
cept perhaps the coriacea. It is called the " loggerhead
turtle;" and though it refembles the laft fpecies, or green
turtle, it is diftingui(hcd by the fupcrior fize of the head,
the proportional breadth of the (hell, and by its deeper and
more variegated colours : but the principal diftinftion con-
fifts in the number of dorfal fegments or fcutella of the
(hell, which amount conftanlly to fifteen. The fore -feet
are very large and long ; the tiind-feet much fliorter, though
broad. In a commercial view, this fpecies is of little im-
portance ; its flcfh being rank and coarfe, and the laminie
of the (hell too thin for general ufe. It is faid, however, to
afford a good quantity of oil, which may be ufcd for lamps,
&c. This turtle is very ftrong and fierce, and even dan-
gerous. It is an inhabitant of the fame feas with the green
turtle, but has been found in remote latitudes, even in thii
Mediterranean, and particularly about the coafts of Italy
and Sicily.

Macropus. With an ovate, carinate, emarginatc fliield,
and the feet very large and bifarioufly unguiculated.

B. Fluviatlle, tuitb pahnated feet , JJiell joined ivith the Jler-
niim by a membrane, andfupported in the middle on lolhjidct
by two proceffes of the Jlernum.

Orbicularis. The T. europea of Schneider, with
oval, flatti(h, fmooth, dark brown (hell, marked with very
numerous yellowifh fpecks and ftreaks. This fpecklcd tor-
toife of the " Naturahft's Mifcellany," or T. meleagris,
is of fmall fize, the fliell mcafuring about four or five inches
in length, and its diflc compofcd of thirteen, and the margin
of twenty-live pieces ; the under fliell whitifli-yellow, tinged
towards the joints with brown ; the head ovate, fomcwhat
convex above, and flattifli on each fide and beneath ; the
flcin of the neck lax and wrinkly ; the legs fhort and fcaly,
feet webbed, fore-feet having five toes and hinderonly four ;
the claws on all the feet (harp-pointed, and crooked ; the
tail nearly half as long as the body, thin, attenuated, eom-
preffed and fcaly, and alfo fpotted like the body.

This elegant fpecies is a native of many parts of Europe,
3 E bemg

TESTUDO.

being found in Italy. Sardinia, France, Hungary, Pruffia, convex, carinatcd and rough

&c inhabiting lakes and muddy waters, a.id feeding on defcnbed as having palmated h-et and flattiOi (hell, with all

The fcabra of Linnxus is

&c. inhabiting lakes and muddy

aquatic plants, infetls, fnails, and imall hfh . , ■ r • • c i u c u v r i, * »

faid to be "ood as food, for which pnrpofeu is fold in the ot this fpecies js figured by Seba ; it meafures about two

The flefh is the intermediate fcutella elevated on the back. The fliell

markets, and occafionallv kept in ponds, and fed or fattened
with lettuce-leaves, broad, &c. &c. It may be conveniently
kept in a cellar and fed with oats, fcattered on the floor,
which it Precdily eats when thev begin to germinate.

inches and a half in length, and nearly two inches in breadth ;
being of a cordatcd figure, or fomewhat pointed at the
bottom. Its colour is light-reddifh, variegated on tlie head
and (hell with white lines and fpots ; the feet marked witli
depolitsits eggs m fandy and funny places in the beginning red fpecks, and having each five toes with (harp claws ; the
of fprinir which are not hatched, as it is pretended, till head prominent, and eyes fmall. Shaw.
. f ^' ,• r •^_ Squamv*ta ; Scaly Tortoife. With ovate body, fmooth

beneath, but covered above, together with the neck, feet,
and tail, with numerous fcales. According to Bontius, in
his Hiftory of Java, this fingular fpecies is an inhabitant of

the fucceeding fpring.

^fF,MBKA^■\CEA. With three claws on the feet, and
(hell (Iriatcd on the back, membranaceous, ovate and grey.
Found in the fea that wa(hcs Guiana. See T. Ferox.

Tkiunguis. With three claws on the feet, the didc of
the back rugofe and orbiculated, the lower border fmooth,
and noftrils in a cylinder elevated above and projefting be-
yond the head. Found rarely in the Nile, and fuppofed to
be the fame with the former.

Cartilaginea. Shell orbicular, membranaceous, ftn-
ated on the back ; three claws on the feet, and nofe cylindric
and prolongated. This is the T. Boddaerti and a rare fpe-
cies. See the next article.

Ferox ; Fierce Tortoife. With ovate, cartilaginous
fliell ; three claws on the feet, and tubular, prominent nof-
trils. Dr. Shaw queries whether the T. roftrata of
Schoepf, the T. with palmated feet, &c. of Thunberg,
the T. cartilaginea of Boddaert, the T. Boddaerti of
Schneider, the T. triunguis of Forlkal, and the T. mem-
branaceaof Blumenberg,. do not belong to this fpecies.
This is a remarkable Ipecies, and diftinguilhed by the un-
ufual nature of its fhield, w^hich is hard and offeous only in
the middle part, while the edges gradually degenerate into a
flexible coriaceous verge ; obfcuiely marked with five or fix
traiifverfe bands, and granulated with fmall warts or promi-
nences, gradually enlarging as they approach the flexible
edge ; the head rather fmall, fomawhat trigonal, with the
fnout much lengthened, and the upper part drawn out into
a fub-cylindric form, terminated by the noftrils, and pro-
jefting much beyond the lower mandible ; the neck, when
retrained, thick, and furrounded with many folds of (kin,
but when exferted, equal in length to that of the whole (hell ;
the legs fliort, thick, and covered with a wreathed lliin ;

fre(h waters, where it burrows under the banks, in order
perhaps to depofit its eggs. The Javanefe call it faunah, or
the digger, and the Chinefe lary, or the runner, a burlefque
title given to it on account of its flow pace. Its fle(h is
faid to be extremely dehcate ; and the Chinefe ufe the pul-
verized fcales dilTolved in water, as a remedy in dyfenteric
cafes and againft the colic. It is faid to prey on fmall fi(h.
This fpecies feenis to conneft the lizard and tortoife tribes.
Shaw.

LtJTARlA ; Mud or Brown Tortoife. With fiattiili
(liell, and tail half the length of the body ; carinated, fays
Gmelin, behind with three fcutella. This fpecies is faid
to be common in many parts of Europe, as well as Afia,
being found in India, Japan, &c. According to Cepede,
it is not more than feven or eight inches from the tip of the
nofe to that of the tail, and about three or four inches in
breadth ; the dilk confills of thirteen pieces, ftriated and
flightly punftated in the centre, and along the middle range
runs a longitudinal carina ; the margin confifts of twenty-three
pieces, bordered with (light ftriae ; the colour of the (hell
is blackifh and alfo of the (Ivin ; the feet are webbed, with
five toes before, and four behind ; the exterior toe of each
foot is unarmed ; the tail is ftretched out in walking, from
which circumftance the anirtial has been called " Mus aqua-
tilis." Like other tortoifes, it fometimes utters a kiiid of
broken hifs. This animal is common in France, and parti-
cularly in Languedoc and many parts of Provence ; and in
a lake, fituated in the plain of Durance, fuch numbers were
found as to fupply the neighbouring peafantry for more

the feet furni(hed with ftrong and broad webs, connefting than three months. Although this fpecies be aquatic, it
.1 .1 in. r 1 ,T _ .1 _. ^ !'__/! u r-_* r...- _i 1 ;*- — i — i j: — ; i.^it„,.. — i ; —

the three laft toes of each ; the three firft on each foot fur
nilhed with ftrong claws, and the remaining ones unarmed ;
having, befides the proper toes, two fpurious ones on the
hind and one on the fore feet, ftrengthening and expanding
the web ; the tail fhort, pointed, and curving inwards ; the
eyes very fmall and round ; the colour above deep brownilh-
olive, and below white ; the (hell marked beneath in a very
elegant manner, with ramifications of velTels.

This fpecies is found in Pennfylvania, Carolina, &c. &c. ;

and is pofTeffed, diflFerently from moft others of the tribe, of

confiderable vigour and fwiftncfs of motion, fpringing to-
wards its alTailant, when attacked, witl great alacrity and

fiercenefs ; about a foot and half long, and fifteen inches

broad. It was firft defcribed by Dr. Garden. Its fle(h is

faid to be extremely delicate, being equal, if not fuperior,

even to that of the green turtle. The great foft-billed

turtle, defcribed by Mr. Bartram in his Travels, appears to

be the fame with this. Found in all the rivers, lakes, and

pools of Eaft Florida, weighing from 30 to 40 pounds.

The T. roftrata of Thunberg feems to be the young of the

fpecies above defcribed ; and the T. triunguis of Forflcall f<3 as to be perfectly fecure. The defence of this httle •

is allied to the fame fpecies. Shaw. animal, which rarely exceeds four or five inches ii. length,

ScABBA. With fmooth difcoloured head, and fliield oval, is fuch, that k is uninjured by a weight of 500 Or 6co pounds,

' and

always lays its eggs on land, digging a hollow and covering
them with mould. This animal is ufeful in a garden, which
it frees from noxious animals, without doing any mifchief
itfelf. It may be domefticated, and kept in a bafon or re-
ceptacle of water, fo contrived on the edges as to give it a
ready egrefs, when it wifhes to wander about for prey. In
fi(h-ponds it is deftruftive. Shaw. Gmelin mentions two
varieties, "viz. T. tabulata and T. campanulata.

SCORPIOIDES. See T. FlMBRIATA.

Hermanni. With four claws on the feet, and the tip
of the tail unguiculated. See T. Tbicarinata.

Gmelin mentions feveral varieties of this fpecies.

Carolina. With digitated feet, gibbous fliell, and no
tail. This is the T. claufa, or clo-fe tortoife, of Linnaeus and
other writers, with blackifti (hell, irregularly fpotted with
yeOow, with obtufe dorfal carina, and bivalve undcr-fhell
completely clofing the upper, whence it obtains its name.
The under part of the (hell is fo continued round the
margin, that when the animal withdraws its head and legs,
it is able accurately to clofe all parts of the (hell together.

TESTUDO.

and able to walk under tliis heavy load. It is a native of
many parts of Nortli America, found chiefly in marfliy
liluations, and occafionally in the driell and hotttil places.
]t is principally fought for on accoinil of its eggs, which are
reckoned a delicacy. It feeds on fmall animals, as beetles,
mice, and even ferpents, wliich it draws into its fliell, and
cruflies to death ; and alfo on various vegetable fubllances.

Palustris. With dcpreifed (hell, five claws on the fore-
feet, and four on the hind -feet ; found in the llagnant waters
of Jamaica, and feekiug food in the adjoining meadows.
This is the T. terrapin of Schospf, and the T. conccntrica
of other writers, with fub-depreffcJ, fub-carinated, oval
yellow Ihell, with the fcutella marked by concentric brown
zones. The fliell meafuros from four to fix inches, or
more. It is a native of North America, and fold in the
markets at Philadelphia, and elfewhere, under the name of
" Terrapin," which name is indifcriminately applied in
America to feveral other fpecies. It is common, as we have
already faid, in Jamaica, and firil defcribed by Dr. Browne,
in bis " Hiilory of Jamaica," who fays it is a wholefome
and even delicate food. In the Leverian Mufeum there is a
large and beautiful fpecimen of the fhell of this fpecies.
Shaw.

Caspica. With orbicular fliell, fcaly head, five claws
on the fore-feet, four on the hind, and naked tail. Gmelin
reprefents it as a native of Hircania, inhabiting frefli waters,
aud fometimes growing to a vaft fize. The pieces com-
pofing the din< are fub-quadrate ; thofe of the border
parallelogrammic ; the colour variegated with black and
green ; the lower fliell blackifli, (potted with white.
Clausa. See T. Carolina, fupra.
Pensylvanica. Tortoife, according to Schoepf, with
fmooth, elliptic, brown fliell, with flattilh back, the middle
range of fcutella fub-rhomboid and fub-imbricated, the firfl;
fub-triangular ; and according to Gmelin, with five claws
on the fore-feet and four on the liind, and the apex of the
tail horny and acute. This is the fmall mud tortoife of
Edwards ; the fliell meafuring three or four inches in length.
The head on tlie parts furrounding the jaws and eyes is of a
reddifli-yellow colour ; the upper part, as well as the neck,
legs, and tail, dufliy ; feet webbed ; the tail fmall. It
is a native of North America, and is found in Pennfylvania,
&c. inhabiting muddy waters. When living, it is faid to
exhale a ftrong mulky odour. Mr. Schcepf mentions a
variety, and another occurs in the Leverian Mufeum
Shaw.

Serpentina. The fnake tortoife, charafterifed by
Schoepf as having an ovate, depreffed, triply carinated,
(harp-fcaled fliell, rounded and acutely ferrated at the poltc-
rior margin ; and by Gmelin as having digitated feet, fub-
carinated fliell, behind obtufe, and. acutely quindentated.
This is the ferrated tortoife of Pennant. It is a native of
North America, inhabiting fiagnant waters, growing to the
weight of fifteen or twenty pounds, or more, preying on
fifli, ducklings, &c. feizing its prey with gi-eat force, and at
the fame time ftretching out its neck, and hifling at the
fame time. The head is large, dep'-efled, triangular, and
covered with a fcaly and warty flcin ; the orbits of the eyes
are oblique ; the mouth wide ; the mandibles ftiarp ; the
neck covered by fcaly warts ; the toes diftinft ; the tail
ftraight, and about two-thirds the length oi the fliell ; and tlie
tinder part of the body covered by a loofc, wrinkled (Icin,
befet with Imallifli foft fcales and granules. This animal
conceals itfelf in muddy water, leaving out only a part of its
back, and thus appearing to be a ft^one or other inanimate
objeft, more eafily obtains its prey. In New York it is
known by the title of the "fnapping tortoife."
SpEJiiGLERi. See T. Serrata, infra.

FiMBRiATA. Tortoife, according to Bruguiere, with
oval, fub-coiivcx, triply carin.ited fiiell, fub-digitatcd feet,
cylindric (nout, and neck fimbriated on each fide. This b
an animal of very fingular and difagreeable appearance.
The fliell is about fifteen inches or more in K ngth, and its
breadth eleven ; but the whole animal, from the nofe to the
end of the tail, is two feet three inches. The head ii> large
and flat, rounded in front, and edged on tile fides with
warty and wrinkled membranaceous appendages, about five-
inches wide, and covered behind by a ihree-lobed promi-
nence ; the nofe refcmblcs a probofcis, cylindric, ten line*
long, truncated, pierced by the iioftirils, M the tip, where they
are feparated by a cartilaginous divifion ; the eyes arc round,
fcated at the bafe of the probofcis, and ten lines diftant from
each other ; the mandibles are equal in length, and entire ;
the gape of the mouth is wide ; the neck fcven inches long,
and four and a half broad ; above flat and warted, and
furniflied on each fide with fix fimbriated membranaceous
appendages difpofed lengtliwife, and alternately larger and
fmallcr ; the under part of the neck is Ijefet with four fimi-
lar appendages, placed oppofite to the two on the head, and
increafed by two longitudinal wrinkles : the fore-feet are
fcaly and warty, having five indiftinft toes, with as many
longifli fliarp claws, convex above and flat beneath ; the hind-
feet are alfo fcaly, with Icfs diftinft toes, having four claws,
the fifth toe being unarmed, and very fliort : the tail is au
inch long,bcntflightly,and covered with a granulated flcin ; all
the thirteen femicircular pieces, of which the fliell confifts,
arc wrinkled and irregularly notched at the hind part ; the
twenty-five marginal pieces are almoft fquare, radiated on tlie
furface with oWique wrinkles, and toothed in the interior
edge. The colour of the whole is brown, fomewhat paler
beneath. This animal is faid to be a native of Guiana, but is
now rare in the rivers of Cayenne, as it has been plentifully
taken by fifliermen, it being confidered as excellent food.
It feeds on aquatic plants, and wanders by night to fome
dillance in fearch of pailure. It has been fuggefted, but
without certainty, that this is the T. fcorpioides of Linnseus.
Shaw.

PiCTA. Tortoife with plane fliell, marked on both fides
with a double fpot of a black-blueifli colour ; fcutella fur-
rounded with a yellow margin, and neck ftj-iated longi-
tudinally with yellow and black ; or tortoife with oblong,
flightly convex, fmooth, brown fliell, with the fcutella bor-
dered with yellow. This is the cinereous tortoife of
Brown's Zoology, and fufficiently diftinguiflied from all
others by the remarkable colours of the fhield. This is a
frefli-water fpecies, and inhabits flow and deep rivers in
North America, and ftiould have been referred by Gmelin
to his fecond clafs. In clear funny weather thefe animals
are faid to atfemble in multitudes, fitting on the fallen
trunks of trees, ftones, &c. and immediately plunging into
the water on the leaft: difl.urbance. They are faid to fwim
very fwiftly, but to walk flowly ; to be able to continue
many hours entirely beneath the watfr, but not to furvive
many days if kept out of their favourite element. They
are very voracious, deftroying duckhngs, &c. which they
feize by the feet, and drag under water. They are fome-
times uled as a food. The colour, as has been above ob-
ferved, varies ; being fometimes of a blackifli-browu, at
other times of a reddifli-chefnut : the yellow markings arc
alfo either pale or deep in different individuals, and fometimes
whitifli ; the inferior, or under edges of the upper fliell, as
well as the upper edges, or comniiflures of the lower, are
elegantly flreaked vidth black, as if artificially painted, and
this variegation is continued over the /kin of the fides of the
body. Shaw.
GyrxAXA. Tortoife ("potted, with oblong, moderately
3 E 2 convex,

TESTUDO.

cOBvex. fmootli, brown (hc-U, wi* fcattcred yellow fpots.
This is T. pundala of Schtcpf. It is a rather imall
fpecies, and a native of North America, inhabiting rivers
and lakes. Tlie young arc fcareely larger than pigeon s
eggs, and arc very black, beautifuHy fpotted with gold

colour. ■ . r r. l_

LoN'GlCOLLls ; Long-necked Tortoife. Smooth, ovate,
with extremely long neck. This fpecies is a native of New
Holland, and is of the river or frefii-water kind. The
colour of the whole animal above is deep olive-brown ;
beneath paler, and inchning to whitirti. Shaw.
C. Land tortoiffs, nvith clavated unguicttJaled feet, convex
Jhdl, and bony commijfuris joined with the Jlernum.

DENTlcur.ATA. Tortoife with fub-digitated feet, and or-
bicularly-cordated (liell, with denticulated marginal feg-
ments. ' The (hell is of a pale yellowifh-brown colour, about
four inches long and three broad, covered on the difk by
broad hexagonal' and pentagonal fcutella, of a flattened form,
with a large dillinft middle fpace, granulated by fmall tu-
bercles, and the remainder marked by five lines or furrows.
The edge of the (hell confifts of twenty-three pieces, projetl-
ip.g in a'ferrated manner round the outline. It is fuppofed to
be a native of North America. The feet, in Gmelin's edi-
tion of the Syftema Natura:, are faid to be without dillinft
toes ; and the tail (liort.

Gr-^ta. The common land tortoife, with fub-digitated
feet, hinder pait of the (hell gibbous, lateral margin very
obtiife, and fcutella flattilh. Gmelin.

It is defcribed by others as the tortoife with hemifpheric
black and yellow (hell, gibbous behind ; the pieces com-
pofing the diflv convex, and the fides obtufe. This tortoife
is fuppofed to be a native of almoft all the countries bor-
dering on the Mediterranean fea, and to be more frequent
in Greece than in other regions. It is found in the Euro-
pean Archipelago iflands, and in Corfica and Sardinia, and
alfo in many parts of Africa. In Greece it is an aiticle of
food ; the eggs are eaten boiled, and the blood is often
fwallowed recent. In September the animal hides itfelf
under ground, and emerges in February : it lays its eggs in
.Tune, in a fmall hole on a funny fpot, out of which, after the
tirft rains of September, the young are hatched. In Eng-
land it retires about the end of Oftobcr, and re-appears
about the middle of April ; but thefe feafons vary with the
climate and weather, &c. The males often fight, butting
at each other with a noife that may be heard at a con-
fiderable diftance. This animal lives to a moft extraordinary
age, exceeding the period of even a century.

One of the moft remarkable inftances is that of a tortoife
introduced into the archiepifcopal garden at Lambeth, in
the time of archbidiop Laud, and as near as can be col-
lefted from its hii^ory, about the year 1633, which con-
tinued to liv? there till the year 1753, when it was fuppofed
to have peri(hed rather from accidental negleft on the part
of the gardener, than from the mere effcfl of age. This
tortoife has had the honour of being commemorated by
Derham, and many other writers, and its (hell is preferved
in the library of the palace at Lambeth.

The general manners of the tortoife, in a ftate of domefti-
cation in this country, are very agreeably detailed by Mr.
White, in his Hiftory of Selbourn. "Aland tortoife,"
fays Mr. White, " which has been kept thirty years in a
little walled court, retires under ground about the middle of
November, and comes forth again about the middle of April.
When it flr(t appears in the fpring, it difcovers very little
inclination for food, but in the lieight of fummer grows vo-
racious ; and then, as the fummer declines, its appetite alfo de-
clines ; fo that for the lail weeks in autumn it hardly eats

at all. Milky plants, fuch a.s lettuces, dandelions, fovr»
thirties, &c. are its principal food,

" Tlie tortoife is totally a diurnal animal, and never ftirs
after it becomes dark. The tortoife," adds Mr. White,
" like other reptiles, has an arbitrary ftomach, as well as
lungs, and can refrain from eating, as well as breathing, for
a great p;urt of the year. I was much taken with its faga-
city, in difcerning thofe that do it kind offices ; for as foon
as the good old lady comes in fight who lias waited on it for
more than thirty years, it hobbles towards its bcnefaftrefs
with awkward alacrity ; but remains inattentive to llrangers.
Thus, not only ' the ox knoweth his owner, and the als his
matter's crib,' but the moft abjeft and torpid of beings dif-
tinguifhes the hand that feeds it, and is touched with the feel-
ings of gratitude. This creature not only goes under the
earth from the middle of November to the middle of April,
but (leeps great part of the fummer ; for it goes to bed in
the longoft days at four in the afternoon, and often does not
ftir in tlie morning till late. Befides, it retires to reft for
every fhower, and does not move at all in wet days. When
one reflects on the Hate of this ftrange being, it is a matter
of wonder that Providence fhould beftow fuch a feeming
wafte of longevity on a reptile that appears to relifli it fo
little as to fquander away more than two-thirds of its exift-
ence in a joylefs ftupor, and be loft to all fenfation for
months together in the profoundeft of all (lumbers ! Though
he loves warm weather, he avoids the hot fun ; becaufe his
thick fhell, when once heated, would, as the poet fays of
folid ai-mour, ' fcald with fafety.' He therefore fpends
the more fultry hours under the umbrella of a large cabbage
leaf, or amid the waving forefts of an afparagus bed. But
as he avoids heat in the fummer, fo in the decline of the
year he improves the faint autumnal beams, by getting
within the refleftion of a fruit-tree wall ; and though he has
never read that planes inclining to the horizon receive a
greater (liare of warmth, he inclines his ftiell by tilting it
againft the wall, to colleft and admit every feeble ray."

The tortoife is faid to be more tenacious of life than any-
other of the ampliibia ; many experiments performed upon
them by Redi, of a cruel nature, fuch as opening their
(liells, taking out the brain, cutting o(F the head, evince their
tenacioufnels of life, and that the vital principle is very-
(lowly difcharged from thefe animals. Shaw.

Carinata. Tortoife with digitated feet, and gibbous
fliell, with the four firft dorfal fcutella carinated, and entire
fternum : found in warm regions, but very little known,

Geometrica. Shell ovated, with all the elevated fcu-
tella above plane, marked with yellow ftrix ilTuing from the
centre in 'form of a ftar : or, according to others, this is the
tortoife with ovate black fhell, and elevated fcutella radiated
with yellow ; the T. teflelata minor of Ray. The pieces of
which the dific of the (hell confifts are very prominent, ftriated,
or furrowed pretty diftintlly with numerous lines on their fides,,
and terminated above by a yellowi(h, flat, fquare, or rather
hexagonal roughened fpace or centre, from which proceed,
in a radiated direftion, feveral well-defined yellow ftr^aks
towards the edge; thus conftituting a beautiful kind of geo-
metrical appe^ance on the black ground colour on which
they are difpofed : the marginal pieces, which are com-
monly twenty-four, fometimes twenty-fix, in number, are
alfo ftreaked with yellow, but in a fomewhat dilFercnt ftyle.

The native country of this beautiful tortoife is perhaps
not truly afcertained ; though the (hell is more frequently
feen in Europe than that of almoft any other kind. It is
faid, however, to inhabit Afia and Africa, and even to be
found in America. According to Mr. Thunberg it is par-
ticularly common in ihrubby places about the Cape of Good
Hope. It is faid to lay about twelve or fifteen eggs at a

time.

TESTUDO.

*.me. The count de Cepcde fuppofes this fpecies to be the
Terrapin of Dampicr, which that navigator rcprcfcnts as
very beautifully variegated, and as delighting in moid and
marfliy places ; adding, that its flcfh is efteemed as a food,
and that it is foinid in plenty on the coalls of the Pine iflands,
between the continent of America and Cuba : they are found
in the forefts, where they areeafdy taken : tlie hunters mark
them on the fhield, and let them wander about the woods ;
being fwre to find them again at no great diftancc, every one
cafily recognizing his own property, and afterwards can-y-
ing them to Cuba. Shaw.

PusiLLA ; Little Tortoife. With fub-digitated feet, and
hemifpheric fliell, with convex, trapezial Icutella, ftriatcd
on the margin, and punftated on the difl<. This is the
African land tortoife of Edwards, and thus defcribed by
him from a fpecimen obtained from WeR Barbary. " The
iris of the eye is of a reddifli hazel colour ; the lips hard,
like the bill of a bird ; the head covered with fcales of a
)-ellowini colour ; the neck, hind legs, and tail, covered with
a flexible (Icin of a dirty flefh-colour ; the fore-legs covered
with yellow fcales on their outfides, which are partly ex-
pofed when the legs ai"e drawn in ; the (licll round, and
pretty much rifing on its upper fide, and flat beneath ; the
pieces or compartments are of a yellowifh colour, clouded
and fpotted with large and fmall irregular diiflcy or blackifli
fpots, and are alio furrowed or creafed, the creafes leflcning,
one within the other, till they reach the top or middle part
of each : the tail is thick, fcaly, and about an inch in length ;
and the vent is fituated within the tail itfelf near the bafe :
tliere are five claws on the fore-feet, and four on the hind,
all ftrong, black, rather bowed, and fliarp-pointed." This
fpecies is found at the Cape of Good Hope, and mucli re-
fembles the T. gneea.

IxDICA. Tortoife with brov\m flicll, refleifled above the
neck, and marked with a tubercle on the three upper fcutella.
This is the great Indian tortoife, iirft defcribed by Perrault
in tlie " Hiftory of Animals," publiflied by the Royal
Academy of France ; and confounded by M. Cepede
with the T. grxca. It is found in India, on the coaft of
Coromandel, &c. Of this there arc two varieties, one
brought from the Cape of Good Hope, and another from
the Southern iflands.

Sulcata. Tortoife with a tail, digitated feet, gibbofe
fhell, and fcutella lineated and circunifcribtd with a furrow ;
or tortoife with brown ovate flicll, with furrowed fcutella
yellow on each fide. This is one of the larger fpecies of
land tortoife, being about a foot or mure in length from the
nofe to the tip of the talL The fliell is very convex, and
has the general habit of the graca and gcometr'tra as to fliape.
This fpecies is faid to be a native of the Weft Indies, and
perhaps may be the " Hicatee" of Brown, defcribed in his
Hiftor)' of Jamaica. Dr. Shaw fuggefts that this fpecies
may be the fame with T. tabulata.

Planairia. Tortoife with digitated feet, and fliell oval,
convex, and fmooth. Found at Surinam

Americana Terrestri
fliell ; fcutella yello\s' in the middle of the diflc ; the margin
marked with fliining, black, furrowed, lateral polygons.
This . is conjeftured by Gmelln to be the .Taboti of the
Brafilians, and the cagado of the Portuguefe. Found in
South America.

Tabulata. Tortoife with oblong, gibbofe, brown
/hell, with the fcutella of the diflv reftangular and fur-
rowed ; with ycllowifli centres. This was firft defcribed and
figured in Scba's " Thefaurus," and there faid to be a
native of Brafil, though it is believed to be rather an
African fpecies. The general length of the fliell is about

5

Tortoife with oval, gibbofe

five or fix inches : fufpcctcd to be the fame fpccii'S with
T. fiilcata, fupra. Sliaw.

Maroinata. Tortoife with blackifli-brown, oblong,
gibbofe fliell, variegated with yellow, widened and dc-
prefled on the hind part. The true native country of tills
Ipccies is not very diflinftly known. Mr. Scliccpf inclines
to think that it is an American fpecies. Cepcde lias con-
founded it with the T. grxca. Shaw.

Radiata. Tortoife with ovate black fliell, and flattifh
fcutella radiated with yellow. This is the great chetpiered
tortoife-flull of Grcw's Muf. Reg. It has been concluded
by ioine perfons, from a general rcfemblance in the pattern
of the fliell, and a fimilarity in colours, that this is the fame
fpecies with T. geometrica, or a variety of it. But Dr.
Shaw has pointed out a variety of difl^eiences between them
and fuch as warrant our ftpting that the two fliells arc per-
fectly diftinft. Grew, who has defcribed this fpecies,
fays that its native country is Mad.agafcar ; but Dr. Shaw
iuggefls that it is alfo a native of .lamaica, and that in
charadlers and fi/e it agrees with the " Hicatee" tortoile
mentioned in Brown's Zoology. Shaw.

RucosA. Tortoife wrinkled, with black wrinkled fliell,
mottled and variegated with yellow ; with the middle
dorfal pieces fubpanduriform or fiddle-fliaped. In the
Leverian mufeum there is a variety, or perhaps a fexur.1
difference of ttiis fpecies.

Elegan.s. Tortoife with orbicular, convex, yellow fliell,
with tranfverfe, oval, brown fpots. Seba has defcribed it
under the name of the T. terreflris Ceilonica elegans minor.
Shaw.

Areolata. Tortoife with moderately convex fliell,
with fubquadrangular, elevated, deeply furrowed fcutella,
and deprefled rough areolae. This is defcribed by Seba
under the appellation of T. terreflris Brafilienfis.

Serrata. Tortoife with depren"ed yellowifli fliell, mi-
nutely freckled with duflty fpecks ; all the fcutella of the
difli carinated, and the hinder margin of the fliell ferrated.
This is fuppofijd by Dr. Shaw to be the T. fpengleri of
Gmelin's Linnean Syftcm.

Tricarinata. Tortoife with oval, flightly convex, fliell,
with entire margin, and all the fcutella of the diflc carinated.
This fpecies agrees, in fliape and other particulars, with
LinuKus's defcriptlon of his T. orbicularis. Shaw.

ScRlPTA. Tortoife with orbicular deprefled fliell, with
all the fcutella marked by varioufly-formed charadlers, and
the marginal pieces fpotted beneath. This is the T. fcabra
of Thunberg. Its native place is not afcertained. Shaw.

Galeata. Tortoife with deprefled oval fliell, with the
three middle fcutella fliarply carinated, and twenty-four
marginal pieces. The native place of this fpecies is not
known ; but it was brought to Mr. Rctziua from India,
and lived two years kept in frefli water : it fubfilled on
bread, &c. and fometimes on flies. From the beginning of
Oftober to the middle of May it remained without food,
fcarcely elevating its head above the water. It delighted
in funfliine, and endeavoured to climb up the fides of the
veflel occafionally, in order to enjoy its influence. It is
doubtful, whether this be the T. fcabra of Linnaeus. It is
called galeata by Retzius, from the armed .or cataphraded
covering of the head. Shaw.

Granulata ; Chagrin Tortoife. With orbicular, flat-
tifli, granulated flicll, with cartilaginous border. This
fpecies fecnis to be alhed to the T. ferox, having the fliield
furnlflied with a cartilaginous and flexible border. It is de-
fcribed by M. Cepede, and was brought from India by M.
Sonnerat. Shaw.

Dr. Shaw, among the fea-tortoifes or turtles, has defcribed

the

T E T

the turtle witli green variegated flicll. fo named by the
count dc Cepede. Thefe turtles are laid to be fotuul ...
<rreat numbera in tl.e Southern ocean, and about Cape
'bianco, i.. New Spain. They alfo occur .n the gult ot
Mexico, and .na.iy of the la.-ge A.ner.cau nvers, both above
and below the line ; but they have never been difcovered m
the feas of the Old Continent. The fled, is laid to be very
delicate ; and is even preferred in fome places to that of the
common turtle. M. Bomare is faid by Cfepede to have tirll
defcribed this fpecies. . , , ^ n i

The " trunk turtle" is mentioned by Catclhy, who
fays, without ever having feen it, fro.ii the report of others,
that thefe turtles grow to a very large fize, of a narrow form,
but very deep, the upper (hell being more convex than in
other kinds of turtle. Their fledi is rank, but affords a
large quantity of oil, which conftitutes their value.

The " rhinoceros turtle," or la tortus naficonie, has not
been accurately defcribed. Count de Ctpcde fays, that
it is a native of the American feas, and bears a general
refcmblancc to the common or green turtle; but is diftin-
guifhed by having a large foft tubercle on the tip of the
Inout, in which are f.tuated the noftrils. It is eaten in
the fame manner as the green turtle, and is chiefly found
in the eqtiatorial regions. Shaw's General Zoology, vol. iii.

pt. I.

TesTUDO J^eliform'is QuaJral/ilis, an hemifpherical vault,
or cieling of a church, &c. in which four windows are fo
contrived, as that the reft of the vault is quadrable, or may
be fquared.
"The determination of thefe windows was a problem pro-
pofed to the great mathematicians of Europe, particularly
the cultivators of the new calculus differentialis, in the
Ada Eruditorum LipfiE, by fig. Viviani, under the fifti-
tious name of A. D. PioUfci pufillo-geometra, which was
the anagram of poftrcmo Galilsi difcipulo.

It was folved by feveral perfons, particularly M. Leib-
nitz, the very day he faw it : and he gave it in the Leipfic
Afts in a variety of ways ; as alfo did M. Bernouilli, the
marquis de I'Hofpital, Dr. Wallis, and Dr. Gregory.

TESTWOOD, in Biography, a fmging man in the choir
of Windfor, was burnt for his intemperate zeal in the caufe
of Proteftantifm, 1544, when Marbeck was likewife con-
demned, but afterwards pardoned.

TESZERSKEY, in Geography, a town of Croatia ; 6
miles S.W. of Novi.

TET, a river of France, which rifes in the Pyrenees, a
little above Mont Louis, and runs into the Mediterranean,
7 miles E. of Perpignan.

TETANUS, in Medicine, a difeafe confifting in a fpaf-
modic contraftion of feveral of the mufcles of voluntary
motion, and more particularly of thofe which fhut the lower
jaw : and this being a conftant and prominent fymptoin, the
affeftion is commonly known by the name of locked jaw.
The fpafm of the mufcles is of the tonic kind ; or that in
which the exceff.ve contratlion continues for a conf.derable
time, without any interval of complete relaxation : in which
refpeft it is oppofed to clonic fpafms, or convulfions, where
the contraftions and relaxations alternate in rapid fucceffion.
(See Convulsion and Spj\sm.) The powers of fenfation
and of intelleft remain unimpaired in tetanus ; in which re-
fpeft alfo it is contrafted with epilepfy.

Tetanus admits of many varieties and modifications, on
which the older nofologifts had founded different fpecies of
the difeafe. A rigidity of the mufcles of the lower jaw was
denominated trifmus. When the .nufcles of the back were
chiefly affefted, the difeafe was termed opi/Iholonos : when
Lhofc of the fore -part of the trunk, with the flexors of the

S

TET

extremities, were the feat of fpafm, it was called emprojlha-
.;grws. Sometimes, though very rarely, the fpafms are con-
fined to one fide of the body only, bending it ftrongly to
that fide ; a form of the difeafe w'hich has been named by
Sauvages tetanus lateralis, and by later writers, the pleurq/Iho-
tonos, or picurotnnos. It was only when the fpafm was almoft
uuiverfal, that it was confidered as entitled to the appellation
of tetanus. Of late years, however, thefe names have very
properly been confidered as expreffing only varieties of one
and the fame affeftion, differing inerely in feverity, but
arifing from the faine caufes, and requiring the fame mode of
treatment. Thefe various forms of fpafra often follow one
another in fncceffiou in the fame cafe, and mark the progrefs
of tlie difeafe through its different flages. Thus the trifmuSj
or locked jaw, is only a part or prelude of opifthotonos and
tetanus ; and though it may prove fat:J at this early period,
the imperfeft form in which the fymptoms of a difeafe,
\\hich has been thus arretted in its courfe, may appear, is by
no means fufficient to eftablifli a generic difference in the dif-
eafe itfelf. There appears, however, to be fome foundation
for a divifion of cafes, according to their duration, into the
acute and the protrafted : the former being very little under
the controul of medicine, and in almoft every inftante fatal ;
the latter being milder in its charafter, and often yielding,
if proper means are employed for its fubjugation.

Another ground of dillinftion among the different cafes of
this formidable diforder, is derived from the nature of the
caufes fi-om which they have originated. Tlie m.oft ufual
caufes are certain mechanical injuries to the body, more efpe-
cially fuch as are attended with a punfture or laceration of
a nerve : on other occafions, it may be the cffeft of the fud-
den application of cold, when the body has been previoufly
overheated : and, in a few inftances, it has appeared to arife
fpontaneoufly ; that is, when it could not be traced to any
external exciting caufe whatever. Tetanus arifing from
wounds is, in general, flower in its progrefs than that which
proceeds from cold ; but is attended with more danger tu
life.

On fome occafions the difeafe comes on fuddcnly, and with
great violence ; but more commonly the attack is gradual.
It is often eight or ten days, and fometimes much longer,
after the infliftion of a wound, before the firft fymptoms of
tetanus make their appearance : and this frequently happens
when the effefts of the injury on the part itfelf appear to
have fubfided ; when the wound has healed, and no pain or
uneafinefs has remained. Thofe cafes in wliich the difeafe
is more flow in its approach, afford the beft opportunity of
tracing the natural fucceffion of fymptoms : and the firfl
uneafy fenfation which is then obferved, is that of a flight
ftiffnefs in the back part of the neck and about the flioulders,
which, gradually increafing, impede the rotatory motions of
the head, and alio its flexion forwards : fo that the patient
cannot look downwards, or to either fide, without turning
his whole body. This uneafy feeling, being chiefly felt on
motion, very much refembles what occurs from rheuinatifm,
but it is accompanied with a fenfe of general laff.tudc and
debility. The rigidity now extends from the back of the
neck to the mufcles of the jaw, and of the root of the tongue,
io that both maftication and fwallowing become difficult
and painful ; and at length impoff.ble. The attempt at de-
glutition is attended with convulfive efforts ; efpecially when
liquids are endeavoured to be fwallowed. So great is the
diftrefs which accompanies thefe convulfions, that the patient
becomes very reluftant to renew the trials, and refufes all
nourifliment ; and it fometirae,s infpires him with even a dread
of the fight of water.

As the difeafe advances, another fet of fymptoms appears,

bringing

TETANUS.

hringiiie; with them a confiderablo iwiTeafc to the fufferings
ot the patient. A fiulden and violonl pain is Mt (hooting

from tlie lower extremity of the ilernum to the fpine, in the
(iliiation of the diaphragm. Thefe fpafms recur from time
lo time, at fliort intervals ; and at each recurrence, give the
ligiial for an immediate aggravation of all the other fpafms.

I'lie mufcles of the neck and jaw are immediately called into
violent adion ; the head is pulled llrongly backvrards ; and
the j.aw becomes firmly clenched. Thefe periodical accef-
fions of fpafm become more fevere, and their effefts more
ilurable ; fo that the head continues to be in a Hate of re-
traction, and the jaw is permanently clofed, the teeth being
to firmly fet together, as not to admit of the fmallelt open-
ing. Such conliitutes wiiat may be regarded as the tirft
:tage of the difeafe ; whicii fometimes takes up three or four
days. At other times the difeafe eftablifties itfelf, with its
whole train of dreadfu4 fymptoms, in a few hours ; in whicii
caie the danger is imminent ; as death generally takes place
in from twenty-four to forty-eight hoars, and tlie patient
very rarely paifes over the third day.

The continuance of the difeafe, if the putier.t furvive tlie
immediate attack, is marked by the inereafing fpafm of the
diaphragm, which now returns every ten or fifteen minutes,
and is inftantly fucceeded by a ftronger retradlion of the
head, and rigidity of the mufcles extending down the back,
along the fpine, and afFetling even thofe of the lower extre-
mities. Their contraClions increafing in force, the body is
frequently raifcd in the form ef a bow, retting upon the
head and feet alone : a ilate which is more particularly de-
nominated op'tjlhotonos . The countenance, as is obferved by
Dr. Chalmers, is pale and contrafted ; the maftoid, coraco-
hyoid, and ftenw-hyoid mufcles, together with the others
concerned in deglutition, and the deltoid and peftoral
mufcles, are mod violently contrafted, fo that the fhoulders
are ftrongly railed forwards, and the arms are ftretched out,
or drawn acrofs the body ; but the wrifts and fingers feem
not to be affefted. In a few feconds, aremilTion takes place ;
the flioulders and arms recline, and the inferior extremities
relax ; yet not fo entirely, but that generally fuch a degree
of rigidity continues, as to prevent their being bent, even
whai this is attempted by another perfon. The mnfcles on
the fides and fore part of the neck continue ftill contrafted,
although not fo ttrongly ; but their aftion is overcome by
the number and ilrength of the pollerior ones ; fo that the
contraftion of the head conftantly remains. The patient
breathes quick for fome minutes, as if he had been excef-
fively exercifed, and the pulfe is fmall, fluttering, and irregu-
lar, but both become more calm and (low. The face is
fometimes pale in the intervals, but oftener fluflied ; and the
whole countenance expreffes ilrong appearances ot the moll
melancholy diftrefs ; as well on account of the terror the
patient feels at the approaching paroxyfm, as from the tor-
ture he has fuffered from the lad, of which the painful con-
Iraftions he lliLl feels perpetually remind him. He, for the
moft part, delires to lie ItiU as much as pofllble, and to
avoid all attempts at drinking, fpeaking, or any kind of mo-
tion ; all of which are apt to occafion a return of the fpafm in
all its horrors. Some, indeed, are folicitous to try a change
of pofition, in hopes of obtaining one of greater eafe ; but
the aft of turning the patient never fails to bring on an attack
of the convullion, by which the head is drawn back to the
fpine : and it is at length found, that the bcft means of avoid-
ing this is for him to lie perfeftly ftill on the back.

It may, in general, be obferved, that theextenfor mufcles
are affefted willi fpafm before the flexors. In the lower
extremities, indeed, both the flexor and extenfor mufcles are
commonly at the fame time affc6ted, and keep the limbs

rigidly extended. The flexors of the head, and the mulclcs
tiiat pull down the lower jaw, become affefted in the progrefs
of the difeafe, together with the abdominal mufcles ; fo tliat
the belly is ftrongly retrafted, and feels hard, like a piece of
board. The fpafm of thefe and the other flexor mufcles,
becoming fo powerful as to balance the aftion of the exten-
fors, is a circumftance that marks the advance of the dif-
eafe, and may be regarded as conftituting the commence-
ment of a third ftage. In this iituation the body and limbs
are perfeftly ftraight and rigid, and incapable of being moved
in any way ; and it is to this condition that the term tdamis
has been more cl'peeially applied. It is a ftate of the moft ex-
quifite fufienng : the patient is on the rack from the continual
recurrence of the fpafm, which has fcarccly any remiflion.
The refti mufcles of the abdomen often contraft unequally,
producing the appearance of hard balls in particular parts.
The whole belly is drawn inwards, and does not yield in the
leaft to the defcent of the diaphragm in infpiration. Although
the lower extremities are alw.nys rigid at this period, yet
their aftion is lo violent during the height of the paroxyfms,
that were it not for the ftandera-by, the patient would be pro-
jeftcd feet foremoft off the bed ; or would, at other times,
be puflied upwards with fuch an impetus, as to flrike the
head with great force againfl whatever might happen to be
in tiie way. Occafionally, the flexor mufcles acquire the
preponderance over the extenfors, and the trunk of the body
is bent forwards, the chin being fixed to the breaft. This
is what has been called emprojlbotouos, and occurs only in
the moft violent, and of courfe the leaft frequent form of the
difeafe. It would appear fnmi fome cafes reported by
Sauvages, that thefe qppofite ftates are difpofed to alternate
with one another. ■ .

In extreme cafes, there are hardly any of the voluntary
mufcles that remain in their natural ftate. The face and
eyes are dittorted ; the tongue is fuddcnly darted out be-
tween the teetJi, and often miferably lacerated from their
clofing at the fame moment. Even the fmall mufcles of the
ear partake of the fpafmodic aftion, which fo univerfally
prevails in the fyftem. While the tongue is thruft out, the
mufcular flefli, which is (ituated between the arch of the
lower jaw, and the upper part of the trachea, is drawn up-
wards within the throat. Tiie countenance is much con-
trafted ; a general fweat breaks out ; t!ie eyes are watery
and languid ; and a pale or bloody froth bubbles out from
between the lips. Tetanus, in thefe violent forms, is, per-
haps, the moft painful difeafe that can affeft the human
frame. So exquifite a degree of pain would fcarcely be com-
patible with life, were it not occafionally affuagedby the fhort
and imperfeft remilTions of fpafm which occur. A more
continued and fevere fpalm, or a general .convulfion, gene-
rally finiflies the tragedy, and rcleafes the unhappy victim
from all his mifery : or, if already too exhaulled by the
feverity of pain to admit of this mode of termination, deli-
rium often enfues, protefts the patient by a happy infen-
fibility to further fuffering, and fmooths the avenue to
death, wliich is then preceded by a general relaxation of the
fpafms.

Such arc the fymptoms which peculiarly belong to teta-
nus : and it is, perhaps, the moil remarkable circumftance
attending the difeafe, that hardly any funftion is primarily
affefted, except that of mufcular aftion. The fenfes and appe-
tites are perfeft and entire ; the intellectual funftions are
undifturbed ; and the natural funftions proceed in their
ufual courfe. Fever is neither an eflcntial nor a common
attendant on the difeafe. In the iirft flagc, when the fpafm
is confined to a few mufcles, the pulfe is not affefted : it
becomes accelerated only when the fpafmodic aftions arc

gcneriJ,

TETANUS.

general, and this merely in confequence, as it would appear,
of till- mechanical efleit produced on the hlood-veirels by the
contraAiuns of the mufclcs, which will hurry on the cii-cu-
lation, and tlirow the blood upon the heart in larger quantity
than ufual, rendering the pulfe conUatled, frequent, and
irregular. Tiie refpiration is hurried from the fame caufe,
and the temperature of the body, as might be expedled, is
increafed in the fame proportion. That thefe fyraptomsare
not the efl'ect of fever, appears from the Rate of the blood,
wliich is ilatcd to be of a loofer texture than natural, and never
exhibits the buffy coat, as in inflammatory difeafes. Tiiis
circumftance is particularly noticed by Dr. Clephane, and alfo
by Dr. Chalmers ; and the remark has often been verified by
fubfequent obfervers. On fome occafions, indeed, when the
diforder is very violent, the arterial actions are increafed, and
a febrile (late prevails ; and this appears to take place more
frequently when the difeafe has originated from cold, than
when it has been excited by wounds. The flcin is at firft
natural, but, as the difeafe advances, is covered with a cold
Iwcat. The tongue is always moiil. Vomiting fometimes
takes place early in the complaint, but it commonly fubfidts
in the progrefs of it : it is even ufual for the appetite of
hunger to remain through the whole courfe of the difeafe ;
and what food can bo got down appears to be fufficiently
well digefted. Some local efTefts feem to be attributable to
the contraftions of the abdominal mufcles. The fphinfter
of the bladder is occafionally affefted with fpafm, fo as to
impede the difcharge of urine, which is voided with pain
and difficulty : at other times, its fecretion is fuppreffed.
When It can be obferved, it is ftated as being high-coloured,
and fomewhat turbid. The bowels are found to be, in
every inftance, oblHnately coftive, a ftate which may partly
be accounted for by the efFeft of opiates, which are fo gene-
rally adminiftered for the cure : but which, independently of
this caufe, appears to be inherent in the difeafe itfelf. The
bowels require the moft draftic purgatives ; and there is a
great fenfe of uneafmefa abaut the precordia. In the latter
ftages of this diforder, indeed, when the powers of life begin
to decline from the vail expenditure of energy occafioned by
the violent mufcular anions, every funttion in the fyftem
partakes of the general diforder ; the intelledl gives way, and
the patient finks from exhauflion alone, if a general convul-
fion does not occur to haften his end. It is mentioned by
Dr. Cullen, that, in feveral cafes, a miliary eruption has ap-
peared upon the (kin ; but heexpreffes a doubt whether tliis
was a fymptom of the difeafe, or the effeft of a certain treat-
ment of it. It has not been obferved, he adds, to denote
either fafety or danger, or to have any effeft in changing
the courfe of the didemper.

From the more violent forms of the difeafe, hardly any
inftance of recovery has been known to take place. On the
other hand, the mere protraftion of the fymptoms is an
indication of the comparative mildnefs of the difeafe. Few
patients fall a facrifice after the ninth or tenth days, which
period they never could have attained, unlefs the violence of
the complaint had in a great meafure fubfided. In this
milder form, however, it may be prolonged feveral weeks ;
and fometimes the fpafmodic difpofition remains, even for
months, before health is completely reftored. The pulfe, in
thefe cales, continues (low and hard, and the belly bound :
but if blood b drawn, it does not exhibit any difference
from its ufual Hate. Under every circumflance of recovery,
indeed, the convalefcent labours long under general debihty,
and cannot, for months, raife himfclf from a fupine or re-
cumbent pofture without afliflance, nor without pain.

Occafional deviations from the courfe above defcribed are
met with in different cafes ; but they are not of fufficient

importance to lay tlie foundation of any diilin^ft variety. The
moft fingular of thefe anomalies is the one recorded by Dr,
(now fir Gilbert) Blane, of acafe in which tetanus prevailed to
a very confiderable extent, without affedling the patient with
the lead degree of pain. The fpafms were, in this inftance,
accompanied witli a tingling feufation, which was even rather
agreeable than diftreftiiig. The cafe, however, terminated
fatally : but to the laft, no pain was experienced. In two
cafes mentioned by the fame author, the fpafms affefted only
the fide of the body in which the wound was lituated.

The refult of dilTeSions of patients who have died of
tetanus, has thrown no light whatever on the nature of tliis
tei-rible afTeftion. Sometimes there are found (light effufions
within the cranium : but, in general, no morbid appearance
whatever can be detefted in the head. There appears to be
always more or lefs of an inflammatory appearance in ihe
villous coat about the cefophagus and ftomach in the neigh-
bourhood of the cardia. But thofe wIk) are converfant with
diife&ions, muft be well aware that thefe appearances are
common to a gfeat number of difeafes, and are uniformly
met with in every cafe of rapid or violent death. Befides
the rednefs and increafed vafcularity of thefe parts, M. Lar-
rcy ftates that he found the pharynx and cefophagus much
coiitrafted, and covered with a vifcid reddifh mucus. Dr.
M'Arthur found, in feveral cafes, the inteftines much in-
flamed ; and in two of them a yellow waxy fluid, of a pe-
ciJiar ofFenfive fmell, covering their internal furface : but
whether the inflammation was primary, or only a confe-
quence of the prefTure of the abdominal mufcles, which
contraft fo violently in this difeafe, he is unable to decide.
See Medico-Cliirurgical Tranfa£lions, vol. vii. p. 47 j.

Tetanus is a difeafe much more prevalent in hot than in
cold climates. It is compai-atively a rare difeafe in this
illand ; but even here, the effect of warmth in giving a pre-
difpofition to it is fuflRciently obfervable. It is more com-
mon in the fouth than in the north of England, and is much
more feldom met with in Scotland than m England. It is
fenfibly more frequent in warm than in cold feafons. In
warm, and efpecially in tropical climates, it may be regarded
as an endemic difeafe, appearing at all feafons, but efpe-
cially during the prevalence of the greateft heats. Warmth
operates by increafing the mobility oi the fyftem, while at
the fame time it tends to diminifh the pofitive ftrength of the
fibre. The fenfibiUty to all inipreffions is greater in hot cli-
mates, wlule the power of refilling the caufcs of injury is
IclTened : hence the greater predifpofition to fpafmodic dif-
eafes in general. The natives of hot climates do not enjoy
a greater exemption from tetanus than European fettlers.
Negro (laves arc peculiarly liable to its attacks. It affedts
all ages, fexes, conftitutions, and complexions : but, caterh
paribus, is more apt to feize upon thofe in whom the largeil
(hare of vital power has been bellowed upon the mufcles of
voluntary motion. Hence it attacks more readily the 10-
buft, and thofe who are accuflomed to much bodily labour.
P.-.rtly on this account, and partly from their being more ex-
pofed to the occafional caufes of the difeafe, men are much
more frequently the fubjefts of tetanus than women.

In the torrid zone, the moft frequent exciting caufe of te-
tanus is the application of cold when the body is heated. It
is often induced by the alternate cxpofure to the fcorching
heat of the fun, and to the heavy (bowers which frequently
occur in tropical regions, and produce great and fudden vi-
ciflitudes of temperature. Sleeping out of doors after a
hot day, efpecially on damp ground, or in a fituation where
a ftream of cool air is admitted to the body, is often follow.
ed by tetanus in hot chmates. Dr. Chalmers relates that 3
young man chofe to cut off his hair and ftiave his head on a

warrrj

TETANUS.

warm day in March, and went to bed without a cap : but
the weather changing and becoming cold in the night, be
was I'eizcd with tetanus, and the next morning was found
rigid with the dileafe. The imprudent ufe of the cold
bath, or even a draught of cold water, when the body has
been warm by exercile, has frequently brought on tetanus.

In temperate clnnates, on the other iiand, the dileafe
feldom arifes from the application of cold ; although there
is one well-attelted inftance mentioned by Dr. Gregory in
hisleftures.'of its occurring from tiiis caufe in Scotland:
but it is more frequently the confequence of lacerated or
puntlured wounds, and is particularly incident to injuries of
nerves, and of tendinous parts. It fometimes follows the
amputation of a limb ; and it would appear that wounds of
the joints, particulaj-ly thofe of the hands or feet, are
more peculiarly liable to produce tetanus. In warm
countries, the flightell cut or bruife is in danger of being
fucceeded by this formidable malady. Hence few of thole
that are wounded in battle recover : and few furvive any
conliderable operation. It has been fuppofed by many, that
tetanus arofe from the partial divifion of fome nervous fibres,
in confequence of which the undivided filaments were un-
equally and violently ilretched : a ftate which would be re-
medied by their complete divifion. Experience, however,
the ftubborn enemy tc5 fo many hypothefes, has by no means
proved favourable to this opinion. It has alfo been ftated
to be more frequently the refult of wounds, which remain
in a Hate of great irritability, without proceeding to fup-
puration ; it does not, however, appear that this pofition is
Supported on any extcnfive obfervation. It very often hap-
pens, indeed, that tetanus fliews itfelf when the wound was
almoft healed, and the dreffings have been laid afidc.

In the late campaigns of our armies in the peninfula of
Spain and Portugal, according to the report of fir James
Macgrigor, tetanus occurred in every defcription, and in
©very flage of wounds, from the flightell to the moll for-
midable, from the healthy and the iloughing, from the in-
•ciied and lacerated, from the moil fimple and moll compli-
cated. It occurred at uncertain periods ; but it was re-
marked, that if it did not commence before twenty-two
days from the date of the wound, the patient was fafe. It
terminated in the fecond, third, and fourth days, and even as
late as the feventeenth and twentieth days, though ufually it
was not protrafted beyond the eighth. The" moil rapidly
fatal cafe that has ever been recorded, is one that we have on
the authority of the late profeiTor Robifon of Edinburgh.
It occurred in a negro, who was a waiter at a tavern, and
who happened to fcratch his thumb with the broken edge of
a china plate, and who died of tetanus a quarter of an hour
after this apparently flight accident.

As the acute form of traumatic tetanus, obferves Dr.
Dickfon, is fo uniformly fatal, it is of the greatelt confe-
quence to attend to whatever may aflift in detefting the dif-
ezie early, or in warding it off. Richerand ftates, that in
wounds threatening convuHions and tetanus, a perfevering
exteniion of the limbs during fleep often manifefts itfelf
before any affeftion of the lower jaw ; and we fliould natu-
rally pay more attention to any admonition of this kind in
punftured or extenfive lacerated wounds, particularly of
tendinous or ligamentous parts, efpecially in injuries of the
feet, hands, knee-joint, back, &c. in which the difeafe moll
frequently fupervenes. Some prelulive indications of dan-
ger may often be derived from the increafe of pain, irrita-
tion, and reilleffnefs, nervous twitchings, pain and difficulty
in deglutition, or in turning the head ; fpafms, or partial
rigidity of fome of the voluntary mufcles ; pain at the fcro-
biculus cordis ; a fuppreffed or vitiated ftate of the dif-
Vm.. XXXV,

charge, &c. whicli mark the flower approaclics of the dif-
eafe. M. Larrey adduces fcveral inllanccs of tetanus, in
which the wound was either dry, or afforded only a fcaiity
ferous exudation, and where the fymptoms were relieved on
(uppuration being re-eilablilhed ; and Dr. Reid, in the
Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal for July 1815, re-
marks, that on removing the dreiTing, inttcad of healthy pus,
the furface af the wound was coverd with a dnrkilh unhealthy
looking matter, which he liad in two former inllanccs noticed
as the forerunner of tetanus. A torpor of the intellines has
generally been obferved to precede as well as to accompany
the difeafe. Mr. Abernethy obferves, that in four cafes
where he inquired into the Hate of the bowels, the evacua-
tions were not like fseces ; and he propofes as a quellion in
invelligating the canfe, what is the Hate of tiie bowels be-
tween the infliftion of the injury and the appearance of this
dreadful malady ? Dr. Parry has adduced the velocity of
the circulation as an uleful criterion of the danger of the
difeafe ; and obferves, that if the pulfe be not above looor
1 10, by the fourth or fifth day the patient almoll always re-
covers ; but if it be quickened early, that it proves fatal ; and
yet there are a few inllances of recovery where the pulfe has
rifen to 120 on tiie firil day. M. Larrey remarks, that
when the perfpiration, which fo often attends the difeafe, is
fymptomatic, it begins upon the head and extremities ; and
when it is critical, it occurs over the chell and abdomen :
but in many cafes, perfpiration flows very freely without
bringing relief.

We have already ftated, that in fome inllances the fource
of irritation producing the difeafe is not obvious. Such
cafes of fpontaneous tetanus are very rare. Dr. Willan, in
his Reports, p. 289, mentions having met with an inllance in
a female, 32 years of age, where there had not been any
previous accident or local injury whatever ; and where tlie
only circumllance, which was likely to have contributed to
its production, was fevere dillrefs of mind, occurring in a
frame previoully debihtatcd.

When we refleft upon the obfcurity which involves both
the ratio fymptomaliim and the proximate caufe of tetanic af-
feftions, we need not wonder that the praftice in thcfc
diforders fliould Hill be entirely empirical. Tiie indication
of cure which is generally applicable in all difeafes, namely,
the removal of the exciting caufes, has but little place in a
morbid condition, which is the confequence of caufes that in
general have ccafed to adl, or which it is not in our power
either to remove or controul. In thofe cafes where we
could fuppofe local irritation to be ftill operating, the moft
effeftual method of counterafting its effefts on the fyftem,
would obvioufly be to intercept all communication between
the feat of the irritation and the fenforium. It, however,
the difeafe has already eftabhftied itfelf, and the fevere
fymptoms have come on, it does not appear tiiat this would
fucceed in arrefting tiie courfe of the diiorder. Experience
has but too fully Ihewn, that the amputation of the limb
from the injury of wliich the tetanus had arifen, will very
feldom procure even a mitigation of the fymptoms, if p.r-
formed after a certain period from their firft appearance.
This plan was fully tried in our army at Touloufe, and
totally failed. In fome inftances, however, it is faid that a
favourable change has cnfued, and that patients have even
recovered by the facrifice of the wounded limb : and it has
been remarked, that the fpafms relaxed immediately on the
divifion of the foft parts by the knife, and before tlie faw
was applied to the bone, in order to complete the operation.
It is, therefore, highly probable, that the free divifion of the
parts above tlie wound, or ftill more certauily the ampu-
tation of the limb, would, at a certain ftage 'jf the affeftion,
3 F fecure

TETANUS.

Icciire the patient from the approach of tetanus. But the
difficulty is here to eftimate the probability of the patient's
iiaving the difeafe, as nothing Ihort of the certainty of its
being'at hand, could well juftify the operation.

As it is matter of experience that an early and highly
■ rritable and painful condition of the wound has a tendency
to excite tetanus, as well as a Hate in which the difcharge is
of a peculiar unhealthy charafter, or is fupprelTed altogether,
cur immediate objefts' (hould be to allay as much as poffible
*he local irritation, and to re-eftabhlh a healthy fecretiou of
pus. Mechanical caufes of irritation fhould as much as
poflible be obviated, by early attention to remove fplinters
of bone, balls, or other foreign bodies, that may be lodged
in the wound. Poultices and foothing applications will
anfwer the double purpofe of quieting local inflammation,
and bringing on healthy fuppuration. The irritability of
the furface may fometimes be moil effeftually deftroyed by
lunar cauftic, after w^hich, an emollient poultice may be ap-
phed. An oppofite plan of treatment has been recom-
mended by Dr. Ru(h, namely, that of exciting confiderable
inflammation in the wounded part, by epithems of turpentine,
and other highly ilimulating applications ; which, though it
may in certain cafes have fucceedod in preventing tetanus,
does not appear to be generally applicable, and feems ac-
cordingly to have been abandoned. On the contrary, it
has of late been the univerfal praftice in the navy, to add
tinfture of opium to the drelTings apphed to wounds, with
a view of preventing tetanus. With the intention of re-
exciting fuppuration where there is no difcharge, M. Larrey
recommends the application of blillers as near as poffible to
the wound, and adduces inllanccs of fuccefs from this mode
of treatment.

But the cure of tetanus, when once it has commenced, is
to be fought for more by the ufe of general, than of topical
remedies. The feat of the diforder has been transferred to
the brain and nervous fyftem, and our efforts niiift be directed
to allay their inordinate adlions. The plan from which
theory would lead us to expeft moft fuccefs, is that of
exciting fome new aftion in thefe organs, by which their
energies would be direfted into fome different channel, and
the exifting morbid aSion would be fufpended and fuper-
feded. The remedies which exert the moft powerful imme-
diate effefts in the nervous fyftem, are accordingly found
to be the moft efficacious in the cure of tetanus. Opium,
■wine, and other highly diffufible ftimuli, digitahs and
other narcotics, the fudden aff^ufion of cold water, bleeding,
purging, impregnating the fyftem with mercury, the exhibi-
tion of arfenic, of oil of turpentine, of alkalies, and of
ipecacuanha, have refpeftively been reforted to, and with
very vainous, and in general but limited fuccefs. The fame
methods from which cures have been obtained in the milder
cafes, generally fail to make the leaft impreffion on the dif-
eafe in its feverer forms. We learn from the valuable report
of fir James Macgrigor, already alluded to, that there were
very few, out of feveral hundred cafes that occurred in the
Britifti armies during the late campaigns on the Peninfula,
where this difeafe had made any progrefs, in which it ter-
minated fuccefsfully, or in which remedies, however varied,
feemed to have any beneficial influence.

Opium is the remedy on which reliance has moft gene-
rally been placed in combating this formidable difeafe ; and
there is no doubt that in mild cafes it is competent to its
complete folution. But for this purpofe, it is abfolutely
neceffai^ that its ufe be begun from the earlieft appearance
of the fymptoms ; that it be given in very large dofes ; and
that the dofes be repeated at fliort intervals : fo that the
fyftem be kept conftantly under the influence of the remedy.

It is, indeed, aftonifliing how the fyftem, when pofl'efled by a
ftrong difpofition to fpafm, will refift the operation of this
and other remedies, which in its ordinary ftate woidd have
been more than fufficient to overpower and deftroy it.
Patients labouring under tetanus will bear with impunity
quantities of opium, that at any other time would have been
certainly fatal. Inftances are upon record of five, ten, and
even twenty grains, being taken every two or three hours
for many days, without its producing any extraordinary
narcotic effects upon the fenforium. It is always, however,
advifeable to begin with comparatrv-ely moderate dofes,
fuch as forty or fixty drops of tinfture of opium, which
may be repeated at intervals of three or four hours, and in-
creafed at each repetition, till fome fenfible effeft is pro-
duced on the fpafms. It feems requifite to augment the
dofe rapidly, as the difeafe prefles upon us every hour, and
no time is to be loft in refifting its advances, while there is
yet a chance of controuling its fury. The circumftance of
the clofing of the jaw, and the difliculty of deglutition, the
increafe of which may foon render it hardly poflible to in-
troduce medicines into the ftomach, is an additional motive
urging us to pu(h our remedies before thofe obftacles arife.
Glyfters are our only refource, when it is impoffible to
overcome the fpafm of the fauces. Opium has alfo been
applied externally and topically to the jaws ; and relief has
fometimes been obtained from an opiate plafter on the
maffeter mufcles, or behind the ears ; but thefe are com-
paratively very trifling in their efficacy, and applicable only
to the llighteft cafes, or to thofe in which convalefcents are
ftill affefted with a recurrence of one or two local fymptoms.

It is of the greateft importance in all cafes of tetanus, and
more efpecially where opium is given, to excite a proper
aiflion of the bowels, fo as to allov/ of no ftagnation of their
contents. The teftimony of the army phyficians, as appears
from the report of fir James Macgrigor, is highly in favour
of a rigid perfeverance in the ufe of purgatives, given in
dofes to produce a full effeft daily. Dr. Forbes ftates, that
a folution of fulphate of magnefia, in infufion of fenna, was
found to anfwer better than any other purgative, and it was
daily given in a fufficient quantity to procure a copious
evacuation, which was always dark-coloured, and highly
offenfive : and to this prafticc he chiefly attributes, in one
fevere cale, the removal of the difeafe. The infrequency of
locked jaw in the Weft Indies, in t!ie pubhc fervice, of late
years, is chiefly afcribed by Dr. Dickfon, to the greater
freedom with which purgatives have been employed, par-
ticularly fince the publication of Dr. Hamilton's work on
the operation of this clafs of remedies ; an opinion which is
corroborated by the teftimony of various authors, as to the
ftate of obftinate coftivenefs which prevails in this difeafe,
and the offenfive nature of the contents of the inteftines.

For the introduftion of the ftimulant and tonic plan of
treatment, we are chiefly indebted to Dr. Rufli, who was
led to adopt it from fome theoretical views he entertained
on the nature of tetanus, which he conceived to be effen-
tially a difeafe of debility. There can be no doubt that
in many cafes the exhibition of wine or fpirits has been
attended with very good eft'efts. Dr. Hoffack, in vol. iii.
of the American Medical Repofitory, relates feveral cafes
which were cured by large quantities of wine.

A free allowance of wine and porter after gun-fliot wounds
has appeared alfo, according to the ftatement of Dr. M'Ar-
thur, to have contributed to the very fmall number of cafes
of tetanus which occurred under his care in the hofpital at
Barbadoes, during nearly fix years of the moft aftive period of
the war. Of the numerous cafes of gun-fltot wounds received
into the hofpital, and of operations perfermed, during the

whole

TETANUS.

whole of that period, only two inftances of tetanus occurred.
Bark has been given in conjuntlion with wine and opium ;
and the muriated tiutlure of iron has alfo been ufed with ap-
parent advantage. The luccefs of tlie tonic plan of treat-
ment refts alfo on the teftimonies of Dr. Wright of Jamaica,
Dr. Cochrane ot Nevis, and feveral other Well Indian prac-
titioners ; and alio on that of Dr. Currie of Liverpool.

The prelencc of an inflammatory diatheiis, which occa-
fionally accompanies the fpafmodic Hate, prefents, iiowever,
a material obftacle to the employment of the above-mentioned
remedies. So much is this the cafe, that many phyficians
have recommended the free ufe of the lancet, particularly in
the early llages of tetanus. Dr. Dickfon ftates it as his
opinion, that in a full habit, where the wound is fwelled,
inflamed, and painful, venefeftion, with free purging, and fuch
other means as are calculated to allay the general and local
irritation, afford the faireft chance of averting the danger.
(See the yth volume of the Medico-ChirurgicalTranfaftions,
part 2.) In the 6th volume of the fame work, a cafe is
detailed by Mr. Earle, in which, though it terminated fatally,
bleeding was beneficial, and leflened the patient's fufferings ;
and in the fame volume, it is alfo mentioned with appro-
bation by the medical officers in the Peninfula. Dr. M'Ar-
thur confiders that he ufed blood-letting with evident relief
in one cafe, in the naval hofpital at Barbadoes ; that the
fpafms were ameliorated, the difeafe protradled, and the
morbid appearances after death were lefs marked in confe-
quence. M. Larrey alfo adduces fome examples where it
produced a good effeft. Mr. Guthrie gives three cafes which
occurred in the hofpitals of St. Andero, out of many which
were recorded, vi^here venefeftion was the principal remedy.
In tlie firft, in which tetanus from a wound in the hand was
advancing with rapidity, the patient was bled ad deliquium
feveral times with good effeft, calomel and diaphoretics being
given at the fame time, and he recovered. In the fecond
cafe, the patient was bled in the fame manner, with an evident
amendment of the fymptoms ; fo much fo, indeed, that he
fuffered but little from fpafm, and could open his mouth
very weE, when he was feized with diarrhoea, which, in the
debilitated fliate he was in, carried him off. In the third cafe,
of a man of a fanguine temperament, and fuffcring from acute
tetanus, venefeftion pufhed to the utmoft totally failed.

Digitahs has been tried in the Peninfula in leveral cafes,
occafionally with good effeft, though it never appears to
have elTefted a cure. Ether, camphor, mufl^, and other anti-
fpafmodics, as likewife the alkalies, were alio tried, and found
equally unfuccefsful. Caftor is ftrongly recommended by
Aratxus, but is too feeble a remedy to have any decifive
influence in fo violent a diforder.

The affufion of cold water has in general been attended
with great benefit. It is a praftice particularly recom-
mended by Dr. Wright, in the London Medical Obfervations,
and is fanftioned bythe concurring teftimonies of Dr. Cochrane,
in the Medical Comment ai-ies, and of Dr. Currie, in his Me-
dical Reports, &c. as well as by many other praftitioners.
A large pailful of cold water thould be thrown upon the
patient every two or three hours ; he is te be immediately
wiped dry, and laid in bed after each affufion, and an opiate
draught adminiflered. Some remiffion of the fpafms will in
this way be generally obtained ; and many inftances are upon
record, of complete cures being effefted by perfeverance in
this plan. Before the introduftion of this praftice, the warm
bath was very commonly employed ; the patient, after ufing
it, being placed in bed, without being dried, between two
blankets, with a view to bring out a fweat. It does not
appear, however, that this plan was attended with any ge-
peral or permanent advantage ; and is certainly inferior in

efficacy to the cold affufion. The cold bath, fays fir James
Macgrigor, in acute tetanus, is worfe than ufelefs. The ufe
of a not bath impregnated with potafs, and a few ounces of
quick-lime, has been much recommended by Dr. Stulz of
Suabia in traumatic tetanus. See Medical and Phyfical
Journal, vol. iii.

The powerful relaxing effefts of tobacco given in glyftcr
in cafes of hernia and enteritis, have fuggefted its employ-
ment in tetanus. Mr. Earle tried it in one very acute calo,
in wliich, although it afforded a temporary alleviation from
fpafm, fo much agitation was produced by it, that it was not
perfevered in. He is, however, induced to recommend the
trial of a fuppofitory made of the extraft of nicotiana, and
parted up into the reftum. But, according to the report of
fir James Macgrigor, tobacco g!yfl;ers, tried in the advanced
ftage of the difeafe, feemed to have no effeft. He repre-
fents, however, the tobacco fume as deferving of further
trial. A remarkable cafe is recorded by Dr. PhiUips, in the
6th volume of the Medico-Chirurgical Tranfaftions, in whicii
the jaw fuddenly fell, upon the exhibition of an eisema with
oil of turpentine.

It itas been fuppofcd that mercury thrown quickly into
the fyftem, fo as to excite falivation, would prove highly
ferviceable in relieving the fpafms, and particularly thofe of
the mufcles of the jaw. Tiiis praftice was firll introduced
by the praftitioners in the Weft Indies, and in paiticular by
Drs. D. and A. Monro, and appears to have fucceeded in
many cafes. Dr. Rufii conceives that its falutary efleft is
connefted with its inducing in the fyftem a ftate of inflam-
matory diathefis incompatible with the fpafmodic aftion,
wliich it would therefore fuperfede. Whatever benefit, how-
ever, may have been experienced from this plan in mild cafes,
it completely fails in the more fevere of making any impref-
fion on the difeafe. Dr. Emery, Mr. Guthrie, and other
medical officers attached to our army in the Peninfula, after
the battle of Salamanca, tried inunftion of the whole body
three times a day, with ftrong mercurial ointment, in unli-
mited quantity, with no degree of fuccefs. Mr. Guthrie
reports, that after the battle of Touloufe, a fatal cafe occur-
red in a man ftrongly under the influence of mercury, which
he had ufed previous to the aftion for the cure of the itch.
The combination of calomel with ipecacuanha, which has
been much recommended, is equally inefficacious with the
other remedies, in the acute and fully formed difeafe. In
the mild tetanus, benefit has been derixed from calomel : and
its operation on the bowels is always ufeful, and fingiJarly
fo in the mild difeafe diftinguifhcd by the fpafms coming on
flowly, and continuing of the fame violence ; inftead of their
fudden acceflion, and their continuing with increafing vio-
lence, as happens in the acute fully formed tetanus. In this,
calomel cannot be depended upon, as the patient is carried
off before the medicine can have any effeft.

Several remedies vs'ere formerly in vogue, of v\hich it is
hardly neceffary to give any account, as they have now loll
all the credit they once enjoyed. It may be fufficient to
mention the Barbadoes tar, alluded to by Dr. CuUen ; the
colchicum autumnale, or meadow faffron, recommended by
Dufrefnoy ; bliftering, eleftricity, unftuous applications,
partial fomentations, &c. moft of wliich appear either to
be inert, or at beft very weak auxiliaries to the remedies
already defcribed.

Of late years, tetanus has been much lefs frequent in the
Weft Indies, when compared with former wars. This is
attributed, apparently with great reafon, by Dr. Dickfon,
to the improvements in the medical and furgical treatment
of wounds ; to greater cleanlinefs, and more perfedl venti-
lation ; and in general to fuperior comforts, diet, and acconi-

3 F 2 modalion ;

T E T

modation ; but particvilarlv to the greater attention paid to
tlie Itate of tlie bowels. See Medico-Cliirurgical Iranfac-
tions, vol. vii.

TETAR BOLTON, in jlnchvl Coinage, the quarter-
oboliis, which is the moil minute coin yet found, benig of
2I grains, a.ul its current worth a fartlung and a half.

TETARIUM, in /Indent Geography, a town of Afia,
filuated in tiiat part of Lycaonia, wliich Ptolemy compre-
hends in Galatia.

TETARTEMORION, among the jincients, denotes

the fourth part of the /odiac.

TETA RTO-CH RITSOS, Tila^'o-xeuo-o;, in Jncieiit Coin-
'g'' 3 g"'*^ '^"'" "^ Philip, Alexander, and Lyfimachus,
whicli was a quarter of the Philippus or xt^'^"'- '■> "^ weighs
33 grains, and paffed for 5 drachms of iilver, 3^. 9^., now
worth intrinfically ^s.

TETAVI, in Geography, a town of the principality of
Georgia, in the province of Caket.

TETBURY, or Tedbiiry, anciently TV/c^otV, a large
and refpedablc market-town in the hundred of Longtree,
and county of Glouccfter, England, is fituated 20 miles
S. by E. from Glouceiler, and 99 miles W. by N. from
London. Its name evidently determines it to have been a
military ftation. On the S.E. fide, within the memory of
many living, were traces of a ftrong camp, now completely
deilroyed, where arrows and javelin-heads have been found,
with various EngHfh coins of high antiquity. Roman coins
of the Lower Empire have likewife been met with in and
near the town. Tetbury confilts principally of four ftreets,
crofring in the centre, and contains many good ftone build-
ings. The governing officer is a bailiff, wTio is annually
chofen. The population sf the parifh, including four ham-
lets, in the year 181 1, was 2533, the number of houfes 522.
A weekly market is held on Wednefday, and four fairs an-
nually. The wool-combing and wool-ftapling branches are
carried on here, but to no great extent. The clothing ma-
nufafture was formerly attempted, but the want of a con-
tinual fupply of water prevented its being brought to per-
fe&ion. Even for domeftic ufes, water has, till within a
few years, been fcarce ; but in 1 749, a well was funk to
the depth of 104 feet, fince which time other wells have been
opened, and the inconvenience in a great degree removed.
The pariih church confilts of an ancient tower, and a mo-
dern body J the former is terminated by a fpire, the latter
is built in imitation of the pointed ftyle, appearing exter-
nally as a fingle nave with cloifters, but withinfide divided
into aifles, by a very flight arcade and cluftered columns, on
the principle on which the roof of the theatre at Oxford
was conftrufted. The old church, which was built foon
after the Conqueft, having become from length of time very
ruinous, was taken down (excepting the tower and fpire),
and rebuilt at the expence of 5000/. ; and opened for divine
fervice in 1784. Two turnpike roads lead through the
town in crofs direftions ; one to London and Bath, the
other to Gloucefter and Southampton. A deep hollow, in
the nature of a moat, at the weft end, made the entrance
into the town inconvenient, till the commiffioners of the
roads built a high bridge of four arches acrofs it in 1775.
Rudge's Hiftory of Gloucefterfhire, vol. i. 1803. Beauties
of England and Wales, vol. v. Gloucefterfhire ; by J. Brit-
ton an-d E. W. Brayley, 1803.

TETCHA, a fmall river of Ruflia, which runs into the
Ifet, near Dolmatov, in the province of Ekaterinburg.

TE-TCHUEN, a town of Corea ; 60 miles E.N.E. of
Han-tcheou.

TETE, a fort belonging to the Portuguefe, in the eoun-
iry of Mocaranga, on the Zarabcfe.
I

T £ T

Tete de Biich, La, a town of France, in the department
of the Gironde, fituated on the S. fide of a large bay, called
" The Harbour of Arcachon," the entrance of which is
dangerous on account of the fand-banks ; 30 miles S.W. of
Bourdeaux.

TETEROA, a harbour on the W. coaft of the ifland
of Ulietea.

TETEROW, a town of the duchy of Mecklenburg;
18 miles S.W. of Guftro.

TETERSKOI, a town of Riiffia, on the Podkamen-
flvaia Tungufl^a. N. lat. 59'' 54'. E. long 101° 14'.

TETHALASSOMENOS, a term ufed by the old me-
dical writers, to exprefs wine mixed with fea-water.
TETHER. See Tedder.

TETHERING, the practice of confining animals to a
certain range of feeding, by means of ropes, cliains, or other
contrivances.

TETHRONIUM, in ^Indent Geography, a town of
Greece, in the Phocide ; being one of thofe which Hero-
dotus refers to the vicinity of the river Cephifus.

TETHUROA, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the South
Pacific ocean, fubjeft to Otaheite, compofed of fix or feven
low iflets near each other, not many feet above the level of
the fea ; abounding in cocoa-nut trees, but not in bread-
fruit, which the inhabitants are not allowed to cultivate.
The inhabitants are about 3000, chiefly employed in catch-
ing of fifh, which they bring to Otaheite, and exchange for
bread-fruit ; 24 miles N.Wl of Point Venus. S. lat. 17° 4'.
W. long. 149° 30'.

TETHYS, in Mythology, the daughter of Coelum and
Terra, and wife of Oceanus. Her chariot, which is repre-
fented as gliding over the furface of the waters, was a fliell
of an extraordinary figure, and whiter than ivory.

Tethvs, in Zoology, a genus of the MoUufca order of
Vermes, or worms ; the charafters of which are, that the body
is free, fomewhat oblong, flolby, and having no peduncles j
the mouth terminating in a cyliudric probofcis, under the'
lip ; and two foramina on the left fide of the neck. It has
two fpecies.

Leporius. With a ciliated lip ; found in the Mediter-
ranean fea.

FiMBUiCA. With a crenulated lip ; found in the Adriatic
fea.

TETIMIXIRA, in Ichthyology, the name of an Ameri-
can fifli, more ufually known by the name of the pudnino.

TETIN, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Beraun ; 3 miles S. of Beraun.

TETITLAN, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Xahfco ; 18 miles S.E. of Compoftcllo.

TETIUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of the ifle of
Cyprus, which ran from the N.W. to the S.E. and dif-
charged itfelf into the fea, near the promontory of Dades,
after having watered Citium.

TETIUSCHI, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, in the
government of Kazan, on the Volga; 52 miles S. of Kazan.
TETOBE, a town of the ftate of Georgia ; 5 miles W,
of Tugeloo.

TETRACERA, in Botany, received that name from
Linnaeus, in allufion to the four horn-like points of the cap-
fules of the original fpecies, the word being compounded of
nr^x!, four-fold, and ns^a;;, a horn. The genus however has
fubfequently received an acceflion of feverul fpecies with foli-
tary capfules and ftyles, which invalidate the ftrift propriety
of its name, and render its fituation in the artificial fyftem

of Linnaeus ambiguous Linn. Gen. 275. Schreb. 369.

Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 1240. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Juff. 339.
Lamarck lUuttr. t. 485. Qsertn. t. 69. (Delima; Linn.

Gen.

TETRACERA.

Gen. 271. Schreb. 359. .TiifT. 339. Lamarck Illuftr.
1.475. Gasrtii. t. 106. Rhinium ; Schreb. 701. Tigarea;
Aubl. Guian. 917. .TiifT. 339. I^amarck Illuftr. t. 826.
Euryandra ; Forft. Gen. t. 41. Sclireb. 367. .IiitT. 280.
See EuRYANDK A. ) — Clafs and order, Polyandria Tetragynia,
Linn. Willd. Rather Icnfandria Moiio^^yiiiti ; or Pent agynia,
according to the principles hiid down in Sni. Introd. to Bot.
ed. 3. 325. Nat. Ord. Senticofit, Linn. Rofaceic, JufT.

Gen. Cli. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five or
fix deep, rounded, unequal fegments, permanent. Cor.
Petals from three to five, roundifh, concave, infcrted into
the calyx, and longer than its fegments. Stam. Filaments
numerous, inferted into the calyx, /liorter than the petals ;
anthers of two round lobes. Pifl. Germcns fuperior, from
one to three or four, ovate, quite diftinft ; Ityles vertical,
awl-{haped ; ftigmas obtufe. Perk. Capfules from one to
three or four, ovate, divaricated, each of one valve, burll-
ing along the upper edge, of one cell. Seeds folitary,
roundifh, attached to the bottom of the capfule, and clothed
with a jagged tunic from the bafe.

EiT. Ch. Calyx in five or fix deep unequal fegments.
Petals four or five. Capfules burlHng at their upper edge.
Seeds folitary, tunicated.

Obf. The capfules refemble follicles, but the feed is at-
tached to their bafe.

Seftion I. Flowers ivhh a folitary germcn andjiyle.

1. T. Jarmenioja. Trailing Tetracera. " Vahl Symb.
V. 3. 70." Willd. n. I. (Delima farmentofa ; I,inn. Sp.
PL 736. Burm. Ind. 122. t. 37. f. I. Piripu ; Rhecde
Hort. Malab. v. 7. loi. t. 54. Frutex indicus farmentofus,
foliis hifpidis rigidis, &c. ; Burm. Zeyl. 161.) — Leaves el-
liptic-oblong, ferrated, rough. Style folitary. Follicle
ovate, polilhed, briftly. — Native of Ceylon. — The Jlem is
flirubby, with trailing, round, leafy branches, rough with
minute briftly hairs. Leaves alternate, ftalked, very rough
on the upper fide with minute fcales, furnifhed with one rib,
and many ftraight, parallel, tranfverfe, obhque veins, which
latter are haii-y beneath. Panicles terminal, compound,
many-flowered, hairy. Calyx of the fruit reflexed, reddifh,
fringed. Follicle pointed, the fize of a fmall pea, brown,
highly polilhed, clotlied with ereft brilUy liairs. Seed black,
ftanding on a toothed cup-like tunic.

2.T. tometitofa. Downy Tetracera. Willd. n. 2. (Ti-
garea dentata ; Aubl. Guian. 920. t. 351.) — Leaves ellip-
tical, pointed, with tooth-like ferratures ; fniooth above ;
downy beneath. Flowers dioecious. Style folitary. — Na-
tive of woods in Cayenne, flowering in January, and ripen-
ing its feed in March. The trailing (hrubby branched_y?««
climbs to the tops of the higheft trees, from whence its pen-
dulous branches reacli almoft to the ground. The young
(hoots are downy. Leaves alternate, ftalked, four or five
inches long, and two or more in breadth ; their upper fur-
face fmooth and green ; the under filky and hoary. The
jlowers and fruit agree with the following.

3. T. afpera. Harfli Tetracera. Willd. n. 3. (Tigarea
afpera ; Aubl. Guian. 918. t. 3J0.) — Leaves roundifli,
fomcwhat undulated, rough. Flowers dioecious. Style fo-
litary.— Frequent in the woods of Cayenne, bearing flowers
and fruit in January. Aublet fays it is fometimes fo
abundant as to render the forefts impaflable, from the en-
tanglement of its fiems and branches, which climb to the
tops of trees, and hang from thence to the ground. Their
Toughnefs, like that of the leaves, renders them the more
troviblefome and dangerous. The French call tliis Ihrub
Liane rouge, or red climber, from the colour of its de-
coftion, which the natives of the country confider as a
lemedy for venereal diforders. The leaves are alternate,

ftalked, of a broad elliptical, or roundifh, figure, obtufe,
(lightly wavy at the margin, rough on both fides with
rigid, crooked, hoary hairs. Their ribs and veins like thofc
of the firft fpecies. The largeft leaves are three inches
and a half long, and three broad. Floiucrs in axillary
panicles, male on one plant, female on another. Calyx in
four or five concave, pointed fegments. Petals four or five,
white. Stamens numerous, fliort. jinthers yellow, their
two lobes feparated by a furrow. Pijlil abortive in the male
flowers, as the flatnens are without anthers in the female,
whofe germen is roundifti, with imcjlyle, and a broad blunt
flignta. Capfule folitary, rcddifti, rough to the touch, con-
taining one leed. jiublet.

4. T. nitida. Poliftied Tetracera. " Vahl Symb. v. 3.
70." Willd. n. 8. — " Leaves lanceolate-oblong, rough, en-
tire. Style folitary." — Suppefed to be a native of Trinidad,

mild.

Willdenow has four more fpecies in this feftion, of which
his T. Doliocarpus, flritta, and Calinea, will be found under
our article Dolkkarpus ; and his T. obovata is our
Mappia.

Seft. 2. Floiuers luith three or four germens andflyles.

5. T. Euryandra. New-Caledonian Tetracera. " Vahl
Symb. V. 3. 71." Willd. n. 9. (Euryandra fcandens ;
Forft. Prod. 41.) — Leaves oblong, obtufe, fmooth, entire.
Styles' three. — Native of New Caledonia. Stem flirubby,
climbing. Leaves ftalked, two inches or more in length ;
paler beneath.

6. T. volubilis. Serrated Rough Tetracera. Linn. Sp.
PI. 751. Hort. Clift'. 214. Willd. n. 10. (Arbor ame-
ricana convolvulacea. Broad leaf, :'. e. platyphyllos barba-
denfibus ditta, foliis ferratis ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 146. f. i.) —
Ijeaves obovate-oblong, ferrated, very harlh. Styles four.
Calyx filky within. — Native of the Weft Indies. The
branches are round, with a rough, dotted, membranous, de-
ciduous bark. Leaves alternate, ftalked, five or fix inches
long, and two and a half or three wide, obtufe, very rough,
like a file, with minute fcales, efpccially beneath ; each late-
ral rib, at leaft in the upper half of the leaf, terminating in
a ftiarp but (hallow ferrature. Panicles terminal, compound,
rough with ftarry hairs. Calyx har(b and hoary externally ;
briftly and filky within. Capfules unequal, ovate, tumid,
beaked, brown, fmooth and highly poli(hed ; rounded, not
deprefTed or keeled, at the fides. Seed fmall, black, in a
pale, finely laciniated, tunic.

7. T. rotundifoUa. Round-leaved Tetracera. — Leaves
ronndifh-elliptical, entire, very liarfh on both fides. Styles
four. Calyx fmooth within. — Native of Guiana. We have
received fpecimens of this new fpecies from Mr. Rudgc and
Mr. Forfter, under the name of Tigarea afpera of Aublet,
our Tetracera afpera, fee n. 3, which, unlefs that author has
made feveral great miilakes, muft be a very different plant.
The prefent has always three or four flylrs, and as many cap-
fules ; and the leaves, though like Aublet's t. 350. in fhape,

are quite entire, not undulated. They are harfli on both
fides, hke a very fine file, as is the branch in a lefs degree.
The panicles are terminal. The crt/y.v has a (hort, inverfely
conical, tube, and is hoary externally, fmooth and naked
within. The f/amens appear to be perfeft in the fame flower
v.'ith the four pijlils. Capfules three or four, oval, brown,
fmooth and (hining ; keeled and deprefted at the fides, lefs
tumid than the foregoing. Seed entirely enveloped in its
jagged tunic.

8. T. lievis. Smooth Tetracera. " Vahl Symb. v. 3. 71."

Willd. n. II "Leaves oblong, fmooth, pointed, nearly

entire. Flowers terminal. Capfules four." — Native of the
Eaft Indies, Stem fhrubby. Leaves alternate, two or three

inches

T E T

iuclics long, veiny, fmootli on both fides ; tapering at the
bafe; ferrated with a few (light teeth towards the point.
Footjlalh very (hort. Flo'wer-Jlalks fohtary or in pairs, ter-
minal, an inch long. Fkrjuers fomewhat raccmoie, one or
two on each partial ftalk. Calyx with (ix roundi(h feg-
ments. Capfules four, as long as the finger-nail, roundiih,
tumid, pointed, very finooth and polifhed. Seedim^A, black,
polilhed, covered in its lower half with a whitifli tunic,
whofe margin is tootiied. Fahl.

9. T. ainifolia. Alder-leaved Tetracera. Willd. n. 12.

<i Leaves oblong, acute, nearly entire ; roughifti beneath.

Panicle terminal." — Native of Guinea. Branches woody,
round, fmooth. Leaves coriaceous, tapering at the bafe,
rounded at the extremity, with fomewhat of a point ; moftly
entire, but occafionally furnifhed with an obfolete tooth or
two near the end ; veiny ; fliining and Imooth above. Calyx
with four deep fegmcnts. Petals apparently five. Filaments
a httle dilated at the end, with an anther (or lobe) at each
fide. Capfuhs four. Seed black, entirely covered by its
whitifii tunic. Panicle fimple. Stalls three-flowered. Willd.

Willdenow fufpefts the AJa indica, of Houttuyn's
Dutch edition of the Vegetable Syftem of Linnaeus, v. 4,
40. t. 26. f. I, maybe another fpccies of the genus before
us. The fame author is alfo inchned to refer Thunberg's
Wahlbomia, fee that article hereafter, to Tetracera.

TETRACHORD, Tetrachordon, formed of Tsrpx,
of Tsr'zf 31, four times, and x^P^". " chord, or Jlring, in the
Ancient Mufic, was a feries of four founds, of which the ex-
tremes, or firfl. and lall, conftituted a fourth. Thefe ex-
tremes were fixed and immutable ; the two middle founds
were changeable according to the genera, and called
mobiles. There were three genera or ways of tuning
each tetrachord ; the diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic.
The character of the diatonic was the tone ; of the chro-
matic, the femitone ; and of the enharmonic, the quarter-
tone.

A tetrachord in the diatonic y~V
genus confifted of one major femi- ^-^
tone and two tones.

i

0' 4rwm-

i

zzz^^ii^^^S

In the chromatic genus, of two
femitones and a minor third.

In the enharmonic genus, of a
quarter tone, a femitone, and a
major third.

The general fyftem or fcale of the Greeks confifted of
tetrachords repeated, as the fcale of Guido does of oftaves.
See Greek Mujic.

The tetrachord of Mercury contained four firings or
chords, in the proportion of twelve, nine, eight, and fix ;
£0 as to give the fourth, fifth, and oftave of the loweft
chord. This is the opinion of Boethius, and after him of
Zarhno. Vide Wallis's Append. Ptolem. Harm. p. 178.

TETRACTIS, in Natural HiJIory, a name given by
Linkius, and other authors, to a kind of fiar-fifh, com-
pofed only of four rays, the more common kinds having
five.

TETRACTYC Arithmetic. See Arithmetic.

TETRACTYS, in the Ancient Geometry. The Pytha-
goric tetraftys is a point, a line, a furface, and a folid.

TETRADECARHOMBIS, in Natural HiJIory, the
oame of a genus of foffils, of the clafs of the felenitx.

The word is derived from the Greek Ttrja, four, Jfxjtc^
ten, and pfiffof, a rhomboidal figure, and expreffes a rhom-
boidal body confifting of fourteen planes.

T E T

The cliarafters of this genus are, that the bodies of it
are exaftly of the fame form with the common felenitas ;
but that in thefe, each of the end planes is divided into two ;
and there are by this means eight of thefe planes, inftead of
four. See Selbnites.

TETRADIAPASON, Quadruple Diapafon, a mufical
chord, otherwife called a quadruple eighth, or nine-and-
twentieth. See Diapasox.

TETRADITiE, Tetradites, in Antiquity, a name
given to feveral different fefts of heretics, out of lome par-
ticular refpeft they bore to the number four, called in
Greek Tirpa. Thus the Sabbatians were called tetraditse,
from their fading on Eafl;er-day, as on the fourth day, or
on Wednefday.

The Manichees, and others, who admitted of a quater-
nity inftead of a Trinity in the Godhead, or four perfons
in lieu of three, were alfo called tetraditse.

The followers of Petrus FuUenfis bore the fame appel-
lation of tetraditse, by reafon of the addition they made
to the Trifagion, to countenance an error they held, that
in our Saviour's pafllon it was not any particular perfon of
the Godhead, e. gr. the Son that fuffered, but the whok-
Deity.

The ancients alfo gave the name tetradita; to childi-en
born under the fourth moon, and thefe they believed un-
happy.

TETRADIUM, in Botany, from Tfl^aJjov, a party of
four, as a file of four foldiers, &c. alluding to the pre-
valence of the number four in its parts of fruftification. — .
Loureir. Cochinch. 91. — Clafs and order, Tetrandria Tetra-
gynia. Nat. Ord. Terebintacee, Juff. ? or perhaps Rutacex.

Gen, Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, minute, permanent,
of four fpreading acute leaves. Cor. Petals four, ovate, in-
curved, or nearly ereft, longer than the calyx. Stam. Fila-
ments four, thick, awl-ftiaped, hairy, equal to the corolla in
length ; anthers ovate, ereft, of two cells. P//?. Germen
roundifti, four-lobed ; ftyle none ; ftigmas four, awl-fiiaped,
eredl. Peric. Capfules four, roundifii, burfting at the top.
Seeds folitary, roundifh, poliftied, tunicated.

Eft. Ch. Calyx inferior, of four leaves. Petals four.
Capfules four. Seeds folitary, tunicated.

I. T. trichotomum. Cay ddu dedti of the Cochinchinefe.
Native of the hills of Cochinchina. A middle-fized tree,
with afcending branches. Leaves pinnate, with an odd one ;
leaflets lanceolate, fmooth, entire. Flo-iuers whitifh, in
ample, nearly terminal, three-forked dujlers ; or rather, as
we prefume, panicles.

De Theis well remarks, that this genus appears to be
allied to Brucea : we think alfo it is evidently very near
Fagara (fee thofe articles). In deference to the weighty
opinion of Juflieu, we have not, without doubt, referred it
to his natural order of Terebintace^ ; but it appears
rather to belong to his imperfeftly -defined one of Rutace^,
to both which articles we refer the reader.

Nothing is faid by Loureiro refpefting the qualities or
ufes of this tree.

TETRADRACHM, in Ancient Coinage, a filver coin
worth four drachmas, or 3^. fterling, the drachma being
valued at gd. But if we eftimate the value of the drachma
at a higher rate, that of the tetradrachm will increafe in
due proportion. This is the largeft form of Greek filver,
coins, excepting the tetradrachm of the Eginean ftandard,
which is worth 5^. The largeft tetradrachms weighed from
430 to 440 grains. See Drachm and Shekel.

TETRADYNAMIA, in Botany, (from Tt7^c^,four, and
Jyya^ij, power, indicating a fuperiority of four ftamens over
the reft,) the fifteenth clafs of the Linnsean artificial fyftemj

which

T E T

TE T

which is in itfelf, with the exception of one genus, C/eome,
a natural clafs, comprehending all the cruciform flowers.
Its effential charafter confills in having fix llamcns, four of
which rife above the reft. This is indeed fo naturally dif-
tinft a tribe of plants, that it is hard to trace any particular
affinity between them and any others. The following is
the charafter of the flowers.

Cal. Perianth oblong, of four ovate-oblong, concave,
obtufe, converging leaves, projcfting downwards at their
bafc, the oppofite ones moil; fimilar to each other, deci-
duous. The projeftlon generally obfervable at the bafe is
for the lodgment of honey, the calyx here being a ncdiary,
fo far at leall as containing the honey. Cor. termed cruci-
form, of four equal petals; their claws inverfely awl-ihapcd,
or tapering downwards, flattened, ercdt, rather longer than
the calyx ; limb flat, or nearly fo, the border of each petal
being dilated outwards, obtufe, its fides fcarcely touching
its neighbour. The petals are inferted into the fame circle
in which the fl:amens are placed. Stam. Filaments iix, awl-
fhaped, eredt, the two oppofite ones the length of the
calyx, the refl: rather lojiger, but not equal to the corolla ;
anthers fomewhat oblong, pointed, thickefl at the bafe,
ereft, their points recurved. Neiftariferous glands, vari-
oufly circumftanccd in the different genera, are feated at
the bafe of the ilamens, efpecially between the fliorter ones
and the piftil, thofe ftamens, to avoid prefilng upon fuch
glands, being moft;ly curved, by which they become fliorter
than the four others. Pijl. Germen fuperior, daily in-
creafing in height ; ftyle either the length of the longer
ilamens, or wanting ; lligma obtufe. Perk. Pod of two
valves, and frequently as many cells, burfting from the bafe
to the fummit, the partition, if prefent, more or lefs ex-
tended beyond the valves, the prominent part being the ori-
ginal flyle. Seeds roundifli, drooping or pendulous, ranged
alternately, in a double row, along the partition, in which
they make flight depreffions. Receptacle linear, furrounding
the edge of the partition, and embraced by the mai-gins of
the valves.

Linnoeus obferves, that all fyftematic botanifts, even the
moft eminent, have unanimoufly confidered this as a truly
natural clafs of plants. Some of them have neverthelefs
admitted into it, here and there, a genus or two in oppofi-
tion to nature, which fault he jufl:ly conceives himfelf to
have avoided, except with regard to Cleome.

The plants of this clafs have univerfally been termed an-
tifcorbutic. Their flavour is generally acrid, though
watery. Few vegetables yield lefs of an effential oil ; yet
this fubftance is to be obtained from them by cohobation,
or repeated diflillation, and its qualities are peculiarly acrid
and foetid, fomewhat like volatile alkali. This oil gives the
offenfive fcent to water in which cabbage has been boiled,
and it caufes thefe vegetables to difagree with fome
ftomachs, though they are generally reputed wholefome.

The clafs in queftion is divided into two orders, i. Silicu-
Infa, in which the pod is roundifh, and for the moft. part
hardly longer than its ft;yle. 2. Stliquofa, with a very long
pod, to which the fcarcely perceptible ftyle bears no pro-
portion.

The genera of the firft order are diftributcd into two
fections, one having the pod, here termed a fiUcula, or
pouch, entire, and the other furniflied with a notched, or
emarginate, pouch. The genera here aie eharaiStcriled by
the different fiiapes of their pouch, or its valves, and the
comparative length of the ftyle.

The order of S'lViqmfa is divided into fuch as have a clofe
calyx, whofe leaves converge longitudinally, and fuch as
have a gaping, or fpreading calyx. The genera here arc

partly defined by the form of the pod and its valves, and
their mode of burfting, and partly by the fituation of the
nedtarifcrous glands.

Thefe principles of generic diftinftion, laid down by
Linnxus, h«ve not proved fo fatisfaftory in praAice as
could have been wiflied, infomuch that, not only Haller,
but fome lefs controvcrfial botanills, have differed from the
learned Swede in their ideas of fevoral of the cruciform
■ genera. The bcft attempt to reform them has lately been
made by Mr. R. Urown, in the fecond edition of Mr.
Aiton's Hortus Kemenfis. Tliis able obferver has recurred
for afiillance to the cotyledons, taking into confideration
their being either folded or flat, accumbent or incumbent.
The latter difference we beheve to have been firft noticed
by Gsertner, in his charafters of Eryftmum. By accumbent
is meant that the edges of the unexpanded cotyledons are
applied, in a parallel manner, to the infant radicle ; and by
incumbent, that the flat fide, or back, is prefented to that
part. The latter is feen in Eryfimum, and is the moft un-
ufual pofition. The number of feeds in each cell of the
pouch is alfo adverted to by Mr. Brown, as well as feveral
other incidental marks ; by the affillance of all v.hich the
whole tribe appears much more fatisfa£toriIy arranged than
heretofore, though we do not profefs to agree, in every point,
with our leariicd friend. His Mathiola, coiififting of the
hoary fpecies of Cheiranthus, fuch as incanus, finuatus, tn-
cufpidalus. See. feems lefs happily feparated from the ori-
ginal genus, than his Malcomta, compofed of C. mnritimus,
Hefper'is africana. Sec. In the latter cafe, the fimple acute
ftigma, incumbent cotyledons, and the habit of tiie plants,
afford a fufliciently clear diftiiiftidn. In the forjner, what-
ever difference there may be in habit, the charafters feem
to us not fufliciently evident or important. It is alfo
proper to remark, that whatever alliftance fuch a difference
as that above defcribed in the cotyledons may afford, to-
wards forming a philofophical idea of a genus, its great ob-
fcurity renders it unfit for pradical and daily ufe. On
this fubjeft we need not enlarge upon what Linnseus has fo
happily enforced, and generally pracfifed.

TETRAEDRON, or Tetraiiedro.v, formed of TfTfor,
four, and ^a^y, Jide, in Geometry, one of the five regular
or Platonic bodies of folids, comprehended under four equi-
lateral and equal triangles.

The tetraedron may be conceived as a triangular pyramid
of four equal faces. Such is that i-eprefented in Plate XV.
Geomet.Jig. 4.

It is demonftrated by mathematicians, that the fquare of
the fide of a tetraedron is to the fquare of the diameter of
a fphere, in which it may be infcribed, in a fubfefquialteral
ratio : whence it follows, that the fide of a tetraedron is to
the diameter of a fphere it is infcribed in, as , 2 to the ^'3 :
confequently they are incoramenfurable. See Regular
Body.

TETRAETERIS, TETjasTn^ic, in the Athenian Chrono-
logy, a cycle of four years ; for which fee Potter, Archaol.
Graec. lib. ii. cap. 26. tom. i. p. 459.

TETRAGASTRIS, w Botany, from T'Tfji and ya<rl,if,
thejlomach or belly, becaufe of the four protuberant lobes
of the feed-veffel. — Gasrtn. v. 2. 130. t. 109. f. 5. — Clafs
and order, as well as Nat. Ord. unknown.

Nothing is known of this genus but its fruit, which
Gxrtner obtained from the colleftion at the botanic garden
of Amftenlam. He defcribes it as a dcpreffed berry, of
four lobes and io\u cells, with folitary feeds.

Its form is nearly globofe, a little depreffed, convex and
pointed at the fummit, marked with four longitudinal fur-
rows, fcparating the prominent, culhion-like lobes, into

which

T E T

which it is divided below, and which form four fingle-feeded
ccUs. Its diameter is above an inch. The flelb, in the old
fruit at lead, is thin and rather leathery. The nuts, or ce Is,
are larsre, liard, undivided, gibbous at the outhde, angular
at the inner, moderately thick, or rather thin, %vhitifli, not
feparated from each other by any intermediate pulp. Re-
cettach central, ending in the fummit of the berry, producing
from its upper part four fhort umbilical threads. Seeds foli-
tary, pendulous, large, obovate, reddifli-brown. Skm
fimple, thin, coriaceous. Albumen none. Emhyo the ihape
of the feed, inverted, pale and whitiili. Cotyledons thick,
fleihy, flat on one fide, convex on the other, emarginate at
the infertion of the radicle, which is minute, feated withm
the notch of the cotyledons, at their upper end.

TETRAGON, TSTpayovo-, formed from TElf'5^, /o«'-, a"d
y'MOL, angle, in Geometry, a quadrangle, or a figure with
four angles.

Thus a fquarc, parallelogram, rhombus, and trapezium,
are tetragonal figures.

Tetragon, in 4flrolos;y, denotes an afpeft of two planets
with regard to the earth, when they are diftant from each
other a fourth part of a circle, or 90°.

The tetragon is exprefled by the charafter D .

TETRAGONIA, in Botany, fo called by Linnsus,
from T=\-!6 and ymx, an angle, alluding to the quadrangular
figure of the fruit. The word is happily abbreviated from
Boerhaave's Tetragonocarpiis, which has the fame meaning.
—Linn. Gen. 252. Schreb. 340. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2.
1023. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3.
210. Juff. 317. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 437. Gaertn. t. 127.
and 179. — Clafs and order, Icofandria Pentagynla. Nat.
Ord. Succulents, Linn. Ficoideie, Jufi.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, in four, occafionally
three or five, ovate, flat, rather deflexed, coloured, perma-
nent, deep fegments, revolute at the edges. Cor. none, un-
lefs the calyx be taken for fuch. Stam. Filaments twenty,
capillary, fliorter than the calyx, into whofe bafe they are
inferted ; anthers oblong, incumbent. Pi/?. Germen infe-
rior, roundifli, with four angles ; fl;yles four, awl-fhaped,
recurved, the length of the ftamens ; iligmas downy, running
along the ftyles. Perk. Drupa coriaceous, quadrangular,
with four prominent longitudinal wings, or points, the op-
pofite ones narroweft, not burfting. Seed. Nut folitary,
bony, of two or more cells, with oblong folitary kernels.

Efl". Ch. Calyx with from three to five deep permanent
fegments. Petals none. Drupa inferior, angular. Nut
with feveral cells.

Obf. Linnaeus remarks that the primary flower is five-
cleft, which led him to refer this genus to the order Penta-
gynla. But it only affords an inftance, among many others,
that his orders of Icofandria, like thofe of Polyandria, ex-
cept Monogynia and Polygynia, are beft refolved into one,
they being liable to frequent uncertainty, not only in the
fame genus or fpecies, but the fame individual plant. See
Tetracera.

I. T. frulkofa. Shrubby Tetragoflia. Linn. Sp. PI.
687. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. I. (T. foliis hnearibus ; Mill.
Ic. t. 263. f. 2. Tetragonocarpus africana fruticans, foliis
longis et anguftis ; Commel. Hort v. 2. 205. t. 103.) —
Stem flirubby, eredt. Leaves linear. Fruit winged Na-
tive of the Cape of Good Hope. A greenhoufe plant in
England, ever fmce the time of bifhop Compton, flowering
in the latter part of fummer, and eafily propagated by cut-
tings, but not endowed with much beauty, or any other qua-
lity to render it popular. 'Thcjlem is flirubby, bufliy, with
round, altern.ite, leafy branches. Leaves alternate, feffile,
linear -oblong, obtufe, entire, revolute, downy and foft, an

T E T

inch or more in length, with axillary tufts of fmaller one$.
Flowers yellow, in fomewhat whorled leafy clufters.

2. T. decumbens. Trailing Tetragonia. Ait. ed. i. v. 2.
177. ed. 2. n. 2. Willd. n. 2. " Decand. PI. Grafles, t. 23.
(T. foliis ovatis integerrimis, caule fruticofo decumbente ;
Mill. Ic. t. 263. f. I.) — Stem flirubby, downy, decumbent.
Leaves obovate. Fruit winged. — Native of the Cape of
Good Hope. A greenhoufe fhrub, cultivated by Miller in
1758. It differs from the former in the larger fize, and
broad obtufe form of its leaves, as well as in having a more
gliftening mealy furface, and more numerous axillary tufts of

Jlowers. The Jlem is more or lefs decumbent, and clothed
with very foft denfe hairs.

3. T. herbacea. Herbaceous Tetragonia. Linn. Sp. PI.
687. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 3. (Tetragonocarpus afri-
cana, radice magna craffa et carnofa ; Commel. Hort. v. 2.
203. t. 102.) Stem herbaceous, fmooth, decumbent.
Leaves ovate, ftalked. Flowers fomewhat corymbofe. Fruit
winged. Native of the Cape, cultivated by Miller. The
root is perennial, thick, fleftiy, and lobed. Herb fmooth,
fucculent, with many decumbent, branched, annual, leafy

Jlems, and fcattered, ovate, more or lefs acute, entire leaves.
Floiuers yellow, generally five-cleft, larger, and more fhowy,
than in the two preceding, ftalked, partly axillary, partly
corymbofe. All our knowledge of this fpecies is derived
from Commelin's work, nor had Linnaeus any fpecimen in his
herbarium. The laft.-defcribed is fometimes, in gardens,
millaken for T. herbacea.

4. T. hirfuta. Hairy Tetragonia. Linn. Suppl. 258,
Willd. n. 4. Thunb. Prodr. 87. — " Herbaceous, hairy,
procumbent. Leaves ovate, villous. Flowers axillary,
feffile, three together." — Gathered by Thunberg, at the
Cape of Good Hope.

5. T.fpkata. Spiked Tetragonia. Linn. Suppl. 258.
Willd. n. 5. Thunb. Prodr. 87. — " Herbaceous, fmooth,
ereft. Lower leaves ovate ; uppermoft lanceolate. Flowers
raceniofe." — From the fame country as the laft. Thunberg.
We have feen no fpecimens of thefe two fpecies. It is re-
markable that the younger Linnaeus defines the Jlowers of
T. hirfuta felTile, whilft; Thunberg calls them ftalked. Pof-
fibly the latter confounded with his hirfuta, our decumbens,
of which there is a fpecimen, apparently gathered by him,
in the Linnasan colletlion.

6. T. echinata. Hedge-hog Tetragonia. Ait. ed. i.
V. 2. 177. ed. 2. n. 4. Willd. n. 6. " Decand. PI.
GrafTes, t. 113." — Stem herbaceous. Leaves rhombeo-
ovate. Fruit prickly. — Native of the Cape, from whence
Mr. Maffon introduced it at Kew, in 1774. The root is
annual or biennial. Stem herbaceous, divided from the bafe
into feveral decumbent branches, hai'dly a foot long, angular,
from the dcsurrent footjalis, which are half the lengtli of the
fpreading fucculent leaves, each an inch long. Floivers pen-
dulous, on very fhort, axillary, folitary, thread-fhaped, pur-
fleflalis clothed with cryftalline globules. Calyx in three or
four fegments ; cryftalline without ; greenifh-yellow within.
Stamens only three or four. Germen triangular, flat under-
neath, its angles befet with numerous conical thorns. Styles
three. Nut of three cells. IVillden.

7. T. expanfa. Horned Tetragonia. Ait. ed. 1. v. 2.
178. ed. 2. n. 5. Willd. n. 7. " Decand. PI. Grafles,
t. 114." Scop. Infubr. v. I. 32. t. 14. Thunb. Tr. of
Linn. Soc. v. 2. ■335. ( T. halimifolia ; Forft. Prodr. 39.
PI. Efcul. 67. T. japonica ; Thunb. Jap. 208,) — Stem
herbaceous. Leaves ovate-rhomboid ; tapering at the bafe.
Fruit with four horns. — Native of New Zealand, about the
borders of woods, in bufliy fandy places, as well as of the
Friendly iflands, and of Japan. Sir Jofeph Banks intryducecl

it

T E T

T E T

it to Kew garden, in 1772, and from thence the other gar-
dens of Europe have been fupplied. The plant is a ratlier
tender biennial herb, flowerinjr in Aiigiiil and September.
Forftcr tells us it proved a moil valuable refource to captain
Cook's crew, as a pot-herb, while his fliip lay at Tongatabu.
The whole plant is fucculent, covered with very minute
cryftalline dots, as if moift witii dew. Rnot fibrous. Stem
divided from the bottom into many irregular, round, leafy
branches. Leaves alternate, ftalked, fomewhat deltoid, en-
tire, rather heart-fliaped at the bafe, but tapering down into
the footjlalk. Flowers yellow, axillary, on (hort, ufually
folitary, ftalks. Fn/ll turbinate, clumfy, the fize of a
filberd, with four or five fliarp horns. The cells are five or
fix, anfwering to the number ofjlyles.

8. "V. cryjlallina. Diamond Tetragonia. Ait. ed. 1. v. 2.
178. ed. 2. n. 6. Willd. n. 8. L'Herit. Stirp. v. 1. 81.
t. 39. " Decand. PI. Grafles, t. 34."' — Stem herbaceous.
Leaves ovate, feffile, dotted with crytlalhne points. Fruit
without thorns. — Native of Peru. Domley. Sent to Kew,
by M. Thouin, in 1788. It is annual, and flowers in the
dry (love in June. Hei-b a fpan high, covered with cryftal-
line granules, like the Ice-plant. Stem nearly ereft, branclied
from the bottom. Leaves acute, entire, about two inches
long, bright green. Flowers of a dull orange, or tawny
yellow, axillary, ftalked, moftly folitary. Calyx in four
fegments. Stamens about fixteen. Styles four. Drupa tur-
binate, quadrangular. Nut four-lobed, with four cells.

For Tetragonia 'wiefolia, Linn. Suppl. 257, fee Halo-
RAGIS, n. I.

TetkagonIA, in Gardening, contains plants of the
fnrubby and herbaceous, fucculent, perennial kinds, among
which the fpecies moft ufually cultivated are the following ;
the ihrubby tetragonia (T. fruticofa) ; the traihng tetrago-
nia (T. decumbens) ; the herbaceous tetragonia (T. her-
bacea) ; and the hedge-hog tetragonia (T. echinata). All
thefe plants are natives of the Cape, and, of courfe, of the
rather tender kind.

Method of Culture The firft and lall: forts may be in-

creafed by cuttings, which fhould be cut off from the plants
a few days before they are planted, that the part where they
are cut may be healed, fetting them out in July, that they
may have time to make good roots before winter, on a bed of
frefli earth, fliading them from the fun in the heat of the day.
They ftiould afterwards be frequently refrefhed with water
in fmall quantities. In a few weeks, when well rooted, they
ftionld be taken up, and planted into pots filled with light
frelli undunged earth, and be placed in a fhady fituation
until they have taken new root, after which they may be
placed with other hardy exotic plants in a Iheltered fituation,
where they may remain till the middle or latter end of Oc-
tober, at which time they fhould be removed into the green-
houfe, and placed where they may enjoy as much air as pof-
fible in mild weather, as they only require to be protefted
from the froft, being pretty hardy with refpeft to cold.
As, when planted in the full ground in the fummer feafon,
they are apt to grow rank and large, or even when permitted
to root into the ground through the holes at the bottom of
the pots, the pots fhould be frequently removed to prevent
it, as they are injured by it.

The firft and fecond forts are likewife capable 'of being
raifed by feeds, fown in a gentle hot-bed, or in a warm
border of light frefh earth, in the ipring. When the plants
are about four inches high, they may be planted out in pots,
treating them in the fame manner as the cuttings.

And the third fort will grow from cuttings planted eai'ly
;n the fpring, in the fame manner as the others.

The flirubby forts are durable in their ftems, roots, and
Vol. XXXV.

branches ; but the herbaceous kinds often die down in the
ftalks an<I branches towards the autumn, and fend up new
ones at the end of that feafon, which retain their leaves
during the winter months.

They afford ornament among other potted plants, and
the firft fort has fomething fingulor and curious about it.

TETRAGONIAS, a name given to a meteor whofe
head is of a quadrangular figure, and its tail or train long,
thick, and uniform : this is not much different from the trabs
or beam.

TETRAGONIS,in Ancient Geography, a town of Ara-
chofia, at the foot of mount Caucafus, called more anciently
Cartana. Pliny.

TETRAGONISM, T=Tf^-o,.,^uo-, a term which fome
authors ufe to exprefs the quadrature of the circle.

TETRAGONOPTERUS, in Ichthyology. See Sal-
MO Bimaculatus.

TETRAGONOPTRUS. See Zeu.s, Ch.^todon
Cornutus, Nigricans, and Capijlratus.

TETRAGONOTHECA, in Botany, from iiT^o.yma;,
quadrangular, and 9>;>ct:, a cafe, or cell, a name firft contrived
by Dillenius, to exprefs the fquare form of the common
calyx, and now retained by L'Heritit-r and Willdenow for
the original and only remaining fpecies of the genus. See
the others under Didelta, Polymnia, and Wedelia.
—Dill. Ekh. 378. Linn. Gen. 438. L'Herit. Stirp. 177.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. 3. 21 16. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 84. Purfti

563 Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygaminfuperflua. Nat.

Ord. Compoftic nppnfit folia, Linn. Corymhifrtt, Juif.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx fimple, large, of one leaf, in
four deep, flat, fpreading, triangular-heartfhapcd fegments,
permanent. Cor. compound, radiant. Florets of the diflc
perfeft, numerous, funnel-fhapcd, five-cleft, rcflexed ;
thofe of the radius ten or twelve, ligulate, dilated outwards,
three-cleft, equal, bluntifh. Stam. in the florets of the
diflc. Filaments five, capillary, very Ihort ; anthers united
into a cylindrical tube. Fiji, in all the florets. Germcn
roundifli ; ilyle thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens ;
ftigmas two, reflexed or revolute. Peric. none. Seeds foli-
tary ; in the dillc roundifti ; in the radius fomewhat ovate.
Down none. Recept. chaffy.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle chaffy. Seed-down none. Calyx
fiinple, of one leaf, quadrangular, in four deep fegments.

Obf. The fynonym of Tetragonoihcca, Linn. Gen. 438,
fliould be erafed from our article Poi.ymnia.

I. T. helianthoides. Sun-flower Tetragonothcca. Linn.
Sp. PL 1273. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. I. Purflin. I. (T.
doronici maximi folio ; Dill. Elth. 378. t. 283. Polymnia
tetragonotheca ; Linn. Syft. Veg. ed. 13. 658. Sm. Inf.
of Georgia, v. 2. 137. t. 69.) — Native of North America,
in a fertile foil, on the borders of woods, and along hedges,
from Virginia to Florida, flowering from July to September.
Purjli. The root is perennial, hardy in our gai'dens. Stem
ereft, round, leafy, hairy, branched, from four to fix
feet high. Leaves hairy, veiny, toothed or wavy ; the
lowermoft ftalked, ovate ; upper feflile ; oppofite acute.
Flowers from the forks and ends of the branches, ftalked,
large, of a golden yellow, refembling a fun-flower.

TETRAGONUS, in Jnatomy, a mufcle, called alfo
quadrntus geutt.

TET R A G R AMMATON, Tcrpa') fxjxjxxn-., a denomina-
tion given by the Greeks to the Hebrew name of God,
mn' Jehovah, becaufe in the Hebrew it confifts of four
letters. See AdONAI.

TETRAGYNIA, in Botany, from t(1^«, and yum, a

female, the name of an order in feveral claffes of the Linnxan

artificial fvftem, charadlerized, as the word itfelf imports,

3G by

T E T

by the flowers having four ftyles, or piftils. This order
is better founded, and more invariable, in fome clafles than
others. With the TetrandRIA, (fee that article,) it na-
turally correfponds, and is well exemplified in the genera
Polamogeton and RuMia. In Oclandna, though of rare oc-
currence, it is no lets certain. In Icofandna and Polyandna
it is very fallible, of which we have lately given examples.
(Sec Tetracera and Tetkagosia ; alfo Polyandria.)
The order Tetragynia in tlie clafTes Pnitandria and Dodc-
candria is, however, fufficiently well-founded. In Decan-
dria no example of it occurs, nor fcarcely in Hexandrla.

TETRAHIT, an old name, fuppofcd to allude to the
four-cornered item. See Galeopsis.

TETRALOGIA,.in the Dramatic Poetry of the ytncients,
denoted four dramatic pieces of the fame author, of which
the three firil were tragedies, and the laft of the fatyric
kind. Their defign was to celebrate a viftory in the hte-
rary contells. jt!,fchylus and Euripides have written fome
pieces of this kind. Encycl.

TETRAMETER, in the ylnciait Poetry, an iambic
verfe confilling of four feet.

The word is formed from Tilfncyfour, and nsljov, meafurc ;
q. d. four metres. — Wc meet with none of thefe but in the
comic poets, as Terence, &c.

TETRANDRIA, in Botany, the fourth clafs in the
Linnasan artificial fyftem, is fo called from TSTf:^, and y.-/r,^,
a man, becaufe it is characterized by having four flamens,
in the fame flower with the piftil or piftils. Thefe are of
equal length, the flower being regular, by which this clals
is dillinguiflied from the 14th, whofe flowers are ringent, and
two of their four ftamens, which ftand next each other, are
longer than the reft:. See Didvnamia.

The orders of this fourth clafs are three, diftinguifhed by
the number of their piftils. I. Monogynia, a numerous and
various order, comprifing the ample tribe of Proteacee ; and
the intricate family of the Stellata, to which Galium and
Rubia belong. The large genera of Scabtofa and Plantago
likewife range under the Tetrandria Monogynia ; the former
of which exhibits a curious example of aberration in
number between the corolla and Jiamens. Some of its
fpecies have a four-cleft corolla, aniw'ering in that refpedl
to the Jiamens, whilft others have five fegments in the
former, though the number of the latter remains invaria-
bly but four. 2. Digynia is a fmall order, to which,
amongft a few other genera, Linnxus has referred Cufcuta,
but ft rather belongs to Pentandria Digynia, the greater
number of the fpecies having five-cleft pentandrous flowers.
This order will, however, receive a very curious acceffion in
Tetrarrhesa. (See that article.) 3. Tetragynia contains
Ilex, Potamogeton, and Ruppia, Britifli genera, all of which
have four fefl51e ftigmas ; with feveral others, not naturally
related, but for the moft part feparated, by the artificial
character of number, from their alhes in other parts of the
fyftem. That charadler however is fufficiently conftant in
the prefent inftance.

Tetrakdria is likewife the denomination of feveral
orders in the Linnaian Syftem, as in Gynandria, if Stylidium
(fee that article) be judged to have four ftamens ; and cer-
tainly in Monoecia and Dioecia, where there are feveral really
tetrandrous genera.

. TETRANGURIA, a name ufed by fome authors for
the citrul, a plant of the gourd kind, whofe feeds are ufed
in medicine.

TETRANTHERA, fo named by Jacquin, from TST^a,
and av8>ip, becaufe of the four feparate cells, which have the
appearance of four diftincl anthers, on the dilated fummit of
each filament, and were indeed confidered as fuch by the

12

T E T

author. We greatly prefer this name to that of Litfea, ufed
by Lamarck and Jullieu ; becaufe the latter is of barbaroucs
origin, and becaufe we are happy to follow the example of
Mr. Brown, who juftly prefers, in this cafe, the claffical
authority of Jacquin. To the learned Juflieii nevcrthelcfs
belongs the honour of having firft afl^embled under this
genus feveral plants, which authors had either confidered
as diftindt genera, or erroneoufly referred to others already
eilabliflied, as will appear by the various fynonyms we
are about to exhibit. — Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. i. 59.
Dryandr. in Roxb. Coromand. v. 2. 25. Brown Prodr.
Nov. HoU. V. I. 408. (Litfea ; Lamarck Dift. v. 3. 574.
JufT. in Bull, des Sciences, v. 3. 73. Tomex ; Thunb.
Jap. 10. Nov. Gen. 65. Schreb. Gen. 315. Willd.
Sp. PI. V. 2. 839. Mart.* Mill. Didl. v. 4. Jufl". 440-.
Hexanthus ; Loureir. Cochinch. 195. Sebifera ; Loureir.
ibid. 637. See Tomex, Hexanthus, and Sebifera.) —
Clafs and order, Dodecandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Lauri,
JufT. Laur'mae, Brown.

Gen. Ch, Cal. Involucrum of four or five ovate, con-
cave, deciduous leaves, containing feveral ftalked flowers.
Perianth none, unlefs the corolla be taken for fuch. Cor.
of one petal, tubular, more or lefs deeply divided into
from four to fix elliptic-oblong equal fegments ; fometimes
;;brupt and entire, the limb being deficient. Neftary of
feveral fl;alked glands or fcales intermixed with the ftamens.
Slam. Filaments from twelve to eighteen, fometimes but
fix, thread-lhaped, eredt, the outer ones longeft ; anthers
with four lateral cells at their inner fide. Pi/l. Germen
fuperior, ovate ; ftyle thread-fliaped ; ftigma notched.
Peric. Ben-y ovate or globofe, of one cell. Seed folitary ,
the ihape of the berry.

Obf. The ftamens are ufually imperfeft in the flowers of
one ti'ee, and the piftil in thofe of another ; but this is hardly
a fufficient reafon for placing this genus in the clafs Dioecia,
the ftrufture of the flowers being alike, and both organs, at
leaft their rudiments, prefent in each. The four cells of
the anthers, as Mr. Brown obferves, diftinguifli Tetranthera
from Lauras.

EflT. Ch. Involucrum of four or five leaves, deciduous.
Corolla with about five fegments. Neftary of feveral
ftalked glands. Anthers of four lateral cells. Stigma
fomewhat lobed. Berry fuperior, with one feed.

1. T.japonica. Japan Tetranthera. (Tomex japonica ;
WiUd. n. I. Thunb. Jap. 190.) — Stamens twelve. Leaves
obtufe; downy beneath, as well as the involucrum. Flower-
ftalks fimple — Common at Kofido in Japan, flowering in

Oftober and November It is there known by the name

of Fi-Ma. TheJIem is arboreous, tall, branching, above two
feet in diameter. Branches downy, knotty ; angular when
young. Leaves alternate, ftalked, oblong, obtufe, entire,
ereft, with parallel ribs ; fmooth and green above ; hoary
and downy beneath ; three or four inches long. Footjlalks
angular, ftriated, downy, an inch in length. Flowers
axillary, capitate, dioecious, on folitary, angular, downy,
brafteated ftalks, half an inch long. The involucrum confifts
of five or fix leaves, the outer ones fmalleft, and contains
the fame number of flowers. Thunberg.

2. T. laurifoUa. Laurel-leaved Teti'anthera. Jacq.
Hort. Schoenbr. v. i. 59. t. 113. (Tomex Tetranthera;
Willd. n. 2. ) — Stamens about fifteen. Leaves obtufe,
fmooth, as well as the involucrum. Flower-ftalks fomewhat
umbellate. — Native of China. Cultivated at the Mauritius
by the name of Cerifier de la Cliine, or Chinefe Cherry-tree.
From thence it was brought to Schoenbrun gardens, where
it beai's the open air in fummer, and flowers in the hot-
houfe in September and Oftober It is there a tree, ten

feet

T E T

^ E T

fi;et high, with a head of round knotty branches, downy
when young. Leaves about the ends of the branches,
alternate, on downy ilalks, an inch long, obovatc, coria-
ceous, entire, light green, fmooth and Hiining, except a
flio-ht pubefcence on the rib and veins ; their length about
five inches. Floiver-Jtalhs lateral, fcattercd, below the
leaves, umbellate, about two inches long, each bearing from
two to h\e Jloiuers, whofe involucnim is pale green, corolla
white; their fhort partial ftalks (within the involucrum)
hairy, as well as the Jlamens. Berries red, globofe, the fize
of a currant. Jacquin fays nothing of the dioecious nature
of thejlowers, but he appears to defcribc one with an im-
perfedt pi/lil. His fruit perhaps was of exotic grciwth.

3. T. apetala. Apetalous Tetranthera. Roxb. Coro-
mand. v. 2. 2J. t. 147. Brown n. i. (Laurns involucrata;
Retz. Obf. fafc. 6. 27 ?) — Stamens about fifteen. Leaves
elliptical, obtufe, fingle-ribbed, fmooth. Corolla abrupt,
undivided, bearing the ftamens on its margin. — Native of
the mountainous parts of the circars of Hindooilan, flower-
ing in June. Roxburgh. Mr. Brown met with the fame in
the tropical part of New Holland. This is faid to be a
middle-fized tree, with round fmooth branches, leafy towards
the ends. The /eaves are ftalked, three or four inches long,
and two, or two and a half, wide, entire, bright green.
Fh'wer-JlalLs ufually three-flowered, much like thofe of the
laft, to which this fpecies is nearly akin ; but the want of
a limb to the corolla, and the oval violet-coloured berry, fuf-
ficlently diftinguilh it.

4. T. monopetala. Monopetalous Tetranthera. Roxb.
Corom. V. 2. 26. t. 148. — Stamens about nine. Leaves
elliptic-oblong, acute, fingle-ribbed ; fomewhat downy
beneath. Flowers cluftered. Limb of the corolla half five-
cleft. — Native of the vallies of Hindooilan, flowering in the
hot feafon. Dr. Roxburgh fays the imod is white, tole-
rably hard ; and that the bark is ufed by the inhabitants of
the hills, to cure diarrhoeas, being given in fubfl;ance. Its
tafte is mildly aftringent, with much balfamic fweetnefs.
The leaves ai'e longer, narrower, and more acute than in
the former. Floiuers in fliort, axillary, denfe, partly umbel-
late, clufl^ers, with five leaves to the involucrum, and as many
fegments to the greenilh tubular corolla. Berries ovate, of
a violet black.

5. T. ferrugiMa. Rufty Tetranthera. Brown n. 2.
( Hexanthus umbellatus ; Loureir. Cochinch. 196. Litfea
hexantha ; Jufi". n. 4. ) — Stamens about nine. Leaves el-
liptic-oblong, acute, fingle-ribbed ; downy beneath, as well
as the branches. Corolla in fix deep fegments. — Native of
Cochinchina, as well as of the tropical part of New
Holland. A tree of a moderate fize, whofe timber is
ufed in building. The leaves are large, entire, with many
tranfverfe veins. Floiuers pale green, in fmall axillary
umbels.

6. T. dealhata. White-leaved Tetranthera. Brown
n. 3. — " Stamens fix. Leaves broadly elliptical, pointed,
iriple-ribbcd, fmooth ; whitened beneath. Footllalks and
branches downy. CoroUa deeply four-cleft, hairy. Invo-
lucrum villous." — Native of the neighbourhood of Port
Jackfon, New South Wales. Mr. Brown thinks Laurus
Myrrha, Loureir. Cochinch. 251, which is perhaps not
fpecifically different from Laurus involucrata, Roxb. Coro-
mand. v. 2. 46. t. 187, is very nearly related to the prcfcnt
fpecies, though differing in having fmaller leaves, a fome-
what filky involucrum on a fliort ftalk, and nearly fmooth
corolla. We cannot but obferve that Roxburgh's t. 187.
by no means exhibits the peculiar anthers or neBary of a
Tetranthera. His plant however fliould feem to be the
Litfea trinervia of Juffieu, which the latter takes for Laurus

involucrata of Retzius, but that fliould have fingle-ribbed
leaves. See our third fpecies.

7. T. chincnfis. Chinefe Tetranthera. ( Litfea diinenfis ;
Lamarck Dift. v. 3. 574. Jufl". n. 5.) — Stamens nume-
rous, polyadelphous. Leaves elliptical, obtufe, fmooth.
Footftalks, branches, and involucrum downy. Corolla
none. — Native of China ; cultivated in the ifland of Mauri-
tius, where its power of refifting the force of high winds,
renders this tree valuable for making tall hedges. The
leaves are four inches long, two broad ; pale beneath.
Flowers dioecious. Involucrum of four concave, fpreading,
downy leaves. Stamens united into from five to nine downy
bundles. Germen furrounded with abortive ftamens. Berry
fphcrical, fmooth, tlie fize of a fmall cherry, with a flavour
of camplior and ivy, which renders it difagrceable, and only
fit food for birds. Lamarck. This fpecies is faid to have
been brought alive to Europe, and was in 1789 cultivated
in the Parifian garden ; but we have neither heard nor feen
any thing of it in England.

8. T.febifera. Tallow Tetranthera. (Tomex febifera ;
Willd. n. 3, excluding the fynonym of Retzius. Scbiferaglu-
tinofa ; Loureir. Cochinch. 638.) — Stamens from twelve to
fifteen. Leaves ovate-oblong, bluntifli, fingle-ribbed, fmooth.
Flower-ftalks umbellate, downy as well as the involucrum.
Corolla none — For a further account of this fpecies, fee
Sebifera, under which article Loureiro's faulty generic
charafter, and efpecially his defcription of the fl:aniens, pre-
vented our recognizing the plant as already defcribed by
Willdenow.

9. T. piperita. Pepper Tetranthera. ( Litfea piperita ;
.luff. n. 7. Laurus Cubeba ; Loureir. Cochinch. 252.) —
Stamens fix. Leaves lanceolate, without rib or vein. Stalks
fingle -flowered. Corolla in fix roundifli unequal fegments.
— Native of Cochinchina, and perhaps alfo of China. In the
former country it is frequently cultivated, for the fake of the
cordial and tonic qualities of its berries and bark. A decoc-
tion of one or the other, the latter being weakeft, is given in
hyfteric, paralytic, and melanchohc dilorders. The recent
fruit is ufed as a feafoning for fifli. The fcent is fragrant ;
tafte aromatic and pungent. Each berry refembles a grain
of black pepper, with a long flender ftalk. Loureiro fuf-
peftedittobethe trueCubeb, but erroneoufly. (See Piper.)
The tree is of a moderate fize, much branched. Leaves
alternate, ftalked, two inches long, entire, flat, fliining, and,
we prefume, fmooth. Flowers white, on crowded, lateral,
fimple ftalks. Involucrum of four roundifli, concave, co-
loured, deciduous leaves, containing five flowers. Style none.
Berry globofe, very fmall, black. — Such is Loureiro's ac-
count, from which, having feen no fpecimcn, we have ex-
trafted the fpecific charafter.

TETRANTHUS, fo called by profeffor Swartz, in his
Prodromus, p. 1 1 J, from xt-r^a and a»9o;, on account of the
four flowers in one com.mon calyx. — Sclireb. Gen. 592.
Willd. Sp. Pl. V. 3. 2402. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Swartz

Ind. Occ. 1385. t. 27 Clafs and order, Syngenefia Poly-

gamia-Jcgi-egata. Nat. Ord. Compojita capitate, Linn.
Corymbijeree, .luff.

Gen. Cli. Common Calyx of five fmall, linear, fringed leaves,
at firft reflexed, then creft, containing four flowers : partial
of one leaf, tubular, niucli longer than the former ; tapering
and fomewhat compreffed at the bafe ; obhque, acute and
fringed at the fununit ; containing one floret. Cor. of each
floret tubular ; its hmb in five unequal fegments, the three
lowermoft longeft, and moft reflexed. Stam. in each floret.
Filaments five, capillary ; anthers united into a cylindrical
tube, rather ftiorter than the tube of the corolla. P'ift. Ger-
men fuperior, in the tube of the partial calyx, oblong ; ftyle
3 G 2 thread-

T E T

thrcad-lliaped, divided, fprcading, loiigtT than the corolla ;
Higmas lint-ar, downy, n-flexed. Perif. none, except the
permanent (heathing partial calyx. Seeds folitary, oblong,
fomewhat (Iriatcd, crowned with a membranous fringed
border. Recrpt. minute, naked.

E(T. Ch. Common C;Jyx of five leaves, containing four
flowers : partial of one oblique leaf. Seeds with a mem-
branous fringed border. Receptacle naked.

I. T. Uttoralis. Shore Tetranthus. Willd. n. i. Swartz
Ind. Occ. 1386. — Found on the banks of rivers in Hifpa-
iiiola. A fniall annual herb, flowering in the fpring, and, as
Swartz juftly obferves, very peculiar in its fructification.
There certainly cannot be a better example of the order
Poljgamia-fegrcgala. Willdenow fays it has tlie afpeft of
MlTCHELLA ; fee that article. Thejlem is flender, creeping,
fmooth, fubdivided, a fpan long, attaching itfelf by little
tufts of long white fibrous radicles from eacli joint. Leaves
oppofite, ftalked, roundilh-ovate, entire, with a Ihort obtufe
point, three-ribbed, fmooth, half an inch long. Footjlalks
fmooth and flender, nearly an inch in length. Floiuer-jlalls
axillary, folitary, ereft, longer than the leaves, flender and
downy. Flo-jjcrs fmall, white.

TETRAO, in Ormthology, a genus of the Gallinse order
of birds ; the charafters of which are, that it has a fpot near
the eyes naked, or papillofe, or rarely covered with feathers.
It comprehends fixty-feven fpecies, claffed under feveral divi-
fions and fubdivifions.

A. IVilh the naked Spot above the Eyes, and hairy Legs.
Lagopodes.

a. With four-toed Feet.

Urogallus. With roundifh tail, and white axiUas.
This is the cock of the wood of Ray and Willughby, and
wood grous of Pennant and Latham. ( See Grouse. ) It
is found in the foreils and marfhes of the colder parts of
Europe and Northern Afia.

Phasianellus. With wedge-(hapcd tail ; head, neck,
and body above, teftaceous, and black-banded. This is the
long-tailed grous from Hudfon's Bay of Edwards, long-
tailed grous of Latham, and (harp-tailed grous of Pennant.
Found in Hudfon's Bay and the uncultivated parts of Vir-
ginia.

Tetrix. With bifurcated tail, fecondary quills white
towards the bafe. This is the urogallus minor of Briflbn and
Gcfner, and black cock, black game, or black grous of Ray,
Willughby, Pennant, and Latham. Found in the woods,
heaths, &c. of the cold parts of Europe and Siberia. (See
Grouse.) The varieties of this fpecies are the tetrix
alba of Blum. Aft. Stock. 1785, and the urogallus minor
punftatus of BriiTon, or tetrao hybridus of Sparrman, or
fpurious grous of Pennant.

Nemesiakus. With red tail, fpottcd witli black ; black
tip, and body varied with black and red : the Nemefian grous
of Latham.

Betulinus. With black tail, varied with black tranf-
verfe fpots ; and rump whitifli, with black bands : the birch
grous of Lat-ham.

Canadensis. With black tail-feathers, yellow at the
tip, and two white ftreaks at the eyes : the black and fpot-
ted heath-cock of Edwards, and fpotted grous of Pennant,
Foriler, and Latham ; and gehnotte du Canada of Buffon.

Canace. With entire tail, and white fpot near the ears
and noftrils : the black and fpotted heath-cock of Edwards.
Found at Hudfon's Bay.

Lagopus. Cinereous ; hairy toes ; white quills ; black
tail-feathers, tipped with white ; the intermediate white :

T E T

this is the white game of Willughby, and ptarmigan of Pen-
nant and Latham. (Sec Ptarmigan.) Of this fpecies
lliere are feveral varieties ; as the lagopus varia of Gefner and
Willughby, the bonafia fcotica of BrifTon, and the atta-
gen of BrifTon, or red game, moor-cock, or gor-cock of
R.ay and Willughby, and red grous of Pennant and Latliam.
( See GoK-cocK. ) Found in Siberia and the northern parts
of Europe.

Albus. Orange, varied with black bands and white
ftreaks ; hairy toes ; tail-feathers black, tipped with white ;
the intermediate wholly white : this is the white partridge of
Ellis and Edwards, and the white grous of Pennant and
Latham. Found gregarious in the forefts of North Ame
rica, Europe, and Afia.

Rupestris. Orange, varied with black bands and white
ftreaks ; plumofc toes ; black tail-feathers tipped with white ;
the intermediate wholly white with black lores : this is the
rock grous of Pennant. Found at Hudfon's Bay.

Lapponicus. With naked fcaly legs ; with a fuperci-
liary fcarlet line covered with a membrane of the fame co-
lour ; the primary quill-feathers and tail-feathers tipped with
wliite : the rehufak of the Arftic Zoology. Found in the
woods and mountains of Lapland.

CuPlDO. With fuccenturiate cervical wings : the attinga
americana of Briflbn, and pinnated grous of the Arftic Zoo-
logy and of Latham. Found gregarious in North Ame-
rica.

Umbellus. With the cervical umbo exftant : this is the
attagen pennfylvanica of Briflon, the ruffed heath-cock of
Edwards, and ruffed grous of the Arftic Zoology and of
Latham. Found in North America.

Togatus. With the greater axillary feathers black-
azure : this is the bonafia major canadenfis of BrifTon, and
ftioulder-knot grous of Eorfter (Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixii. ) and
of Latham. Found at Hudfon's Bay.

Bonasia. The tail-feathers cinereous, with black
points and band ; the two intermediate excepted : this is
the bonafia of BrifTon, the gallina corylorum of Gefner and
Aldrovand, the gelinotte of Buffon, the hafelhuhn of Ray
and Willughby, and hazel grous of the Arftic Zoology and
of Latham. Found among the hazels of Europe and Weftern
Siberia.

Canus. Body grey, undulated with {irown ; the beak
and legs black. Found in Sweden.

Alchata. Above varied ; the two intermediate tail-
feathers twice longer than the others, and fubulate : the
ganga of Buffon, the partridge of Damafcus of Willughby
and Ray, the kitiwiah or African lagopus of Shaw's Tra-
vels, the kara of RufTel's Aleppo, the little pin-tailed grous
of Edwards and Latham. Of this there are two varieties,
•viz. the tetrao fenegallus and gelinotte of Senegal of Buffon ;
and the tetrao caudatus of Gmelin's Trawels. Found in
Southern Europe, Africa, Arabia, Syria, and Periia.

Namaqua. Above fpadiceous, with the two interme-
diate tail-feathers longer and fubulate : the Namaqua grous
of Latham. Found in Africa amid the dry defarts inha-
bited by the Namaquis, flying gregarious to fountains.

Indicus. Front white, furrounded by a wreath behind
black ; the body above yellowifh-red, varied with b,lack lu-
nules : the Indian grous of Latham. Found at Coromandel.

Arenarius. Ruff, abdomen, and vent black ; tail-
feathers with brown and grey bands, tipped white ; the two
intermediate yellowifh : the fand grous of Latham. Found
about the Volga near Aftrachan.

b. With three-iocd Feet.

Paradoxus. With three-toed feet ; toes hairy, almoft

joined

TETllAO.

joined at the apex ; this is the hetcroclitous grous of Latham.
Found in the Southern Tartarian delart.

B. ll^ilh pap'tUofe Shin about the Eyes ; and naked Legs.

c. With the Feet of the Male /purred. PerdiCES, or Par-
tridges.

Francolinus. Abdomen and throat black, and wedge-
formed tail : this is tlie tetrao orientalis of HafTdquift, and
francolin of other authors. Found in the loutli of Afia and
Europe, and in Africa, of the fizc of the partridge, feeding
on feeds, emitting a hilling found, and flelli delicious.

Madauascakiensis. Abdomen black, varied with large
red fpots ; throat white ; the two intermediate tail-feathers
reddilh, with black bands ; the pintido partridge of Latham.
Found in Madagafcar.

RuFUs. Legs and beak fanguincous ; throat white,
furrounded with a band black, white pointed : this is the
perdix grxca of Briflon and Ray, the bartavelle of BufFon,
the red partridge of Albin, the Greek or great red par-
tridge of Willughby, and Greek partridge of Latham.
Of this fpecies there are three varieties, w'z. the tetrao ru-
fus of Gnielin, or perdix rubra of BrilTon, or perdix rufa
major of Gelner and Jonfton, or red-legged partridge of
Ray, Willughby, and Albin, or Guerniey partridgfe of
Latham ; the perdix rufa alba of BrifTon ; and the perdix
rubra barbarica of Briflon, or the red-legged partridge from
Barbary of Edwards, or Barbary partridge of Shaw's Tra-
vels. Found gregarious in the woody mountains of Europe,
Afia, and Africa, much larger than the partridge.

Perdix. With a naked fcarlet fpot under the eyes ;
tail ferruginous ; breall brown ; and legs whitifh : this is
the common partridge, (which fee.) Of this fpecies there
are the following varieties ; vi%. perdix cinereo alba
of Briflon ; perdix tota alba ; perdix torque albo ; perdix
brunnea ; perdix mento gulaqae, or chin and throat red.
Found in flocks in the cultivated fields and paflures of Eu-
rope and Siberia.

Damascenus. With a naked fcarlet fpot under the
eyes ; tail ferruginous ; breaft brown ; and legs yellow : the
perdix damafcena of Briflon, and Damafcus partridge of
Ray, Willughby, and Latham. This fpecies migrates in
flocks through the middle of Europe, and is alhed to the
partridge, but lefs, with a longer beak.

Montanus. Legs and beak red ; throat reddifli and
dingy : the perdix montana of BrifTon. Found in the
mountains of Europe.

RuBUicoLLis. Legs, beak, chin, and throat naked, all
red : the red-necked partridge of Latham. Found in
Africa.

Petrosus. Beak and legs red ; body brown, and ferru-
ginous fpot on the breaft : the rufous-breafted partridge
of Latham. Found amid the rocks and mountains near
Gambia.

Perlatus. Legs and eye-brows red ; beak blackifli ;
throat white ; and body varied with brown : the perdix
chinenfis of Brilfon, and peai'led partridge of Latham.
Found in China : and it has a variety with beak and legs
brown, eye-brows fpotted with white and black, at the Cape
of Good Hope.

Bicalcaratus. With double-fpurred feet, and black
eye-brows : the Senegal partridge of Latham. Found near
the Senegal.

Zeylonnensis. With double-fpurred feet ; beak and
naked area of the eyes red ; tail round and brown : the Cey-
lon partridge of Latham.

Spadiceus. With twe-fpurred feet red ; beak yellow ;

and body fpadiceous or bright red-coloured ; the brown Afri-
can partridge of Latham. Found in Madagafcar.

Nt'nicoi.i.is. With two-fpurred feet, and naked throat
red ; the bare-iicckcd partridge of Latham.

GiNCK ii.s. Bill black ; rump and tail red, grey, and
black mixed ; and eye-brows white : the Gi»gi partridge of
Latiiam. Found near Gingi, in Corpmandel.

PoNDlCKHiANUs. Bill black; two intermediate tail-
featliers red, numerous angulated lines brown ; and four
bands ochre-coloured : the Pondicherry partridge of Latham.
Found in Coromandel.

N.EVius. Legs and bill reddifh ; body brown, varie-
gated with yellow : the ococolin of Ray and Buffon, the
Mexican partridge of Latham. Found in the temperate
pans of New Spam.

d. Coturnicss, or Quails. See QuAILS.
e. With four Toes.

Ferrugineus. Legs and beak brown ; body beneath
diluted light red, above ferruginous-brown ; feathers of the
neck longer and acutely tipped ; the hackled partridge of
Latham. Found in China.

Javanicus. Legs flelh-coloured ; front, fpot on the hind
head, and abdomen, orange ; beak, breaft and tail cine-
reous, varied witli black : Javan partridge of Latham.
Found in the ifland of Java.

ViRiDis. Green ; legs and beak reddifti ; area of the
eyes red ; wings fpadiceous : the green partridge of
Latham.

Virginianus. With a black band above and below the
eyes ; vertical line yellow ; the Virginian partridge of La-
tham. Foinid among the trees of America.

Marilandus. With white eye-brows ; neck pointed
with white and black : the New England partridge of
various writers ; the Maryland partridge of the Arftic Zoo-
logy and of Latham. Found in America.

Kakelik. Bill, eye-lids and legs fcarlet ; breaft ci-
nereous ; back undulated with white and cinereous. Found
in Bucharia, &c.

Caspius. Cinereous, fpotted with light red ; the nof-
trils, orbits, and temples duflcy. Found near Aftrabad, in
Perfia.

Mexicanus. Legs and bill fanguineous ; the fuperciliary
line white : the coturnix ludoviciana of Briflon, colcui-
cuiltu of Ray and Willughby, the Louifiana quail of La-
tham. Found in Louifiana.

Falklandicus. Variegated with brown fpots and
curvated ftrias ; beneath white ; bill lead-coloured ; legs
brown ; temples fpotted with white : Malouine quail of La-
tham. Found in the Falkland iflands.

Nov^B HiSPANiif'.. Legs and bill black ; crcfted iiead
and neck variegated with white and black ; body and quill-
feathers yellow, the latter tipped with white : this is the grand
colin of Buffon, and Mexican quail of Latham. Found in
New Spain.

CoYOLCos. With yellow legs ; crown and neck fafciated
with white and black ; body above yellow, varied with wliite.
This is the coturnix mexicana of Briflon ; the coyoleo/.quo
of Ray and Willughby, the coyolcos of Buffon, and Itlfer
Mexican quail of Latham ; the eyes are black.

SusciTATOK. Variegated with yellowifh, red, black and
grey; bill longer. This is the coturnix javenfis of BrifTon,
the coturnix indica Bontii of Ray and Willughby, the
reveil-matin or caille de Java of Buffon, and noif^ quail of
Latham. Found in the woods of Java.

Striatus. With reddifh legs ; white eye-brows ; tail,

tluroat,

T E T

tliroat, lower bread and abdomen black, white-guttated :
the Madagafcar quail of Latham.

Grisel's. With black legs and bill ; body dilutely and
fordidly grey, black-banded : the grey-throated quail of
Latham. Found iu Madagafcar.

CoRO.MANDELici's. Head black ; vertex and ocular
fafcia red and yellow ; throat white, furrounded with a
black ftria ; body ftriatcd ; quill-feathers brown : the Co-
romandel quail of Latham.

Nov.'h; GuiNii/E. Brown ; greyifli legs ; black quill-
feathers, the covers of the wings obfoletely yellow : the
New Guinea quail of Latham.

Manii.lensis. Above black ; legs and bill black ;
throat white ; bread grey, fpotted black ; abdomen yellow,
black-banded : the Manilla quail of Latham.

Cristatup. The dependent cred and throat yellow :
this is the quauhtzonecolin of Ray and WiUughby, the
zone-colin of Buffon, the creded quail of Latham. Found
in Guiana and New Spain.

Sinensis. Body fpotted grey ; throat black, with a
white bow : the coturnix philippenfis of Briflbn, and Chi-
nefe quail of Edwards and Latham. Found in China and
the Philippine ides.

Coturnix. Body fpotted grey ; eye -brows white ; the
margin and lunule of the tail-feathers ferruginous : the quail
of Pennant and others. Of this there are two varieties,
the coturnix major of Briflbn, and the coturnix wholly
white.

f. If^itfi three Toes.

G1BRALTARICU.S, With pale legs ; black bill ; quill-
feathers and tail black : the Gibraltar quail of Latham.

Andalusicus. Red, variegated with black; beneath
reddidi-white ; legs and bill flefh-coloured : the Andalufian
quail of Latham.

NiGRicoLLis. Body above cinereous, vai-iegated with
red and black beneath ; legs and bill cinereous ; chin and
throat black ; quill-feathers brown : black-necked quail of
Latham. Found in Madagafcar.

LuzoNNiENSis. Head, neck, and throat variegated with
white and black ; throat and bread bay ; abdomen yellow-
ifh ; legs and bill dilutely grey : the Luzouian quail of La-
tham. Found in the Manilla iflands.

C. Wit/} the Area about the Eyes covered tuith Feathers, but
naked and tetradadyle ; TiNAMOu-

GuiANENSis. With legs and bill brown ; back varie-
gated with cinereous brown and blackidi dreaks ; throat ci-
nereous ; abdomen palely orange and brown. This is the
partridge of Guiana of Bancroft and Latham. Found in
Cayenne and Guiana.

Major. Legs yellowifh and brown ; bill black ; vertex
red; body ohvaceous ; fpots on the back and tail black.
This is the macucagua of Marcgrave, Ray, and Willughby,
the magona of Buffon, the tinamou of Cayenne, the great
tinamou of Latham. Found in South America, particu-
larly in the woods of Cayenne and Guiana.

CiNEREUS. Cinereous-brown : the cinereous tinamou
of Latham.

Variegatus. Legs and bill brown ; head and neck
black ; body above variegated with tranfverfe hnes, light red
and black ; beneath red ; throat and middle of the abdo-
men white : the variegated tinamou of Latham. Found in
Guiana.

Sxrvi. Legs and bill yellow ; head and neck black ;
body above brown ; beneath red : the little tinamou of La-
iham. Found in Guiana.

T E T

TETRAODON, in Ichthyology. See Tetrodon.

TETRAPETALOUS, in Botany, an epithet given to
the flowers that confid of four fingle petala, or leaves
placed around the pidil.

Thefe M. Judieu cslh polypetalous flowers.

Mr. Ray, who calls them tetrapetalous, makes them condi-
tiitc a didinft clafs, which he divides into, i. Such as have
an uniform tetrapetalous flower, and their feed-veflels a little
oblongifh, which he therefore calls Jdiquofe. 2. Such as
have their feed-veffels diorter, which therefore, for didinc-
tion fake, he calls capfulatee ^xiAJlUcuIofx. 3. Such as have
a feeming tetrapetalous flower, that is, a monopetalous one,
divided deeply into four partitions, which he particularizes
alfo as anomalous.

TETRAPHARMACUM, T-Tpafap^iaKo», compounded
of r{\p:, Jour, and >fs'.p,uKxoi', drug, or remedy, in the general
denotes any remedy confiding of four ingredients.

TETRAPHIS, in Botany, a name contrived by Hed-
\rig, to cxprefs the four points by which the fringe of this
mofs is peculiarly didinguidied. (See Fringe.) — Hedw.
Fund. v. 2. 87. t. 7. f. 32. Schreb. Gen. 758. Sm. Fl.
Brit. 1 1 79. Compend. 153. — Clafs and order, Crji/>/£)fa7n/a
Mufci. Nat. Ord. Mufci.

Ed. Ch. Capfule oblong. Fringe fimple, of four pyra-
midal, ereft, unconnected teeth.

1. T. pellucida. Tranfparent Four-toothed Mofs. Fl.
Brit. n. I. Compend. 163. Engl. Bot. t. 1020. Hedw.
Sp. Mufc. 45. t. 7. f. I. a—f. S'lbth. Oxon. 275. Turn-
Mufc. Hib. 13. (Mnium pellucidum ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1574.
M. ferpilli foliis tenuibus pellucidis ; Dill. Mufc. 232. t. 31.
f. 2.) — Capfule cylindrical. Leaves ovate, acute, fingle-

ribbed Not rare in moid diady places, about the roots of

trees, in various parts of Europe. It is annual, flowering
early in the fpring, and ripening fruit in May. The whole
mofs is of a bright tranfparent green. Root fibrous,
matted. Stems modly fimple, an inch high, clothed with
alternate, feffile, ovato-lanceolate, acute, entire, wavy,
fingle-ribbed leaves, and each terminated by a fohtary _y?oTOfr.
The mz[e Jlo-wers, far more abundant than the female, are
little, round, dalked, powdery heads, each enveloped in
three broad ovate leaves. The females, on a different dem,
are lefs elevated, and more minute, each with from four to
fix Jiyles, one of which only, as ufual, is prolific, and the
cylindrical, fmooth, nearly upright capfule becomes elevated
on a bright orange or crimfon dalk, an inch long. The
tawny 'veil is torn at the bafe. Lid conical, reddifli, thin,
not half fo long as the capfule. Fringe remarkable for its
four rigid, poliflied, acute, pyramidal teeth, of a fliining
brown, by which the genus was well charafterized, even
when theprefent was the only known fpccies. Hedwig ob-
ferved the flowers to be fometimes abortive, and replaced by
buds. In the early fpring he now and then met with Jla-
mens and pijlils in the fame flower.

2. T. ovata. Ovate Four-toothed Mofs. Mohr Ind.
Crypt. 3. Sm. Compend. 163. Grimmia Browniana;
Engl. Bot. t. 1422. Bryum Brownianum ; Dickf. Crypt,
fafc. 4. 7. t. 10. f. 16. Orthotrichum Brownianum ; FL
Brit. 1269.) — Capfule ovate. Radical leaves ligulate, ob-
tufe, without a rib. — Gathered by Mr. R. Brown, by the
river fide at Rodin, near Edinburgh ; and by the late
Mr. WiUiam Brunton, on fand-done rocks at lord Grant-
ley's lakes, near Ripon, Yorkdiire. The habit of the
plant, and efpecially the ribbed veil, caufed us fird to refer
our imperfeft fpecimen to Orthotrichum, till Mr. Sowerby
thought he found the fringe to be that of a Grimmia. Mean-
while Mr. Funk, a German botanid, afcertained it to be
formcvl of four teeth onhy, conftituting a genuine Tetraphis,

thus

T E T

T E T

thus adding a Iccoiid fpccics to the cuiious genus before Ui.
With refpett to habit, indeed, this has httle rcfemblancc to
the original fpecies. It is a minute, browniOi, pcUueid mofs,
whofe foliage is all over dotted or reticulated. The root
feems annual. Sums none. Radical leaves few, ereft, li-
near, very narrow, a little dilated upwards, obtufe, entire,
without rib or vein : thofe which form njljeiil/j, at the bafe
of the frmt/lali, (hort, ovate, acute, with a rib or keel.
Siali red, fohtary, half an inch iiigli. Capfuk crcft,
fmooth, ovate, brov^n. Lid fliort, with an oblique pomt.
Fringe red, certainly of only four (liort, acute, firm
teeth.

TETRAPHOE, a name given by the people of Gui-
nea to a plant, which they give in decodtion as a cure for
fluxes. This plant grows alio in M;Jabar, where they ufe
the i-oots boiled in whey for the piles ; and in the colic they
give the root in powder, about a fcruple for a dofe. It is
called In this latter place luellia cadavaUi, and by Petiver
Kaiilhium Mdlabaricum capitulis lanugmofis. The ftalks of it
are woody and hoaiy, efpecially about the tops. Its leaves
ftand by pairs on (liort footftalks, and while young they are
hoary underneath, with a very foft and velvety down ; the
others are rough, like the fpotted lungwort, but feldom are
fo large ; the flowers grow in fpikes, and confift each of
fine green leaves filled with fcarlct filaments ; after thefe the
fruit ripens, and is a fort of woolly bur, covered with foft
and hooked prickles, very like the common Englifli bur-
dock, but not of a third part of the fize. Phil. Tranf.

TETRAPILUS, a genus of Loureiro's, in his Co-
chinch. 6ll, named from Tslpa, and ^nXo?, a hat, or hood,
becaufe the four fegments of the corolla end each in a
hooded point. Every part of the dcfcription anfwers to the
genus Olea, fee that article ; except that the flowers are
dioecious (which indeed is of little confequence, fome of
the known fpecies being /ubjeft to have the ftamens and pif-
tils occafionally in fepai-ate flowers) ; and the berry is faid
to have two cells, with feveral feeds. Though Olea there-
fore is known to have two cells in the young germen, there
being here more than one feed, mufl: reduce Loureiro's
plant to Ligujlrjtm ; and it may prove very near L. japoni-
cum, Thunb. Jap. 17. t. I, though fcarcely the fame
fpecies.

TETRAPLA, formed from TST^aTXo?, quadrupUx, four-
fold, in Church Hijlory, a Bible difpofed by Origen, under
foiu- columns, in each of which was a different Greek verfion,
w.v. that of Aquila, that of Symmachus, that of the Se-
venty, and that of Theodotion.

Sixtus of Sienna confounds the tetrapla with the hexapla ;
but the tetrapla is a different work, compofed after the
hexapla, and in favour of fuch as could not have the
hexapla.

Some authors are of opinion, that the order in which the
four verfions of the tetrapla were ranged, was different from
that in which we have rehearfed them ; and particularly, that
the Septuagint was in the firft; column ; but St. Epiphanius
fays exprefsly to the contrary, and places it in the third.
He even gives us Origen's reafon for putting it there, which
was, fays he, that the bell verfion might be in the middle,
that the others might be the more eafily confronted with it,
and correfted from it.

Baronius, however, in his Annals for the year 231, takes
the Septuagint to have been in the third place in the hexapla,
but in the firft in the tetrapla ; but Epiphanius gives it the
fame place in both. See Hexapla.

TETRAPOGON, in Botany, fo named by Desfontaines,
from T£Tf«, and vuyMi, a beard, becaufe of the four awns

•iflembled in each calyx — Dcsfoiit. Atlant.- v. 2. 388.

Willd. Sp. PL V. 4. 898 Clafs and order, Polygamia Mo-

tioecia, Desfont. and Willd. rdlhcr 7'riandria Digynia. Nat.
Ord. Gramma.

Gen. Ch. Cat. Glume of two nearly equal, oblong,
membranous, fliining, awnlcfs valves, containing three flo-
rets. Cor. of two valves ; the outer one keeled, abrupt,
villous, with a h)ng, ftraight, terminal, fprcading awn ;
inner fmaller, membranous, awnlefs. Stam. I'iiamentB three,
fliort, capillary, deflexed ; anthers oblong, eniarginate,
pendulous. Pi/]. Germen fmall, roundifli, liiperior ; flyles
two, fliort ; iligmas feathery, oblong. Pcrle. none, except'
the permanent corolla. Seed foiitary, invelled with the co-
rolla, but not united to it. The terminal ^arc/ is iniperfcft,
but both valves arc awned.

Eir. Ch. Calyx of two valves, thrce-flowercd. Corolla
of two unequal valves ; the outcrmoft abrupt, awned. Cen-
tral floret imperfeft ; both valves awned.

I. T. -villofus. Villous Four-bearded Grafs. Willd. n. i.
Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 389. t. 255 Gathered by Des-
fontaines in fandy ground in liarbary, near Cafsa. The
flem is ereft, about a foot high, knotty, leafy, a little com-
prelFed, fmooth. Leaves linear, fmooth, narrower than their
long flieaths, of which the uppermoft, in particular, is much
inflated, embracing the bafe of the fpilr, which refembles
that of a PoLvpoGON. (See that article.) The Jlomrrt
.ve fefllle, difpofed in four ranks, on a flendcr zigzag com-
mon ftalk, or receptacle, their copious yellowifli awns about
half an inch in length, fpreading every way. The outer
valve of the corolla is clothed with copious foft fpreading
hairs.

TETRAPOLIS, in Ancient Geography. See Car-

PATHOS.

Tetrapolis, Attica, the name of a country of Greece,
N. of Attica ; in which, according to Strabo, were four
towns built by Xanthus, when he reigned in this diftriil of
Greece ; whence its name, from Ttri^y., four, and tc?,i.:,
city.

Tetrapolis, Dorica, a country of Greece, in the Do-
ride, between the country of the Etohans and that of the
Enianes, according to Strabo.

Tetrapolis Syri/t, a country of Afia, in Syria, accord-
ing to Strabo ; it contained four principal towns, which had
the fame founder.

TETRAPTOTE, Tetraptotox, in Grammar, a name
given to fuch defedlive nouns as have only tour cales ; luch
are aflus, &c.

TETRAPYRAMIDIA, derived from 7,r^!,c, four, and
•axi^ot.ljn:, a pyramid, in Natural Hi/lory, the name of a genus
of fpars.

The bodies of this genus are fpars influenced in their fliape
by an admixture of particles of tin ; and are found in form
of broad-bottomed pyramids of four fides.

Of this genus there is only one known fpecies, \vhich is
ufually of a brownifli colour, and is found in Saxony ; as
alfo in Devonfliire, Cornwall, and other counties of England,
where there is tin. Hill.

TETRAPYRGIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of

Cappadocia, in Garfauria Alfo, a town of Africa, upon

the coaft: of Marmarica, before Portus-Phycus, according
to Strabo.

TETRARCH, TETRARCHA,T!7e.-..{;;(r,f, formed of T!'/f«,

four, and a.^x^t rule, dominion, a prince who holds and go-
verns the fourth part of a kingdom.

Such, originally, was the import of the title tetrarch;
but it was afterwards applied to any petty king or fovcreign ;
and became fynonimous with ethnarch, as appears from the

follow-

T E T

foUouing confiderations : i. That Pliny makes mentis of
fix tetrarchies within the cities of Decapohs. 2. ihat
Herod's kinedom was only dividc-d into three parts, which
yet wore called tetrarchies, and the fovereigns of them
( Luke, iii. I . ) tctrarchs. 3. Jofephus Antiq. Jud. lib. xiv.
c. 2 J. tells us, that, after the battle of Phihppi, Antony,
going into Syria, conftituted Herod tetrarch ; and on me-
dals the fame Herod is called ethnarch.

TETRARRHENA, in Botany, fo named by Mr. K.
Brown, from tst,:<, and ^■.(y.., male, on account of the very
remarkable charader in this tribe, the grafles, of the four
ftamens, which Mr. Brown fays he has afcertained by re-
peated examination Brown Prodr. Nov. HoU. v. i. 209.

—Clafs and order, Tetrandria D'igynia. Nat. Ord. Gra-
minii.

E(r. Ch. Calyx of two-valves, fingle-fiowered. Corolla
double ; each of two valves, naked at the bafe. Neftary
of two fcales, oppolite, alternate with the valves of the
corolla. Stigmas feathery.

The inflorefcence is a fimple, equal, fomevvhat racemofe
fpike. Flowers awnlefs.

1. T. dyiichophylla. Two-ranked Tetrandrous Grafs.
Br. n. 1. ( Ehrharta diftichophylla ; Labill. Nov. Holl.
v. I. 90. t. 117.) — Flowers downy. Corolla ribbed, ob-
tufe ; tlie outermoft. valve half the length of the reil. Leaves
ftraight, hairy as well as their (heaths. Stem branched at

the bafe Native of Cape Van Diemen. Thejlem is hardly

a foot high, with many ereft leafy branches. Leaves lan-
ceolate, acute, about an inch long, moderately fpreading in
two ranks. Spiies folitary, ftalked, terminal, ereA, about
an inch in length, fimple, the fio'vuers almoft all feffile,
fpreading in two rows.

2. T. acuminata. Pointed Tetrandrous Grafs. Br. n. 2.
— " Flowers fmooth. Corolla ribbed ; the outer glumes
acute ; one valve rather (horter than the inner glumes ; the
other longer, with a taper point. Leaves and their items
fmooth. Stem branched." — Found by Mr. Brown in the
fame country.

3. T. j«««a. Rufliy Tetrandrous Grafs. Br. n. 3. —
" Flowers fmooth, imbricated. Calyx without ribs. Co-
rolla ribbed, obtufe. Stem branched ; ftraight and fmooth
like the leaves." — From the fouthern coaft of New Hol-
and. Broiun.

4. T. Ixvis. Smooth Tetrandrous Grafs. Br. n. 4 —
" Flowers fmooth, diftinft. Calyx ribbed, rather acute.
Corolla obtufe, fmooth, without ribs. Stems fimple.
Leaves fmooth, flat, rather lax." — Gathered by Mr. Brown
in the fame country with the laft fpecies.

TETRASARIUS, a word ufed by fome of the medi-
cal writers, to exprefs half an ounce.

TETRASPASTON, i{,(=L<7^y.roy, in Mechanics, a ma-
chine in which are four pullies. See Pulley.

TETRASTATER, TU^oLr-^^^, in Mcient Coinage, a
Grecian gold coin of Lyfimachus, Antiochus HL, and of
fome of the Egyptian monarchs. It was the quadruple
chrufos (x;tJ!7o--), weighing about 530 grains, and current for
80 drachmas of filver, valued at about 3/., now worth 4/.
fterling. Some v/eigh 540 grains, which may be owing to
the gold of fuch being of more alloy ; though it may well
be queftioned, fays Pinkerton (Medals, vol. i.), if they were
ever meant to relate to the Attic ftandard.

TETRASTICH, -rsxp-s-ixo', a ftanza, epigram, or
poem, confifting of four verfes.

TETRASTCECHON, in Botany, a term often ufed by
the Greek writers, and generally mifunderftood by thofe
who copy their accounts. Phny has made an error in
the defcription of the euonymus, which has confounded

T E T

two dilTercnt llirubs together ever fince, by miftaking the-
fenfe of this word, ufed by Theophraftus, in his account of
it. He fays, that the fruit is divided within into four
orders or feries of feeds ; tliis he exprefTes by the word
tetrajlachon, which Pliny, fuppofing to be the fame with
the word tetragonon, has trandated into granum quadranguh
jigura.

But this is by no means the fenfe of the word w^hich was
ufed by the Greeks, to exprefs that a thing had Tsrafac
TafEi?, four rows, orders, or feries of feeds in it : nor doe»
it at all exprefs the feeds being fquare, much lefs its being
fingle, for the original derivation of the word was from the
term xxxa roi^ov, ufed in dances. Thefe were compofed of
feveral feries of perfons, called f oi^o', Jlschi ; and every
ftojchon confifted of feveral perfons, who all moved toge-
ther. See Euonymus.

TETRASTYLE, formed from rslpa, four, and ^r^^\'>^,
column, in the Ancient Archite^ure, a building, and particularly
a temple, with four columns in its front.

TETRASYLLABICAL, a word confifting of four
fyllables.

TETRATHECA, in Botany, received that name from
the writer of the prefent article, in allufion to the four cells
of its anthers, the word being compounded of rsTpa, and
^mr,, a cafe, or cell. Mr. Brown indeed, in his General
Remarks on the Botany of Terra AuftraHs, p. 12, offers
fome obfervations tending to invalidate tliis name and cha-
rafter. But it appears to us, that they both derive con-
firmation from the confideration, of which we are well aware,
that moft anthers have four cells when young, though, as
they burft lengthwife, the partition of each cell is obliterated.
Whereas the peculiarity of our Tetratheca, admitted by our
intelligent friend, confirts in the four cells remaining un-
altered, becaufe the pollen is difcharged by a terminal tube
or orifice ; nor is it of any great confequence that he has
found, in fome fpecies, the partition to be obliterated, in an
advanced ftate of the anthers. Ceratopetalum, for example,
is a good nsrae and a well-marked genus, though there is a
fpecies deftitute of petals. With refpeft to the natural
order, and the fituation of the fingular appendage to the
feed, in the genus before us, we gladly profit by Mr. Brown's
correftion, hoping to be pardoned, though we may have
made feveral falfe fteps, in the totally ftrange wildemefs of
New Holland plants, W'hich we were among the firft, with-
out any guide, to attempt to lav open to botanifts — Sm.
Bot. of New Holl. 5. Exot. Bot. V. I. 37. Willd. Sp.
PI. V. 2. 321. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 347. — Clafs and
order, 08andria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. akin to Polygalea, a
new order to which Polygala is referred ; but in Mr. Brown's
opinion conftituting, along with another genus, a ftill differ-
ent order, which, from the name deftined for that genus, he
choofes to denominate Tremaxdre.e, of which we pro-
pofe to treat in its proper place.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, in four deep equal
fegments, deciduous. Cor. Petals four, obovate, equal, many
times longer than the calyx. Stam. Filaments eight, inferted
into the receptacle, very fhort, equal, erect, fimple ; anthers
terminal ; oblong, fomevvhat curved, much fhorter than the
corolla, with four longitudinal furrows, and as many cells,
and terminating in a fimple tubular beak, through which the
pollen is difcharged. Pifl. Germen fuperior, very fmall,
obovate, compreffed ; ftyle vertical, cylindrical, fimple,
liardly fo long as the anthers ; ftigma fimple. Peric.
Capfule obovate, compreffed, of two cells and two valves,
the partitions from the middle of each valve. Seeds one or
two in each cell, oval, pendulous, with a naked fear, but
crowned, at the oppofite end, with a twifted creft.

Efl.

T E T

T E T

EfT. Cli. Calyx four-cleft, inferior. Petals four. An- genera are more peculiar, or more elegant, than Telratbun
tlicrs beaked, with four cells. Capful>.' of two cells and and the fpecies are all wortliy of a place in our colkctioiis.
two valves, with partitions from their middle. Seeds TETRATONON, is the Greek n.ime of an interval of
crefted, about two in each cell. four torn s ; wliicli in modern mulic is ufually called the

fuperfluous or iliarp fifth.

1 ETR AX, in Ornithology, tlio name of a bird of the olis
or bullard kind, called by fome authors amis campeflrh, or
the field-duck, and alfo little bullard ; and by fome others,
the caiiiiti. See Otis.

It is a very common bird in France, where it is called
canne patnere: it is called anas, from its fitting on the
ground, juft as the duck does on the water. It is of the
fize of a pheafant, and has a beak like that of the common

I. T. juncxa. Ru(hy Tetratheca. Willd. n. l. Ait.
n. I. Sm. Bot. of New Holl. 5. t. 2. — Smooth. Leaves
alternate, lanceolate. Stem with (harp angles. Branches

elong.ated, and almoll naked Native of New South Wales,

from whence we received drawings and fpecimens, through
the hands of Dr. John White, foon after the fettlcmcnt of
the colony there. This plant was fent to Kcw, by Mr. Peter
Good, in 1803, and it is marked as flowering in .lulv and
Auguft, being kept in the greenhoufc in winter. The root
is woody, fmall, perennial. Stems fomewhat flirubby, much
branched even from the bafe ; the branches long, (lender,
very acutely angular, fo as to be almoft winged, leafy,
fmooth like every other part. Lea-vis generally few and
fmall, acute, feffile, entire, with a llrong mid-rib. Slipulas
none. Flowers fcattered along the branches, on fimple
folitary red ftalks, about an inch long, each from the bofom
of a diminifhcd leaf, and making a very elegant appearance.

hen. It is taken with nets, as the partridge : it runs very
fwiftiy, and, like the bullard, has no hinder toes. Its belly

lly

IS wliite, and its back is variegated with grey, red, and
black. It feeds on vegetables, and on fmall infers.

TLTREUMA, in Botany, a name given by the people
of Guinea to a fpecies of (hrub, very common among them,
and ufed to cure whitlows. They dry the leaves, and

reduce them to powder; and, moiftening them with any

The calyx is red. Petals crimfon or rofc-coloured, three- liquor, apjily then> to the place. Petiver has called this

Anthers purplidi-brown, tipped
a variety with white petals, the

fourths of an inch long,
with yellow. We have
calyx M\AJliill-s of which preferve their ufual colour,

2. T. erkifolia. Heath-leaved Tetratheca. Sm. Exot.

Bot. V. I. 37. t. 20 Leaves whorled, linear, revolute,

minutely toothed. Stem rough with afcending brillles.
Flower-llalks and calyx verv fmooth. From the fame

country as the forec

and fent, with drawings, at the

fame time. This is of more humble growth than T. juncea,
and much more leafy. The leaves are four, five, or more,
in each whorl from top to bottom of the ilem and branches,
feffile, narrow, about half an inch long ; their edges, and
fometimes their upper furface, near the point, rough with

arbor Gu'inceufis laurujlhu facie, from its great likenefs to
the common (lirub which we call the laurufline. The
leaves are opaque and Rill', and are an inch and a quarter
broad, and two inches and a half long. Tlicfe Hand alter-
nately on all fides of the llalk, and are fixed on fhort pedicles.
Tlie flowers grow out of the bolbnis of the leaves, and Hand
in clulters in the manner of thoi'e of tlie common lauruftine.
Phil.Tranf. N°232.

TETRICA, in AncienfGeography, a town of the Sabines,
placed by Varro in the environs of mount Fifcellus, which
lay northward. Servius on Virgil fays, that it belonged to
Picenum, becaufc in his time, its limits had been changed.
The Abbe Chaupe places it where we now find Leoneffai

minute teeth. Floivers rofe -coloured, drooping, about half There we find the terrible rocks, horrentes rupes, mentioned
the fize of the foregoing, on fimple, folitary, axillary ftalks, by Virgil.

as long as the leaves. Anthers purple, with yellow tips,
badly reprefented by the engraver, who miftook the original
drawing of the feftion of an anther, for the germen, and
altered it accordingly. Capfule ovate, emarginate. Seeds
with a fmall white creil:, mollly two in each cell.

3. T. glandulofa. Glandular Tetratheca. Sm. Exot.
Bot. V. I. 39. t. 21 Leaves imperfeftly whorled, lanceo-
late, revolute, toothed with little ipines. Stem downy.
Flower-ftalks and calyx rough with glands. — Sent inter-
mixed with the la(l, from New South Wales. The fpe-
cimens of both appeared to have been burnt down to the
ground, probably by fires made by the favages in the woods.

TETRICUS Mons, a fcraggy mountain of- Italy, in
the country of the Sabines. Pliny.

TETRINA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Archangel, near the White fea ; 100 miles
N.N.W. of Archangel.

TETRIX, in Ornithology, a fpecies oi tetrao ; which fee.

TETRODON, in Ichthyology, a genus of the Branchiof-
tegi order of fifhes, according to the arrangement of
Gmelin ; the characters of which are, th.at the jaws are long,
divided at the tip ; the branchis or gills have a linear aper-
ture ; the body is roughened beneath, and the ventral fins
are wanting. The fiihes of this genus, like the Chiodon,

and had grown up again ; which proves them to be perennial have the power of inflating their bodies at pleafure, by

plants, though fcarcely (hrubby. The fize of the prefent
fpecies, and its general afpcdl, agree with T. ericifolia, but
the corolla and antljers zre of a darker tint. The _/?fm is
clothed with very fhort clofe down, by no means briftly ;
whWe ilie Jlower-flalis and calyx, inftead of being fmooth,
are covered with glandular hairs. The leaves are rather
broader, and lefs whorled, being often merely oppofite, or
even difperfed.

4, T. thymifoUa. Thyme -leaved Tetratheca. Sm. Exot,
Bot. V. 1. 41. t. 22. — Leaves whorled, lanceolate, toothed

means of an internal membrane, and during this time the
fmall fpines of the fides and abdomen rife fo as to be a
defence againft their enemies. They live principally on
cruftaceous and tellaceous animals. Gmehn enumerates
thirteen fpecies.

ScELERATUS ; the Noxious Tetrodon. Tetragonal, with
very large head ; length two feet or more. Found in tho
American and Pacific oceans, and confidered as highly
noxious, producing, when eaten, very fevere fymptoms.

Testudineus ; a Tortoife-fliell Tetrodon. Abdomen

with little fpines. Stem, flower-ftalks, and calyx rough plane, fmooth, and back with white curved futures ; length

with afcending briftles. — From the fame country. Rather two feet ; colour rufous-brown above, marked by numer-

larger than either of the two laft, and readily diftinguiftied, ous round pale blue fpots ; beneath blueifli or afh-colourcd,

at firft fight, by its broader lefs revolute leaves. The beautifully varied by longitudinal brown ftreaks ; fins and

briftly hairs clothing the fower-Jlalks and calyx are its pecu- tail bright ferruginous ; the whole abdomen is furniflicd

liarly diftinguifbing character. The fotuers are of a fine with numerous fmall fpines, which, when the animal is un-

crimfon, with violet anthers, whofe tips are yellow. Few difturbed, are imbedded in correfponding cavities in the ikin,

Vol. XXXV. 3 H but

T E T

but elevated, when the fi(h is alarmed and difturbs its body.
Found in the Indian feas.

Lacocephai.us ; Hare Tctrodon. Abdomen acule-
ated; fmooth body, and prominent (lioulders; length twelve
inches ; tliick in front ; hinder parts tapering fuddenly to-
wards the tail ; eolonr above yellowilh-brown, beneath
wKitilh with a filvcr)- cafl ; acrofs the back marked with
flioit, black, or dark-brown bars, and over the fides with
many, fcattered, round, blackilh fpots ; fides and abdomen
befet with radiated fpines ; fins fmall, and tail (lightly
rounded. Found in the Indian and American feas ; and
ftraying into northern latitudes, are taken about the Britifh
coaits. This filh has the power of inflating the abdomen
to a lai-ge fize ; and derives its name from the refemblance
of its head to that of a hare.

LiN'EATUS. With brown and pale bands ; length ten
or twelve inches, fquaie fiiape ; and wlien inflated, like the
lall ; body befet with fmall fpines ; colour grey on the ab-
domen, with longitudinal, deep-brown llreaks ; fins and
tail as in the laft fpecies. Found in tlie Indian and Ame-
rican feas, and alfo in the river Nile.

Electricus. With red, green, and white fpots ; above
brown, and beneath fea-grcen ; yellow at the fides, and
green fins ; length feven or eight inches ; eyes large, with
red circles. Found in the Indian and American feas, among
coral rocks ; and when touched with the hand, affedting it
vfith an elettric or galvanic fhock.

OcELLATU.s. Ocellatcd on the fhouldcr-band • length
fiK or eight inches ; thick, ovate fhape, contracting towards
the tail ; colour deep green above, paler on the lides and ab-
domen, which are whitifh ; acrofs the middle of the back, as
far as each peftoral fin, a broad black crefcent, edged with
yellow ; dorfal fin fituated on a round black fpot with yellow
edges ; lateral line from beneath the eyes to the tail, which
is fmall and roundilh ; under parts befet with many fpines.
Found in the Indian feas and adjoining rivers, particularly
thofe of China and Japan ; very poifonous in its nature, and
it is prohibited to be eaten under very fevere penalties by
the emperor of Japan.

Spengleri. Head bearded with many cirri ; length-
ened (hape ; above brown-coloured, with roundifh deep
brown fpots ; abdomen tumid, whitifli, and befet with
fmall fpines ; with cirri or foft prominences difperfed about
the upper parts of the body. Found m the Indian feas,
ten or twelve inches in length

Hankenii. With lower jaw longer than the upper ;
length eight or ten inches ; like the former in general ap-
pearance ; above brown-coloured, with fmall whitilh clouds
or fpots ; beneath whitilh, with fmall fpines. Found in
the Indian feas.

Oblokgus. Oblong, with equal jaws ; length fix inches ;
lengthened fliape ; colour whitilh, with grey back, marked
by many femi-decurrent brown bands ; fins and tail cinere-
ous ; two lateral lines, one near the back, the other near
the abdomen. Found in the Indian feas.

RosTRATUS ; Snouted Tetrodon. Both jaws elongated
to the beak ; length a few inches ; oblong-ovate (hape, con-
trafting towards the mouth and tail ; fnoiit lengthened and
(lightly tubular; colour bluei(h-brown, beneath whiti(h ;
fore-part of the abdomen befet with fpines, few over the
back; fins brown. Found in the Indian feas.

La;viGATUs; Smooth Tetrodon. With the abdomen
aculeated m front ; a large fpecies ; blueilh above, with two
white ftnpes on each Me ; under parts white ; from the
mouth to the end of the pectoral fins aculeated ; the other
parts being fmooth. Found in the American feas.

HlSi»lDUS. Entirely hifpid, with briftly papilla: ; length

T E T

two feet ; (hape, when inflated, like that of T. lagocephalus ;
colour whiti(h ; upper parts marked acrofs the back by three
or four femi-decurrent brown bands ; whole body befet
with fmall fpines. Found in the Mediterranean and Indian
feas. Small remains of this fpecies are faid to occur among
the petrifadlions of mount Bolca near Verona.

MoLA. Unarmed, (harp, comprefTed, rounded ; a very
fliort rounded tail-; dorfal fin annexed to the anal, with oval
fpiracles. (See SuN-i^j/Zi. ) Dr. Shaw has made a diftifidt
genus of the fun-fi(h under the r.ame of cephalut, the cha-
rafters of which are, that the jaws are bony, and body ter-
minating abruptly, fo as to refemble the head of a fi(h.
This genus comprehends the mola, or (hort fun-nih; the ob-
long fun-filh, with truncated body, or oblong diodon of
Pennant (fee SuN-F//Zi) ; the variegated, with whitifn un-
dulations and fpots ; and the Pallafian C. or filvery fun-nili,
with browniih back, and fpiny carinated abdomen. The
mola, or ihort fun-fi.{h, is a native of the European feas.
Its general colour is brown, with a (ilvery caft on the iides
and abdomen ; the (Idn rough ; the peAoral fins fmall,
rounded, and placed horizontally ; the dorfal and anal fins
placed oppofite, and of a lengthened (hape, with rounded
tips continued into the tail-fin. This fiih is fometimes leen
lying on its fide, on the furface of the water, when it may
be eailly taken. In the Northern feas it arrives at a vail
fize, of the length of eight or even ten feet, and 500 pounds
in weight : it is fuppofed to feed principally on (hell-filh,
and in the night it is faid to exhibit a high degree of phof-
phoric fplendour.

Ot this there is a variety, viz. the iruncaius, unarmed,
fmooth, comprefled, oblong, with a very fhort tail, the
dorfal and anal fins annexed, with lunated fpiracles. This
is the oblong fun-fi(h of Pennant.

Stellatus ; Spherical Grey Tetrodon, V/hiti(h be-
neath, with the body befet with radiated fpines : the tetro-
don etoile of Cepede. Length twelve or fourteen inches ;
(hape, when inflated, nearly fpherical ; colour greenilli,
deeper on the back, marked with duflcy fpecks ; under
parts whitiiTi ; vent furrounded by a black circle ; whole
body covered with fmall fteUated or radiated fpines ; dorfal
fin rounded at the tip, and attached at the bafe by a kind
of footflalk ; tail oval. Found in the Indian feas. Shaw.

FuNCTATUS ; Spherical Brown Tetrodon. With black
fpecks, whiti(h abdomen, and very narrow dorfal fin : the
tetrodon pointelle of Cepede. Refembling the former.
Found in the Indian feas. Shaw.

Meleagris ; Pintado Tetrodon. Brown, fpeckled with
white. Found in the Indian feas, and when taken, making
a kind of grunting noife, like feveral others of this and
neighbouring genera.

TETSCHIN, or Tetzim, or Diet/chin, in Geography,
a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Leitmeritz, on the
river Elbe; 15 miles N. of Leitmeritz. N. lat. 50° 46'.
E. long. 14° 17'.

TETSI, a town of Thibet ; 27 miles E. of Lada.

TETT, a place now in ruins, fituated to the fouth of
Azamore, on the northern extremity of the bay of Maza-
gen, in the empire of Morocco ; the name fignifies in
Arabic Titus, and is therefore fuppofed to denominate the
ruins of Titus, founded by the Carthaginians.

TETTER, a difeafe among animals, which is of the
ring-worm kind, and which runs or fpreads itfelf upon the
ftin in different direftions, whence probably it has received
the name. It attacks different parts, but is mofl commonly
met with on and about the rump, not unfrequently running
down upon the joints of the tail for fomc diftance.

It is of a fcabby itchy nature and appearance, and when

neglcdledj

T E T

aegle£ted, is faid to have fometimes become of the quality
of canker, in feme forts of animals. In cafes where it
fixes upon the more flcfhy parts of the bodies of the ani-
mals, it is often attended with fuch troublefomc itchings,
as to caiife them to rub tliemfelves agaiiilt poRs, walls, aJid
other places, until they rub off and deflroy the very hair
and llcin of the parts. Nay, the animals will, it is faid,
fometimes even tear off the flefli with their teeth, if they
can come at the parts.

The cure of the difeafe may moWy be accoraplifhed by
the ufe of a ball compofed of from half a drachm to a
whole one of calomel, or more, according to circumilances,
in union with fome fort of cooling purgative powder : or a
powder conftituted of crude antimony, aethiops mineral, and
cremor of tartar, of each about half an ounce ; which
fhould be given once or twice a day in a quart of oat -meal
gruel. At the fame time, wartiing the parts well with Gou-
lard water, and afterwards applying a little of an ointment
compofed of fulphur, blue ointment, and hog's4ard to
them.

The animals fhould be well taken care of while the cure
is going on.

TETTIGES, TETliytf, grafshoppers, in Antiquity., a title
the Athenians affumed to themfelves. See Gegenes.

TETTIGOMETRA, m Entomology, a name by which
the ancients called the nymph of the cicada, or tcttyx ; and
they named this nymph, from which they frequently faw
that fly hatched, tdtigometrci, which fignifies the mother cf
the cicada. See Harvest-F/v, Cicada, and Vegetable-
Fly.

TETTIGONIA, a word ufed by the ancients to ex-
prefs the fmallcr fjjccies of cicada, with which they were
acquainted. They called the larger achcta.

It is generally fuppofed, that the tettigonia was the fame
with our fmalleft kind, called by the French fija/on ; but
M. Reaumur obferves, that as the ancients knew two
kinds of the cicada, we know three ; and that our middle
one fecms to have been their tettigonia or fmall cicada, and
that they were not acquainted with our fmallefl kind, or
cigalon, which is not larger than a hornet.

TETTIGONIA of Linnxus. See Gryllus.
Tettigonutj of Fabricius. See Cicada.
TETTNANG, in Geography, a town of Germany, and
principal place of a lordlliip of the fame name, united with
Montfort, ceded to Bavaria by the peace of Prefburg ; 8
miles N. of Lindau.

TETTOVA, a town of European Turkey, in Mace-
donia ; 13 miles W. of Skooia.

TETTUA-MOTU, a cape on the E. coaft of New
Zealand, the N.E. point of Poverty bay. N. lat. 38° 36'.
W. long. 181° 30'.

TETUAN, Tetawan, or Tetteget, a town of Africa,
in the empire of Morocco and province of El Garb, fitu-
ated near the river Bufega, about a league and a half inland
from the Mediterranean, and inhabited by Moors and Jews ;
who for the moft part fpeak a corrupt Spanilh, in which lan-
guage their commercial negociations are tranfafted. They
are genteel in their perfons and polite in their manners.
The environs of Tetuan are planted with vineyards and gar-
dens, which arc kept in good order, and which produce
more excellent fruits than thofe in other parts of the em-
pire. From the raifins and figs the Jews diftil an ardent fpirit
(called Mahaya), which, at the age of a year, refembles
the Irifh ufquebaugh, and it is preferred to Englifll brandy
and rum. Of this they drink immoderately, and generally
take a glafs before eating. Leo Africanus attributes the
foundation of this town to the people of Africa. It was

1' E U

afterwards cmbellilhed, and the population iiicreafcd, wiicu
the Moors were driven out of Spain. This was the place
of relidcnce for many of the confuls of the European
powers, till the year 1770, when the reigning emperor,
Seedy Mahomed, would no longer permit them to remain,
nor again to ciLibhfh themfelves in the place. The port of
this town has kept a trading communication with Gibraltar,
whence the fhips come to viftual, when the wind is in the
weft, and^ does not allow them to make Tangiers. The
Oiore of Tetuan is only fafe when the wind is in the weft,
at which time (hips ride fecurely ; but when it veers to the
caft, they muft remain here no longer. Our fleets often
viftual and water here, and this was the cafe with that of
the immortal Nelfon, pre\-iouny to his viftory in Aboukir
bay. Tetuan is faid to contain 1 6,000 people ; 30 miles
S.E. of Tangiers. N. lat. 35" 30'. W. long, f 20'.

TETYAN Head, a cape on the W. coaft of the i/land
of Mindanao ; near which is a harbour that may be entered
without danger. N. lat. 7° 20'. E. long. 124° 36'.

TEVAKUN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Kho.
raffan'; 45 miles E.S.E. of Mefchid.

TAVARA, a town of Naples, in Capitanata ; 5 miles
N.E. of Volturara.

TEUBER, or Teuberinn, Elisabeth, in Biography,
a celebrated German opera finger, and kltve of the famous
Tefi. She was chiefly attached to the court of Vienna,
where fhe refided in 1772. She had fung at Naples in
1769 with great applaufe ; but was peremptorily ordered
by her phyficians never to fing again. Her health had been
fo much impaired in Ruifia, where (he had remained three
years, that the whole faculty was unanimous in pronouncing
that the exercife of hrr profeflion would be fatal. How-
ever, in fpite of this prediction, (he afterwards recovered
her health and voice fufficiently, in a journey to Italy, to
appear again on the ftage at Naples in 1785 ; where, finding
that her voice hid fomewhat lowered its pitch, (he performed
the principal man's part in contralto, to the entire fatis-
faftion of the public. She was the daughter of a famous
violinift in the emperor's fervice ; (he had lefibns in finging
from HafFe, in ading from the Tefi, and often fung in the
operas of Haydn at Efterha2i.

TEUCHERN, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in
Thuringia ; 18 miles S.W. of Leipfic.

TEUCHITES, in Botany, a name ufed by fome for
ihe fcananth or fchananih, camel's hay, which ought to be
written teuochitis. There is a city Teuochis in Egypt, near
the borders of Arabia, and the geographers all mention a
lake in the neighbourhood of this city ; in this lake it is
probable the fcnccnanth might grow ; and being gathered
there, and fold in the adjoining city of Teuochis, the
purchafers might diftinguilh it with an epithet formed of
the name of the place where they bought it. See SccE-

NANTII.

TEUCHTLACOT-ZANHQUI, in Zoology, a name
by which the natives of fome of the American nations call
the rattle-fnake.

TEUCRIUM, in Botany, an ancienf. name, whether ap-
plied to any fpecics of this genus, or of any other, becaufe
the plant was difcovered by Teucer the Trojan prince, or^
dedicated to him, or found in the country of Troy, fome-
times called Teucria, we muft humbly profefs our inability

to form any opinion or corjefture Linn. Gen. 287.

Schreb. 384. WiUd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 13. Mart. Mill. Did.
v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 606. Prodr. Fl. Gra;c. Sibth. v. i.
390. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 365. Schreb. Unilab. 26,
Furfli 405. Tourn. t. 98. Jufl". 112. Lamarck Illuftr.
t. jci. (Pclium; Tourri. t. 97. Chamiedrj's ; Tourn.
3H2 t. 97.)

TEUCRIUM.

t. 97-)— Chfs and order, D'ulynnmia Gymno/penim. Nat.
Ord. FerlicilliiLe, Linn. Labuit.t, .Tiid".

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, cloven
bah" way down into live acute, nearly equal, fegments, gib-
bous on one fide at its bafe, permanent. Cor. of one petal,
ringent. Tube cylindrical, ihort, ending in an uicurvcd
throat. Upper lip ered, acute, divided throughout nito
two diftant fegments, divaricated towards each fide : lower
fpreading, three-cleft; its lateral fegments rcfembling the
upper lip, ne.-ir)y ereft ; the central one roundilli, and very
large. Slam. Filaments four, awl-ftaped, longer th.m the
upper lip of the corolla, afccnding, curved, prominent be-
tween its divifions ; antliers fmall, incumbent. Pift. Ger-
men fnperior, deeply four-lobed ; ftyle thread-fhaped, agree-
ing with the ftamens in fize and pofition ; rtignias two, (len-
der, acute. Peric. none, the unchanged calyx containing
the feeds in its concave bafe. Seeds four, roundifli, reticu-
lated or wrinkled.

Eif. Ch. Upper lip of the corolla deeply divided, beyond
its bafe, divaricated. Stamens prominent.

Obf. The upper lip of the corolla being fo deeply di-
vided, even below its bafe, into the tube itfelf, and its feg-
ments fo far afunder, there feems to be no upper lip at all.
The latter however is more truly the cafe in Ajuga, to tvhich,
and not to Teucrium, belongs the Chamnpitys of Tourncfort ;
its upper lip being, in a manner, cut away. Teucnum of
Tourncfort has a bell-fhapcd calyx, and the middle fegment
of the lower lip of its corolla concave. Pol'ium of the fame
author has its flowers coUefted into denfe terminal heads.
His Gbamiidrys has axillary flowers, and a tubular calyx.
Marum of Boerhaave has tiiyme-like leaves, and a peculiarly
pungent fmell. Scordium of Ray and Rivicus has the odour
of garlic, ha of Dillenius has the calyx very protuberant
at the lower part. All thefe neverthelefs form together a
mod natural and well-defined genus, whofe qualities are
more or lefs aromatic or bitter ; its habit ufually herbaceous,
moftly perennial, often flirubby ; leaves oppofite, fimple,
though in fome inftances much divided ; pubeicence various,
but hardly ever abfent ; flowers blue, red, yellow, or whitifli,
axillary, folitary or whorled, pauicled or capitate ; their in-
curved ftamens and flyle always very confpicuous between
the divifions of the upper lip.

Thirty -five fpecies are enumerated in the fourteenth edi-
tion of Linn. Syft. Veg. from which Chamitpitys, ha and
falkifoUuin are to be removed to Ajuga. Willdenow, after
making thefe deduftions, has fixty-four. He follows Schre-
ber and others, in making many more fpecies out of the
allies of Poll urn, than Linnaeus would ever allow to be more
than varieties. Two new ones from Crete are added in the
Prodr. Fl. Grsec. The genus is generally European, but
not entirely fo, and for the moft part inhabits warm funny
climates. No attempt has been made to diflribute it into
feftions. We fliall indicate fome traces of fuch, as we feleft
the more curious or remarkable fpecies for illuftration, de-
fcribing all the Briti(h as well as the new ones.

T. campnnulatum. Bell-lhaped Germander. Linn. Sp.
PI. 786. Willd. n.'i. Ait. n. I. (T. fupinum, perennc,
palufl;re, apulum, glabrum, foliis laciniatis, flore albo ; Till.
Pif. 163. t. 49. f. I.) — Leaves many-cleft, nearly fmooth.
Flowers axillary, folitary. Calyx awned. Stem procum-
bent.— Native of moift fituations, in Italy and the Levant,
Miller appears to have cultivated it in 1728, but the true
plant is now fcarcely to be feen in our gardens, and is little
known to botanifts. The fynonym of TiUi has no right to
be marked as a variety, anfwering exaftly to the Linnxan
fpecimens and defcription, nor do we find any other fio-ure
-^f this fpecies. Schreber feems to have mifled Willdenow,

to quote a fynonym of Rivinus, which has no exifteiicc.
This we find tranfcribed into Hort. Kew. with a correftiou
of t. 14 for 24 ; though nothing but 7'. Botrys is there to
be feen. No lefs incorreftly is Rivinus, t. 19, cited by
Willdenow, after Schreber, for 7. orientak ; as Dr. Sims
has noticed in Curt. Mag. 1279. ■^* eampanulatum is a very
diftinft, perennial, herbaceous, nearly fmooth, fpecies, whofe
Jlcms are fquare, leafy, more or lefs prollrale and creeping.
Leaves an inch long, twice three-cleft, with bluntifli, notched,
nightly revolute fegments. Floiuers axillary, folitaiy, op-
pofite, ftalked, with a large, bell-ihaped, rather pungent-
pointed, calyx. The corolla is faid to be white.

T. Ix'vigatum. Smooth Yellow Germander. Vahl Symb.
V. T. 40. Willd. n. 2. — Quite fmooth. Lower leaves many-
cleft ; upper three-cleft, entire. Flowers axillary, folitary.
Segments of the calyx oblong, without awns. — Gathered
at Montevideo, by Commerfon, whofe fpecimen is before
us. This fpecies is larger in all its parts than the foregoing,
and appears to be herbaceous and ereft, quite fmooth, ex-
cept a flight downinefs, here and there, upon the young
branches or ftalks. Leaves ftalked, an inch and half leng,
deeply divided into three wedge-fltaped, jagged, blunt, very
fmooth and flat, lobes ; the upper, or floral, ones much
fmaller and narrower, limply three-cleft. Flowers yellow.
Segments of the calyx oblong-lanceolate, with one central
rib and two marginal ones, acute, but not tipped with any
awn or briilly point.

T. onentale. Great-flowered Germander. Linn. Sp. PI.
786. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 2. Curt. Mag. t. 1279. (T.
orientale anguftifolium laciniatum, flore magiio fubcteruleo ;
Comm. Rar. 25. t. 25.) — Leaves deeply tliree-cleft, many-
cleft, linear. Clufters terminal, compound. Flower-llalks
horizontal, longer than the floral leaves. — Native of the Le-
vant. " Cultivated by Miller, and recently reftorcd to our
gardens by feeds obtained from Siberia, by Mr. Loddiges.
The root is perennial. Several declmibent branches from
the root bear leaves divided into many linear fegments ; but
the foliage of the ereft panicled flowering Jlem is doubly
three-cleft below, fimply above. Itiflorefcence terminal, race-
mofe, compound, with fmall bradeaceous leaves. Floivers
numerous, almoft as Large as thofe of T. fruticans hereafter
defcribed, of a light purplifli-blue. All the herbage, and
even the corolla, is hairy or downy. We have already men-
tioned, under our firft fpecies, that the citation of Rivinus
by Willdenow is an error.

T. Botrys. Cut-leaved Annual Germander. Linn. Sp.
PI. 786. Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. 3. Mill. Ic. t. 264. f. I.
(Iva mofchata, folio multifido ; Riv. Monop. t. 14. Cha-
mjepitys fccmina ; Ger. Em. 525.) — Leaves many-cleft.
Flowers axillary, oppofite, in pairs, turned oneway. Calyx
tubular, inflated and gibbous at the bafe. — Native of Ger-
many, Switzerland, France and Italy, in dry fields. Root
annual, fibrous. Herb hairy, branched from the bottom,
ereft. Leaves deeply pinnatifid, fomewhat three-lobed.
Flowers ftalked, crimfon, four together, making a fort of
half whorl. The calyx becomes greatly enlarged after
flowering, tubular, reni;u-kably inflated below, and termi-
nating in five triangular, awned, converging teeth.

T. trtfidum. Trifid-leaved Germander. Retz. Obf.
fafc. 1. 21. Willd. n. 7. Ait. n. 5. (T. capenfe; Thunb.
Prodr. 95.) — Leaves hoary, in three deep linear iegments.
Stalks axillary, three-flowered. Calyx hoary, without
awns. — Gathered at the Cape of Good Hope, by Thun-
berg and Maffon. The latter fent feeds to Kew in 1 791.
The plar.t is fhrubby, flowering moft part of the fummer,
and kept in the greenhoufe in winter. Its afpeft ia not un-
like Winter Savory, but more hoary. The fegments of the
7 leaves

TEUCRIUM.

hiives are an inch long, revohite, entire. Floiuer-Jtalks half
the length of the leaves. Segments of the calyx elongated,
lanceolate, revohite, fingle-ribbed, bluntly pointed, not
awned. Corolla purpllfh. Seeds with a net-work of wrinkles
over their furface.

T. Pfcjdo-chamtsp'ilys. Raceniofe Slender-leaved Cornian-
der. Linn. Sp. PI. 787. Willd. n. R ; excluding the fy-
nonym of Cliifius. (Chamxpitys alia; Camer. Epit. 680.
Chamaepityos fpurix alterius altera icon ; Dod. Pempt. 47.)
— Leaves deeply once or twice three-cleft, linear, acute, re-
volute, hairy. Clufter terminal, fimple. Brafteas three-
cleft. Calyx lioary, awned. — Native of Spain, Barbary,
and the fouth of France. The Jlem is fhrubby, divided
from the bottom into many afcending, leafy, fquare, moftly
hairy branches. Leaves in very narrow, fomewhat awned,
fegments, more or lefs hairy. Flowrrs much like thofe of
T. oneniale, but forming a fimple terminal clvjler at the top
of each branch, with deeply three -cleft linear braHeas, ufually
as long as the Jlo'wer-Jlalks. Lip of the corolla externally
hairy. The Pfeudochamo'filys of CM. HH\. v. 2. iS^. Lob.
Ic. 385. f. I. Chamsepitys fpuria altera; Ger. Em. 526;
the left-hand figure in Dod. Pempt. 47 ; all from the fame
wooden block ; -appears to us a different fpecies from the
above-defcribed, with which ve are unacquainted. There can
be no doubt that the T. maur'itauum, Linn. Sp. PI. 787, en-
tirely adopted from Shaw's rude figure, n. 575 of his Phyt.
Afric. Specimen, is exaftly the fame with the real Pfeudo-
chamxp'itys of Linnieus, which we have from Spain and Bar-
bary, and which the cut of Camerarius, as well as the right-
hand one of DodoiiiEUS, clearly reprefents.

All the foregoing fpecies, with a fe^^■ more wliich may be
found in Linn^us and Willdenow, apparently conftitute a
feftion of the genus before us, w-hofe deeply-dividedyb/ia^
gives them a peculiar and Itriking charafter. Their injlorefcence
neverthelcfs differs confiderably, and on a more careful ex-
amination it will be found, that the racemofe blue-flowered
ones are moft naturally akin to the T. fruUcans, notwith-
ftanding its undivided entire leaves ; wliile the others are
more related to fome cut-leaved red-flowered fpecies, with
which we fliall meet hereafter ; infomuch that no natural
fiibdivifion of this genus could be founded on the above
charafter.

T. frutkaiis. Blue Tree Germander. Lii.n. Sp. PI. 787.
Willd. n. 9. Ait. n. 6. Sm. Fl. Grcec. Sibth. t. 527, un-
publifhed. (T. latifolium; Linn. Sp. PI. 788. Curt. Mag.
t. 245. T. fruticans bocticum ; Cluf. Hilt. v. I. 348. Dill.
Elth. 379. t. 284. T. boeticum ; Ger. Em. 659.) — Leaves
ovato-ianceolate, entire ; fnow-white and cottony beneath.
Flowers axillai-y, folitary. Segments of tlie calyx ovate,

cottony at the back Native of the foutli of Europe and

north of Africa. A hardy and common greenhoufe plant
ill England, fometimes bearing our milder winters in the
open air, efpecially near the fea. The Jlem is fhrubby,
'ouihy, three or four feet high, with ftraight, divaricated
branches, clothed, like the backs of the leaves and calyx, as
well as all the_y?<7//'j, with peculiarly white, foft, denfe down.
The leaves vary in fize and breadth, as may be feen in the
plate of Dillenius, whofe fig. 368. milled Linnseus to make
a fpecies, by the name of latifoliam, v/hich is but a trifling
variety. Tlie upper furface of the leaves, and infide of
the calyx, are dark-green, ufually quite fmooth. Flowers
large and handfome, of a fine blue, coming out at all times
of the year : the middle fegment of their lower lip fome-
times deeply cloven.

T. brev'tfolium. Short Hyffop-leaved Germander. Schreb.
Vertic.Unilab. 27. Willd. n. 10. Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibth. t. 528,
unpubhflied. ( Rofmarinum floechadis facie ; Alpin. Exot.

103. t. 102. Polio retto di Candia ; Ton. Bald. 156.) —
Leaves lanceolate, revohite, entire, obtufe, honry. Flowers
folitary. Calyx without awns. — Native of rocks in Crete,
near the tca-fliore. The_/??m is fhrubby, with copious Spread-
ing, fquare, leafy branches. Leaves about an inch long, of
a hoary green on both fides, veiny. Flowers on flender,
folitarj-, fimple ftalks, from the bofoms of the upper leaves.
Corolla blufh-colonred, with purple veins. Segments of the
calyx revolute and blunt. Schreber and Willdenow cite,
under this fpecies, T. frutcfccns, ftoechadis arabicje folio
et facie ; Tourn. Cor. 14. Rivin. Monop. t. 20 ; which is
correft as to Tournefort, but no fuch thing occurs in Ri-
vinus. If we had not confulted, in fir Jofcph Banks's library,
the moft perfefl copy of his work known to cxill, we fhould
not fpeak fo decidedly on this head.

T. creticum. Rofemary -leaved Germander. Linn. Sp.
PI. 788. Willd. n. 1 1. Sm. Fl. Gnec. Sibth. t. 529, un-
publifhed. (T. hyffopifolium ; Schreb. Vertic. Unilab. 28.)
— Leaves linear-lanceolate, revolute, entire, obtufe ; white
and cottony beneath. Flowers often two or three together.

Calyx cottony, fpinous Native of Crete, Cyprus, and

Egypt. A taller, hiTger Jhrub than tlw laft, fome of whofe
fynonyms were confounded with it by Linnasus. Its habit
and foliage much reiemble Rofemary. Thejlowers are light
purple, or pink, and form long leafy chijlers, at the ends of
the branches, being cither folitary, or two or three together,
on fliort downy Jlalis, from the bofonis of the upper leaves.
The ca/yx is cottony without ; green within ; and has fhort
fpinous points.

T. Marimi. Marum Germander, or Cat-thyme. Linn.
Sp.Pl. 788. Willd. n. 12. Ait. n. 7. (Pfeudo-Marlim;
Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 13, not t. 40, which is Thymus Maf-
tichina. Marum Cortuii ; Bauh. Hift. v. 3. 242.) — Leaves
ovate, acute, entire, ftalked, cottony beneath. Flowers
racemofe, in pairs, turned one way. Calyx woolly. — Na-
tive of Spain, and the ifles of Hyeres. Frequent in green-
houfes, where it is very hardy, being cultivated for the
fake of its pecuharly pungent fcent, which powerfully in-
duces fneezing, and which renders it not lefs grateful to cats
than Valerian. The Jlem is bufliy, of humble growth, with
round hoary branches. Leaves a quarter of an inch long,
of a hoary green on the upper fide. Flowers crimfon.

T.quadratulum. Little Square -leaved Germander. Schreb.
Vertic. Unilab. 36. Willd. n. 13. Sm. Fl. Grxc. Sibth.
t. 530, unpublifhed. (T. ramofifllmum ; Desfont. Atlant.
V. 2. 4. t. I 18.) — Leaves obovate -rhomboid, deeply tooth-
ed ; cottony beneath. Flowers axillary, folitary, deflexed.
Calyx woolly. — Native of fiffures of rocks, in Spahi, Bar-
bary, and Crete. A fmall, decumbent, brandling Jljrub,
whofe leaves are not half an inch long ; green above ; white
beneath. Flowers pink, their calyx bent down, fo as to
make a right angle with ksjoojlali, and then recurved. Seg-
ments of the upper lip of the corolla advanced towards thofe
of the lower in a remarkable degree. Style rcflexed.

T. Laxmanni, Laxmann's Germander. Linn. Syft.
Veg. ed. 13. 439. Willd. n. 16. Ait. n. 10. Marfch.
von Biebertt. Taur. v. 2. 35. " Waldil. and Kitaib.
Hung. v. I. 71. t. 69." — Leaves elliptic-oblong, villous,
ribbed, nearly entire. Flowers axillary, folitary, oppofite,
turned one way. — Native of Siberia, Hungary, &c. We
notice this fpecies here merely to exprefs our concurrence
with the opinion of the able author of the Flora Taurico-
Caucafica above cited, that it certainly belongs to Ajuga, as
well as the 7'. falleijolium, Linn. Mant. 80, already referred
thither by Schreber and Willdenow. The two fpecies are
very nearly akin, and anfwer in charader and habit entirely
to yljuga, and not to Teucrium.

T. ylrduiiii.

TEUCRIUM.

T. Ardu'wl Arduino's Germander. Linn. Mant. 8i.
Willd. n. zo. Sm. Fl. Grace. Sibth. t. 531, unpubliHied.
(T. foliis ovato-crenatis, fubliirfutis, petiolatis, caulibus
fpica flavefceiite pikjfa terminitis ; Arduin. Spec. I. 12.
t. 3. Scutellaria crctica ; Linn. Sp. PI. 836. Willd. Sp.
PI. V. 3. 176. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 429. Caffida cretica
fruticofa, catariac folio, flore albo ; Tourn. Cor. II.) —
Leaves ovate, ferrated, hairy. Clufters denfely innbricztcd,
cylindrical, with linear brafteas, longer than the flowers.
Upper ffgment of the calyx dilated, hcart-fliapcd ; two

loweft fetaccous Native of Crete, and of the fhady woods

of the Bithynian Olympus. It appears to have been culti-
vated by Miller in 1729. Although Linnaeus, in referring
this plant, after Tournefort, to Scutellaria, perceived it to
be a Tsucrium, neither he nor any one elfe, till lately, fuf-
peAed it to be defcribed twice over in his works. This we
difcovereJ by a comparifon of original fpecimens. Thejlem
is herbaceous, not (hrubby, fquare, crofs-branched, leafy,
rough witli fpreading hairs. Leaves ftalked, not unlike thofe
of Balm in fize, form, and colour. Clufters from one to four
inches long, near an inch in diameter, iblitary at the ends of
the branches, ereft, of innumerable crowded white ^owfrj-.
The calyx is hairy, fnddenly bent downwards at its taper bafe,
then horizontal, its border very unequally five -cleft ; the
upper fegment broad, as in Scutellaria, reflexed at the fides,
tipped with a briftle ; two next (hort, triangular ; two loweft
long, narrow, with pungent points.

T. canadenje. Nettle-leaved Hoary Germander. Linn.
Sp. PI. 7S9. Willd. n. 21. Ait. n. 13. Purfh n. i.
(Chama;dryscanadenfis, urticx folio, fubtils incano ; Tourn.
Inft. 205.) — Leaves ovato-lanceolate, ftalked, fnarply fer-
rated, downy on both fides ; hoary beneath. Clufter ter-
minal, denfe, fomewhat whorled. Brafteas ovate, (horter

than the flowers. Segments of the calyx nearly equal In

low grounds, on the borders of ponds and lakes, from Ca-
nada to New York, perennial, flowering in July and Au-
guft. The habit of the leaves and injlorefcencc is like that
of fome fpiked Veronica. At the infertion of each pair of
footftalks, the Jlcm is furrounded with a ring of prominent
hairs. The calyx is bell-lhaped, with five broad, nearly
equal, fegments. Corolla purple.

T. lArginicum. Viginian Germander. Linn. Sp. PI. 789.
Willd. n. 22. Ait. n. 14. Purfh n. 2. " Schkuhr Handb.
t. 160.'' (T. virginianum meliflbphyllon, floribus caeruleis ;
Pluk. Ahnag. 363. Phyt. t. 318. f. 1 ; with a very faulty
reprefentation of the corolla. ) — Leaves ovate-oblong, fer-
rated, downy ; the upper ones feffile. Spikes crowded,

whorled. Brafteas the length of the calyx In low grounds

and bogs, from New York to Carolina, perennial, flowering
from June to Auguft. It very much refembles the laft.
Purjh. — Miller is faid to have cultivated both thefe North
American fpecies in 1768. We have feen only the former.

T. abutiloides. Mulberry-leaved Germander. L'Herit.
Stirp. V. I. 84. Willd. n. 27. Ait. n. 17. Jacq. Hort.
Schoenbr. v. 3. 58. t. 358.— Leaves heart-fhaped, acute,
crcnate, downy. Clufters axillary, not longer than the foot-
ftalks— Difcovered by Mr. Mafl'on in Madeira, from whence
It was brought to Kew, in 1777. It flowers in the green-
houfe in April and May, and is confpicuous for the large
fize of Its ha-ves, four or five inches long, on denfely downy
footftalks, half that length. The ftowers are no lefs remark-
able for their golden hue, and their fituation in denfe, foli-
tary, lateral, ftalked c/a/^^rj, which rarely equal the footftalks
in length.

- T. 5'<roro<i)n;a. Wood Germander, or Wood Sage. Linn.
Sp. PL 789. Willd. n. 28. Fl. Brit. n. i. Engl. Bot.
t. 1543. Curt. Lond. fafc. 5. t. 40. Fl. Dan. t. 485.

4

(Scorodonia; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 12. S. five Salvia
agreftis ; Ger. Em. 662.) — Leaves heart -fliaped, ferrated,
ftalked, hairy. Stem eredt. Flowers leaning to one fide, in
lateral and terminal clufters. — Very common in dry heath)
ground, and fandy woods, throughout Europe, from Nor-
way to Greece, flowering in July and Auguft. Linnjeus
feems to have recollefted this plant with delight in the fields
of Hartecamp, where the garden of his friend Cliffort had
been to him a real paradife. The )-oot is creeping and pe-
rennial. Herb a foot or two in height, dark green, hairy,
bitter, with a ftrong fcent like hops, for which it is faid to
be not a bad fubftitute in brewing. We wifti nothing worfe
had ever been ufed. The long aggregate clufters oi ftotuers
are rendered confpicuous by the contraft of the pale yellow
corolla and purple ftamens. The upper fegment of the calyx
approaches in form and breadth to what we have pointed out
as fo remarkable in T. Arduini,

T. betonicum. Hoary Germander. Ait. ed. I. v. 2. 279.
ed. 2. n. 19. Willd. n. 30. L'Herit. Stirp. v. i. 83.1.40.
Curt. Mag. t. 1 1 14. (T. betonicasfolium ; Jacq. Coll.
V. I. 14J. t. 17. f. 2.) — Leaves ovato-lanceolate, bluntly
ferrated, ftalked, foft and downy ; hoai-y beneath. Stem
flirubby. Clufters aggregate, terminal. Bracleas lanceo-
late, entire. Native of Madeira. A very handfome green-
houfe ftirub, introduced by fir Jofeph Banks, in 1 775, flower-
ing moft part of the fummer, and eafily propagated by cut-
tings. The crimfon ftoiuers are elegantly contrafted with
the hoarinefs of the herbage ; the upper furface of the leaves
being greener than the reft. The fegments of the upper lip
of the corolla being broader and blunter than ufual, feme
doubts have been ftarted whether this fpecies belonged to
Teucriiim or to Ajuga, or whether thefe genera were really
diftinft. To this we would anfwer, that the habit of the
latter is peculiar, and its eflential charafter no lefs clear, con-
fifting in a Ihort notched upper lip, inftead of the remotely-
lobea one of Tiftrnum. We believe moreover that the cen-
tral lobe of the lower lip is always divided and divaricated in
Ajuga.

T. majftl'ienfe. Apple-fcented Germander. Linn. Sp.
PI. 789. Willd. n. 32. Ait. n. 21. Jacq. Hort. Vind.
V. 1. 41. t. 94. (T. n. 6; Gerard. Gallopr. 277. t. 11.)
— Leaves ovate, rugged, hoary, ftrongly crenate. Stem
ereft. Flowers turned to one fide, in lateral and terminal,

upright clufters Native of the ides of Hyeres, butfcarcely

known in any other country, nor is it often to be feen in
gardens. Theftenu are afoot high. Leaves ftalked, blunt-
ifh, hardly an inch long. Flowers fmall, light crimfon.
Upper fegment of the calyx broad-ovate. The whole herb
is clothed with a hoary, foft, velvet-like pubefcence, and
when touched exhales a very powerful and pecuhar fcent,
hke mellow apples, and therefore, to many people, not agree-
able, though combined with a fpicy fragrance. Gerard's
plate, like the others in his book, is very finely executed.

T. ScorcRum. Water Germander. Linn. Sp. PI. 790.
Willd. n. 34. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 828. Woodv.
Med. Bot. t. 57. Fl. Dan. t. 593. (Scordium ; Rivin.
Monop. Irr. t. 1 1. Ger. Em. 661.) — Leaves oblong, feflfile,
with tooth-like ferratures. Flowers axillary, ftalked, in
pairs. Stem procumbent. — Native of marftiy places in va-
rious parts of Europe, but rare in England, except in the
Ifle of Ely. It appears to be the true a-M^^m of Diofcorides,
retaining a fimilar appellation, among the modern Greeks,
and occurring, as Dr. Sibthorp obferved, in Crete, Zante,
and Afia Minor. The root is perennial and creeping. Herb
decumbent or proftrate, hairy, and fomewhat hoary, very
bitter, with a ftjong, unpleafant, garlic-hke fcent. Flo-wcrs
pale purple, in oppofite pairs, f^fom the bofom.s of moft of

the

TEUCRIUM.

the leaves. This herb has formerly been celtbrated for its
tleobftruent and tonic quahties, but is now out of medical
ufe, except perhaps in the recelTes of the country.

"V . fcordioiJes oi Schreber, Willd. n. 35, feems to us, with-
out doubt, a variety of tile laft, as it is made in Prodr. Fl.
Grace. V. I. 393.

T. Chammdrys. Wall Germander. Linn. Sp. PI. 790.
Willd. n. 36. " Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 680. Woodv.
Suppl. t. 243. (Chamjedrys ; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. lo.
f. 2. Tourn. Inft. t. 97 ; a much better figure. C. major
latifolia ; Ger. Era. 656.) — Leaves nearly ovate, ftalked,
deeply crenate. Flowers axillary, three together, ftalked.
Stem round, hairy — Found on dry rocks and old walls in
the more temperate or wai'm countries of Europe. It is
abundant on the old city wall, on the north fide of Norwich,
ES well as here and there in other parts of England, but not
univerfally. Dr. Sibthorp obferved the plant in dry ftony
places, throughout Greece and the ifles of the Archipelago,
where it ftill retains nearly the fame appellation of y^afjiai^^v;.
recorded in Diofcorides. It flowers in July and Auguft,
and has a perennial creeping root. Thejlem is bu{hy, rather
diffufe, and (lightly flirubby, a fpan high. Leaves of a full
fliining green, flightly hairyi deeply crenate and cut. Floivers
crimfon, numerous, more handfome than thofe of T. Scordium,
with which fpecies the prefent has been fuppofed nearly to
agree in virtues. It is equally bitter, but more agreeably,
though lefs powerfully, fccnted.

T. luc'idum. Shining Germander. Linn. Sp. PI. 790.
Willd. n. 39. Ait. n. 25. Sm. Fl. Grsc. Sibth. t. 532,
unpubl. (Chamxdrys alpina frutefcens, foho fplendente ;
Tourn. Init. 205. Magnol. Hort. 52. t. 9.) — Leaves ovate,
ftalked, deeply crenate, fmooth and (hining. Flowers axillary,
three together, ftalked. Stem fquare, ereft, nearly fmooth.
— Native of alpine vallies in Savoy and Provence. Found
by Dr. Sibthorp on ParnafTus, and other Grecian mountains,
as well as in the ifland of Cyprus. The tall, ereft, fquare
JlemSf often quite fmooth ; numerous whorls of large crimfon
Jloivers ; and fliining leaves, of which the upper or floral
ones are more numeroufly quite entire ; all render this plant,
at firft fight, decidedly diff^erent from the laft, and yet they
are very nearly related, fo that an effential diff"erence is dif-
ficult to feize, and perhaps none that has yet been indicated
is invariably conftant.

T. jiavum. Yellow Shrubby Germander. Linn. Sp.
PI. 791. WiUd. n. 41. Ait. n. 26. Sm. Fl. Grxc.
Sibth. t. 533, unpubl. (Teucrium; Rivin. Monop. Irr.
t. 10. f. I. Chamaedrys frutefcens major, floribus ochro-
leucis ; Morif. feft. 11. t. 22. f. I.) — Leaves ovate, crenate,
downy. Whorls fix-flowered, compofing terminal clufters,
with ovate, concave, entire brafteas. Stem flirubby, downy.
— Native of rocks and old walls, in the fouth of Europe,
and north of Africa ; abundant in the Archipelago, and
on the walls of Rome. The Jlem is woody, branched, ereft,
about two feet high ; its branches leafy, bluntly quadran-
gular, clothed with very foft, velvet-like, curved pubefcence,
as is the whole of the herbage. Leaves ftalked, hardly an
inch long ; tapering and entire at the bafe. Floicers pale
yellow, corapofi.ng long, whorled, ereft chillers, with pale-
green IraSeas, about equal to the cahjx. The teeth of the
latter are nearly equal. Upper fegments of the corolla edged
with red.

T. bicolor. Two-coloured Chili Germander. (T. hete-
rophyllum ; Cavan. Ic. v. 6. 56. t. 577.) — Leaves wedge-
ftiaped, obtufe ; undivided or cut. Flowers axillary, foli-
tary. Calyx nearly regular, with ten ftrong ribs. — Ga-
thered by Louis Nee, in the neighbourhood of Talcahuano,
in Chili, flowering in. November and December. We have

a wild fpecimen from the late abbe Cavanilles, whofc
fpccific name we are obliged to change, there being already
a T. heterophyllum, Willd. n. 37. The Jlem is fhrubby,
almoft fix feet high, with fquare leafy branches, clothed,
like the calyx, Jlalis, and under fide of the foliage, with very
(hort denfe pubefcence. The leaves arc about an inch long,
nearly fmooth on the upper fide, various in breadth ; the
broadeft deeply and coarfcly cut ; the reft undivided and
entire ; the lower ones on lliort ftalks ; the upper feffile.
Floivers from the bofoms of the upper leaves, on ftiortifli,
round, finely downy ftalks. Calyx cut almoft half way
down into five, nearly equal, acute, ovato-lanceolate feg-
ments, each with a ftrong mid-rib ; its tube having five
intermediate ribs befides. Corolla externally hairy, white,
the middle of its lower lip of a violet red.

T. montanwn. Dwarf Mountain Germander. Linn. Sp.
PI. 791. Willd. n. 42. Ait. n. 27. Sm. Fl. Grac.
Sibth. t. 534, unpubliftied. (Ajuga folio integro ; Rivin.
Monop. Irr. t. 15. Polium feptimum ; Cluf. Hill. v. 1.
363. f. I, 2. P. lavandulae folio; Ger. Em. 655. f. 2, 3.)
/3. T. fupinum. Linn. Sp. PI. 791. Willd. n. 43.
Ait. n. 28. Jacq. Auftr. t. 417. (P. montanum oftavum ;
Cluf. Hift. V. 1. 363. P. montanum minimum ; Ger.
Em. 655.)

Corymbs terminal. Leaves linear-lanceolate, fomewhat
revolute, almoft entire ; cottony beneath. Calyx reticu-
lated, ten-ribbed, flightly downy, with fpinous teeth

Native of dry mountainous or alpine fituations, in Ger-
many, Switzerland, France, Spain, and Greece ; fometimcs,
though rarely, preferved in pots, under a frame, in our
more curious gardens. A dwarf huPciy JJirub, like Thyme,
with a ftrong woody root, and many diffufe, downy, leafy
Jlems. Leaves crowded, oppofite, ftalked, hardly an inch
long, very rarely notched, various in breadth ; green, con-
vex, and nearly fmooth, above ; veiny, very white and cot-
tony, beneath. Flowers in denfe, feffile, folitary corymbs.
Calyx tubular, pale, with equal, fpreading, tapering, pun-
gent teeth, from whofe intermediate finufes the veins fpread
ftar-wife. Corolla pale buff-coloured, the fegments of its
upper lip veined with red.

Schreber has long ago united T. montanum and fupinum ;
nor was Linnasus ignorant of their near affinity ; though in
this inftance, as in every thing relative to alpine plants of
the fouth of Europe, which he had rarely examined alive,
he was difpofed to give up his own opinion, to that of
practical obfervers. Clufius having reprefented T. fupinum
fo different in fize and habit from montanum, might help to
miflead following botanifts ; but in truth they hardly
deferve to be diftinguiftied as varieties, fupinum being only
rather lefs luxuriant, witii narrov/er leaves, which indeed vary
on the very fame root. The fpecies before us has lent a
fpecific name to fome other plants, as Andromeda polifolia
of Linnsus, and Meni^iejia polifolia of Juffieu, which have
no fimilitude to the true ancient Polium hereafter defcribed,
but greatly refemble this.

T. pyrenalcum. Pyrenean Germander. Linn. Sp. PI. 791.

Willd. n. 4j. Ait. n. 29 Corymbs terminal. Leaves

orbicular, crenate, hairy ; entire and flightly wedge -ftiaped
at the bafe. Calyx-teeth tapering, fringed. — Native of the
Pyrenees. Cultivated by Miller in 1731, at Chclfea garden,
where we have feen it a few years fince, yet there feems to
be no certain figure of this beautiful plant extant. Its habit
is fomewhat like the laft, but the leaves totally different,
being almoft orbicular, and from half an inch to an inch in
diameter, fiat, green, veiny and hairy. Flotuers in denfe
convex tufts, variegated with pale yellow and purple ; the
ribs and teeth of the calyx fringed witli long briftly hairs.

Whether

TEUCRIUM.

Whether SclirL-bo.'« T. roliwdl/oliuni, Willd. n. 46, to
which the figures of Bocconc and Barrelier, cited for the
former, are faid to helong, be more than a variety, we have
no means of determining.

T. Polium. White Foley Germander. Linn. Sp. PI.
792. Willd. n. 52. Ait. n. 31, Sm. Fl. Grxc. Sibth.
t. 535, unpubli(hed. (T. Teuthrion ; Schreb. Unilab. 46.
Polium montanum; Ger. Em. 653, 654. P. montanum
album fcrratum, Src. ; Barrel. Ic. t. 1074.) — Heads round-
ilh, leafy. Leaves fedilc, oblong, obtufe, convex, bluntly
crenate, dcnfely woolly. Calyx very woolly, obtufe, pomt-

lefs Native of mountains in Italy, Spain, and the fouth

of France ; very common in Greece, the Archipelago, and
througliout the Levant ; rarely fcen in our gardens, being
impatient of wet. The root is woody and very ftrong.
Stems numerous, a fpan long, afcending, ereft, or partly
decumbent, round, clothed, like the reft of the herbage,
with extremely foft, white, woolly down. I. eaves nume-
rous, oppofitc, half an inch or an inch long, thick and
vooUy, their edges remarkably deflexcd, with ftrong, round,
recurved teeth ; tlie bafc flightly wedgc-ftiaped, fcarcely
ilalked. Flowers numerous, in denfe, feilile, terminal, often
aggregate, heads, or (liort fpikcs, intermixed with leaves ;
the lower heads ufually ftalked. Calyx very woolly and
obtufe. Corolla wiiite, with a yellow palate.

Schreber, who is followed by Willdenow, makes nume-
rous fpecies out of the reputed varieties of this plant, of
which we are unable, for want of fufficient means of examin-
ation, to form an opinion. The charafters given do not
fatisfy us, nor do the fpecimens we have feen afford better.

The moft llriking of the whole is 7'. aureum, Schreb.
Unilab. 43. Willd. n. 48. Ait. n. 30. Cavan. Ic. v. 2.
16. t. 17, remarkable for the golden tint on its heads and
upper leaves. This has ufually a folitary head or fpike,
and perhaps the calyx-teeth are more (lender and acute than
in the common T. Polium, which merits inquiry. On the
other hand, T. capitatum, wliich we ihall next defcribe, ap-
proaches nearly to fome of the above-mentioned varieties,
fo that perhaps, they ought to be referred to it, rather than
to Polium.

T. capitatum. Purple Foley Germander. Linn. Sp. PL
792. Willd. n. 56. Ait. n. 32. Cavan. Ic. v. 2. 17.
t. 119. Sm. Fl. Grajc. Sibth. t. 536, unpubhftied. (Fo-
lium monfpeffulanum ; Bauh. Hift. v. 3. 299.) — Heads
roundifh, leafy, lateral and terminal, ftalked. Stern crofs-
branched. Leaves feifile, Unear-oblong, obtufe, convex,

crenate, hoary. Calyx woolly, oblong, obtufe, pointlefs

Native of hills in Siberia, Spain, the fouth of France,
Zante, Cyprus, and Greece. This is of a more (lender
habit thau the laft, lefs woolly, and more hoai-y, w ith purple
f.owers, a more elongated tubular calyx, and nai-rower leaves.
The tube of the corolla alfo is longer, and much lefs bell-
(baped, or inflated in the throat. It is nearly related to
T. Polium, but furcly a diftinft fpecies.

T. cuneifolium. Wedge -leaved Foley Germander. Sm.
Prodr. Fl. Grxc. Sibth. n. 131 1. Fl. Grsc. t. 537, un-
pubhrtied — Heads terminal, denfe. Leaves rounded, deeply
crenate; wedge-ftiaped at the bafe ; woolly all over. Calyx
blunt, pointlefs — Gathered by Dr. Sibthorp, on the Spha-
ciote mountains of Crete. The general outline of the plant
anfwers to T. rot mi cl'i folium, Willd. n. 46 ; but that is a far
lefs woolly plant, with a pointed calyx, and not allied to the
Polium tribe. The prefent has round, traihng, (hrubby,
crofs-branched ferns, a foot or more in length. Every
part of the herbage is covered with thick, white, foft,
woolly or velvetty down. Leaves, with their ftalks, an
inch long. Flowers fnow-white, in aggregate terminal

heads. Calyx tubular, with (hort rounded teeth. Seg-
ments of the uppjr lip of the corolla large, as long as thv
Jlamens, which they embrace, and partly concc;J. Anther.s
red.

T. alpefh-e. Sharp-toothed Alpine Foley Germander.
Sm. Prodr. Fl. Gra:c. Sibth. n. 1312. Fl. Gra.'c. t. 538,

unpubliftied Flowers axfllary, folitarv. Leaves wedge-

(liaped, rounded, deeply crenate, downy. Stem tufted,
much branched. — Found by Dr. Siblhorp, upon the moll
lofty fummits of the Spachiote mountains of Crete. The
root is woody, dividing at the cixivn into innumerable ftrong,
woody, deprelTedy?.";?;/, which bear a denfe tuft of afcend-
ing, leafy, downy branches, hardly a (inger's length. Leavti
ftalked, greyifti, about half an inch long, obtufe. Flonuers
oppofite, on ITiort ftalks, from the bofoms of two or three
of the uppermoft pair of leaves. Calyx tubular, finely
downy. Tube, throat, and upper lip of the corolla, pale
yellow ; lower lip white, its middle fegment deeply concave.

T. pumilum. Rofemary-leaved Foley Germander. Linn.
Sp. PI. 792. Willd. n. 61. (Polium montanum pumilum
rubrum ; Barrel. Ic. t. 1092, 1093.) — Heads terminal,
folitary, feflile, leafy. Leaves crowded, felTile, linear, revo-
lute, fmooth ; downy beneath. Stems afcending, woolly.

Calyx pointed Native of hills in Spain, flowering in July

and Auguft. — From the woody perennial root, fpring feveral,
more or lefs ereft, fimple or branched, leafy Jlems, three or
four inches long, clothed with denfe, foft, white wool. The
leaves are hardly an inch long, crowded and fomewhat im-
bricated, in four rows, narrow, ftrongly revolute, obtufe ;
convex, green and pohlhed on the upper fide ; concave,
with a downy rib, juft vifible beneath. Calyx ribbed, downy,
with (hort, thick, fpinous points. Tube of the corolla
flender, downy, as well as the outfide of the limb.

We are quite imable to imagine how T. Libaiiilis of
Schreber, Willd. n. 60. Cavan. Ic. v. 2. 17. t. 118, came
to be diftingui(hed from pumilum, as there does not appear
to be the leaft difference between them, except the Jlem of
Libanitis being more ereft ; but that circumftance is evi-
dently variable. 7". verticillatum, Cavan. t. 198. Willd.
n. 59, feems alfo but a variety ; though we prefume not to
determine this without feeing a fpecimen.

T. J'piiiofum. Thorny Germander. Linn. Sp. PI. 793.
Willd. n. 64. Ait. n. 33. Sm. Fl. Grasc. Sibth. t. 539,
unpubliftied. ( Chamsdrys fpinofa ; Bauh. Prodr. 117.
Scordium fpinofum odoratum ; Cornut. Canad. 123. t. 124.
Barrel. Ic. t. 202. S. fpinofum; Cavan. Ic. v. i. 19. t.31.)
— Stem and branches fpinous, hairy. Flowers axillary, oppo-
fite. Upper fegment of the calyx ovate ; the reft awl-(haped,
fpinous Native of fields and hilly places in Spain and Por-
tugal. Dr. Sibthorp met with it in fields between Smyrna
and Burfa. The root is annual. Stem branched copioufly
from the very bottom, about a foot high, buftiy, the branches
oppofite, crofting each other in pairs, fpreading, fquare,
clothed with very foft prominent hairs, tipped with ftrong
fpines, and furniftied with fmaller lateral ones, particularly
at the infertion of the leaves and flowers. Leaves feflile,
deflexed, fmall, oblong, obtufe, notched, green, hairy.
Flo'Tuers numerous, folitary or in pairs, from the bofoms of
the dimini(hed or upper leaves, each on a (hort, round, hairy
JlalL Calyx deflexed and bent at the bafe, then horizontal
and fomevi'hat bell-fliaped ; its upper fegment very broad,
ribbed, fpinous-pointed, ereft, or rather reflexed, the four
others (horter, prominent, afcending, pungent. Corolla
white, with red ftripes on its upper lip ; the middle feg-
ment of the lower very large, (lightly concave ; the bafe of

the tube globular The Jloivers are by no means reverfed,

refupinati, in Sibthorp's figure of this fpecfes, though

LoefUng

T E U

Lffifling fo (Icfcribes tliem, and led Liiinxus to adopt that
charafter. His T. nwcvcnatum, Sp. PI. 793, differs in no
refpeft from the fpinoj'iim, to which therefore we have trans-
ferred its fynonyms.

Teucrium, in Gardening, turnirties plants of the under-
fhrubby and herbaceous kinds, among the great number of
which, the fpccies following are the moll generally culti-
vated : the yellow-flowered ihrubby germander (T. flavum) ;
the fage-leaved germander, or wood-fage (T. fcorodonia) ;
ths nettle-leaved germander (T. canadenfe) ; the dwarf
mountain germander (T. montanum) ; the Pyrenean ger-
mander (T. pyrenaicum) ; the poley (T. polium) ; the
round-headed germander (T. capitatum) ; the dwarf ger-
iiiander (T. puinilum) ; the narrow-leaved tree -germander
(T. fruticans) ; the broad-leaved tree-germander (T. lati-
fohum) ; the Cretan germander (T. creticum) ; and the
common marum or cat -thyme (T. marum).

There is a variety in the firft fort which is hairy, with
yellow flowers, with pale white flowers, and with purple
flowers.

In the fourth fort there is hkewife a variety with much
fmaller leaves, which are hoary on their under fide.

Alfo in the fixth fort there are feveral varieties ; as the
common yellowr poley, which has the ftalks rather herbaceous
and trailing, about fix inches long, and hoary : leaves
woolly, about half an inch long, fome wedge-lhaped, others
oblong, ending in obtufe points, and crenate towards their
ends : the flowers colkfted in oblong thick fpikes at the
end of the branches, of a deep yellow colour, and appear-
ing at the beginning of June. This grows naturally in
Spain. The narrow-leaved yellow poley, which has woody
Ralks, ereft, branching, and covered with a hoary down,
rirtng fix or eight inches high ; the leaves hnear, woolly,
about half an inch long, having fometimes two or three flight
indentures on their edges ; the flowers coUefted in roundifh
fpikes at the end of the branches ; they are bright yellow,
have woolly calyces, and appear in June and July. It
grows naturally in Spain and Portugal. The white poley,
which has the ftenis a foot long, and trailing : the leaves are
a little cottony, entire on the fides, but toothed at the end ;
the flowers are pretty large, white, tinged a little with purple.
It is a native of the fouth of France. There is alfo the pur-
ple poley.

And there is a variety in the feventh fort which has an
ereft branching fl;alk, that rifes a foot high ; the lower
part becomes woody, but the upper is herbaceous : the leaves
are linear-lanceolate, about an inch long, crenate, of a pretty
thick confiftence, and a little woolly : the flowers collefted
in a corymb at the end of the branches, white, appearing in
July and Auguft.

The ninth contains a variety which is a little more
branched, and has fmaller fliorter leaves : the flowers are
paler, the fl;amens fomewhat longer, the anthers fmaller and
brown ; whereas in the larger fort they are violet : and an-
other with variegated leaves.

Method of Culture All the herbaceous and ligneous

kinds may be readily increafed by parting the roots, by flips
of the young branches, and feeds : the roots may be divided
in the autumn, or early fpring, and the flips of the branches
be taken off in the fpring and fummer, being planted out in
moifl; <hady fituations, and well rooted, they maybe removed
to where they are to remain, though it is beft: to plant them
at once where they are to grow : the feeds may be fown in a
bed or border of common earth in the early fpring fealon.

But in the polium kinds, the feeds ftiould be fown in a bed
of light earth, and the plants be either put out in nurfery-

Vox.. XXXV.

T E V

rows, or fet where they arc to remain, in the latter end of
fummer.

The flirubby forts may likewife be increafed by flips or
cuttings of the young Ihoots of the branches, which (hould
be planted in pots filled with hght mould, in the fpring and
fummer months, in order to be removed under the proteAion
of the greenhoufe in winter, being afterwards managed as
other greenhoufe exotics.

Thefe plants are all of the perennial kind, and fome of
them are durable in the fl:ems and branches for feveral
years.

The firfl: forts afford variety in the borders, &c. and tlic
latter in aflemblage with greenhoufe plants.

TEUDERIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ger-
many, in the vicinity of Bogadium and Mediolanium.
Ptolemy.

TEVENDEZ, in Geography, a mountain in the S.E.
part of Fez ; being part of the Atlas.

TEVERONE, a river of Italy, which joins the Tiber
near Rome.

TEVESAR, a town on the W. coaH of the ijland of
Celebes. S. lat. 2° 2'. E. long. 1 19* 21'.

TEUFFEL's Bruck, or Devil's Bridge, a bridge over
the Reufs, formed of a fingle arch, about twenty-two feet
radius, fupported by two rocky peaks, nearly perpendi-
cular, between which the river runs at the depth of fome
hundred feet ; 3 miles from Urferen.

TEUFFEN, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Appenzel ; 6 miles N.N.W. of Appenzel.

TEUFING, or Tauzim, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Bilfen ; 22 miles N.W. of Pilfen. N. lat. 50° 2'.
E. long. 13° 5'.

TEUGA, in Botany, the name given in the Hortus Ma-
labaricuj to a genus of plants, called by- Linnxui and others
coccus.

TEUGLASSA, in Atuitnt Geography, an ifland which
Thucydides feems to place on the coait of Afia Minor, in
the neighbourhood of the Doride.

TEVIN, in Geography, a town of Perfian Armenia, on
a fraall river which runs into the Aras ; 15 miles S.E. of
Erivan.

TEUKE, a town of Perfia, in the province of Kho-
raffan ; 32 miles E. of Tabas-kileki.

TEUMES, in Ancient Geography, a river of Greece, in
Boeotia, which watered the town of Thebes, according to
Hefychius.

TEUMESSUS, a borough of Boeotia, upon a mountain
E. of Thebes, and near a fmall river called Thermodon. Here
was a temple of Diana Telchinia. It was notorious for the
fuperftitious credulity of its inhabitants. — Alfo, a mountain
of Greece, in Bceotia.

TEVO, Zaccaria, in Biography, author of an ample
treatife on mufic, written in Italian, and pubhflied at Veniee,
in fmall quarto, 1706, entitled " II Mufico Teftore ;"
[te/lore literally means a weaver ; but metaphorically, acom-
pofer, an author ;) the mufician's text, or guide. The work
is divided into four parts, twenty chapters in each, the titles
of which are very promiling ; but his fl;yle is not very plea-
fant, nor are his definitions or inftruftions very fatisfaftory.
The author had read much, but his digeftion was not fo
good as his appetite. He fwallowed, without due mattica-
tion, all the old (lories about the invention and miraculoua
powers of mufic. He afligns to Orpheus, the fon of
Apollo, the invention of the violin, and to Sappho that of
the bow ; afl^uring \is that fhe was the fiift who ufed it in the
prefent manner I He not only finds the inventor of every
3 I fpecJes

T E U

fpecics of inftrument, but ti.e time when and place where it
*vas firft conftruft.d. Thvre is little- fcience, and «"' '^1^
ingenuity, in the examples of con.pofition given m lUultra-
tion of the rules of counterpoii.t : fo that it the young Itu-
dent, who perufes tlus work for iiiftrudion, is not a con-
jurer before he bofrins the taflc, he will not be made one by
the mylleries which it unfolds.

Yet with patient perfeverance, a young ftudent who has
little leifure, and few books to read, may become fuperficially
learned with little trouble by this book. Tevo quotes au-
thority for all that he advances ; but his authorities are not
always good, nor does he diftinguiih good from bad. Se-
veral obVcure and even contemptible authors are quoted in
the fame folenin manner as the bed. But in citing fo many
writers indifcriminately, the chief part ai-e now fo fcarce and
difficult to be found, that in fearch of them all the great
libraries of Europe may be vilited in vain. To fave the ftu-
dent's time, and form his talle in htcrature, as well as judg-
ment in mufic, the author fhould have quoted none but
writers of the fnft authority, or have told his young readers
what (Irefs was to be laid on the reft.

But fince the time of Tevo, fo many better authorities in
corapofition and didaftic TVorks, both on the theory and
praftice of mufic, have appeared, that we can hardly recom-
mend the " Mufico Teftore" to the perufal of any but thofe
who Iiave much time to fpare, who read every thing, and
are curious to know the hiftory and ft ate of the art at every
period of time.

TEUOCHIS, in Ancient Geography, a lake and town of
Egypt.

TEVOEN-SOUSON, m Geography, a town of Chinefe
Tartary ; 12 miles N.W. of Teldom.

TEUPITZ, a town of Brandenburg, in the Middle
Mark, on a lake; 20 miles S. of Berlin. N. lat. 52° 5'.
E. long. 13° 30'.

TEURERT, or Tevrert, atownof Fez, on the bor-
ders of Algiers ; 40 miles E.N.E. of Teza. N. lat. 34° 2'.
W. long. 3° 30'.

TEURISCI, in Ancient Geography, a people placed by
Ptolemy in the northern part of Dacia, between the Anerti
and the Ciftoboci.

TEURISTiE, a people of Germany, placed by Strabo
in the \-icinity of the Danube and the Alps.

TEURNIA, a town of Norica, S. of the Danube, be-
tween Virunum and Idunum. Ptol. and Plin.

TEURTEVILLE, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Channel ; 6 miles N. of Valognes.

TEUSCHNITZ, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric
of Bamberg ; 34 miles N.E. of Bamberg. N. lat. 50°
23'. E. long, ir' 30'.

TEUSHANUSHSOUGGOGHTA, an Indian town
of Pennfylvania, on the Alleghany river.

TEUTATES, in Mythology, a name or attribute of
the Supreme Being, which was worlhipped by the Gauls
and Britons as a particular divinity. It is evidently com-
pounded of the two Britilh words " Deu-tatt," which fig-
nify God the parent or creator, a name properly due only to
the one true God, who was originally intended by that
name. Thus Lucan, 1. i. v. 445.

" Et quibus immitis placetur fanguine divo
Teutates ; horranfque feris altaribus Hefus."

When thefe ancient nations funk into indolatry, thoy de-
graded Teutates into the fovereign of the infernal world,
the fame with the Dis and Pluto of the Greeks and Ro-
mans (or, as others think, with Mercury) ; and worlhipped

T E U

him in luch a manner as could be agreeable to none but 30
infernal power.

TEUTHEA, in Ancient Geography, a confiderable town
of the Pckjponnefus, in Achaia, W . of Trita:a.

TEUTHIS, a town of the Peloponncfus, in Arcadia,
in which were a temple of Venus, and another of Diana.

Teuthis, in the Linnxan fyttem of Ichthyology, a ge-
nus ot the abdominal fifties ; the charafters of which are,
that the head is a little truncated on the fore-part ; that the
branchioftege membrane has five rays ; and that the teeth are
equ.il, rigid, and near each other, and forming a regular
chain. Linnaeus and Gmelin mention two fpecies ; viz.
hcpatus, and javus or Java. This genus is now annulled, and
the fpecies are transferred to Acanthurus and Chsetodon.

Hepatus ; Acanthurus Teuthis ; Blue Acanthurus.
With the middle of the body paler, and a fpine on each
fide of the tail. This is a native of the Indian and Ameri-
can feas, ten or twelve inches long, or more ; refembling in
ftiape the chaetodons, the head (loping in front from the ori-
gin of the dorfal fin ; the colour, when recent, a deep or
blackifti-blue ; on each fide of the tody is a very large, ob-
long-ovate whitifli patch or fpot, furrounded by a border of
a deeper caft ; the ficin is roughened by very fmaU fcales ;
the tail is flightly lunated, duflcy on the upper and lower
part, and marked towards the bafe by a whitifti ovate fpot ;
the teeth are crenated ; and on each fide of the bafe of the
tail is a very ftrong fpine, capable of elevation at the ani •
mal's pleafure, to an horizontal direftion, from the channel
in which it Kes. The fifh figured by Catefby in his Natural
Hiftory of Carolina, under the name oi'Teng, is fuppofed to
be this fpecies.

Java or Javus ; Chsetodon Guttatus. Whitifh-grey,
with oblong body, fprinkled with very numerous, round,
rufous fpots ; length about ten or twelve inches ; colour
grey, with a dulky tinge on the upper parts, and every-
where fprinkled, except on the head, peftoral, ventral, dor-
fal and anal fins, with numerous, fmall, round, rufous fpots ;
fcales fmall, none at the bafes of the fins ; gill-covers fmooth ;
dorfal and anal fin of moderate breadth; tail flightly in-
clining to a forked, or rather lunated ftiape, and fpeckled
like the body. Native of Java. This fpecies is fuppofed
by Bloch and Cepede to be the ieutlis javus of Linnius.
But Dr. Shaw remarks, that Linnxus's defeription does not
agree in the difpofition of its colours with thofe of the C. gut-
tatus, as it is exprefsly faid to be marked with longitudinal
ftreaks : fo it is figured by Gronovius. See Chsetodon
Guttatus, changing Japan in the clofe of that article to
Java.

TEUTHOPHACE, a word ufed by the ancients to
exprefs a fort of food made of beet -roots and lentils, often
prefcribed as a good diet for the fick.

TEUTHRANIA, in Ancient Geography, a tewn and
fmall country of Myfia, fituated towards the E., and near the
fource of the Caicus. Herodotus fays that it was once a
gulf, and it was gradually formed by the accumulation oc-
cafioned by the Caicus.

TEUTHRONA, a town of Laconia, in a fmall bay,
on the Laconic gulf, N.E. of Pyrrhicus.

TEUTLAN, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Guadalajara ; 50 miles N.N.W. of Guadala-
jara.

TEUTLEBEN, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Gotha ; 4 miles W. of Gotha.

TEUTONES, in Ancient Geography, a people of Ger-
many, who at the time when the Romans became acquainted
with them, were politically connefted with the Cirabri, if

they

T E U

tlicy were not aftually a tribe of tlic fame people ; and fet-
tled at no great dillance fronn them. (See Cl.MBiu.) They
are faid to have worfhippcd a divinity called Tbaut, who is
fuppoled to have been one of their aiiceftors deified. The
Teutones were known before the Cimbri, and uniting with
them, overran the territories that were fubjeft to the Romans ;
and it has been affirmed that they inhabited the banks of the
Codam Sinus, and the ifland called Coclania I nfu la, whence they
afTumed the appellation of " Codani." Pytheas of Mai'-
feilles, according to Pliny, is the firll author who mentions
the Teutones ; and Pomponius Mela fays, that their habita-
tions were near the gulf Codanus. It is vei-y probable that
they extended themfclves throirgh the country tliat bordered
on the Baltic fea ; and that from thence they engaged in
many warlike emigrations ; tranfporting themfelves with their
arms and baggage, their wives and children, through other
countries which they pillaged. It was in the year of Rome
640 that they firft became known to the Romans ; having
advanced fouth of the Danube to the country called Noricum,
where they were encountered by the conful C. Papirius
Curfor, who obftrufted their paffage towards the borders of
Italy. They then proceeded towards Gaul, and made their
ingrefs among the Helvetians. Having arrived in Gallia
Narbonnenfis, the Cimbri were there defeated by the conful
Aurelius j but the Teutones made an attempt to invade
Italy by the Weftern Alps. They were, however, refilled
by Marius, and in a defperate engagement, in which the
latter proved viftorious, the Teutones left upon the field an
almoft incredible number of flain ; which, including the
Gauls who had fallen in a combat which took place fomc
days before, amounted, according to hiftorians that have not
been chargeable with exaggeration, to ioo,000 perfons.
Marius alfo defeated the Cimbri in Italy.

TEUTONIC, fomething belonging to the Teutones, an
ancient people of Germany, inhabiting chiefly along the
coaft of the German ocean. See Gothic.

Teutonic La:\guage, is the ancient language of Ger-
many, which is ranked among the mother-tongues.

The Teutonic is now called the German, or Dutch, and
is diftinguilhed into uj>per and hiuer.

The upp'r has two notable dialefts ; viz. i. The Scan-
dian, Danifh, or perhaps Gothic ; to which belong the lan-
guages fpoken in Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Iceland.
2. The Saxon, to which belong the feveral languages
of the Englifh, Scots, Frifian, and thofe on the north of
the Elbe.

To the loiuer belong the Low Dutch, Flemifh, &c.
fpoken through the Netherlands, &c.

The learned Mr. Whitaker has lately, in his Hiftory
of Manchefter, controverted the opinion of thofe who af-
firm the Englilh language to be genuine and unmixed Ten-
tonic, and afferted it to be of Celtic origin. Mr. Drake,
in his Effay on the Origin of the Englilh Language, Ar-
chiol. vol. 5. has endeavoured to fupport the former opi-
nion, by comparing part of Ulphila's Gothic verfion of the
gofpel of St. John, executed above 1400 years ago, with
the fame in our prefent tranflation, and evincing the ftriking
aifinity between the two languages ; notwithftanding the dif-
ferent mediums through which they have defcended, and the
many ages that have elapfed fince they have been feparated.
Every circumftance, he obferves, that conftitutes the true
genius of a language, is vifibly derived to the Englilli from the
Goths and Saxons. The article?, flexure of the genitive
cafe, prepofitions and auxiliary verbs, are all abfolutely Teu-
tonic. The Englifh, he fays, is clearly the natural defcend-
i-nt of the Gothic or Teutonic ; and he challenges the deepeft
enquirer into the Celtic to produce fo decifive a proof of

■I" 1-: u

any affinity of that tougue with our;;. The Britilh, he
adds, has little or no refemblance to the Englifli. Many of
their terms may have gained adniinion among us, as, from
the vicinity and long intercourle we have had with that
people, may ncccflarily be imagined, but their idioms and
genius arc as radically and eflcntially diflfcrcnt as any two
languages can poflibly be.

Teutonic; Order, a military religious order of knights,
eftabliflicd towards the clofe of the twi-lfth century ; and
thus called, becaufe it confided principally of Germans, or
Teutones.

The origin, &c. of this order were thus: the Chrif-
tians, under Guy of I^ufignan, laying fiege to Acre, or
Aeon, a city of Syria, on the borders of the Holy Land ;
at which fiege were prefent, Richard king of England,
Phihp Auguftus of France, &c. fome Germans of Bre-
men and Lub^c, touched with compafTion for the fick
and wounded of the army, who wanted common iiecef-
faries, fet on foot a kind of hofpital under a tent, which
they made of a (hip's fail ; and here betook themfelves to
a charitable attendance on them.

This ftarted a thought (about the year 1 190) of efta-
blifhing a third military order, in imitation of the Tem-
plars, and the Hofpitaltrs.

The defign was approved by the patriarch of Jerufalcm,
the archbilhops and bifliops of the neighbouring places,
the king of Jerufalem, the mafters of the Temple and
the Hofpital, and the German lords and prelates then in
the Holy Land ; and, by common confent, Frederic duke
of Suabia, who was then at their head, fent ambafladors
to his brother Henry, king of the Romans, to folicit the
pope to confirm the new order.

Calixtus III. who then governed the church, granted it
by a bull of the 23d of February, 1192, and the new
order was called " The Order of Teutonic Knights of the
Houfe of St. Mary of Jerufalem."

The habit of this order was a white mantle, with a black
crofs.

The pope granted them all the privileges of the Tem-
plars, and the Hofpitalers of St. John ; excepting that
they were to be fubjcft to the patriarchs, ;md other pre-
lates ; and that they fhould pay tithe of what they
pofTefied.

The firft mafter of the Teutonic order, Henry Walpot,
clefted during the time of the fiege of Acre, after the
taking of that city, purchafed a garden, in which he built
a church, and an hofpital, which was the firft houfe of
the Teutonic order.

Such is the account given by Peter of Duift)Ourg, aprieft
of this order.

Jaques de Vitty differs a little from t^iis account ; and
relates, that the Teutonic order was eftabhfhcd at Jerufalem
before the city of Acre was befieged.

The order made no great progrefs under the three firft
grand-mafters ; but under the fourth, Herman de Salza,
it became very powerful ; infomuch that Conradc, duke
of Mazovia and Cujavia, about the year 12^0, fent an'
embaffy to him, to folicit his friendfhip and affiftance,
offering him and his order the provinces of Cuhne and
Livonia, with all the lands they could recover from the
idolatrous Pruffians, who haraffed him exceedingly with
their continual incurfions, and againft whom he intended
this new militia ; his own knights of the order of Chrift,
or of Dobrin, inftituted for the like purpofe, being found
too weak.

De Salza accepted the donation, and Gregory IX. con-
firmed it ; and, to aid the knights m reducing the Pruf-

3 I 2 fians,

T E U

ilans, Innocent IV. publilhcd a croifado. With this
help, in a year's time, tiiey fubdutd the provinces of
Warmia, Natangia, and Barthia ; the inh ibitants of which
renounced the worfhip of idols ; and, in tlie courfe of fifty
years more, they reduced all Pruffia, Livonia, Samo-
gitia, and Pomerania, &c.

In 1204, duke Albert had founded the order of Sword-
bearers, Port-daives, which now becan\e united to the
Teutonic kniglits, and the union was approved by pope
Gregory JX.

The order, thus mafters of all PrufTia, built the cities of
Elbing, Maricnburg, Thorn, Dantzick, Koningfberg,
and fome others: the emperor Frederic II. permitted
them to add to the arms of their order, the imperial
eagle ; and St. Louis, in 1 250, allowed them to quarter
the fleur-de-lis.

After the city of Acre had been recovered by the infi-
dels, the grand-mafter of the Teutonic order removed his
feat from that city to Marienburg. As the order grew in
power, the knights took more ftate on them ; and at
length, inflead of friars, brothers, as at firft, would be
called lorjj. And though the grand-mafter Conrade
Zolncra, of Rotenilcine, oppofed this innovation, his
fuccelTor Conrade Wallerod not only approved it, but
even procured himft-lf to be treated with honours only
rendered to the greateft princes.

Divifions being got into the order, the kings of Poland
made their advantage of them : the Pruffians revolted to
them : and after feveral wars between the knights and the
Poles, the former yielded to king Cafimir the Upper Pruf-
fia, and did homage to him for the Lower.

At the time of the Reformation, Albert, marquis of
Brandenburg, then grand-mafter, becoming a Lutheran,
renounced the dignity of grand-mafter, difiblved the com-
manderics, and drove the knights out of Pruffia.

Moft of the knights followed his example, and embraced
the reformation : the reft transferred the feat of their
order to Margentheim, or Mariendahl, in Franconia,
which they ftill retain.

They there elcfted Walter of Cromberg their grand-
mafter, formed a procefs againft Albert, and the emperor
put him to the ban of the empire. The order, how-
ever, could never recover their domains ; and are now
little more than the fhadow of what they formerly were,
having only three or four commanderies, icarcely fufficient
for the ordinary fubfiftence of the grand-mafter and his
knights.

The officers of the Teutonic order, when in its fplendor,
were the grand-mafter, who refided at Mai-ienburg : un-
der him were the grand-commander ; the grand-marftial,
who had his refidence at Koningftjerg ; the grand-hofpi-
taler, who refided at Elbing ; the draper, who took
care to furnifh the habits ; the treafurer, who lived at
the court of tlie grand-mafter ; and feveral commanders,
as thofe of Thorne, Cuhne, Brandenburg, Koninglberg,
Elbing, &c.

They had alfo their commanders of particular caftles and
fortreffijs; advocates, provcditors, intendants of mills,
provifions. Sec.

Waiftl'hus, in his Annals, fays they had twenty-eight
commanders of cities, forty-fix of caftles, eighty-one
hofpitalers, thirty-five maftors of convents, forty ftcw-
ards, thirty-feven proveditors, ninety-three mafters of
mills, feven hundred brothers or knights to take the
field, one hundred and fixty-two brothers of the choir,
or pricfts, and fix thoufand two hundred fervitors or
domeftics.

TEW

TEUTSCH Leipsh, in Geography, a town of Hungary
5 miles E. of Rofenberg.

Teutsch Pron, a town of Hungary; 10 miles N.W.
of Kremnitz.

TEUTSCHDORF, a town of Hungary; 5 miles
N.W. of Cafchau.

TEUTSDORF, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Oberland ; 10 miles E.N.E. of Holland.

TEUVRENT, a town of Africa ; 145 miles E.N.E.
of Fez.

TEUW, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea. S.lat.
7° 11'. E. long. 129° 20'.

TEUXUNTA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Sicily,
which had been built by Micythus, king of Rhegium and
Zancle, according to Diodorus Siculus.

TEWANTAPAGUE, in Gw^raz-^v, a town of Mexico,
in the province of Guaxaca ; 135 miles E.S.E. of Guaxaca.

TEWKESBURY, anciently Teodechejberte, a large
and refpcftable borough and market-town, in the lower
divifion of the hundred of the fame name, in Gloucefter-
ffiire, England, is fituated in the vale of Eveiham, on the
eaftern banks of the Avon, near its confluence with the
Severn, at the diftance of 8 miles N.N.E. from Gloucefter,
and 104 miles W.N.W. from London. This town was
rendered famous in hiftorv, from a battle fought near
it, between the Yorkifts and Lancaftrians, wherein Ed-
ward IV. gave a total overthrow to Henry VI. Three
thoufand of the Lancaftrians were reported to have been
ilain in the field, and queen Margaret, with many others,
was taken prifoner. The feveral circumftances which oc-
curred during the engagement, and the events fubfequent to
the victory, are very fully related in the hiftories of England.
Tewkefbury was again the fcene of another aftion in the
civil wars of Charles I. It was at different periods in
pofleffion of both parties ; and the final capture of it by
the parliamentary forces was of great confoquence as a
frontier town, fecuring that fide of the county, and com-
manding great part of Worcefterftiire.

Tewkeft)ury was firft incorporated by charter in the 1 7th
of Elizabeth, under the title of " baihffs, burgoftes, and com-
munity of the borough of Tewkcftiury." Other charters
were granted by James I. and James II. ; the latter, in the
fecond year of his reign, re-incorpoi-ated them by the
name of " mayor, aldermen, and common council ;" but this
charter was not afted upon : and the government of the
town, as a corporation, was dormant till 13 William III.
when the prefent charter was obtained, under which the
town is governed by twenty -four principal burgelTes, vs'ho,
with twenty-four affiftants, aft independent of the magif-
trates of the county. From thefe are annually elefted two
bailiffs and four juftices, who, with the recorder, form the
magiftracy of the corporation. The privilege of fending
members to parliament was firft obtained 7 James I. The
right of elefticn is in the freemen and freeholders within
the borough : the latter of whom have a vote generally for
the county. The number of voters amount to about 500,
and the bailiff's are the returning officers. The principal
manufafture for the employment of the inhabitants is
ftocking-frame work knitting, particularly cotton. This
fupplies work for the Houfe of Induftry, which is a
modern building, well adapted for the purpofe of reniler-
ing the poor cleanly, moral, and induftrious. The mar-
kets, which were eftabliftied as early as the Conqueft, are
held on Wednefday and Saturday : and here ai-e feven
annual fairs. The town-hall, which is a handfome edifice,
was erefted by fir William Codrington in 1788, at an
expence of 1200/. The ground-floor is appropriated for

holding

TEW

TEX

holding tlie quarter -feflions ; the upper floor for a banquetting
room, and for the meeting of the corporation. Among
the charitable eftabliftimcnts are a free grammar-fchool, a
eharity-fcliool, and feveral alms-houfes. The Anabaptills,
Quakers, Independents, and Metliodifts, have each a meet-
ing-houfe in the town. The population, according to the
returns of the year 1811, amounted to 4820; the number
of houfes being 1003 : the latter are chiefly of brick, and
principally ranged in three fpacious ftreets. Since the
year 1786, when an aft was pafTed for paving and lighting
the town, many improvements have been made ; and the
buildings have affumed an air of refpcftabiHty.

The Ahhey. — A monaftcry was lirft ereftc-d here, and
endowed by two brothers, Oddo and Doddo, dukes of
Mercia, A.D. 715, to the honour of the lilefTed Virgin,
which having undergone many calamities during the civil
and Danifli wars, about 980 became a priory, fubjeft to
Cranbourn in Dorfotlhire : but Robert Fitzhamon, a noble
Norman, who came to England with the Conqueror,
enlarged the buildings and increafed the poflefiions ot
Tewkefbury fo much, that the monks of Cranbourn
chofe, about 1102, to remove to this place, leaving
only a prior and two monks behind, and made Cran-
bourn in future fubjeft to the abbey of Tewkefbury.
From this time it became a great eftablifhment of Benedic-
tine monks ; and at the fupprelTion, the annual revenues
amounted to 1598/. \s. 7,d., exclufive of 136/. 8j. \d.
granted by ihc convent for fees and annuities : its plate
alfo was very valuable, the facrifty alone containing 142 1
ounces. After the diflblution, the deftriiftion of the
nionaftic buildings was rapid and complete, through the
inefFeftual oppoiition of the monks to the vifitors ap-
pomted by the king, who, in revenge, deftroyed the
Lady chapel, cloifters, chapter-houfe, and other appen-
dages by fire. The remains of the buildings were after-
wards purchafed by the inhabitants : and the Abbey
Church was made parochial. This magnificent ftrufture
difplays an interefting example of early Norman architec-
ture, combined with fpecimens of later ftyles, and is in
other refpefts well calculated to arreft the attention of the
antiquary. It is built in the cathedral form, and confifts
of a nave, choir, tranfept, and central tower, with the
addition of feveral chapels, ranged roimd the aifle of the
choir. The nave and choir are feparated from the aifles
by eighteen mailive columns, fuftaining the roof, and four
fubftantial piers which fupport the tower. At the weft
end is a large window with a pointed arch, which appears
to have been introduced within a femicircular arch in
1656. There were cloifters on the fouth fide of the
nave, where fome fragments yet remain ; and appear to
have been highly ornamented in a fimilar ftyle to thofe at
Gloucefter. The tower, according to the Abbey chro-
nicles, was once terminated by a wooden Ipire, which fell
down on Eafter-day, 1559. The moft remarkable fpecimens
of the architefture are three tiers of arcades in the upper
part ; the arches of the middle tier iiave interefting
mouldings. The length of the churcli is 300 fgct ; of the
tramfept 1 20 ; the breadth of the choir and fide-aifles is
70 feet; of the weft front 100; the height from the area
to the roof is 120 feet ; the height of the tower 152 feet.
The monuments, which are numerous, have attracted the
attention of various antiquaries, particularly Mr. Gough
and Mr. Lvfons ; the latter of whom has taken great
pains in afiigning the different tombs to the real perfons
they were intended to commemorate : many miftakes, in
this refpeft, having been committed on traditional authority

by former writers. Near the weft end of the church is. the
Abbey Gate-houfe, which appears of the age of the fifteenth
century : it is embattled and ornamented with grotefque
figures, projefling from a cornice ; beneath which is a

canopied niche between two fquare windows Dyde's

Hiftory, &c. of Tewkefbury, 8vo. 1798. Rudge's Hiflory
of Gloncefterfliire, vol. i. 1 803. Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. v. Gloucefterlhire j by J. Britton and E. W.
Brayley.

Tewkesbuky, called Wamejit, or Pawtuchl, by the In-
dians, a townfhip of MafTachufetts, in the county of Middle-
fex, containing 943 inliabitants ; 24 miles N. of Bofton.

TEXALI, in j^nciciit Geography, the inhabitants of the
fua-coafts of Aberdeenfhire ; who had a town, called De-
vana, at the mouth of the river Deva (Dee), where oltf
Aberdeen now ftands.

TEXAS, in Geography, a province of New Spain, which
properly forms part of Louifiana. This province is claimed
by Spain as part of the internal provinces, and included in
the vaft intendancy of San Louis Potofi : k is bounded E.
by the ftate of Louifiana, S. by the gulf of Mexico, W.
by an imaginary limit, and N. by Red river, and contains an
area exceeding 100,000 fquare miles. The capital of this
province is the garrifon of San Antonio de Bejar, ridicu-
loufly called the New Philippines. It was founded in 1731,
confifting of a captain, a lieutenant, and one company of
foldiers. The ftation of Cenis in this province, is now a mere
Indian village, with the ruins of a fo-rt built by the French.
That called Natchitoches, from an Indian tribe, friends of
the French and enemies of the Spaniards, was a fmall fort,
built on an ifland of the Red river by fome French veterans.
But the ftation of Adayes, or Adaes, is regjarded by the
Spanifh writers as the extreme fortrefs in this quarter : it is
feated in a fertile counti-}-, at the diftance of two leagues from
a lake of the fame name, which abounds in fiih, and which
in fome parts is five leagues in di.imeter, and probably ten in
circumference, with a gulf which may be navigated by large
vefTels. In the middle of the lake is a hill, or rock, of a
pyramidal form, more than 100 yards in circumference, the
ftone of which refembles cryflal in its rcfleftion of the folar
rays, and it is the highelt in the diftrift. The vicinity
abounds in wild cattle, bears and beavers ; and the foil is
fertile in maize and other grain. Pinkerton.

TEXEIRA, Joseph (Peter), in Biography, a Portu-
tuguefe hiftorian, was born in 1543, entered among the Do-
minicans, and became prior of the monaftcry at Santarem
in 1578. When Phihp II. of Spain tuok pofteffion of Por-
tugal, Texeira attached himfelf to Don Antonio, who had
been proclaimed king by the Porluguefe, and accompanied
him into France. In 1582 he was taken prifoner by the
.Spaniards, but made his efcape from Lifbon. He became
confeifor to Don Antonio, and, in proccfs of time, preacher
and almoner to the French king Henry III. He afterwards
attached himfelf to Henry IV., and in 1596 affifted at the
abjuration of Calvinifm by the princefs of Conde. He was
fent on oiie milTion to England, and favourably received by
king James. He died at Paris in 1604, as fome fay ; but
according to another account, in 1620.

In 1582, Texeira printed his " Compendium de Portu-
galhae ortu Regni initiis, &c." This work was anfwered
by order of the king of Spain ; and Texeira replied, in
1592, by a " Confutatio, &c." wrhich profelfed to refute
the hereditary right of Pliilip to the crown of Portugal, and
to v-indicate that of Don Antonio ; — probably the fame work
that is entitled " De Elcttionis Jure quod competit Viris
Portugallcnfibus in-augurandis fuis Regibus," Lyons, 1589.

As

T E X

A? a genealogift, under which char.-iacr he was diftinguiflieJ,
he publiflied in l 590, " Exegefis Genealogica Arboris Gen-
tilitiit Henrici IV., Gullorum Regis," enlarged in 1598, with
the addition of iIk- princefs ot Condc's abjuration. In
token of tlie indignation he felt at the feizure of his country
by Philip, he affirmed, as it is faid, in one of his fermons,
that " we were bound to love all men, of whatever religion,
fed or nation, even if they were Caftilians." Bayle.

Moreri. „ 1 r tjt 1

TEXEL, or Tessel, in Geography, an ifland ot Hol-
land, about 1 1 miles in length, and fix in its grcatell breadth ;
fituated at the mouth of the Zuyder See, with a capacious
and good harbour, and a fort, which commands the en-
trance ; befides a town of the fame name, it contains iix vil-
lages : the land is fertile in pafture, and the whole well fe-
cured with dikes of prodigious ftrength and height. Near
this iflaiid was the celebrated fea-fight, between the fleet of
Holland, under admiral Martin Harpertz Tromp, and that of
England, under admiral Blake, in the year 1653, in which
Tromp was killed. In the year 1673 a battle was fought
between the fleet of Holland and the united fleets of Eng-
land and France, in which the viftory was doubtful. N.
lat. 53°5'. E. long. 4° 40'.

TEXEUIT, or Tevent, a town of Morocco; 100
miles W.N.W. of Morocco.

TEXT, a relative term, contradiftinguilhed to glofs or
commentary ; and fignifying an original difcourfe, exclufive
of any note or interpretation.

Infinite pains have been taken by the critics, to reftore,
reconcile, fettle, explain, &c. the text of the bible, and
that of the claffics. See Bible.

Mr. Whifton accounts for all thofc mifundcrftandings
between the Old and New Teftament, particularly as to the
prophecies in the Old, cited as fulfilled in the New, from the
corruption of the text of the Old Teftament ; and to obviate
objeftions made againft; Chriftianity on that head, has pub-
lilhed an " Effay towards reftoring the true Text of the
Old Teftament." See Prophecy.

This reftoration he attempts to effeft from the Samaritan
Pentateuch, the Roman Pfalter, the Apoftolical Conftitu-
tions, &c.

It fufficiently appears from the learned and acceptable la-
bours of the late Dr. Kennicott, in collating the Hebrew
manufcripts of the Old Teftament, that the alterations in-
troduced into the text, &c. are moftly of a trivial na-
ture, and by no means affedl the authority of the facred
writings.

Text is particularly ufed for a certain paffage of fcrip-
ture chofen by a preacher, to be the fubjeft of his fermon.

A coileftion of texts appropriate to different fubjefts,
and judicioufly arranged, has been publifhed by Dr. En-
field for the ufe of preachers in the compofition of their dif-
courfes, and alfo of bibhcal readers and ftudents.

Anciently, the lawyers began all their pleadings with like
texts of fcripture.

A text-book, in feveral univerfities, is a claflic author
written very wide, by the ftudents, to give room for an inter-
pretation diftated by the mafter or regent, to be inferted in
the interlines.

In this fenfe, the French fay, proverbially, Glqffe cPOr-
hans plus obfcure que !e texte.

The Spaniards gave the name text to a kind of little
poem, or fet of verfes placed at the head of a glofs, and
making the fubjeft of it : each verfe being explained, one
after another, in the courfe of the glofs.

Text, in Ancient Law Authors, is appropriated to the

T F U

book of the Four Gofpcls, by way of eminence. Thefe
were written in gold letters, and carefully preferved in the
churches.

" Codex aurato confeptus grammate fcriptus.
Auftus evangelicum conTervat corpore textum."

TEXTUARIES, TEXTUARri, a name given to the feft.
of the Caraitcs, among the Jews.

Hillel Ihone among the traditionaries, and Schammai
among the textuaries.

The civil and canon lawyers fometimes alfo call a book
containing the bare text, without any glofs or commentary,
a textuary, textuarium.

TEXTURE, Textura, formed of texo, / weave, prs-
perly denotes the arrangement and cohefion of feveral flen-
der bodies or threads interwoven or entangled among each
other : as in the webs of fpiders, or in cloths, ftuffs, &c.

Texture is alfo ufed in fpeaking of any union or cohe-
fion of the conftituent particles of a concrete body ; whether
by weaving, hooking, knitting, tying, chaining, indenting,
intruding, comprefTiiig, attrafting, or any other way.

In this fenfe, we lay a clofe, compaft texture,; a lax,
porous texture ; a regular or irregular texture, &c.

A great deal depends on the texture of the component
parts of a body : hence moft of its particular properties, its
fpecific gravity, colour, &c.

TEXTUS RoFFENSio, ie an ancient manufcript, con-
taining the rights, cuftoms, tenures, &c. of the church of
Rochefter, granted by the laws of Ethelbert, Hhollhere,
Eadred, and Withred, kings of Kent, coUefted by Er-
nulf, the venerable biftiop of Rochefter, about the year
1 100.

TEYA, in Geography, a river of Autlria, which rifes
about three miles N. from Germs, pafles through a part
of Moravia, and runs into the Marfch, 1 1 miles N.E. of
Zifterfdorf.

TEYN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Boleflau ;
12 miles W.N.W. of Jung Buntzel.

TE-YUEN, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of Corca ;
93 miles N.E. of King-ki-tao.

TEZA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Fez, with
a caftle. It was once a populous city, but is now much
decayed, yet is ftill the refidence of a governor and a gar-
rifon ; 20 leagues N.N.E. of Fez.

TEZCUCO, or Tetzcoco, a lake of Spanilh Ame-
rica, in the province of Mexico. The conjuntl lakes of
Tezcuco and Chalco are found to be about 30 Briiifh miles
in length, and the former is about 15 miles in breadth ; but
as the latter is partly drained, fo as to be at the diftance of a
league from the city, it is probably about twelve miles in
breadth. This lake is celebrated in hiftory, as originally
containing the city of Mexico, and alfo as remarkable for
the qualities of the water, partly frefli, and partly falinc.
The Chalco, or frefli-water lake in thefouth, appears to flow
by a narrow channel into the fait lake of Tezcuco. See
Mexico, fubftituting for Tezeuco, Tez,cuco.

TEZELA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Al-
giers ; 5 leagues S.W. of Gran.

TEZERGBE, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Fez ; 100 miles E.S.E. of Teza.

TEZOUT, or Tessot, a town of Africa, in the king-
dom of Fez ; 35 miles S. of Melilla.

TFENI, a town of Egypt, on the Nile ; 10 miles S.E.
of Rofetta.

TFUOI, in the Chlnefe Manufaflory of Porcelain, a word

ufed to exprcfs a particular fort of varnilh for that ware,

4 with

T H A

with violet-colour and gold. The ufual mctiiod of doing
this at iirft, was by mixing gold with the common varnifti,
breaking the leaves very fmall, and- then adding the com-
mon blue and the powder of calcined agate of a coarfe
kind, found in great plenty on the (horcs of their rivers.
But they have lince found that the brown varnifh called
tfck'tn fucceeds much better, for when the blue is mixed
with this, its brown colour is loR, and the gold lies on much
better than it would any other way.

They had once a method of a varied varnifli, which was
very beautiful, but is much neglefted now ; this was the
giving a velfel the brown varnidi on the outfide with a large
portion of gold, and the common white varnifh within.
They alfo varied tiie degree of colour on the outfide, by
laying on more or lefs of the varnifli ; and gave this way a
variety, even in the fame colour. Obferv. fur les CoCltumes
de I'Afie, p. 308.

TGIDT, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Oman ; 48 miles N. of Fartach.

THABBA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia
pelix, fituated between Menambis and Seba, now Ebha.
Ptol. — Alfo, an ancient town of Africa, in the vicinity of
Tichafa.

THABET Ebn Korra, in Biography. See Thebit
Ben Corah.

THABILIACA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Albania, between the rivers Genus and Soanes. Ptol.

THABIR, in Geography, a mountain of Arabia; 20
miles S. of Medina.

THABO R, in Jncient Geography. See Tabor.

THABORITES. See Tabokites.

THABRACA Colonia, Tabarha, in Ancient Geogra-
phy, a town and Roman colony of Africa, in Numidia, ac-
cording to Ptolemy. It was fituated on the weftern bank,
and near the mouth of the river Tufca. Some veftiges re-
main of walls and ciilerns.

THABUCA, a town of Spain, in the interior of the
Tarragonenfis, belonging to the Varduli. Ptol.

THACAS, Saxac, in Antiquity, a general name given to
the place or feat where the augurs made their obfervations.

THACCONA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in Babylonia, upon an arm of the Euphrates. Ptol.

THACES, a people of Scythia, on tliis fide of the
Jmaus, and near it. Ptol.

THACK Tyles. ■ See Tvle.

TH^MA, in Ancient Geography, a town in the interior
of Arabia Deferta. Ptol.

TH^NA, or Th^en,?:, a town placed by Strabo, Pliny,
and Ptolemy, on thecoaft of Africa, towards the commence-
ment of the LefTer Syrtes. — Alfo, a town of Afia, in Syria,
fituated, according to Ptolemy, in Cyrrhcftica.

THAGIA, in Geography, a town of Africa; 1 00 miles
S.S.W. of Fez.

THAGORA, TiNGORAN, in Ancient Geography, a poft
of India, at the bottom of a fmall gulf, in the eailern part
of the peninfula, beyond the Ganges.

THAGULIS, a tov/n of Africa, fituated between the
Two Syrtes. Ptol.

THAHAR KiAMEN, in Geography, a poft of Chinefe
Tartary ; 15 miles N.E. of Tcitcicar.

THAH ATH, in Ancient Geography, the place of the 23d
llation of the Ifraelites, where they encamped, after having
left Mauloth ; fituated in the defert of Arabia, S. of Mauloth.
TRAINEE, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Tunis, near the eait coaft, but without a harbour,
at a fmall diftance from the mouth of a river of the Canic
name : 120 miles S. of Tunis.

T H A

THAIS, a town of France, in the department of Paris ;
2 leagues S.S.E. of Paris.

Thais, a name given by ^ginctato a cofmetic cerate, in-
tended to give a beautiful red to the face. Galon ufes the
fame word to exprels a fort of bandage.

THALA, Ferre Anach, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Africa, in Numidia, according to Salhift and Tacitus. — Alfo,
a mountain of Africa, in Interior Eibya, and the people in-
habiting its vicinity were called Thal^e.

THALACH, in Geography, a river of Bavaria, which
runs into the Schwarzach ; 5 miles W. of Greding.

THALAMEGUS, among the .(^n<:;Vn/j, a (hip of plea-
fure, or yatch ufcd by princes. It was always provided with
a good cabin, or bed-chamber. See Ship.

THALAMI Nervorum Opticorum, in Anatomy, Xw'io em-
nences in the brain. See Brain.

THALAMIA, in Botany, i'ec Lichenes, one of whofe
kinds of Apolhecium, or receptacle, is fo denominated by
Acharius.

THALAMII, among the Ancients, thofe rowers who
fat in the-loweft part of the fhip. See the next article.

THALAMIT^iE, in the Nairn! ArchiteSure of the An-
cients, a term ufedto exprefs thofe rowers in the polycrote gal-
leys, or thofe who contained feveral feries of rowers, who fat
on the thalamus of the vcfi'el, and made the loweft row. Thefe
moved their oars and hands under the feats of the row that
fat next above them. See Polycrota.

THALAMIUM, among tlie Ancients, a port-hole,
through which the oars of the rowers in the bottom of the
fliip went.

THALAMUS, in Botany, a term ufed to exprefs that
part of the flower in the capitated or flofculous-flowered
plants, where the embryo fruits of every fcparate flofcule are
lodged, and where afterwards the feeds are contained. This
is the bottom of the cup, in the central part of which it ad-
heres to the ftalk.

THALASSAR, in Ancient Geography, a province of
Afia, between Mefopotamia and Armenia.

THALASSOMELI, the name of a medicine ufed as
a purge among the ancients. It was compofed of equal
parts of honey, fea-water, and rain-water, expofed to the
fun in the dog-days, in a veflel pitched on the infide. It
purged in the fame manner that fea-water alone would do,
but only in a milder way.

THALASSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town or port
in the fouthern part of the ifle of Crete.

THALATHA, a town of Afia, in Babylonia, on the
banks of the Tigris, and S. of Apamea.

THALATTA, a lake or marfli, at the foot of mount
Caucafus, in the environs of the people called " Coraxi."
It difcharged its waters into the Euxine fea, near a place
called Beithea-Ponti.

THALBIS, a river of Albania, between the Gerrus and
the Soanes. Ptol.

THALEA, a town of Paleftine, in the tribe of Simeon,
according to the book of Jofliua.

THALER, in Commerce. See Rixdollar.
THALES, in Biography, the founder of the Ionic
fchool, and of the fcientilic method of philofophifing r;mong
the Greeks, was born of Phoenician parents, at Miletus, in
the firfl year of the 35th Olympiad, or about the year 580
B.C. He acquired wealth and diftinftion among his coun-
trymen, and was employed at an early age in public af-
fairs. He dechned involving himfelf by marriage in the
cares of a family, that he might devote his whole time and
attention to the ftudy of philofophy ; alleging, as it is
faid, to his mother, who urged him to marry, at aij early age

"it

T H A

«' it is too fooii," and at a more advanced period " "t '^to"
late." In order more entirely to difeiigage himfelf from
every avocation that would divert his mind from his fa-
vourite purfuits, he commiited tiie care of his eftate to his
filler's fon, whom he adopted. In fearch of wifdom, he
travcUcd to Crete, and afterwards to Egypt. From the
pricfts at Memphis in the latter country, he is faid by feveral
writers to have gained his knowledge of philofophy and ma-
thematics. But it is more probable that he was more in-
debted to his own talents and afQduity in the exercife of
them, than, to any communication from them ; and accord-
ingly it has been affirmed, that he taught them how to mea-
fure the height of their pyramids. Upon his return to
Miletus, he was univcrfally refpeiSled for his extraordinar)-
wifdora and learning; and his acquaintance was eagerly
courted by all who widied to improve in knowledge or to
be ranked among philofophers. He was not prevented,
however, by tliefe engagements from profccuting his mathe-
matical, philofophical, and mctaphylical ftudies. In this
courfc of improvement and«fefulnefs, and of imparting, as
well as of acquiring knowledge, he protrafted his life to
the great age of ninety years, and died, through mere in-
firmity, whilil he was attending the Olympic games.
Thale's was ranked among the feven wife men of Greece,
and might juftly be reckoned one of this number, whether we
confidcr his fcientific attainments, or the moral maxims and
aphorifms which are afcnbed to him. Of thefe maxims, we
fhall feleft the following: " Neither the crimes, nor the
tlioughts, of bad men are coneealed from the gods. Health
of body, competent fortune, and a cultivated mind, are
the chief fources of happinefs. What is the moft difficult
thing ? To know one's felf. What the eafieft ? To give
advice to others. How fhall we bell attain to virtue ? By
abftaining from all that we blame in others. Parents may ex-
peA from their children that obedience which they paid to
their own parents. Take more pains to correft the blemifhes
of the mind, than thofe of the face. Stop the mouth of flan-
der by prudence. Be careful not to do that yourfelf, which
you blame in another. Friends fhould be remembered when
abfent, as well as when prefent." Laertius. Brucker by
Enfield, vol. i. For an account of his philofophical doc-
trines and other particulars, we refer to the article Ionic
SeS.

THALETAS of Crete, a famous lyric poet, celebrated
by all ?.ntiquity as a medical mufician, is faid to have delivered
the Lacedaemonians from the peflilence by the fweetnefs of
liis lyre ; but credulity in the powers of mufic muft be very
llrong indeed, in thofe who could believe it poflible for mu-
fic to drive away the peftilenre. Thaletas, however, was
univerfally believed to have poirefTed this power ; but it is
irapoffible to render the fact credible, without qualifying it
by feveral circumftances omitted in the relation. In the firft
place, it is certain that this poet was received among the La-
cedjemonians during the plague, by command of an oracle ;
that by virtue of this miflion, all the poetry of the hymns
which he fung, mufl have confifled of prayers and fupplica-
tions, in order to avert the anger of the gods againil the
people, whom he exhorted to facrifices, expiations, purifica-
tions, and many other afts of devotion ; which, however
fuperflitious, could not fail to agitate the minds of the m.ul-
titude, and to produce nearly the fame effefts as public faflrs,
and, in Cathohe countries, proceffions, at prefent, in times
of danger, by exaltiiig tne courage, and by animating hope.
The difeafe having, probably, reached its higheft pitch
of malignity when the mufician arrived, mufl afterwards
have become lefs contagious by degrees ; till, at length,
ceafing of itfelf, by the air wafting away the feeds of infec-

10

T H A

tion, and recovering its former purity, the extirpation of
the difeafe was attributed by the people to the mufic of
Thaletas, who had been thought the lole mediator, to whom
they owed their happy deliverance.

This is probably what Plutarch means, who tells the
ftory ; and what Homer meant, in attributing the ceffation
of the plague among the Greeks, at the fiege of Troy, to
mufic.

" With hymns divine the joyous banquet ends.
The Paeans lengthen'd till the fun defccnds :
The Greeks reflor'd, the grateful notes prolong ;
Apollo liftens, and approves the fong."

Pope's Homer's Ihad, book i.

For the poet, in this paflage, feems only to fay, that Apollo
was rendered favourable, and had delivered the Greeks from
the fcourge with which they were attacked, in confequence
of Chryfeis having been reflored to her father, and of facri-
fices and offerings.

This poet-mufician has been confounded by fome writers
with Thales the celebrated Milefian philofopher ; but ac-
cordingto Plutarch (in Lyciu-g.) he was cotemporary with
Lycurgus the Spartan legiQator, and lived about three hun-
dred years after the Trojan war. Plutarch alfo informs us,
that though Thaletas was only flyled a lyric poet and mu-
fician, he was likewife a grert philofopher and politician ;
infomuch that Lycurgus brought him from Crete, when he
returned from his travels, to Sparta, in order to have af-
fiflance from him, in ellabhfhing his new form of govern-
ment. His odes, continues Plutarch, were fo many exhort-
ations to obedience and concord, which he enforced by the
fweetnefs of his voice and melody. Plato, likewife, defcribes
his captivating manner of fmging ; and Plutarch, in his
Dialogue on Mufic, afcribes to Thaletas many mufical com-
pofitions and inventions : fuch as Paeans, and new meafures
in verfe, as well as rhythms in mufic, which he had acquired
fVom the flute-playing of Olympus, whom he at firfl had
imitated. Porphyry, in his Life of Pythagoras, fays that
this philofopher ufed to amufe himfelf with finging the old
Paeans of Thaletas ; and Athensus likewife tells us, that
the Spartans long continued to fing his airs ; and, accord-
ing to the fcholiaft on Pindar, this poet-mufician was the firfl
who compofed the Hyporchemes for the armed, or military
dance.

There was another poet and mufician of the name of
Thaletas, who was likewife a Cretan, but who flourifhed
much later than the cotemporary and friend of Lycurgus.

TH ALFANG, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Sarre ; ii miles S.S.W. of Traarbach.

THALHEIM, a citadel of Bavaria, in the territory of
Nuremberg ; 6 miles S.E. of Herfbruck.

THALIA, in Botany, was fo named by Linnaeus, in
memory of John Thalius, a phyfician at Nordhaufen, in
Germany, who wrote Sylva Hercynia, a catalogue of the
plants of the Hercynian foreft towards Saxony, which ac-
companies the Hortvs Medicus of Joachim Camerarius, both
having been printed together at Francfort on the Maine in
1588 ; and they are both illuflrated by excellent wooden
cuts. Thalius died in 1587, of a fraAured thigh, in con-
fequence of a fall from his carriage. His work abounds
with original defcriptions and remarks ; but as Haller ob-
ferves, it is not eafy to afcertain all the numerous fpecies or
varieties of which he treats. The genus before us was ori-
ginally called CoRTUSA by Plumier ; but that name remains
with a very different plant, as the reader will find its pro-
per place. — Linn. Gen. 4. Schreb. 6. Wilk PL
V. I. 15. Ait. Hort. Kew. v, i. 3. Rofcoe T-

^ K ooC.

T H A

T II A

Soc. V. 8. 340. t. 20. f. 3. Brown Prodr. Nov. HoU. v. I.
307. Purih 584. JufT. 63. (Cortufa; Plum. Gen. 26.
t. 8. Peronia; Redout. Liliac. v. 6. 342.) — Clafs and order,
Monandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Scitaminee, Linn. Canrnc,
Juff. Cannes, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Col. Perianth fuperior, of three equal, ovato-
lanccolate, permanent leaves. Cor. of one petal, irregular.
Tube none. Limb double : the outer divided to the bafe
into three equal, oblong, concave fegments, much longer
tlian the calyx : inner two-lipped ; its upper lip convolute,
abrupt, flightly three-lobed, hardly fo long as the outer
limb ; lower twice as long, deeply three-lobed, with two
awl-fliaped appendages, the central lobe contrafted in the
middle. Stam. Filament one, declining, linear, dcprefied,
the length of the upper lip, and attached to one of its
edges ; anther fimple, ovate, of one cell, opening inwards.
Piji. Germen inferior, roundifh ; ftyle cylindrical, longer
than the ftamen, revolute ; lligma irregular, ringent, per-
forated, beardlefs. Perk. Berry oval, of one cell, with a
thin pulp. Seed folitary, large, oval, with a large horny
albumen, and a folitary, central, curved embryo, accom-
panied by an empty cell.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of three leaves. Corolla of one petal,
in five deep unequal fegments, without a tube. Anther
fimple, ovate. Style recuived. Stigma ringent, perforated.
Berry with one feed.

Obf. The characters and ftrufture of the flower have in
few genera been involved in fo much uncertainty as in Thalia.
We have endeavoured to draw up as corredl a defcription as
we could, from Mr. Sowerby's excellent plate of Thalia
dealbata, publifhed in 1794, by the late Mr. Frafer, and de-
lineated under our infpeftion. Mr. Brown's learned remarks
have affifted us as to the feed. The above defcription will
be found to agree with Plumier's account of the original
fpecies, as far as any thing can be underftood from thence ;
leaving little doubt that the two plants in queftion form one
genus. Linnseus has left many manufcript correftions of his
generic charafters of Thalia, we know not from whence de-
rived, which, though they accord as far as they go with
our obfervations, do not fuperfede them. The prefent genus,
no doubt, is next akin to Maranta, but their differences
will appear evident from a comparifon of their defcriptions.
They both belong to the new order of Cann£, or Canne<e,
recently feparated by Mr. Rofcoe and Mr. Brown from the
Linnaean Scitamine.'E. See that article.

I. T. geniculata. Diftant-flowered Thalia. Linn. Sp.
PI. 3. Willd. n. I. Swartz Obf. 9. (Cortufa arundinacea,
amplis cannacori foliis ; Plum. Gen. 26. Ic. 98. t. 108.
f. I.) — Leaves ovate. Flowers remote, alternate. Bradeas
oblong — Native of the Weft Indies, but hitherto feen by
Plumier only. His figures are our only certain authority
for this fpecies ; for Dr. Swartz has well obferved, that the
fynonyms which authors have accumulated, do not belong
to it ; and that what RottboU has defcribed and figured,
feems more akin to T- cannafonnis, hereafter mentioned. We
have indeed fpecimens, gathered by Mr. Frafer in 1810, in
Cuba, near the Havannah, which greatly referable Plumier's
figure, and may be his plant, though from the impoffibility
of exami.nng their fruftification, we dare not alfert them to
be fo. Nevcrthelefs we fhall defcribe them, that botanifts
may form their own opinion. The Jlem is feveral feet in
height, erefl, round, fmooth, leafy, alternately branched.
heaves alternate, ovate, pointed, fmooth, above a foot long,
with one rib, and many fine tranfverfe curved veins. Foot-
fialk fhe.r'iing, comprcifed, half as long as the leaf, with an
oblo- .tlindrical knot at the fummit. Panicle fubdivided,
,j linear, obtufe, flat, ere&fcales, or general braScas,
» OL. 'IXXV.

at each fubdivifion. FhTver-JljIks zigzag, knotty, round,
two or three inches long. Partial Iradeai two at each knot,
the outermoll much the largcft, embracing and concealing
the other, an inch in length, elHptic-oblong, green, finely
ribbed, clothed with fcattered fhining haira. Between thefc
braSeas is fituated a j)air oi Jlovters, whofe dried corolla is
partly purple, and whofe pale, much convoluted and wrinkled
lip bears fome ref -mblance to Plumier's figure.

2. T. dealbata. Mealy ThaUa. Rofcoe Tr. of Linn.
Soc. V. 8. 340. Dry and. in Ait. n. i. Purfh n. i.
Frafer's Tingle plate. Curt. Mag. t. 1690. (Peronia
ftrifta ; Redout. Liliac. t. 342.) — Leaves ovate. Flowers

crowded. Brafteas ovate, nie'aly Native of impenetrable

fwamps in South Carohna, flowering in Augufl and Sep-
tember. Mr. Purfh fays it was firft difcovered there by
T. Millington, cfq. Living plants were brought to Eng-
land by the late Mr. Frafer in 1 791, by which this hand-
fome and curious fpecies firfl became known to botaniftt.
Its root is of courfe perennial. Stem four or five feet high,
ereft, round, fmooth ; leafy at the bottom ; panicled at
the top, covered with a filvery mealinefs, which clothes alfo
the general as well as partial bra&cas, and is eafily rubbed
off by a touch. Leaves light green, fmooth, above a foot
long, on round fheathing Jlalhs, with a knot at the top.
General bra&eas lanceolate, concave, convolute, a fpan long.
Floiuer-Jlalks aggregate or compound. Partial bra^cas
crowded, in pairs, much more tumid, ovate, and fliortcr
than in the foregoing, each pair containing two purple

Jloivers, whofe ftru<5lure is detailed in our generic charaftcr.
Fruit purple, the fize of a hazel-nut, flightly pulpy.

3. T. cannicformis. ElHptical Thalia. Forft. Prodr. i.
Willd. n. 3. Buchanan in Symes's Embaffy to Ava, ed. 2.
v. 3. 305. t. 21. — Leaves elliptical. Partial brafteas linear-
lanceolate, fhorter than the divided partial flower-ftalk —
Native of moift woods in the remote iflands of the Eall
Indies, and the New Hebrides, flowering in March and
April. T\iejlem is fohd, branched, round, fmooth, leafy,
divaricated at the joints. Leaves alternate, broadly ellip-
tical, pointed, fmooth, on round fheathing j?a//fj. Panicle ter-
minal, with long, flender, pendulous branches, upon which the

Jlowers are arranged pretty clofely. Every pair of long nar-
row/lar/ia/ bradeas contains a divided ftalk, bearing two large
whix.tJloTuers, each with the rudiment of another at its bale.
The corolla is fomewhat tubular, and the lower lip of its
inner limb has two large equal lobes, but in other refpefts
the parts of fruftification feem to anfwer well enough to
the generic charafter. The fruit, however, which muft
fettle that point, is unknown.

Our learned and highly valued friend Mr. Rofcoe has fug-
gefted, that the Maranta Cachibou, Jacq. Fragm. Bot. 52.
t. 69 and 70, of which we have a fpecimen gathered by
Mr. Maffon at St. Kitt's, may probably be a Thalia. Its

feed certainly confirms this opinion, but the parts of the

Jlotver are not yet fufficiently defcribed to authorize any
conclufion, nor can we unravel their ftrufture from the
dried plant. Whatever becomes of this fpecies, the Ma-
ranta Cafupo, t. 63. f. 4, of the fame work, and M. Ca-

fupito, t. 64. f. 2, mufl; alfuredly be referred to the fame
genus.

Thalia, in Mythology, one of the nine Mufes, who pre-
fided over comedy and paltorals. She is diftinguiflied from
the other Mufes by her maflc, and from the tragic Mufe
by her fhepherd's crook ; her afpeft is likewife meaner than
that of Melpomene, and her drefs fhorter and lefs noble
than that of the other Mufes.

Thalia was alfo the name of orie of the Graces.
THALICTRUM, in Botany, may poflibly be, as gene-
3 K rally

THALICTRUM.

rally fuppofcd. the OxX.^r^o of Diofcorides, \-om whom
the name is adopted. That point, however, was not deter-
mined by Dr. Sibthorp, though he noticed five fpecies of
this genus in Greece or its utM;rhbourhood. The above
name is, by Ambrofini and others, derived from OaXXv, /»
ie green and fouri /ling. Some old authors occafionally write

it Thalietrum Linn. Gen. 280. Schreb. 277. WiUd.

Sp. PI. v. 2. 1295. Mart. Mill. Dia. V. 4. Sm. Fl.
Brit. 583. Prodr. Fl. Grscc. Sibth. v. 1. 378. Ait.
Hort. Kew. V. 3. 346. PurQl 388. JufT. 232. Tourn.
t. 143. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 497. Gaertn. t. 74 — Clafs
and order, Polyandria Polygynia. Nat. Ord. Mulfijiliqua,
Linn. Ranunculacetr, Juil.

Gen. Ch. Cal. none, except the corolla be taken for
fuch. Cor. Petals four or five, roundilh, obtufe, concave,
deciduous. Stam. Filaments numerous, dilated upwards,
comprcfFed, longer than the corolla ; anthers terminal, ob-
Jong, ercft. Pijl. Germens fuperior, numerous, moftly
llalked, roundilh ; ftyles none ; ftigmas thickifh. There
are alfo fcveral very fhort imperfeft pillils. Feric. none.
Seeds feveral, ovate, furrowed, without any appendage.

EfT. Ch. Calyx none. Petals four or five. Seeds
naked, without appendages.

Obf. Linnscus remarks, that his T. tuherofum and cor-
nutum have five petals ; d'loicum has the ftamens and piftils
on feparate plants ; aquikg'ifollum and contorlum have (talked
pendulous feeds, furnilhcd with three dilated or winged an-
gles ; moreover, that the number of ftamens and piftils dif-
fers in the different fpecies, being fomeCimes lefs than the
charafters of the clafs and order require.

This is a very diftinft well-marked genus of perennial
herbaceous plants, all natives of the cold or temperate
climates of Europe and North America. The leanies are
compound, with roundifh, rarely oblong, lobed or notched
leaflets ; paler, or glaucous, underneath ; ufually fmooth.
Injlorejcence panicled. Flotvers white or yellowifh, with
fome (light tinge of purple, generally of an elegant feathery
appearance. Fourteen fpecies are defcribed in Linn. Sp.
PI. ; twenty-one in Sylt. Veg. ed. 14. Willdenow has
twenty-three. Four are Britifh. Nineteen are enumerated
in Mr. Aiton's Horlus Kewenfis. Their qualities in ge-
neral are believed to be of an acrid nature, like thofe of
Ranunculus and Clematis ; but milder.

We have fome additions and corrections to make, which
require a compendious review of the whole genus.

1. T. alpinum. Alpine Meado'W-Rue. Linn. Sp. PI.
767. Willd. n. I. Fl. Brit. n. i. Engl. Bot. t. 262.
Lightf. 286. t. 13. f. I. Fl. Dan. t. 11. (T. mini-
mum montanum atro-rubens, foliis fplcndentibus ; Rail
Syn. 204. Boerh. Ind. Alt. v. i. 44. t. I.) — Stem per-
feftly fimple, and almoft naked. Clufter fimple, termi-
nal. — Native of moift black bogs, or the turfy margins
of alpine rills, on the loftieft mountains of Lapland, Scot-
land, and Wales, flowering in June. The root is peren-
nial, creeping, with a few fimple fibres. Stem erett, about
fix inches high, round, glaucous or purplifii, with one leaf,
more or lefs compound, aboi(t the middle. Radical leaves
feveral, ftalked, erect, half as tall as the ftem ; firlt ternate ;
then either again ternate, or pinnate ; the leaflets roundifh,
or wedge-fhaped, veiny ; glaucous beneath. Clujler at firft
drooping, then ereft, of eight or ten alternate fio'-juers,
whofe petals, and eight or \^n filaments , are either white or
purple ; their anthers orange. Germens two or four only,
roundifh, green, each with a whitifh, broadly-lanceolate,
divaricated, Aovinj figma, about its own length. Linnseus
■defcribes twelve Jlamens, and eight fi/lils.

2. T. falidum. Fatid Meadow-rue. Linn. Sp. Pi.

768. Willd. n. 2. Ait. 11. 2. « Waldll. el Kilaih-
Hung. v. 2. 190. t. 174." (T. minimum foetidiflimum 5
Bauh. Prodr. 147. Pluk. Phyt. t. 65. f. 4. Morif-
fea. 9. t. 20. f. 13. T. n. 1140 ; Hall. Hift. v. 2. 58.)
— Stem panicled, round, leafy. Leaves triply compound,
minutely downy on both fides. Flowers drooping. Petals
flightly hairy. Stigmas auricled at the bafe — Native of.
Franco, Switzerland, and Siberia, flowering in May. A.
fpecies of a delicate afpeft, and glaucous hue, about a foot
high, with innumerable, fmall, rounded, lobed, tender leaf-
lets. The petals are externally reddifh, efpecially in the
young plant, and finely downy or haiiy. Stamens long and
capillary. Seeds ovate, ftrongly furrowed, crowned with
the permanent fhrivelled fligmas, whofe dilated or auricled
bafe is diftinguifhable in our Swifs fpecimens. This laft
character is, in the Stippkmentum, p. 271, made the pecu-
liar mark of T.Jlyloideum, there defcribed from a Siberian
fpccimen, which Linnaeus did not recognize as his own
T.faiidum. The fyloidenm, Willd. n. 22, is therefore to
be ftruck out. Several Swifs botanifts have confounded the
fpecies before us with T. tnimis, hereafter defcribed, which
is Haller's n. 1 1 39. That eminent writer had fome doubts
refpefting the difference between the two, which we (hall
attempt to remove when we come to the other, Linnxus
having placed them far afunder. The fatidum is faid to ex-
hale a very bad and powerful odour, like Geranium robertia-
num, or, as Haller fays, the urine of cats.

3. T. tuherofum. Tuberous-rooted Meadow-rue. Linn.
Sp. PI. 768. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 3. Mill. Ic. v. 2.
177. t. 265. f. 2. (Oenanthe Myconi ; Dalech. Hift. 785.
Ranunculus thalidtri folio minor, afphodeli radice ; Morif.
feft. 4. t. 28. f. 13.) — Leaflets rounded, glaucous, fmooth.
Petals five. Root tuberous. — Native of Spain and the
Pyrenees. A hardy perennial in our gardens, flowering in
June, but confined to the more curious coUeftions. The
root confifts of ovate knobs. Herb fmooth, a foot or more
in height, of a light glaucous green. Flowers panicled,
not numerous, diftinguifhed by their five large, ovate, white
petals, and {mdHJligmas. Morifon's figure is badly copied
from that of Dalechamp.

4. T. Cornuti. Canadian Meadow'-rue. Linn. Sp. PI.
768. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 4. Purfli n. i. (T. cana-
denfe ; Cornut. Canad. 186. t. 187. T. femine triquetro,
fohis aquilegis ; Morif. feft. 9. t. 20. f. 15.) — Leaflets
rounded, three-lobed, glaucous, fmooth. Panicles terminal.
Flowers dioecious. Petals five. Root fibrous. — On the
banks of rivers, and in wet meadows, from Canada to
New England, flowering in June and July. Root perennial.
Stem from two to three feet high. Flo-wers fmall, greertifh-
yellow. Purjh. Cornuti fays the unexpanded petals are
pale purple ; the Jlamens white, numerous, with yellow
anthers. Seeds triangular. The dioecious nature of the
flowers, which we have had no opportunity of obferving,
was firft noticed in Hort. Kew.

5. T. dioicum. Dioecious Early Meadow-i-ue. Linn.
Sp. PI. 768. Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. 5. Purfli n. 2.
Muhlenb. Cat. 54. — Leaflets heart -fhaped, many-lobed,
very fmooth. Panicles axillary. Flowers dioecious. Petals
not longer than the filaments or germens. Stigmas almoft
capillary. — Native of fhady woods and the banks of rivers,
from Canada to Virginia, flowering from May to July, ac-
cording to Purfh, who fays the //oa-fz-j are white. He con-
ceives his plant to be the fam.e vnih T. U-vigatum of Michaux,
Fl. Boreali-Amer. v. i. 322, who confeffes his inability to
determine the North American Thali&ra, they being almoft
all dioecious. Specimens from the late Dr. Muhlenberg, now
before us, and agreeing exaiitly with thofe fent by Kahn to

Linnxus,

THALICTRUM.

L.innseus, as recorded in Sp. PL, arc certainly dioecious,
about a foot high, very fmooth, with tlirice-ternate leaves,
whofe lobes are ufually from five to foven, blunt, and rather
fliaUow ; both their furfaces reticulated witii flightly pro-
minent veins. Panicles folitary or in pairs from the bofoms
of the leaves, fomewhat umbellate, on long ilalks, and often
accompanied by a long-ftalked lolitary ttowcr. Petals of
the male Jloivers white or rcddiih, ovate, ribbed, the length
of the very {lender numerous JiJamcnls, whofe anthers are
yellow, very narrow, pointed : thofe of the female Jlotoers
much fnudler and rounder, white or greenilh, liardly fo long
as the little, oval, ribbed germens. The jl'igmas are very
flender, and remain in a prominent, almoll capillary, form,
on the ovate-oblong, 'A.'m.tedi feeds.

6. T. elatum. Tall Meadow-rue. Jacq. Hort. Vind.
V. 3. 49. t. 95. Willd. n. 6. Ait. n. 6. — Leaflets ovate,
ihree-iobed, fmooth, fomewhat notched. Panicle much
branched, terminal. Flowers ereft. Filaments capillar)'.
Stigmas ovate, fhort. — Native of Hungary. Introduced
into England ty Mr. Hunnemann in 1794. A hardy
perennial, flowering from June to Auguft. Alton. An
uniVamed fpecimen in the Linnasan herbarium manifeftly
agrees with Jacquin's plant, which is four feet or more in
height. The flem is more furrowed in our fpecimen than
he reprefents. The leaves are ternate from their very bafe,
then twice or thrice pinnate, glaucous, incorrectly three-
lobed, and fomewhat cut befides. Floiuers white, ereft,
in an upright compound panicle. Petals ovate, rather fmall,
fometimes purplifli. Filaments of -equal thicknefs through-
out, about thrice the lengtli of their oblong, hnear, pointed
anthers, which Jacquin reprefents rather (horter and rounder
than we find them. Germens angular. Seeds elliptic-
oblong, glaucous, furrowed, crowned with the fhort flirivel-
eAfligtnas.

7. T. majus. Greater Meadow-rue. Jacq. Auftr. v. 5. 9.
t. 420. Willd. n. 7. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 61 1.
— Leaflets roundifli, fomewhat heart-fliaped, three-cleft ;
glaucous beneath. Panicle leafy, with aggregate branches.
Flowers drooping. — Native of woods and bufhy places in
Auftria, Hungary, Mount Athos, and the north of England,
perennial, flowering in June and July. The late Mr. Robfon
of Darlington found it at Baydales, near that town, as well
as on the margin of Ulls-water, Cumberland. This is
about the fize of the laft^, but the leaves are of a darker green
on the upper fide, very glaucous beneath. The branches
of the panicle grow feveral together, from the bofoms of the
upper leaves, and the floiveis, at leall their /laniens, are pen-
dulous, with longer anthers than the preceding. The petals
moreover are green. In the germens znd fligmas we perceive
DO particular diftinftion.

8. T. medium. Intermediate Meadow-rue. Jacq. Hort.

Vind. V. 3. 50. t. 96. Willd. n. 8. Ait. n. 8 Leaflets

oblong-wedge-fliaped, three-cleft, notched ; the uppermoft;
lanceolate. Panicle much branched, flightly leafy. Stamens

fpreading Native of hilly fituations in Hungary. A

hardy perennial, flowering in June and July, introduced at
Kew, by Mr. Hunneman, in 1789. Specimens in the
herbarium of Linnseus, from the Upfal garden, which he
fufpefted might be T. tuberofum, n. 3, appear rather to belong
to the prefent fpecies, which differs from the two laft in the
flarrownefs of its leaflets, agreeing with them in the germens
zn6. fligmas . The panicle is more like elatum than majus.
The flamens are not pendulous, but divaricated. Petals
elliptical, greenifh. Leaves light green, fomewhat glau-
cous.

9. T. minus. Leflfer Meadow-rue. Linn. Sp. PI. 769.
Willd. n. 9. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 1 1. Fl. Dan.

t. 732.' Jacq. Auftr. v. 5. 9. t. 419. Segii. Veron. 476.
Vill. Dauph. V. 3. 713. Ger. Em. I2JI. (T. alpinnm
minus faxatile, ruta; folio, ftaminibus luteis ; Segu. Veron.
476. t. I I.) — Leaflets roundifh, three-cleft, notched, fome-
what glaucous on both fides. Panicle flightly leafy.
Flowers pendulous. — Native of various parts of Europe,
from Sweden to Greece, generally on a limcilone or chalky
foil, flowering in June and July. Our Britifli plant pre-
cifely agrees witii what was found in Gothland by Linnsus,
though he fublequently confounded " things innumerable,
both ijiiall and great," under T. minus. The true one is a
bufhy fpreading herbaceous perennial, of humble growth,
generally but a foot high, fmooth, of a glaucous hue, with
tints of violet. Leaflets rather fmall, various in breadtli.
Panicle moderately branched. Floiwers pendulous, though
the ftalks become moreereft when in feed. P^Wj elliptical, ■
concave, light purple, fometimes jagged or fringed. Stamens
capillary. Anthers long, linear, pointed, as in the laft.
Germens and feeds fmall. Linngeus's fpecific definition,
foliis fexpartitis, has puzzled every body, and is inapplicable
to any thing ever taken for the prefent fpecies. He perhaps
meant that each Zv// con filled of fix primary diviflons, wliich
is moflly the cafe.

10. T. rugofum. Rugged Meadow-rue. Ait. ed. I.
V. 2. 262. ed. 2. n. 10. Willd. n. 10. Purfh n. 3. Muh-

lenb. Cat. 54 Leaflets ovate or lanceolate, rugged, veiny,

bluntly lobed. Stem round, ftriated. Panicle corymbofe.
Flowers ereft, — On the banks of rivers, and in fwamps,
from Peimfylvania to Carohna, flowering from June to
Auguft. Perennial, very tall, fometimes above five feet
high. Floivers white. Purfh. The habit of this plant is
more like fome of the large fpecies hereafter defcribed, with
a large terminal denfe, almoft leaflefs, \.\xl\s.^ panicle . Stamens
capillary. Anthers linear.

11. 11. fibiricnm. Siberian Meadow-rue. Linn. Sp. PI.
769. Willd. n. II. Ait. n. II. (T. orientale minimum,
fumarias folio ; Tourn. Cor. 20. Willd.) — " Leaves in
three divifions ; leaflets fomewhat reflexed, fltarply cut.
Flowers drooping." — Found by Gmelin in Siberia ; and by
Tournefort, if we are right in his fynonym, in Armenia.
Linnseus doubtingly cites a fynonym of Seguir, which,
after HaUer, we have referred to T. minus. His account of
the prefent fpecies, of which we know nothing, is, that its
habit accords with T. minus, or purpurafcens, but the leaflets
are fmall, but one-fixth as large as thofe fpecies, glaucous
like Rue or Fumitory. Stem green, copioufly panicled.
Panicle brown at its divarications. It flowers later, at the
fame time zs,flavum and dioicum.

12. T. fquarrofuw.. Squarrofe Meadow-rue. Willd.
n. 12. — " Leaflets three-cleft or undivided. Footftalks
membranous, winged, clafping the ftein. Flowers droop-
ing."— Native of Siberia. Differs from all the foregoing
fpecies which have drooping flowers, in the ftrufture of its

footflalk. The leaves are repeatedly compound, as in the
reft ; their lateral leaflets moftly ovate, acute, and entire,
but the terminal, and even the uppermoft lateral ones, are
divided or three-cleft. Footflalk greatly dilated at the bafe,
with orbicular membranous wings, toothed at the margin.
There are alfo leffer orbicular toothed auricles, upon the
partial footftalks, by which mark the fpecies is eafily
known. Willdenoqv. We have met with nothing anfwering
to this defcription.

13. T. purpurafcens. Purplifli Meadow-rue. Linn. Sp,
PI. 769. Willd. n. 13. Ait. n. I2. Purlh n, 5.—
(T. virginianum elatius glaucum, florum ilaminulis pur-
purafcentibus ; Morif. v. 3. 324.) — " Stem twice as tall
as the leaves. Leaflets roundifh, three-cleft, cut. Panicles

3 K 2 nearly

THALICTRUM.

warly naked. -Flowm droop.nj;. St rnens coloured. -
On dry funny hills, in Pcnnfylva.na and V^r.^n.... Perennial
(lowering in May and .lune. A (mall plan . Sum and
yfW«// purple.' Purjb. Linnxus contralts tb.s w.th
r. minus, ^ fpccies concerning wh.ch his ideas were too
vague, for u, to learn any thing from fuch a companfon,
nor does hi8 herb-vium lend us any certain aid. . There is,
however, an unmarked fpecimcn, which he affocated will
7-. dioicum, but which may poinbly be th^ purpuraficns. H
has broad ivv-like Uqfirls, but is more particularly diftin-
Euifhed by fhort elliptical a,>tkrs, whofe //«-««;/. f ^g'"^-
duaUy dilated upwards, approaching to thofe of 1 .Jhrnun-um
hereafter defcribcd.

14 T. pubefctns. Downy Polygamous Meadow-rue.

Purih n. 4. Muhlenb. Cat. 54 Leaflets ovate, fome-

wl.at heart -ftiaped, or wedge-fliapcd ; threc-lobed at the
end ; (lightly downy beneath. Panicles terminal. !• lowers
polygamous. Anthcj-s linear. Styles awl-lhaped, twice as
long^as the germcns.— On the banks of ditches and rivulets,
i:>, Peniifylvania and Virginia, flowering from .lune to Auguft.
A tall fpecies, with white fiowers. Purfli. We have this
flora our late venerable correfpondent, the Rev. Dr. Muh-
lenberg. The kijfl-ts are rather large ; dark green, and
fomcwhat rugged, above ; paler, reticulated with prominent
veins, and minutely downy, at the back. Flowers nearcft
to thofe of T. diokum, and hke them diftinguifhed by long
tapering jligmas. The anthers are linear-oblong ; their
f laments almoft equally flender throughout.

\^.T. angujlifolium. Narrow-leaved Meadow-rue. Linn.
Sp, PI. 769. Willd. n. 14. Ait. n. 13. Jacq. Hort.

Vind. V. 3. 25. t. 43 Leaflets linear-lanceolate, or linear,

mofl.ly undivided, entire. Panicle much branched, denfe.
rlowers ereft. Stigmas heart -fhaped, half the length of
the germens. Native of Switzerland and Germany, but not
frequent any where. Dr. Sibthorp, however, gathered it
on the Bithynian Olympus. Miller fecms to have cultivated
it, in his time, at Chelfea, but we have fcarcely ever feen a
living fpecimen, and we are much inchned to concur in
opinion with thofe who judge it a variety of the following,
their habit, inflorefcence, :mdjh)iuers, being exaftly the fame,
however diiferent the breadth of their kaflets. Bauliin's
fynonym, uniformly referred to this, certainly belongs to
T.Jlmplcs, n. 17.

16. T. flavum- Common Meadow-rue. Linn. Sp. PI.
770. Wi'lld. n. 15. Fl. Brit. n. 4. Engl. Bot. t. 367.
Fl. Dan. t. 939. (T. nigricans ; Jacq. Aiiflr. v. 5. 10.
t.421. Willd. n. 16. T. nigrius, caule et femine ftriato ;
Bauh. Hift. v. 3. 486. T. majus, foliis rugofis trifidis ;
Morif. feft. 9. t. 20. f. 3.) — Leaflets rounded or oblong,
three-cleft. Panicle mucii branched, denfe. Flowers ereft.
Stigmas heart-lhaped, half the length of the germens —
Found in moift meadows, and the reedy margins of rivers,
throughout Europe, from Sweden to Greece, flowering in
July. The root is yellow, perennial. Stem three feet high,
ercft, fmooth, leafy, furrowed or angular, fimple below.
Leaves nearly feffile, twice ternate, with a fhort flieathing
bafe, ox footjlalk ; leaflets flightly glaucous, mofl fo beneath ;
either undivided or three-cleft, entire, veiny, varying ex-
tremely in breadth, length, and (harpnefs. Panicle terminal,
ereft, denfe, corymbofe, much branched, fomewhat leafy.
Flowers and flamens ereft, ycUowifh-white, with oblong,
flightly pointed, yellow anthers. Stigmas oblique, heart-
fhaped, downy. Seeds deeply furrowed. The vague re-
femblance of this plant to the garden rue, and its place of
growth, feem to have given the Englilh name of the whole
genus. .lacquin's nigricans, found frequently in England,
differs merely in the elongation and comparative narrownefs

9

of its kiijl.ts, wluch approach in tliufc rcfpeits to tlic mgiij-
/j/b/<um, lail defcribcd.

17. T. Jimjtlex. Simple-ftalked Meadow-rue. Linn.
Mant. 78, excluding the fynonym. Willd. n. 17. Ait.
n. 15. Fl. Dan. t. 244. Ehrh. Phytoph. 15. (T. anguf-
tifolium; Villars Dauph. v. 3. 712. T. anguftiifimo folio ;
Bauh. Prodr. 146. Morif. fed. 9. t. 20. f. 8.) — Leaflets,
linear. Stem angular, fimple. Panicle branched, com-
pound, lax, fomewhat racemofe. Flowers pendulous.
Stigmas roundifli-hcartfhaped Native of Sweden, Den-
mark, Switzerland, and France. Introduced at Kcw by
the very eminent cultivator and botanifl; M. Thouin, in
1778. It is a hardy perennial, flowering in May and June.
This is unquelHonably akin to the lafl;, but eflentially dif-
tinft. The whole plant is but half as large, with a much
more angular _^fm. The leaflets are extremely narrow, and
revolute, unaccompanied by any of the partial ftipulary
fcales, feen on the leaves oi 1'. Jlavum. The panicle is more
oblong and lax, not corymbofe. Flotvers fmaller, droop-
ing, or rather quite pendulous, not ereft. Petals green,
not white or yellowifh. Stigmas remarkably round and
convex. We have fpecimens from Villars, which prove the
corredlnefs of Willdenow refpefting his fynonym. We have
alfo from profeflbr Lachenal a fpecimen gathered at Michel-
feld, which fliews this to be the plant of Bauhin, cited by
Linnxus and others for T- anguflifolium. Indeed Bauhin's
wooden cut, copied by Moriion, fufficiently evinces this,
though, being delineated perhaps from a dried fpecimen, it
is not exaft in the pofition of the flowers. 7". gallioides,
Willd. Enum. Hort. Berol. 585. we believe is a very narrow-
leaved variety oijimplex.

18. T. lucidum. Shining-leaved Meadow-rue. Linn.
Sp. PI. 770. V\nild. n. 18. Ait. n. 16. (T. mious
lucidum, lib.inotidis coronariae foliis ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 65.
f. 5.) — " Stem leafy, funowed. Leaflets linear, flefliy." —
Said to be a native of France and Spain. Miller had fome-
thing in his garden which paflfed for this plant, and hence it
is enumerated in Hort. Kew. We have never feen a fpeci-
men, nor did Linnteus know any more of the matter than
what Dalibard, whofe fpecific charaftcr we more exaftly
copy, has given in his Fl. Paris. 162. The late Mr. Davall
fent us a Swifs ThaliBrum for lucidum, which anfwers to the
charafter, but is indubitably xheflmplex in a luxuriant Hate.
Linna;u3 thought the lucidum was probably a variety of

flavum. We prefume various things have been taken for
this plant, but in reahty that it has no exiftence as a fpecies.

19. T. aguilegifolium. Columbine-leaved Meadow-rue, or
Feathery Columbine. Linn. Sp. PI. 770. Willd. n. 19.
Ait. n. 17. Jacq. Auftr. v. 4. 10. t. 318. Curt. Mag.
t. l8l8. (T. r.tropurpureum ; Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 3. 34.
t. 61. T. majus, florum ftaminibus purpurafcentibus ;
Bauh. Pin. 337. Morif. feft. 9. t. 20. f. 16.) — Leaflets
rounded, lobed, and cut. Stem round. Panicle corym-
bofe. Flowers ereft. Stamens dilated upwards. Germens

ftalked. Fruit pendulous, with three dilated wings

Native of Sweden, Germany, Switzerland, Thrace, and
Greece, common and hardy in our gardens, flowering from
May to July. The flem is three or four feet high, round,
fomewhat fl;riated, leafy, fmooth, either glaucous or pui"ple.
Leaves large and fpreading, much refembling thofe of
Aquilegia vulgaris, though often' more acute. Flowers-
large and elegant, white or pale violet ; their petals reflexed ;
their very numerous flamens moderately dilated upwards,
flattened, of the hue of the petals, with fhort yellow anthers.
Germens triangular, on long ftalks, at length deflexed or
pendulous, and becoming fomewhat obovate, obtufe,
llraighti/h feeds, with three unequal, much dilated, fmooth

T H A

J" 11 A

vvm;>i,. Rolziui, ill his Olf. Bot. fafc. 6. 30. feci.. 52,
juiHy indicates the identity of Jacquiu's T. atropurpureum
and the Liiimaii aquilegifolium, confcfiiiig ho could not
decide concerning the aquilegifalimr. of Jacquin. We have a
wild Swifs fpecimen of tlie latter, Haller's n. 1141, pre-
cifeiy anfwerinjr to the plate in Fl. Aitjlrka, and certainly
not differing in any eflential charafter from the true plant
of Linnasus, fo frequently cultivated for ornament, and
prefervedin his herbarium.

20. T. coiitortum. Twifted-feeded Meadow-rue. Linn.
Sp. PI. 770. Am. Acad. v. 4. 47. Willd. n. 20. Ait.
II. 18. — " Fruit pendulous, triangular, contorted. Stem
rather two-edged." — Native of Siberia. Linna;us thought
it a hybrid offspring of aquilegifolium impregnated by the
minus. His fpecimen is not to be diftinguifhed from the
former, and we cannot but agree with Willdenow's remark,
that the contortion of the feeds is merely a fign of imper-
feftioii. Neither can any more fohd depcndance be had on
the comparative number of the parts of fructification, on
t he white colour of the flowers, or the humbler Itature of
the herbage. We conclude this fuppofed fpecies therefore
to be fcarcely even a variety of the lall.

21. T. pelaloiJeum. Daurian Meadow-rue. Linn. Sp.
PI. 771. Willd. n. 21. Ait. n. 19. (T. ftamineum ;
Linn. Suppl. 271.) — Leaflets rounded, obtufe ; partly three-
lobed. Stem nearly leaflefs. Panicle fomevvhat umbellate.

Stamens much dilated, linear -obovate. Germens feilile

Native of Siberia. Mr. Loddiges is faid to have intro-
duced this curious and very diilmtl fpecies to the know-
ledge of our cultivators, in 1799. It has a perennial root,
with long, fimple, r.itlicr flefliy fibres. Stem fimple, about
a foot high, ftriated, purple at the bottom, leaflefs, except
an occafional leaf, accompanying a fmall lateral branch.
Radical leaves two, fpreading, thrice compound, on pur-
plifli fl:alks ; leaflets very much like Common Rue, but
fmaller. Flowers white, large but not numerous, in a fort
of corymb, or imperfcft umbel, accompanied by a few fmall
leaflets. Petals roundifh, deciduous. Stamens very nume-
rous, white, flat, and fmgularly dilated, with a mid-rib ;
their anthers yellow, narrow and fliort. Germens ovate,
ribbed, with awl-(hapcd recurved [iigmas. Willdcnow
makes T. flamiiuum a variety, little fuppofing that the very
identical Ipecimens, fo minutely and accurately defcribed in
the Species Plantarum, could be again defcribed, without a
reference, in the Supplementum.

We have to exclude T. japonicum, Thunb. Tr. of Linn.
Soc. V. 2. 337. Willd. n. 22, a fpecimen from Thunberg
himfelf proving it to be no other than Coptis afplenifoiui of
Mr. Sahlbury, Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 8. 306, a circumfl;ance
as wonderful as that its difcoverer fhould ever have thought
this plant fimilar to a Salvia. See Fl. Jap. 364.

7". ranunculinum, Willd. Enum. Hort. i3erol. 585. Purfh
n. 6, having iimple leaves, and being not noticed as a Tha-
liclrum by Muhlenberg himfelf, who is quoted for it, is, we
prclume, belt omitted here ; as well as T. concinnum, Willd.
Enum. 584, Vv'hich is probably comprehended under fome
of the foregoing fpecies.

TiiALlCTHUM, in Gardeuiiig, contains plants of the hardy,
herbaceous, fibrous-rooted, perennial kinds, among the
number of which the fpecies inoftly cultivated are ; the
tuberous-rooted meadow-rue (T. tuberofum); the Cana-
dian meadow-rue (T. cornuti) ; the fetid meadow-rue (T.
foetidum) ; the narrow-leaved meadow-rue (T. angufli-
folium) ; the fliining-leaved meadow-rue (T. lucid\mi);
and the columbine-leaved meadow-rue, or feathered colum-
bine (T. aquilegifolium).

In the fecond fort there is a variety, which is fmaller,
wjth pale purple filaments, than the common kind.

.\lio in the (ixtli fort there are varieties with a green llalk
and white llamens, and with a purple Italk and llamens.
Bcfides, there are other forts that may be cultivated for
variety.

Method of Culture. — All the forts are readily increafed
by parting the roots, and plariting them out in the autunu:
when the ftems decay, or in the fpring before the new-
ones are fet forth, the ftrongell where tiiey are to remain,
and the weaker ones in nurfery-rows for further growth :
they may alfo be railed from feeds, which rtiould be fown in
a bed or border in the fpring : when the plants rife, they
Itiould be kept clean, and be planted out where they are to
remain, in the following autumn. Tliey are all hardy
durable plants that fucceed and grow well in any common
foil and expolure in the open ground, but which flourifti
moll in moill Ihady fituations. They afford variety in the
borders, and other parts of ornamented grounds, when fel
out in a properly varied manner, requiring but little trouble
or attention in fuch fituations.

THALINA, in ylncient Geography, a town of Afia, in
the Greater Armenia, upon the banks of the Euphrates.
Ptol.

THALLABA, Talaban, a town of Aha, in Mefo-
potamia, upon the banks of the river Chaboras, fituated
E.S.E. of Refa:ina.
THALLAND, In Geography. See Dalia.
THALLITE, in Mineralogy; Epidote, Haiiy ; Delphi-
nite, Saullure ; Shorl -vert du Dauphiny, Romfe de Lifle ;
Acanticene, Dendrada ; Piflacit, Werner. Few minerals
have received fo many names as this : it is at prefent better
known by the name of epidote or thallite. It has frequently
been confounded with aflinolite or ftrahlftein, and with
green hornblende and green afbeftus. Some account of
this mineral is given under Pistacite. We fliall here add its
diftinAive charafters and conflituent parts. From aftino-
lite it may be diftinguiflied by the colour, the latter being
generally a lighter green. The ftrufture of the maffive
varieties of aftinolite is generally radiated, that of epidote
compaft or foliated. Both the joints of aftinolite are dif-
tinftly feen ; but in epidote, frequently one joint only is feen.
Epidote melts into a blackifh fcoria before the blowpipe,
and is harder than aflinohte or hornblende ; the latter
has generally a different (hade of green : the frafture of
hornblende is alfo lefs vitreous than that of epidote. Green
albeftus is foft when pounded ; the powder of epidote is
harfh and rough. Thallite or epidote occurs both maffive
and cryftallized. The joints are in two direftions, one of
which is more obvious than the other. The alternate angles
are about 114^° and 655°; the crofs frafture is fplintery.
The primitive form or the cryflal is a prifm with rhom-
boidal bales. The moft common forms are fix or eight -
fided prifms, of which four are larger than the others.
Thcfe prifms are terminated by feveral oblique planes,
and are often flatly acuminated : the terminating planes of
the cryftals are fmooth, and have a high natural polifii ;
they are fometimes convex. The lateral planes, or fides of
the cryfl;als, are ftriated. This mineral is found in beds and
veins, and fometimes as a conflituent part of rocks. It is
affociatcd with augitc, garnet, hornblende, quartz, calca-
reous fpar, and magnetic iron-ftonc. The varieties that
occur in veins are of a lighter colour, and the cryftals are
more acicular than thofe which are found in beds. The
veins contain felfpar, axinite, rock-cryftal, chlorite, and
other minerals ; the epidote forming only a fmall part of
the fubftance of the vein. It is found in feveral parts of
the Scotch Hebrides, and in various alpine diflrifts, in
fienite, porphyry, and granitic rocks. The fined cryftals
have been procured at Arundel in Norway. The con-
flituent

T H A

ftituent parts of this mineral, from different fituatlons, a^rce

more nearly tl.an is frequently the cafe with other minerals.

FromiheVal.is. FiomOifcna. From Arundel.

SileK - - 37-0 37-0 37

Aluminc - - 26.6 27.0 21

Lime - - 20.0 14-0 15

Oxydofiron - 130 '7-o ^4
Oxyd of maiiganefe 0.6 i.J i-5

Water - - \i-8 3-S '-5

Lofs - - I. o o

It differs in chemical compofition from hornblende and
aainolitc, by the abfcnce of magncfia, and by the large
proportion of alumine which it contains.

THALLOPHORI, 9«XXo?)opo., in jlntlquity, the old
men and women, who, in the proceflion of the feftival pana-
thenaa, carried olive-boughs in their hands.

THALLUS, in Botany and Vegetable Phyjwlogy, SaW.oc,
an olive bud, or a green bough ; from SajA^w, to be verdant, to
float forth, or fpread abroad; a term aptly enough chofen
by the diftinguiflied profeffor Acharius, for the froad, or
foliage, of a Lichen, whether that part be of a leafy, fibrous,
fcaly, or cruliaceous nature. But this term, however apt,
is fuperfluous, /row, ufed by Linnsus, being fynonimous
with it, and fufficient for every requifite purpofe. See
Lichen and Liciienes ; alfo Frond.

THALMANSFELD, in Geography, a town of Ger-
many, in the marggravate of Anfpach ; 4 miles W. of
Thalmeffiug.

THALMESSING, or Thalmessingen, a town of
Germany, in the principality of Anfpach ; 31 miles S.E.
of Anfpach. N. lat. 49° l'. E. long. 11° 10'.

THALMIS, or Talmis, in Jncient Geography, a town
of Egypt, between Taphis and Tutzis. Anton. Itin.

THALPUSA, atown of the Peloponnefus, in Arcadia ;
which belonged to the Orchomenians.

THALSEA, or Thelsea, a town of Phoenicia, marked
on the route from Remmaris to Neapoli^, between Geroda
and Damafcus.

TH ALUD A, a river of Africa, in Mauritania Tingitana,
the mouth of which is placed by Ptolemy on the coaft of the
Iberian fea, between Jagath and the promontory Oleaftrum.
THALYSIA, SxXu^ia, in Antiquity, a facrifice offered
by the hufbandmen after harveft. For the origin and cere-
monies of which, fee Potter, Archacol. Grscc. torn. i. p. 400.
THAMALAPATHRA. See Folium Indicum.
THAMAR, a word ufed by the Arabian phylicians to
exprefs a date. Hence a peftoral decoftion, made with
dates and other ingredients, was called diathamyron ; and
the word was afterwards corruptly written dicameron.

Thamar, in Ancient Geography, a town of Judea, near
Malis or Malath, which, according to Eufebius, had a
Roman garrifon.

THAMARITA, a town of Africa, in Mauritania
Csefarienfis.

THAMARO, a town of Paleftine, on the weftern fide
of Jordan. Ptolemy.

THAMASCHALTIS, a town of Africa Propria, on
the route from the Greater Leptis to Tacapas, between
Thramufdifis and Thentei. Anton. Itin.

THAMBES. in Geography, a mountam of Algiers ; 30
miles S. of Bona.

THAME. See Team.

Thame, or Tame, in Geography, a market -town in a hun-
dred of the fame name, and county of Oxford, England, is
fituated on thebanksof theriverThames (whence it derives its
name), at the north-eaftern extremity of the county adjoining
to Buckinghamfhire, 1 3 miles E. front Oxford, and 46 miles

T H A

N.W. by W. from London. Dr. Stukeley calls thi« place
Tamefe, and it is unqueflionable that a Roman military-
road went tlirough the town, though it was by degrees ne-
glefted in the latter times of the empire. Thame was a
place of fome confequence in the tenth century ; for wo
find that Wulfere, king of Mercia, granted a charter " in the
vill called Thama ;" and in the year 970, Ofl<etyl, archbifhop
of York, is known to have died here. In 1010, when the
Danes over-run thefe parts of the kingdom, this town,
among others, fuffered feverely. The Domefday record
defcribes the manor of Thame as a part of the bifliop of Lin-
coln's extenfive poffefiions in Oxforddiire. Lcland fays,
" about Alexander, bifliop of Lincoln's time, the town of
Tame, being the king's, was given for rent, in fee-farm to
the bifhop of Lincoln and his fucceffors." To the patron-
age of the bilhops the town was indebted for numerous ad-
vantages. By them the church was erefted, the vicarage
and a prebend endowed, and a neighbouring abbey reared.
Through th.eir intereft the fairs and market were granted ;
and Henry Lexington, bifhop in Henry the Third's reign,
rendered an important fervice, by turning the high road
through the middle of the town. Thame continued depend-
ant on the bifhops till the reign of Edward VI., when the
fee was difmembered of many of its valuable poffeffions.
Sir John Wilhams obtained a grant of the eftate, which de-
fcending by marriages to the family of Bertie, it became
veffed in the earls of Abingdon, the prefent poffeffors.
During the civil wars of the feventeenth century, Thame was
furrounded by garrifons of the contending parties, and
confequently experienced its full fhare of the miferies of that
period. The town confifts principally of one long and fpacious
itreet, gently rifing from the river. The church is a large,
well-built ftrufture, of the cruciform defcription, and com-
prifes a nave, two aifles, a north and fouth tranfept, and a
chancel ; with an embattled tower fupported by four maffy
pillars. The interior exhibits numerous tombs and memo-
rials of families once important in this neighbourhood.
Near the church are the remains of the prebendal houfe, •
which .evince confiderable former grandeur, and confifl of
nearly tliree fides of a quadrangle. A fchool, once of great
celebrity, was founded here by John, lord Williams : the
houfe is a fpacious building, and the fchool of noble dimen-
fions. Through the whole of the feventeenth century, this
eftablilhment maintained a high charafter : but has now
fallen into difufe ; though the building is in excellent pre-
fervation. There is likewife a charity-fchool of an humble
defcription for tb.e education of twenty -five boys. Thame
has a good weekly market on Tuefdays, and two annual
fairs : the market is of ancient date, for we find that the
prior of Rufford was reftrained from holding a market at
Haddenham, to the prejudice of that of Thame. In the
year 181 1, the number of houfes was returned as 460 ; the
population as 2328, of which more than half were paupers
receiving alms from the parifh. By the return of the ex-
pences attending the maintenance of the poor in 1811, thofe
of this parifh amounted to 3686/., a fum exceeding the ex-
penditure of any other parilh in the county. The parifh
contains about 4600 acres of land, and is divided into fix
hamlets or liberties. Old Thame, New Thame, Prieft End,
Thame Park, Mofeton,and North Wefton : the town com-
prifes the three firfl. In Thame park, about a mile from
the town, ftood an abbey of fome importance, eitabhflied by
bifhop Alexander in 1 1 38. At the diffolution, the fociety
confifted of an abbot and fixteen monks ; and the annual
revenue was 25.6/. I4f. "jd. The abbey, with all its poffef-
fions, was furrendered to the crown by Robert Kyng, the laft
abbot, who, for his ready compliance, was on the ereftion of
the fee of Oxford appointed its firft bifhop. On the fcite of

a part

T H A

T H A

a part of the abbey the prefent manfion was buih by Philip,
the father of the late lord Weiiman. Coniidenible fragments
of the abbey ftill remain, wliich are protcftedby the modern
elevation. The park contains about 220 acres, and is lliirted
with woodland.

Sir John Holt, the celebrated chief juftice of the court of
king's bench, was born at Thame in 1642, and died in 1709.
(Sei; Holt, Sir John.) — Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. xii. Oxforddiire ; by J. N. Brewer.

THAMES, the name of the moil important river of
Great Britain, is pre-eminently ditlinguiftied for its com-
mercial confequence, the fcenery, edifices, and towns on its
banks ; for the bridges which are raifed acrofs its channel ;
for the vaft docks, quays, and warehoufes which are annexed
to it ; and for the variety and intereft of the hiftoric occur-
rences which are comiefted or affociated with its name. Yet,
though fo eminent at the prefent time, it was neglefted in
former ages ; and it is fmgular to remark, that its fource and
early progrefs have occafioned much doubt and difpute.
Some topographers have affigned its origin to a fpot in Ox-
forddiire, near the town of Thame ; while otJiers, with
more regard to probability and record, have traced its
fource to a fpring near Crickladc, in Wiltfhire. In that dif-
trift three or four ftreams emerge from the earth, and each
of thefe has been honoured with the appellation of Thames-
head : but at prefent it is very generally admitted, that this
name flriclly belongs to a fine fpring, which rifes in the
parifh of Kemble, in Wiltfhire, about five miles N.W. of
Cricklade, and two and a half miles S.W. of the town of
Cirenceller. Some writers ftate that the fpring-head is in the
parifh of Cotes, and county of Gloucefter. As a proof that
this ftream was defignated as the Thames, or Terns, at an
early period, we may refer to a Saxon charter of Malmfbury
Abbey, wherein it is named " Temis," as the boundary of
certain lands. Again, fome of the old Monkifh hiftorians
llate that the Danes crofTed the Thames at Cricklade in the
early part of the tenth century.

It has been erroneoufly faid, that the name of this river
is the IJis till it arrives at Dorchefler, and receives the
waters of the Thame, where it attained the compound name
of Thamejis. Some old Oxford poets have given currency
and celebrity to this ftory. Pope, in his " Windfor Foreft,"
fpeaking of the union of various ftreams with this river,
thus fings :

" Firfl the famed authors of its ancient name,

The winding Ifis, and the fruitful Thame ;

The Kennet fwift, for filver eels renowned ;

The Loddon flow, for verdant alders crowned ;

Cole, whofe dark ftreams his flowery iflands lave.

And chalky Wey, that roUs a milky wave."

Denham, the poetical encomiaft of " Cooper's Hill,"
thus charadterifes the Thames.

" My eye defcending from the hill, furveys

Where Thames among the wanton vallies ftrays.

Thames the moft loved of all the Ocean's fons

By his old fire to his embraces runs ;

Hailing to pay his tribute to the fea,

Like mortal life to meet eternity."

The nature of the prefent work will not allow of a particu-
lar defcription of the courfe of this river, with brief accounts
of all the prominent objecls on its banks. It muft fuffice to
fpecify the names of the towns, chief feats, and prominent
features ; and refer to the former,- under their refpeftive
jiaraes in the Cyclopxdia, for further information, and to fuch
books wherein the bell accounts are to be obtained. One
charadleriftic of this river is entitled to notice ; atid which

fliews, that at the original formation of fhires, and fubdiviliun
of lands in England, the Thames was at that time a noted
and conliderable ftream. From the town of Cricklade, to its
junftioii witli the fea at Shecrnefs, this river is a boundary,
or natural line of feparation, to counties. Soon after its
fource, it divides the counties of Wilts and Gloucefter ;
next, thofe of Oxford and Berks, and Buckingham and
Berks ; afterwards iMiddlelcx and Surrey ; and, laflly,
Kent and Eftex. The Thames is alfo a navigable river
nearly the whole of its courfe, and thus affords an eafy
and cheap pafTage for heavy goods from the ocean, and the
"port of London, to the interior parts of the ifland. By
means of a canal, extending from the town of Lechlade, in
a north -wefterly direftion, to the river Severn, the latter
great weftern river and the Briftol Channel are joined by a
navigable courfe to the Englifh Channel. See Canal,
Thame, and Severn.

As neaily the whole courfe of the Thames is through a
plain or level country, we find its current is confequently flow
and ivriguous : for fifteen or twenty miles it is only a narrow
and fmall ftream, but after receiving the waters of feveral
rivulets, it afTumes a river-like appearance at Lechlade,
and is capable of fuftaining barges of 100 tons burthen.
From that town (about 138 miles by water from London)
to Sheernefs, it is ilridlly a navigable river. In its courfe
to the lea, the following rivers, befides feveral fmaller
ftreams, pour their waters into the Thames : the Wainrufli,
Evenlode, Cherwell at Oxford, Thame, Kennet, Loddon,
Coin, Wey, Mole, Brent, Lea, Roding, Dart, and Medway.
The following cities, towns, and large vallages are feated
on the banks of this river : wz. the cities of Oxford, Lon-
don, and Weitminfter ; the towns of Cricklade, Lechlade,
Abingdon, Wallingford, Henley, Great Marlow, Maiden-
head, Windfor, Staines, Kingfton, Richmond, Brentford,
Greenwich, Woolwich, and Gravefend ; the villages of
Pangbourn, Wargrave, Eton, Datchet, Old Windfor,
Shepperton, Wafton, Sunbury, Moulfey, Hampton and
Hampton-Court, Twickenliam, Ifleworth, Barnes, Chif-
wick, Fulham, Putney, Hammerfmith, Chelfea, Black-
wall, &c. The banks of this river are alfo ornamented
with the palaces of Windfor, Hampton-Court, Kew, Ful-
ham, and Lambeth : likewife the following dillinguifhed
feats of Englifh nobihty and gentry, befides feveral fmaller
villas, &c. ; Nuneham-Courtney, Bafiidon Houfe, Combe
Lodge, Purley, Park Place, Fawley Court, Culham Court,
Temple Houfe, Harleyford Houfe, Biftiam Abbey, Tap-
low, Cliefden, Cookham, The Willows, Beaumont Lodge,
Oatlands, Garrick's Villa and Pope's Villa at Twicken-
ham, Strawberry Hill, Thamcs-Divton, Marble-Hill Cot-
tage, the duke of Buccleugh's, lord vifcount Sidmouth's,
and Mr. Keen's at Richmond, Keppel Houfe, Sion Houfe,
Brandenburgh Houfe, and Ingrefs. Among the numerous
bridges which crofs this national river, the following are
juttly noted either for their beauty or extent. The firft
(lone bridge on its. courfe is at Enfham, and the next at
Lechlade ; Oxford, Abingdon, Shillingford, Wallingford, Ca-
verfham, Henley, Maidenhead, Eton, Staines, Walton, King-
fton, Richmond, Kew, Fulham, Battcrfea, Vauxhall, (finifhed
1816,) Weftminfter, the Waterloo and Southwark (now
erefting from defigns by that fcientific enigneer, John
Rennie, efq.), Blackfriars, and London. The laft fix may-
be faid to belong to the metropolis. The jurifdiclion of the
lord mayor of London over the river Thames, extends from
Coin-Ditch, near Stains, to Yendal or Yenlech, near Sheer-
nefs, and alfo includes parts of the rivers Lea and Medway.
A very interelling account of the fcenery and various ob-
iedls on this river, with numerous beautiful etchings by

W. B.

T H A

\V. B. Cooke, and George Cooke, is publlflied in a work
in 2 vols, entitled " The Tliamcs, or Graphic lUuftrations
of Seats, Villas, &c. on the Banks of that noble River. ''^
Sec alfo an account of the " Police of the River Thaniee,"
by P. Colquhoiin, efq. a ma^iftrate of London ; 8vo. 1800;
and Skrine's " Account o^ Rivers of Note in Great Bri-
tain," Svo. 1801. S. Ireland publi(hed " Piifturefque
Views on tiie River Thames," 2 vols. imp. Svo. Boydell
alfo publiflied a work in 2 vols, folio, confifting of hillory
and defcription by Dr. Combe, and views from drawings
by Farringdon.

Under the word Can.^L will be found an ample account
of the commerce and navigation of this river, divided under
the heads of Thamks River (lower pari) ; Thames
River (miMle part) ; Thames and Isis Navigation ;
Thames and Medwav Can.il ; and Thames and Se-
vern Canal.

TllAME';, a river of New Zealand. Capt. Cook, Mr. (now
fir Jofeph ) Banks, and Dr. Solander, failed up this river in a
pinnace ; at about fourteen miles from the entrance, it is as
wide as the Thames at Greenwich, and the tide at flood is as
ftrong ; it is not quite fo deep, but has water enough for veffels
of more than a middle fizc, and a bottom of mud fo foft, that
nothing could take damage by running afliore. The courfe is
from fouth to north, and the entrance between Cape Colville

and Point Rodney Alfo, a river of Upper Canada, which

runs into lake St. Clair, N. lat. 42°45'. W. long. 82° 10'

Alfo, a river of Conneifticut, which runs into thefea, 4 miles
below New London.

THAMESIS, called Jamifa by Ptolemy, in JttcUnt
Geo!;raphy, a river of the ide of Albion. See Thames.

THAMETHIS, a town of Egypt. See Damietta.

THAMMUZ, in Mythology, is a name under which the
Phoenicians worfhipped Adonis or Ofiris.

Thamml'Z, in Chronology, a name given by the .lews to
the tenth month of the civil year, containing twenty -nine
days, and anfwering to our June.

THAMNA, in Ancient Geography, a celebrated town of
Paleftine, on the road from Diofpolis to Jerufalem. It was
the capital of the Thamnitic toparchy.

THAMNATH-SAAR,atown of Paleftine, in Samaria,
in the tribe and upon the mount of Ephraim, N. of mount
Gaas. This town was built by Jofhua, and his tomb was
there in the time of Jerome.

THAMNERIA, a town of Afia, in Media, in the
neighbourhood of the country belonging to the Cadufii.
Xenophon.

THAMNIUM, in Botany, Oxfjnov, a lltth-Jhruhbery, from
Sospvo.:, ajhrub, a name choien by Vcntenat, in his Tabl.an du
Regn^ Vegetal, v. 2. 35, for the flirubby kinds of Lichen, of
which he makes a genus. Its charafter is

Stems branched in the form of a fhrub. Tubercles fun-
gous, coloured.

Lichen rang'iferinus, and L. Roccella, are mentioned as fpe-
cies of this genus, which is now, like the reft of the author's
labours in this department, difregarded, the whole tribe
ha\-ing been fo much better ftudied and arranged by Acha-
rius. See LiriiENES.

THAMNOCHORTUS, fo called by Bergius, from
?xu»o-, afirub, and x'f^^,agrafs, alluding to the hard fhrubby
habit, and natural affinity, of the plant. Berg. Cap. 353.
t. 5. f. 8. This genus is now funk in Restio (fee that
article) ; and the particular fpecies is R. fcari of us oi Thnnh.
Prodr. 1 J, and Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 723, though thofe au-
thors have ufed Thamnochortus as the fpecific name of another
plant, immediately preceding this in Willdcnow, who eau-
nierates thirty fpecies of Rejlio.

T H A

THAMSBRUCK, orTllOMASBRUCK, in Geography, 7
towu of Saxonv, in Thuringia ; 8 miles S.E. of Mulhaufei- .
N. lat. 51° 5'.' E. long. 16^42'.

THAMUNDACANA, in jincient Geography, a town
of Afia, in Interior Libya, S. of the river Niger. Ptol.

THAMYRIS, a town of Mafia, near the Danube. It
was built, according to Jornandes, by Thamyris, queen of
the Gets.

Thamyris, in Mythology, called by Homer KiOa^ri:, one
who plays on the cithara, was the fon of Philammon. (See
his article. ) Plutarch, in his Dialogue on Mufic, tells us
that Thamyris was born in Thrace, the country of Orpheus,
and had the fweeteft and moft: fonorous voice of any bard
of his time. Homer, in his catalogue of (hips, where he
fpeaks of the cities under the dominion of Neftor, mentions
Dorion as the place where Thamyris contended with tlie
Mufes, whom he had the arrogance to challenge to a trial of
flcill in poetry and mufic. The conditions and confequences
of this contention are fully defcribed by the poet.
" And Dorion, fam'd for Thamyris' difgrace,
Superior once of all the tuneful race.
Till, vain of mortals empty praife, he ftrove
To match the feed of cloud-compelling Jove !
Too daring bard ! whofe unfuccefsful pride
Th' immortal Mufes in their art defy'd :
Th' avenging Mufes of the hght of day
Depriv'd his eyes, and fnatch'd his voice away;
No more his hcav'nly voice was heard to fing.
His hand no more awak'd the filver llring."

Iliad, book ii.

Homer availed himfelf of the popular ftory concerning the
blindnefs of Thamyris, and embelliftied it by his verfification.
Probably the whole allegory of this blindnefs had its rife
from his having injured the organ of fight by too intenfe an
application to the ftudy of mufic and poetry. And it is the
opinion of Paufanias, that there was no other difference be-
tween his misfortune and that of Homer, than that Thamyris
was wholly filcnced by it, and Homer, without being dif-
couragcd, continued hie poetical and mufical occupation long
after his blindnefs.

THAN, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Gu-
zerat ; 55 miles N.N.E. of Junagur.

TH ANjE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Paleftine, in
the half-tribe of Manaffeh, on this fide of Jordan.

THANE, or Thain, Thanus, the name of an ancient
dignity among the Englifh, or Anglo-Saxons.

Skene makes thane to have been a dignity equal with that
of the fon of an carl : Camden will have it, that thanes were
only dignified by the offices which they bore.

There were two kinds or orders of thanes ; the king^ s
thanes, and the ordinary thanes. The firft were thofe who
attended our Englifh-Saxon kings in their courts, and who
held lands immediately of the king : whence, in Domefday-
book, they are promifcuoufly called thani, ■sjxAJeriiiaites regis.

Soon after the Conqueft this name was difufed ; and inftead
of it, they were called the king's barons, barones regis.

Their origin is referred to king Canutus, who, taking the
chief of the Danifh nobility, to th : number of three thoufand,
for his guard, and arming them with battle-axes and fabres
with gilt handles, called them thing lith, from the two Danifh
words theing or thein, body of nobility, and lith, order of battle.

The ordinary thanes, or thani minores, were the lords of
manors, who had particular jurifdiftion within their limits,
and over their own tenants.

Thefe changed their name for that of barons ; and hence
their courts are called courts baron to this day.

In old authors, charters, &c. we alfo meet with thane as

fignifying

T II A

T H A

fignifying a nobleman ; though fometimes only a freeman,
and fometimes a Tnagillr;itc.

Thank Lands, were lands granted by charter of the Saxon
kings to their thanes.

THANET, IJle of, in Geography, is a trad of land on
the fouthern coall of the county of Kent, England, confid-
ing of about 27,000 acres, and is feparated from the remain-
ing part of the county by tlie narrow channel of the river
Stour, and the fmaller (tream called the Nethergong. The
marihes which border thcfe llreams are extcnfive, ami aflord
rich pafturage for cattle, but the higher grounds are prin-
cipally appropriated to the growth of corn. The ifie is in
fhape a long oval, being about nine miles in length from
eaft to weft, and nearly live miles broad from north to fouth.
Solinus, who is quoted by Camden, calls it Athanatos, and
in fome copies Thanatos, which probably gave origin to the
Saxon appellation Tenet, or Tanctlond ; though Lewis de-
rives this from Tene, a fire or beacon ; and he fuppofes the
ifle to have been fo named on account of the beacons or fires
which were kept here to give notice of Danifh or other
pirates, to whofe ravages it was greatly expofed. Thanet is
bounded on the north and eaft fides by the ocean ; a circum-
ftance which, conneftcd with the falubrity of its air, and its
convenient diftance from the metropolis, has led to the efta-
bliftiment of feveral watering-places ; and thefe, in tlie fum-
mer and autumnal fcafons, occafion a continual influx of
vifitants, whofe expenditure adds greatly to the wealth of
the fixed inhabitants. The chalk cliffs which furround the
coaft abound in foffils ; and among them, the cornua am-
monis has been found, meafuring apwards of three feet in
diameter. The whole of Thanet is divided into the two
capital manors of Minfter and Monkton, by St. Mildi'ed's
Lynch, a narrow ftrip of land, left unploughed, and extend-
ing quite acrofs the ifle, from Weft;gate by Woodchurch, to
Sheriff's Hope near Monkton. The ifle anciently contained
eleven pariflies ; but thofeof Sarre and All Saints have been
united to St. Nicholas, and that of Woodchurch to Bir-
chington. The pariflies of Minfier, Monkton, and Stonar,
with parts of thofe St. Nicholas and St. Lawrence, are under
the jurifdicfion of two conrtables ; the other pariflies, namely
St. John's, including the town of Mai-gate ; Birchington,
with Gore's End, St. Peter's, and Wood or Woodchurch,
the ville of Ramfgate, and the ville of Sarre, with the remain-
der of St. Nicholas and St. Lawrence, are all members of,
and fubjeft to the controul of the ports of Dover and Sand-
wich. The population return of the year 181 1 fl;ated the
inhabitants of the ifle to be 16,156 ; the number of lioufes
3209. (See Margate, Ramsgate, and Reculveu.) —
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xiii. Kent ; by
E. W. Brayley.

THANN, or Dann, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lfppcr Rhine ; 13 miles N.N.E. of Befort.

Thann. See Tanna.

THANNHAUSEN, or Tannhausen, a town of
Germany, in the circle of Swabia, and principal place of a
lordftiip of the fame name, on the river Mindel ; 14 miles
N. of Mindelheim.

THANNURIS, in Andent Geography, a town of Afia,
in Ofrhoene ; and another in Mefopotamia.

THANTIA, a town of Paleftiue, in Batan;ea, eaft-
ward towards the mountains, S.E. of Adraa.

THANWALD, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in the
principality of Breflau ; 13 miles N.W. of Breflau.

THAOUAOUIS. See Tav avis.

THAPAUA, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated in
jlie interior of Arabia Felix. Ptol.

Vol. XXXV.

THAPSA, a townof P.-Jeftinc, in the tribe of Ephraiin.

'l'HAPSAClIS,or AMi'iirpoi.is, a large and flourifliing
town of Afia, in Syria, on the banks ot the Euphrates.
When Alexander, after leaving Egypt, came to Thapfacus,
he found iiere two bridges over tlie Euphrates. Xenophon
tells us tliat Cyrus fojourned liere five days ; and that it was
licre that he informed the Greeks of his intention to march
to Babylon. Tlie foldiers mutinied, but were afterwards
appealed by his promifes. Thapfaeus is now a village, called
" El-Der." The channel of the river is here about half a
mile in breadth, and would appear to have been fordable from
the earliett; times to the prefent day. It was pafled on foot
by Cyrus and his whole army, and, as fome fay, by that of
Alexander the Great.

THAPSIA, in Botany, a name adopted from the ancient
Greeks, whofe 0x4-10:, if not precifely a fpecies of our pre-
fent genus, was certainly, like it, a large umbelliferous
plant, yielding a gummy exudation, and bearing yellow
flowers, iucceeded by broad feeds. Such is the defcription
given by Diofcorides, who moreover adds, that his 6a^)-^(»,
fo named from tlie ifland of Thapfos, where it grew, was in
e\-ery refpeft like Ferula, but with a more flender ftem, and
leaves nearly akin to fennel. The root was large ; white
within, black on the oiitfide, with a tluck acrid bark. He
attributes various virtues to its gum or juice, either taken as
a purge, in oppreffions of the cheft ; or applied externally,
along with honey, wax, or frankincenfe, for cutaneous com-
plaints, tumours, &c. — Linn. Gen. 144. Schreb. 193.
WiUd. Sp. PI. V. I. 1464. Mart. Mill. Did. v, 4. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 2. 156. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grace. Sibth.
V. I. 20I. Juff. 220. Tourn. t. 171. Lamarck lUuftr.
t. 206. Gasrtn. t. 21. — Clafs and order, Pentantlria
Digynia. Nat. Ord. Umbellatdc, Linn. Umbelllfcrte, Jufl".

Gen. Ch. General Umbel large, with about twenty rays,
of nearly equal length ; partial of as many, nearly ecjual,
rays. Involucrum none, neilher general nor partial. Perianth
fcarcely difcernible. Cor. Univerfal uniform ; all the
flowers fertile ; partial of five lanceolate incurved petals.
Stam. Filaments five, capillary, the length of the corolla ;
anthers finiple. Pi/l- Germen inferior, oblong ; ftyles two,
fliort ; ftignias obtufe. Peric. Fruit oblong, encompafled
longitudinally with a membranous border, feparable into
two parts. Seeds two, very large, oblong, convex, pointed
at each end, encompafled at each fide with a large, flat,
entire -edged border, which is emarginate at each extremity.

Eff. Ch. Livolucrum neither general nor partial. Fruit
oblong, encompafled with a membranous border. Petals
uniform, lanceolate, inflexed. Flowers all fertile.

I. Th. villofa. Villous Deadly Carrot. Linn. Sp. PI.
375. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. I. (Th. prima ; Cluf. Hift.
v. 2. 192. Th. latifolia Clufii ; Ger. Em. 1030.) —
Leaflets toothed, villous ; confluent at the bafe. — Native of
fliony ground, in Spain, Portugal, and the fouth of France.
Dr. Sibthorp found it in the fields of Patmos and Cyprus,
and Dr. Brouflbnet at Algiers. The root is perennial,
tap-fliaped, faid to be of an extremely foetid, acrid, and
naufeous quahty, which has given rife to the Englifli name.
Gerarde applies to this fpecies what Diofcorides fays of
T. garganica, that exhalations from the root or plant exul-
cerate the flcin. The ^em is three or four feet high, ereft,
round, fmooth, leafy, branched at the top. Leaves large
and fpreading, twice or thrice pinnate ; their leaflets fefGle,
obtufe, pinnatifid, notched, confluent at the bafe, in the
manner of a fern ; hairy on both fides ; whitifli and downy
at the back. Umbels feveral, ftalked, terminal, large,
fmooth, naked. Flowers yellow, rather fmall. Fruit about
half an inch long, and a quarter broad, with four ribs at
3 L each

T H A

cacli fidi.-, and a lliin, brown, membranous double wing at
each margin. .

2. T\\. fathla. Stinking' Deadly Carrot. Linn.bp.
PL 375. WiUd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. (Th. vulgaris; Gcr.
Em. 103 1. Th. vulgaris, cai-otx effigie ; Lob. Ic. 780.
Morif. fed. 9. t. 1 8. f. 7.)— Leaflets many-cleft, acute ;
contr.icted at the bafc.— Native of Spain, as well as ot
Zante and Cyprus. Gcrarde liad this plant in his garden,
and it is ftill, like the foregoing, to be feen in curious
botanical coik-dions, though not very commonly. It differs
from tlie villufa in having more finely, acutely, and deeply
divided laiflds, which are wedge-fliaped, not dilated at the
bafe. The iize of the whole plant is fmallcr, and the Jem
more branched. .

3. Til. ylj'chpitim. Fine-leaved Deadly Carrot. Lmn.
Sp. PI. 375. Willd. n. 3. Sm. Fl. Grace. Sibtli. t. 286,
unpubl. (Th. apula, foliis millefoUi ; Morif. feft. 9. t. 18.
f. 9. Panax Afclepium Diofcoridis et aliorum, gummi-
ferum; Column. Etphr. p. i. 87. t. 86.)— Leaves digitate;
leaflets doubly pinnate, in many briftle-fhaped fegments —
Native of the fouth of Italy, and of the Levant ; unknown
in our gardens. Dr. Sibthorp met with this plant in
Greece, Rhodes, and near Conftantinople. The root is
tapering, perennial, brown, gummy, crowned witli briftly
fibres. Stem folitary, ereft, a yard high, flightly branched,
round, fmooth, the thieknefs of a goofe-quill, almoil defti-
tute of foliage, except about the bottom. Leaves on long
ftalks, of five principal unequal leaflets, radiating from the
bafe, which are doubly, or almoft triply, pinnate, their iraall
lea/lets being divided very deeply into fine acute fegments,
one-eighth of an inch long, fmooth, and of a bright green.
Flotuers yellow, in fpreading long-ftalked umbels. Petals
dilated at the bafe, fo as to be, from the inflexion of tlie
point, almofl; lieart-fliaped. Seeds with broad, linear, obtufe
wngs.

4. T. garganka. Garganian, or rather Greek, Deadly-
Carrot. Linn. Mant. 57. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 3. Gouan.
Illullr. 18. t. 10. Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibth. t. 287, unpubl.
(Th. thaliari folio ; Magn. Monfp. 287. t. 286. Th. five
Turbith garganicum, femine latiffimo ; Bauh. Hift. v. 3.
p. 2. 50.) — Leaves radiato-pinnate ; leaflets deeply pinna-
tifid, with hnear decurrent fegments. Native of Barbary,
the fouth of Italy, and the Levant. Dr. Sibthorp finding
it very common throughout Greece, and the neighbouring
iflands, juilly concluded this fpecies to be the true Sa4.ia
of Diofcorides, with whofe defcription it agrees better than
any of the reft.. It is a ftately perennial plant, whofe
feeds were probably obtained from the gai-den of Mont-
pellier, by our Britifti cultivators, towards the year 1680.
The firm round leafy _/?fm, as well as the fheathing bafes
of the footjlalhs, and the ripening yj^i/j, are tinged with a
fine glaucous purple. Leaves large, deep green ; fmooth
above ; glaucous, and fometimes hairy, below ; their feg-
ments near an inch long, linear, entire. Common footjialks
long, round, fometimes very hair)-. Umbels very large, yel-
low. Petals lanceolate, involute. Fruit an inch long, with
broad, Ihining, brown wings ; its fides finely ribbed.

For Th. trifoliata, Linn. Sp. PI. 376, fee Smyrnium
n. 6, cor datum.

Th. polygama, Desfont. Atlant. v. i. 261. t. 75. Mart.
Mill. Dia. n. 6, found on the fea-coaft of Barbary, can-
not belong to this genus, having a general, as well as
partial, involucrum, and abortive central Jloiuers. It
fhould fecm to be a L.vserpitium. See that article.

THAPSIS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Scythia,
in the environs of the Palus Msotides, according to Dio-
dorus Sicuius.

T H A

THAPSOS, in the Materia Medlca of the Ancients, 3
name given to a kind of wood of a pale yellow colour, ufed
of old in dyeing of linen and woollen cloths. The Greek
Thapfos fignifies a pale dead yellow colour, and is appli-
cable either to the fubftance, or the juice or tinfture of
all thefe.

The people of Crete at this time ufe the lycium-wood in
dyeing a yellow colour, and it is probable that the thapfos
was this very tree. Diofcorides tells us, that the wood
of this tree was alfo ufed in his time to tinge the hair
yellow, which was a favourite colour with the Greeks.
The lycium is of a colour fomewhat deeper than our
box-wood, and parts with its ilain fo eafily, that it feems
very proper for fiich a purpofe.

THAPSUM, among the old Roman Writers, a common
name for the verbafcum, or mullein ; but as there were
many other plants, very different in their nature, yet
whofe names refembled this ; fuch as the ihapfia, or deadly
carrot, and the thapfum or gemjlella tlnSorla ; it was foon
found necefTary to add fome other name, and it was then
called thapfum barbatum, or harbajfum.

The reafon of the geniftella being called thapfum, was,
that its flowers were yellow, and were ufed to colour tlie
ladies' hair ; that being the favourite colour of thofe days.
The flowers of mullein are yellow, and feem more fit for
the colouring of the hair than thofe of the geniftella %
their colour being more eafily feparated, and continuing
on fo well, that the glovers of many parts of England ufe
them in the feafon for colouring their yellow gloves.

It is probable, that the ladies of old ufed this, as well
as the geniftella, for this purpofe : and it might hence ob-
tain tlie common name thapfum. The other part of its
diftinftion, barbatum, feems owing to the leaves being fo
coloured with a woolly down that they look bearded.
And when this word is written barbajfum, it may proba-
bly be given as the name of fome of thofe fpecies of
mullein which are not hairy, as our black or fage-leaved
mullein, and be a corruption of the word verbafcum.
This black mullein has no lefs title tlian the white or
bearded kind to the name thapfum ; its flowers being of
a yet finer yellow than thofe of that kind, and being as
fit for tlie ufe of ftaining. The glovers in fome places ufe
this fpecies for their leather-gloves.

THAPSUS, Dema.ss, in Ancient Geography, a maritime
town of Africa, upon a tongue of low land, S. of the
Leflfer Leptis. The place abounds with ruins.

Thapsus, or Tapfus, in Botany, fee Verbascuim. This
name feems to have originated with Gerarde, who gives no
explanation, nor do we find any authority for the opinion
of De Theis, that it alludes to the ifle of Thapfos, as the
native country of the plant. Such indeed is the acknow-
ledged derivation of Thap.sia, fee that article ; with which
this Verbafcum, a $Xo;uoc of the Greeks, has no relationfliip
^■hatever.

THAR, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia Felix,
belonging to the people called Themi.

THARAND, in Geography, a town of Germany, in
the circle of Upper Saxony, and circle of Erzgeburg ;
10 miles E.N.E. of Freyburg.

THARE, in Ancient Geography, a place of the en-
campment of the Ifraelites, whence they went to Methea.
(Numb, xxxiii. 27.) Thare, fituated in Arabia Deferta,
was the 24th ftation of the Ifraelites.

THARELA, a town of Paleftine, in the tribe of Ben-
jamin.

THARGELIA, Saf^sXia, in Antiquity, an Athenian

feftival in honour of the fun, and his attendants, the

12 Hours :

T H A

Hours : or, as others tliink, of tlic Dclian Apollo and
Diana. For an account of the ceremonies of this folein-
iiity, fee Potter Arch-.Eol. Grxo. lib. ii. cap. 20. torn. i.
p. 400. feq.

THARGELION, Bx/yauL), in Chronology, the eleventh
month of the Athenian year. It contained thirty days, and
anfwered to the latter part of our April, and the beginning
of May.

It took its name from the feftival Thargelia, kept in it.
THARNAU, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in the
principality of NeifTe ; i mile N. of Grotkau.

THARO, in Ancient Geography, an ifland, fituated, ac-
cording to Ptolemy, in the Perfian gulf.

THARPA, a town of India, beyond the Ganges, in
the Golden Chcrfonefus. Ptolemy.

THARRANA, a town of India, beyond the Ganges,
on the coaft of the Great gulf. Ptol.

THARSIA, a town of Africa propria, or one of thofe
which Ptolemy points out between Bagradas and the town
of Thabraca.

THARSIS, TnARSHisii, orTarJliiJh. See Ophir.
THASO, in Geography, an ifland of the Grecian Ar-
chipelago, fituated in the gulf of Contefa, anciently called
£r\a, or JEthr'ia, being famous, even to a proverb, for its
rich gold-mines. It has a town or village of the fame
name. N. lat. 40° 34'. E. 'ong. 42° 30'.

THASSUS, Tha-ssos, or Thajus, in Ancient Geography,
an ifland fituated on the coaft of Thrace, oppofite to the
mouth of the river Neftus. Thafus, fon of Agenor, king of
the Phoenicians, is faid to have remained many years in this
ifland, to have peopled it, and to have given it his name.
It was afterwards increafed by a Greek colony. The Athe-
nians made themfelves matters of this ifland, and treated the
inhabitants with great rigour ; but they were expelled by
the Macedonians, and thefe again by the Romans.

THATCH, in Rural Economy, prepared ftraw which
is intended to be laid on the top of a building, rick, &c.
to keep out the wet. There are many different forts of
materials that may be made ufe of as thatch, but thofe
which are moft commonly employed are the ftraw of dif-
ferent forts of grain, as wheat, rye, &c. reed, ftubble,
heather, &c. The ftraw of wheat and rye, when well pre-
pared and laid, probably forms the neateft and moft fecure
covering for general purpofes. It has indeed been ftated,
that the moft fuitable material for the purpofe is that of
good wheat-ftraw that has been much bruifed in threfhing
out the grain. But when this cannot be had in fufficient
quantity, rye-ftraw may be fubftituted in its place ; how.
ever, from its rough and ftubborn quality, it is neither fo
neat in its appearance, fo durable, nor affords fo fecure a
covering. And that barley and oat ftraw are fometimes
made ufe of for the purpofe, but they form very indifferent
coverings, and fuch as are not by any means lallingi Tlie
former, when flrong, is howe,ver preferable to the latter.

The reed is a highly valuable article for the purpofe of
thatch, where a lafting roof is required ; but is much too
expenfive and ftubborn for common purpofes. It has been
remarked by Mr. Marfliall, in the Rural Economy of Nor-
folk, that there, the favourite material for roofs, and that
which is the moft eligible after good flate for farm purpofes,
is reed. And that a reed roof properly laid, will lie fifty
years without touching ; and thirty or forty more, with
only adjufling (driving) it, and levelling the hollows with
a little frefli reed. At an hundred years old it may be
relaid ; and will then. If laid upon the upper parts of the
roof, laft through a confiderable part of another century.
The reed is, he fays, principally cut from the margins of

T H A

the broads, (large pieces of water,)
forty or fifty miles into the centra
the county. And it is added, that though a covering ^f

and the Ingl, degree of prefervation in which it keeps the

and is carried, perhaps,
ntral and northern parts of

--;ps the
. n . '"'" '''^" account, it is of all other the

cheapeft covering ; bef.des its being, whetiter in the extreme
of heat or cold, the moft comfortable.

And .t IS ft.ated, tJiat the price of reed, in the place of
Its growth, ,8 from three pounds to three guineas a hun-
dred contammg fix fcore fathoms; each fathom (com-
pofed of five or fix flieavcs) meafuring fix feet ^ "
ference. A hundred of reed will , ' "

the laying

roof, are taken

m ctrcum-
cover \\\e fquares of roof:

g IS a halfpenny a yard, or four fliillings and two-
pence a fquare ; and the tar rope and rods for fafteninjr
it on cofl eighteen pence a fquare : fo that a covering 3t
new reed cofts about eighteen fhillings a fquare, containing
100 l^quare feet ; befidcs carriage, and what is called roofing;
namely a cap of wheat-ftraw placed upon the ridge, in ,t
lomewhat fimjlar manner, and for the fame purpofe, as
ridge -tiles are out on. Tl,;^ ,.,r^r^;„^ ,„l,;„i, ;„ j„.,„ • . _

ojing;
a

capping, which is done in a
a tedious and expenfive manner.

ridge -tiles are put on. This
moft efleftual, but in

cofts, in materials and workman fliip, about fix teen pence
each foot in length: which, upon a roof of fixtecn feet
and a half fpar, is an additional expence of four fhiUings
each fquare of reedino-. °

With regard to the carriage, it is in proportion to the
diltance. 1 aking twenty miles as a medium diftance, and
one fhiUing a mile as a medium price ; the expence is, he
lays, twenty fliiUings a ' load' of fixty fathoms, or forty
iliillings a hundred ; which laying five fquares is a further
addition of eight fliillings a fquare : therefore, the whole
expence of a covering of reed fetched twenty miles, may,
tie fuppofes, be laid at thirty fliillings a fquare. The wri-
ter has been thus minute, he fays, in his account of this
material, as it has been mucli overlooked in other diftrifts,
vN'here it may be found ufeful.

This material is a great deal more expenfive in every
refpca which has any relation to this objecft, at the prefent
time, than it was then.

And with refpea to the ftubble, it is faid to be a mate-
rial that may be made ufe of with propriety and advantage
in fome fituations. This is the ftubble of fuch wheat or
other crops as have been cut at a great height ; which, after
being mown clofe to the ground and raked up, ferves this
purpofe, efpecially for the more common purpofes of the
farm, fuch as covering hay and ftraw ftacks, &c. the
thatching potatoes when hogged in the ground, and many
other fuch cafes.

The laft material, heather, is alfo found a highly valuable
article for the purpofe of thatch in diftrifts where it grows
in abundance, as it is extremely durable. See Heather.

The thatch which is removed from the ftacks or buildings
may be ufed as a litter for various purpofes.

The modes of preparing and applying thefe different
matters to the roofs of ftacks and buildings will be pointed
out in fpeaking of the operation of fecuring fuch roofs by
means of fuch fubftances. See Thatching.

Where ftraw of the rye or wheat kind is very ftrong, it
is often termed reed or Jlraiu reed by the thatcher, and ufed
for covering large hay-ftacks very commonly in many dif-
trifts.

THATCHAM, in Geography, a village and parifli in
the hundred of Reading and county of Berks, England, is
fituated 3 miles E. from Newbur)-, and 53 miles W. from
London. It appears to have been formerly a town of fome
confequence, from the Domcfday Survey, and other re-
3 L 2 cords,

T H A

cords, in which it is dcfcribed as an ancient borough ; but it
docs not appear ever to have font reprcfontativcs to parhament.
From a very early period it had a market on Sundays,
which was confirmed to the abbot and convent of Reading
by a charter of Henry II. The market-day was clianged
by Henry HI. in 1218 to Tlimi'day ; but the market has
long been difoontlnued. Two annual fairs are ftill held.
The manor of Thatcham was given to the abbot and con-
vent of Reading by Henry I. At the dKFolution it was
"•ranted, in i5_^9, to John Winchcombe, fon of the cele-
brated .Tack of" Newbury : it is now the property of Wil-
liam Moinit, efq. of Waling. A charity-fchool was
founded here, in 1 707, by lady Frances Winchcombe, who
endowed it with 53/. />(■/• annum. The fchool had been
long difcontinued, and its revenue loft to the parifh ; when
Mr. Thompfon, a late vicar, inllituted a fuit for their reco-
very, and after a long conteft fucceeded in the re-eftablifh-
ment of the fchool, with an income for the mafter increafed
to 200/. pn- annum ; forty boys are now clothed and educated,
and fix of them annually apprenticed with premiums of 10/.
each. Tlie parirti of Thatcham is the moll extenfive of any
in the county, excepting Lamborn, and includes fix town-
ftips. The' population, according to the parliamentary re-
port of the year 181 1, was eftimated at 2104; the number
of houfes at 424. — Lyfons's " Magna Britannia," vol.i.
Berkfhire.

THATCHER, a rock in the Englilh Channel, on the
north fide of Torbay.

Thatcher, in Rural Economy, a perfon who performs
the bufinefs of thatching.

THATCHING, the operation of covering the roofs of
buildings, ftacks, and other things, with fome fort of thatch.
For this purpofe, articles of the ftraw kind are pre-
pared in the following manner :' After being well moiftened
with water, they are drawn out in handfuls perfectly ftraight
and even into regular lengths, and the (hort ftraw feparated
from them, leaving them placed in convenient ranges for
forming bundles to be carried to the thatcher by the perfon
who has the ferving of him.

In reg?.rd to the application of the thatch to ftacks
of hay or corn, there are different methods purfued, ac-
cording to the nature of the materials employed. Where
long ftraw is made ufe of, tlie operator or workman ufually
begins at the eaves or bottom part of the roof, depofiting
it in handfuls in regular breadths till he reaches the top,
the different handfuls being fo placed endways as to overlap
each other, the upper ends being conftantly pudied a little
into the bottom parts of the (heaves or other matters. In
this manner he gradually proceeds, breadth after breadth,
till the whole of the roof is covered, which is ufually done to
the thicknefs of about four or five inches. And in order to
retain the thatch in its place, fliort fliarp-pointed fticks, termed
prods in fome places, are occafionally thruft in, in a flanting
direftion upwards ; and fometimes fmall fticks, often called
fpelks, ftiarpened at the ends, are bent and thruft in along
the top parts and fides. But as the water is apt to follow
the courfe of the fticks, it is perhaps a better praftice to
make ufe of ropes of twifted llraw for this purpofe. In
fome cafes, thefe are applied only round the bottom parts of
the roof and the fides ; while in others, which is a much
better and more fecure method, they are applied in fuch a
manner over the whole ftacks, as to form a fort of coarfe
net-work of nine or twelve inches in width in the
niches, the ends being well faftened either to belt-ropes
paiTed in fuitable directions for the purpofe, or to different
parts of the ftraw of the ftack.

Ill t.hc application of ftubble as a thatch, it is mollly,

7

T H A

after being prepared, put on by fticking one cf its ends into
the roof of the ftack in a regular and ex aft manner, fo as
that it may ftaud out very clofe and thick ; when the
other, with fuch loofe ftraws as may occur, is to be cut
over or pared off, with a very ftiarp tool for the pur-
pofe, fo as to form a neat and impenetrable thatch, having
the appeaiance of a newly thatched houie roof ; the whole
being well fccured in its place by ftiort pegs made for the
purpofe, fomewhat in the fame way as in the thatch of
other ftacks.

In the thatching of the roofs of houfes or other buildings
with any of the different forts of ftraw, the materials are to
be laid on to a confiderable thicknefs, and firmly fecured.
They are applied in regular narrow flips, or what in fome
diftrifts are termed ^(7«fx, from the eaves of the building to
the ridges, the ladder being moved forward as the work pro-
ceeds. The thatch is fecured by fliort ftiarpened fticks, as
above, thruft in where neceffary. And bended fticks,
iharpened at each end, are hkewife fometimes made ufe of
near the ridges, being thruft in at each end. In finilhing
the work, the thatcher moftly employs an iron-toothed rake,
with which the whole is raked and trimmed over from top to
bottom, fo as to render it completely fmooth and even, and
take away all the fliort ftraws, and other irregular matters.

The method of thatching with reed, according to Mr.
Mardiall, in his account of the Rural Economy of Norfolk,
is this : no laths being made ufe of, in laying it, a little of the
longeft and ftoiiteft of the reed is fcattered irregularly acrofs
the naked fpars, as a foundation to lay the main coat upon :
this partial gauze-like covering is called the " fleaking."
On this fleaking the main covering is laid, and faftened down
to the fpars by means of long rods, provinciaily " fways,"
laid acrofs the middle of the reed, and tied to the fpars with
rope-yarn, or with " bramble bonds," formerly much ulcd,
but now pretty nearly laid afide. In laying on the reed, the
workman begins at the lower corner of the roof, on his right
hand, for inftance, and keeps an irregular diagonal line, or
face, until he reaches the upper corner to his left, a narrow
eaves-board being nailed acrofs the feet of the fpars, and
fome fleaking fcattered on ; the thatcher begins to " fet his
eaves," by laying a coat of reed, eight or ten inches thick,
with the heads refting upon the fleaking, and the butts upon
the eaves-board. He then lays on hh fiuay (a rod about
the fize of a fmall edder) about fix or eight inches from the
lower point of the reed ; whilft his afllftant, on the infide,
runs a needle, threaded with rope-yarn, clofe to the fpar ;
and, in this cafe, clofe to tlie upper edge of the eaves-board.
The thatcher draws it through on one fide of the fway, and
enters it again on the contrary fide, both of the fway aiid of
the fpar : the affiftant draws it through, unthreads it, and
with the two ends of the yarn makes a knot round the fpar ;
thereby drawing tlie fway, and confequently the reed, tight
down to the roof : whilft the thatcher above, beating the
fway and prefling it down, affdls in making the work the
firmer. The affiftant having made good the knot below, he
proceeds with another length of thread to the next fpar,
and fo on, till the fway be bound dowu the whole length ;
namely, eight or ten feet. This being done, another ftratum
of reed is laid on upon the firft, fo as to make the entire
coat eighteen or twenty inches thick at the butts ; and an-
other fway laid along, and bound down, about twelve inches
above the firft.

The eaves being thus completely fet, they are adjufted and
formed, not fquare with the fpars, but nearly horizontal :
nor are they formed by cutting, but by " driving" them
with a " legget," a tool made of a board eight or nine inches
fquare, with a handle two feet long, fixed upon die back of

it.

T H A

T H A

it, obliquely, in the manner of the tool uftd Ly giirdrners in
heating turf. The face of the legget is fet with large-
headed nails, to render it rough, and make it lay hold of the
butts of the reeds. Then another layer of ixcd is laid on,
and bound down by another fway, fomewhat (liorter than
the lail, and placed eighteen or twenty iiicht. s above it ; and
above this another, and another, continuing to fhorten the
fvvays, until they be brought off to nothing, and a triangular
corner of thatching formed. After this the fways are ufed
their whole length, whatever it happens to be, until the
workman arrives at the fniilhing corner.

In order to give a liniih to the ridge, a cap (provincially a
" roof") of ftraw is fet on in a mafterly, but in an expenfive
manner. In this operation, the workman begins, it is ob-
ferved, by bringing the roof to an angle, with llraw laid the
long way upon the ridge, in the manner in whicli a rick is
topt up ; and to render it firm, to keep it in its place, and to
prevent the wind from blowing it off, or ruffling it, he pegs it
down nightly with " double broaches ;" namely, cleft twigs,
two feet long, and as thick as the finger, fliarpened at both
ends, bent double, and perhaps with the twilling of the
crown, and perhaps barbed, by partial chops on the fides, to
make them hold in the better. This done, the workman
lays a coat of ftraight ftraw, fix or eight inches thick, acrofs
the ridge ; beginning, on either fide, at the nppermoft butts
of the reed, and finifliing with ftraight handfuls evenly acrofs
the top of the ridge. Having laid a length of about four
feet in this manner, he proceeds to faften it firmly down, fo
as to render it proof againft wind and rain. This is done by
laying a " broachen ligger" (a quarter-cleft rod as thick as
the finger, and four feet in length) along the middle of the
ridge, pegging it down at every four inches with a double
broach, wiiich is firft thruft down with the hands, and after-
wards driven witli the legget, or with a mallet ufed for this
purpofe. The middle ligger being firmly laid, the thatcher
fmooths down the ftraw with a rake and his hands, about
eiglit or nine inches on one fide, and at fix inches from the
firft lays another ligger, and pegs it down with a fimilar
number of double broaches, thus proceeding to fmooth the
ftraw, and to faften on liggers at every fix inches, until he
reach the bottom of the cap. One fide finiftied, the other
is treated in the fame manner ; and the firft length being
completed, another and another length is laid, and finiftied
as the firft, until the other end of the ridge be reached. He
then cuts off the tails of the ftraw fquare and neatly with a
pair of fiiears, level with the uppermoft butts of the reed ;
above which the cap (or moil properly the rooflel) fiiews an
eaves of about fix inches thick. And laftly, he fweeps the
fides of the main roof with a bow of holly, when the work
is completed. This, when well performed, muft be a
durable and ufeful mode of thatching, and at the fame time
one which has a neat appearance.

In thatching with heather, that material moftly under-
goes fome fort of preparation, fo as to render it as equal as
poffible in fizeand ilrength, being laid and faftened upon the
roofs then in fomewhat the fame manner as that of ftraw.
It is afterwards fvvept, cleaned, and finiftied off in a neat and
exaft manner, fo as to look extremely well.

In fome of the more expofcd fituations in the northern
parts of the ifland, they have other modes and praftices of
thatching buildings with ftraw in ufe, fuch as performing
it with clay, or thin turf and that material.

If the roof be covered with thin turf or divots, the work-
man is to twift the upper part of the ftraw into a fort of
knot ; then, with a ftick prepared for the purpofe, to force
the knot thus forrr^d either under or through the turves or
divots, fo that it may have a firm hold of the roof ; after

\Thich, to fpread the lower part of the bundle of flraw nicely
on the roof, continuing to do the fame to the very top
of the roof ; and then to clay it all over, and begin an-
other tier, gang, or row of the thatch. In this way, the
thatch fliould not be laid tliinner than fix inches, and when
it is laid eight inches thick, it is the more durable. Thin
turf, or divots, were originally thought the beft foundation ;
but it has been fince found by experience, that they rot the
ftraw, and that ftraw alone, when ftilched on with rope-yarn,
lafts much longer. If ftraw alone be ufed in this manner, it
will laft twenty years ; but the ftraw muft be laic^on two inches
thicker than when clay is added. A roof that is thatchecf
with divots, ftraw, and clay, in the common way, will laft
from feventeen to twenty years ; and is alfo capable of being
mended witliout raifing any part of the roof that is entire.
The above kind of roof is much lefs liable to catch fi-re than
ftraw roofs without clay. The clay that anfwers the pur-
pofe beft is that which has a due proportion of fand in it.
If lliff clay fliould be ufed, it will be neceffary to add one
cart-load of fand to every two of the clay.

This fort of claying may, of courfe, be ufeful and advan-
tageous in thatching the roofs of buildings in many fitua-
tions and places.

THAU, in Geography, a lake of France, in the depart-
ment of the Herault, near the Mediterranean, between
Frontignan and Agde.

THAUANA, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated in
the interior of Arabia Felix.

THAUBA, a town in the interior of Arabia Felix.
Ptol.

THAUGHTS, or Thoughts, in a Boat, are the
benches on which the rowers fit to row.

THAUMASIUS Mons, in Ancient Geography, a
mountain of Arcadia, N.W. of Mantinea, above the river
Moloffus.

THAUMATURGUS, formed from ^xv,^:^, rjjondcrjul
thing, and ^fyov, tvork, luorher of miracles ; an appellation
which the Romanifts gave to feveral of their faints, eminent
for the number and greatnefs of their miracles.

St. Gregory, called Thaiimaturgus, or Gregory of Neo-
C2;farea, was a difciple of Origen about the year 223, and
afterwards bifhop of Casfarea, in Pontus ; and in that ca-
pacity he affifted at the firft council of Antioch, and at that
of Ephefus, againft Paulus Samofatenus. St. Leo of Ca-
tanea is alfo called Leo Thaiimaturgus. He lived in the eighth
century ; and his body is ftill honoured at Rome, in the
church of St. Martin de Tours. St. Francis Paul, and
St. Francis Xavier, are the great Thaumaturgi of thefe lalt
ages.

THAWING, the refolution of ice into its former fl.uid
ftate, by the warmth of the air.

THAXTED, in Geography, an ancient market-town in
the hundred of Dunmow, and county of Effex, England,
is fituated 19 miles N.N.W. from Chelmsford, and 43 miles
N.N.E. from London. The town was known in the Saxon
times, as the church is recorded to have belonged, in the
reign of Edward the Confeffor, to the college of St. John
Baptift, at Clare, in Suffolk. Thaxted was incorporated
by charter of Philip and Mary, which was confirmed by
queen Elizabeth ; under this the civil government is veiled
in a mayor, recorder, two bailiffs, and twenty principal
burgeffes. In the reign of James II. the corporation ex-
perienced a temporary iufpenfion ; for being ferved with a
writ of quo warranto, the corporate officers, eiti<er through
fear or poverty, thought fit to retire from their offices.
The market was granted by Edward II., but was difcon-
tinued for a long period : it h;is been recently revived, and

is

THE

is now held on Fridays. Hero arc alfo two annual fairs. In
the population return of the year i8i i, Tliaxtcd was ftatcd
to contain 390 houfes, occupied by 1733 pcrfons. The
church is a very large and beautiful ftrufture, and appears,
from the various arms and cognizances on fevcral parts, to
have been built at different times in the fourteenth and fif-
teenth centuries. The whole fabric is embattled, and fup-
ported by llrong buttreffes, terminated by canopied niches,
and curioully purfled pinnacles. At the weft end is an em-
battled tower, fullained by buttreffes, and furmounted by a
neat odagonal fpire, rifing to the height of 181 feet. The
interior confitls of a nave, tranfept, chancel, and fide aifles :
the arches of the nave are pointed, and fupportcd by eight
cluttered columns on each fide. The expcnce of the erec-
tion of this church was principally defrayed by the noble fa-
milies of Clare and Mortimer, who then poffeffed the manor,
with fome affiftancc from king Edward IV. A chantry,
befides various chapels and alurs, were ufed here before the
reformation. The charitable benefaftions for the ufe of the
poor inhabitants of Thaxted are confiderable. An eftate,
called Yendleys, deriving its name from Thomas Yendale
(who rcfided on it temp. Henry VI.) was, on his death,
vetted in truft for his four fons and their iffue ; and in de-
fault of fuch iffue, to be fold for the benefit of the church
and poor. The fons all dying childlefs, the eftate was fold
5 Henry VII. and the produce is applied to the fupport of
a fchool, repairing the church, improving the highways,
&c. In 1698, William, lord Maynard, bequeathed 4000/. in
truft, the produce to be apphed for increafing the minifter's
falary, repairing the church, marrying poor young women,
binding out apprentices, and relieving poor people overbur-
thened with children. Among other benefadlions are en-
dowments for alms-houfcs in feveral parts of the town : one
of the buildings appropriated for that purpofe is the old
chantry-houfe. The ancient guildhall is now the parifti
workhoufe : the mote-hall is ufed for a public fchool. —
Beauties of England and W^les, vol. v. Effex ; by J. Brit-
ton and E- W. Brayley. Morant's Hiftory, &c. of Effex,
2 vols, folio.

THE A, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Peloponnefus,
in Laconia.

Thea, in Botany, the Tea-tree, a name of barbarous de-
rivation, originating in the Chinefe Tcha, or Japanefe Tsja,
of which the vai"ious nations of Europe have made, accord-
ing to their fancy, Chaa, Tea, The, &c. and which Ksempfer
has formed in Latin into Thea. This laft has been admitted
by Linnaeus, for the fake of its Greek orthography, exaftly
that of fisx, a goddefs, R coincidence highly welcome to thofe
who honour the cordial beverage of tea as it deferves. —
Linn. Gen. 269. Schreb. 361. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 1180.
Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 303.
Juff. 262. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 474. Gaertn. t. 9^. — Clafs
and order, Po/yandria Monogynia, Linn. Rather Monadel-
ph'ia Polyandria ; fee Sm. Introd. to Bot. ed. 3. 335. Nat.
Ord. Colummferit, Linn. Aurant'ns et Mel'iis ajine, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cat. Perianth inferior, fmalI,of one leaf, in five
deep, rounded, obtufe, permanent fegments. Cor. of one
patal ; tube none ; hmb in fix, or more, deep, unequal,
rounded, concave, imbricated fegments, much longer than
the calyx ; the outer ones fmalleft. Starn. Filaments nu-
merous, about two hundred, thread-lhaped, fhorter than the
corolla, united at the bafe into a fhallow cup-like tube, inferted
into the receptacle, and connefted with the botiom of the
petal ; anthers peltate, fimple, nearly globofe. Piji. Ger-
men fuperior, globofe, with three obtufe angles ; ftyle tri-
angular, wuh three furrows, the length of the ftamens,
fplitting into three parts ; ftigmas three, linear-oblong, de-

THE

flexed. Perk. Capfule three-lobed, three-celled, burfling
along the upper fide of each lobe. Seeds folitary, globofe,
fomcwhat angular.

Eff. Ch. Calyx in five deep rounded fegTTients. Corolla
in fix, or more, deep imbricated fegments. Capfule fupe-
rior, threc-lobcd. Seeds folitary.

Obf. Gxrtner remarks that there are rudiments of four or
fix feeds in each cell of the germen. The genus is, doubt-,
lefs, nearly related to Camellia, (fee that article,) and fhould
ftand next to it in the artificial, as well as natural fyftem.
Whether theconneftion of the ftamens varies, or whether we
have fometimes in our gardens Thunberg's C. Safanqua for
the true Tea-plant, is extremely difficult to determine.
The flowers in England are certainly never fo large as in his
plate of Safanqua, which latter may poffibly be a fpecies of
Thea, though very dittinft from the Linna?an fpecimens
marked T. Bohca, and from all we have ever examined in
gardens. Plukenet's Fruticis These fpecies altera Sinarum,
Anialth. t. 405. f. 3, may belong to this Safanqua. The
fpecies of Thea are involved in much obfcurity. Linnaeus
was led to defcribe two, under the popular names of Bohea
and viridh, which he diftinguidied by the former having fix
petals, or rather fegments of the corolla, and the latter nine.
But for thefe charafters he is indebted to Hill, whofe autho-
rity is little to be relied on. We have never feen perfedt fpe-
cimens of more than one fpecies, which anfwers to the defi-
nition of the Bohea, with fcarcely any variation ; nor do the
leaves of common green or black tea, when expanded by hot
water, betray any difference in their ferratures, veins, or
other refpedls, from that or from each other. The Pekoe,
whofe filky young branches are confpicuous in the tea-cheft
for their whitenefs, agrees in that particular with our gar-
den fpecimens of Thea, and not with Camellia Safanqua fent
by Thunberg, for this laft is hairy in a very different manner.
Such being the ftate of the cafe, we can undertake to defcrSbe
only one fpecies of Thea.

I. T. viridis. Green Tea. G^rtn. v. 2. 83. t. 95. f. I.
Linn. Sp. PI. 735. Willd. n. 2. (T. bohea ; Linn. Sp. PI.
734. Amccn. Acad. v. 7. 253. t. 4. Willd. n. i. Ait. n. i.
Thea ; Kaempf Am. Exot. 605. t. 606. Woodv. Med.
Bot. fuppl. 1 16. t. 256. T chinenfis ; Curt. Mag. t. 998.
T. cantonienfis ; Lour. Cochinch. 359. Thee ; Barth.
Aft. V. 4. I. t. I. Tea-tree ; Letfom Monogr. t. I.) —
Native of China and Japan. The late Mr. John Ellis is laid
to have firft raifed it from feed in England, about the year
1768. The ftirub is propagated by cuttings, and will bear
our winters with a fiiglit degree of ftielter, though it rarely
flowers, except in a greenhoufe or ftove. T\ieJ}em is from
three to fix feet high, buftiy, with numerous, alternate, round,
leafy branches, fmooth, except at the very extremity, where
tlie youngeft ftioots are finely filky, with clofe-prefl'ed hairs.
Leaves alternate, on ftiort, thick, channelled, fmooth foot-
flalks, evergreen, elliptic-oblong, with a blunt emarginate
point, copioufly fcrrated, except at the bafe, with inllexed
pointed feiratures, fmooth on both fides, with one rib and
many tranfverle veins, interbranching towards the margin ;
paler beneath ; their length two or three inches ; their
breadth about one inch : the young ones finely filky before
expanfion, with a deciduous point. Stipulas none. Floiuers
axillary, or, on the lateral ftioots, nearly terminal, white, not
unlike thofe of a Myrtle, but rather larger, and on fliort,
thick, recurved, round, imooth. Jlalks, ufually two together,
accompanied by a few alternate, ftiort, ovate, deciduous
bralleas. The two outer fegments of the corolla, fmaller than
the reft, are green, or purplifh, at the back. Anthers and
Jligmas yellow.

For the economical hiftory of this plant, fee Tea. We

have

THE A.

Jiavc been greatly at a lofs for a fpccific name, and liavc
adopted vlridis to avoid any needlefs change, thinking it
rather preferable to Bohea, which is a partial name, and of
corrupt orthography. Dr. Sims, in Curt. Mag., has iifed
chiiieiifis, bnt this is liable to objedlion, as the name of a
country to which the plant is not quite peculiar ; and 1m\\-
rciro's cantonknjls is therefore Hill more exceptionable. This
lall author concurs in the opinion that all the common Chi-
nefe teas belong to one fpecies. He defcribes indeed two
others, T. cochinchhienjis, which feems a ti-ifling variety of the
abo've ; and 7". okofa, growing wild near Canton, faid to
bear a yellow berry, whofe feeds fupply the Chinefe with
lamp-oil.

Thea, in G(7r^/ra/n§-, furniflies plants of the exotic fhrubby
kind, the fpecies of which chiefly in ufe is the tea-tree
(thea).

This tree, as it is commonly defcribed, differs in height,
in its native climate, from five or fix feet to thirty, and even
one hundred and fifty, or more, when let grow to its full
fize and dimenfions.

And in refpeft to the varieties of it, Martyn has confidered
them all as forming one fpecies, in which he is, he afferts,
fupported by the belt authorities. Kxmpfer, he contends,
attributes their difference to foil, culture, age of the leaves,
and method of curing them. Mr. EUis alfo direftly afferts,
that the green and bohea tea are one and the fame fpecies ;
and that it is the nature of the foil, the culture, and manner
of gathering and drying the leaves, that make the difference.
So alfo fir George Staunton maintains, that every informa-
tion received concerning the tea plant concurred in affirming,
that its qualities depended upon the foil in which it grew,
and the age at which the leaves were plucked off the tree,
as well as upon the management of them afterwards. See
Te.\ and Thea.

The bohea tea-trees now introduced into many botanic
gardens near London, exhibit very obvious varieties : the
leaves are of a deeper green colour, and not fo deeply fer-
rated ; and the llalk is ufually of a darker colour : but the
botanical charafters are the fame. Thunberg alfo diflin-
guifhes two varieties from the leaves, which in one are fmaller,
flat, darker green, with flraight ferratures, and in the other
larger, waved, brighter green, with finuate ferratures : but
they can fcarcely be confidered as diftinft fpecies. Loureiro
obferved little difference in the fou-chong which he exa-
mined : both thefe have a brown colour, but are more odo-
riferous and precious than the common bohea of the pro-
vince Fo-kien, which he had not an opportunity of feeing
in a living Rate, though it is the moft common and cheapeil
of all. He examined the dry flowers of the green-tea from
the province of Kiang-fi, and obferved the fame incon-
llancy as to the number of parts in the calyx and corolla,
as in the bohea. Upon the whole, he concludes that all the
differences of Chinefe tea form only one botanical fpecies,
owing their variation to foil, culture, and method of prepa-
ration ; all retaining the fame inconftancy in the parts of
llie flower, which gave occafion to Linnssus to confider
tliem as two fpecies. Befides, it is evident that many varie-
ties of tea are known in China, which arife from mixture
and management.

The diff inftions chiefly regarded in Europe are the fol-
lowing.

Green Tuts — i. Bing, imperial or bloom tea, with a large
loofe leaf, of a light green colour, and a faint delicate
fmell.

2. Hy-tiann, liikiong, hayffuen or heechun, known to
as by the name of hy,foii tea : the leaves are clofely curled

and fmall, of a green colour verging towards blue. Another'
hyfon tea, with narrow (liort leaves, is called hyfon-utchin.
Tliere is alfo a green tea named globe, with long narrow
leaves.

3. Song-lo or finglo, which name it receives, like feveral
others, from the place where it is cultivated.

Bohea Teas. — I. Soo-ciuion, fut-chong, fou-chong, or
fu-cliong, called by the Ciiinefe faa-tyang, and faft-ciiaon
or fy-tyann, is a fuperior kind of cong-fou tea. It imparts a
yellowiih-grecn colour by infufion, and has its name from a
place or province in Cliina. Padre futchong has a finer taite
and fmell : the leaves are large and yellowilh, not rolled up,
aiid packed in papers of half a pound each. It is generally
conveyed by caravans into RufTia : without much care
it will be injured at fea. It is rarely to be met with in
England.

2. Cam-ho or foum-lo, c.illed after the name of the place
where it is gathered : a fragrant tea with a violet fmell ; its
infufion is pale.

3. Cong-fou, Congo, or bong-fo : this has a larger leaf
than the following, and the infufion is a little deeper
coloured. It refembles the common bohea in the colour of
the leaf.

There is alfo a fort called lin-kifam, with narrow rough
leaves. It is feldom ufed alone, but mixed with other kinds.
By adding it to Congo, the Chinefe fonietimes make a kind
of pekoe tea.

4. Pekao, pecko, or pekoe, by the Chinefe called back-
ho or pack-ho : it is known by having the appearance of
fmall white flowers intermixed with it.

5. Common bohea or black tea, called raoji or mo-ee
by the Chinefe, confifts of leaves of one colour. The belt
is named Tao-kyonn. An inferior kind is called An-kai,
from a place of that name. In the diflridl of Honam, near
Canton, the tea is very coarfe, the leaves yellow or brownifli,
and the tafte the leafl agreeable of any. By the Ciiinefe it
is named honam-te, or kuli-te.

But befides thefe, tea, both bohea and green, is fometimes
imported in balls, from two ounces to the fize of a nutmeg
and of peas. The Chinefe call it poncul-tcha. The fmalleft
in this form is well known under the name of gunpowder
tea.

And fometimes the fucculent leaves are twilled like pack-
thread, an inch and a half, or two inches long ; three of
thefe are ufually tied together at the ends by different co-
loured filk threads. Both green and bohea teas are pre-
pared in this manner.

The manner of gathering and preparing the leaves, as
praftifed in Japan, according to Kampfer, as far as our in-
formation reaches, is in a great meafure conformable to the
method ufed by the Chinefe. See Tea.

Whether the Chinefe colleft the tea precifely at the fame
feafons as in Japan, we are not well informed ; but mofl pro-
bably the tea harvefl; is nearly at the fame periods, the na-
tives having frequent intercourfe, and their commercial con-
cerns with each other being very extenfive.

For an account of tlie preparation of the tea-leaves, &c.
fee Tea.

The country people cure their tea-leav»'s in earthen kettles,
which anfwer every neceffary purpofe, at lefs trouble and
expence than by the procefs defcribed under the article Tea,
and they are thus enabled to fell them cheaper. After the
tea has been kept for fome months, it is taken out of the
veffels in which it was flored, and dried again over a very
gentle fire, that it may be deprived of any humidity which
remained, or it might have fince coiitradled.

^ The

THE

The common tea is kept in cartlicn pots with narrow
moutlis ; but the bc-ft forts, ufed by the emperor and nobi-
lity, is put into porcelain or china veffels. The coarfell tea
is kept by the country people in draw badicts, made in the
(liape of barrels, which they place under the roofs of
tlieir houfes, near tlie hole that lets out the fmoke.

Method of Culture Thefe plants may be raifed in this

country by feeds, layers, and cuttings of the young branches.
The editor of Miller's Dictionary advifes that the feeds
(hould be procured from China, and that care (hould be
taken that they be frefli, found, ripe, white, plump, and
moill internally. After being well dried in the fun, they
may be inclofed in bees-wax, or, left in their cap-
fules, they may be put into very clofe canifters of tin or
tutenague. Thouin, in his direftions to Peroufe, it is faid,
recommends thefe and other feeds to be placed in alternate
layers of earth or fand, in tin boxes, clofed up exaftly, and
placed in fohd cafes, covered with waxed cloth ; the boxes
to be placed in a part of the fliip the leaft acceffible to
moifture, and the mofl (heltered from extreme heat or
cold. And Mr. Sneyd, it is added, was very fuccefsful
in having feeds packed up in abforbent paper, and fur-
rounded by raifins or moift fugar, which kept them in
a ftate fit for vegetation. American feeds are frequently
brought over, by puttingthem into a box, not made too clofe,
upon alternate layers of mofs, in fuch a manner as to admit
the feeds to vegetate. This might be tried with the feeds
of the tea-tree ; and to fucceed more certainly, fome of the feeds
might be fown in pots or boxes, when the veffel arrives at
St. Helena, and after paffing the tropic of Cancer, near the
latitude of thirty degrees north. But the beft method
feems to be, to fow ripe feeds in good light earth in boxes,
at leaving Canton, covering them with wire, to prevent rats
and other vermin from getting to them ; and taking care
that the boxes be not expofed to too much air, nor to the
fpray of the fea. A little frefh or rain-water fhould be
fprinkled over them now and then ; and when the feedling
plants appear, they fhould be kept moift and out of the
biu-ning fun. If young plants can be procured in China,
they may be fent over in a growing ftate in boxes, forty
inches long by twenty broad, and as m\ich in depth, having
a few holes bored through the bottom. When the trees ar-
rive here, they muft be kept in a greenhoufe during the win-
ter, and in the open air during the fummer ; and if they
come in bad condition, it may not be amifs to plunge the
pots into which they are tranfplanted in a gentle hot-bed, or
to fet them in a tan-pit, to make them ftrike and ftioot more
freely. It is further remarked, that though the tea-tree
will not at prefent bear the rigour of OMr winters in the
open air, yet it is not impoffible but it may gradually be-
come naturahzed to our climate, like the magnolia, among
feveral other trees and ftirubs ; efpecially if it were to be
brought from the coldeft provinces of China, where it
grows, or from the parts of Europe a little to the fouth-
ward of us, when it has been naturalized there. It is in-
creafed freely from cuttings, when managed in the fame
manner as gardenias : and it alfo fometimes grows from
layers laid down in the autumn or fpring.

Some of thefe plants ftiould be always kept in pots, to be
removed under the (belter either of a greenhoufe, glafs cafe,
or deep garden frame, in winter ; and others be planted in
a dry, well-fheltered, warm, confpicuous pait of the ftirub-
bery, to be afforded occafional covering from rigorous
frofts.

They afford variety in greenhoufe colleaions, as well as
in the fhrubberies.

THE

Although in this country, plants of this kind are only cul-
tivated for the purpofe of curiofity, variety, and diverfity
among greenhoufe and other coUeftions, in fmaU quantities ;
in China, where tl\ey are natives, they are raifed in vail abun-
dance in plantations of very great extent for their leaves,
which form a great and valuable article of merchandize to
tliat country for thefupplyof England and moft other parts
of Europe, they being employed, in their different prepared
ftates, for the making of an infufion with boiling water,
which is called tea, and which is very generally in ufe, efpe-
cially in this and fome other countries. For other particu-
lai-s, fee Tea.

THEAK, in Rural Economy, a word provincially ufed
to fignify thatch.

THEAKIKI, in Geography, a river of North America,
which runs into lake Illinois, N. lat. 40° 52'. W. long.
89° 15'.

THEAME, in /indent Geography, a town of Afia, in
Babylonia, on the confines of Arabia Defcrta. Ptol.

THEANDRIC, SsavSpix.o?, del-'ulrilc ; a term lignify-
ing divine and human, formed from Qro,-, God, and ainp,
tnan.

St. Dionyfais, bifhop of Athens, firft ufed the word
iheandric, to exprefs a double operation, or two operations
united in Jefus Chrift ; the one divine, the other human.
The Monophyfites afterwards abufed it, to fignify the one
only operation which they admitted in Jefus Chrift ; in whom
they believed there was a mixture of the divine and human
nature, whence refulted a third nature, which was a com-
pound of the one and the other, whofe operations followed
the eflence and qualities of the mixture, and were neither
divine nor human, both at once, or, in one word, theandrlc.

Bmv}^iy.n mfyua, theandrlc, or dei-virile operation, in the
fenfe of Dionyfius and Damafcenus, is thus exemphfied by
Athanafius. When Chrift healed the perfon who was born
blind, the fpittle he voided was human, but the opening of
the eyes was done by his divine power. And thus, in raif-
ing Lazarus, he called as man, but awaked him from the
dead as God.

The term theandric, and the dogma of theandric opera-
tions, were examined with great care and attention, at the
council of Lateran, held in 649, where pope Martin (olidly
refuted the notion of theandric operations, and fhewed, that
the fenfe in which St. Dionyfius firft ufed the word was Ca-
tliolic, and quite remote from that of the Monophyfites and
Monothelites.

THEANGELA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia
Muior, in Caria.

THEANO, or Teano, in Geography, a town of Italy,
in the kingdom of Naples, and province of Lavora ; the
fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Capua ; 15 miles N. of Capua.

THEANTHROPOS, QEav6pi;:rc;, formed from 0.0;,
God, and avO^it^s;-, man, denominated God-man ; a term fome-
times ufed in the fchools to fignify Jefus Chrift, who was
regarded as God-man ; or reprefented by fome fcholaftic
theological writers, as comprehending two natures in one
perfon.

THEANUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy,
in Campania, upon the Latin way, S.E. of Cafinum. See
Thean'O. — Alfo, a river of Italy.

THEATER, or Theatre, Thealrum, formed from
^ici.T^'v, fpedacle, of Seaoj^ai, / fee, among the Ancients, a
pubhc edifice, for the exhibition of fcenic fpeftacles or fhows
to the people.

Under the word theater was comprehended, not only the
eminence on which the aflors appeared, and the aclion

paffed,

THE

THE

pafTed, but alfo the whole area or extent of tlie place, com-
mon to the adiors and ffK?ftators.

In this fenfe, the theater was a building cncompaflcd with
porticoes, and furnifhed witli feats of llonc, difpofed in
feraicirclcs, afccndiiig gradually over one another ; which
encompafl'ed a fpace called the orcbrfra, in the front of
which was the profcenium, or pulpituiii, on which the aftors
performed, and which is what we diilintlly call the theater,
or ftage. The profcenium was divided into two parts ; the
one higher, on which the aftors declaimed, and the other
lower, on which the chorus was commonly placed. This
latter was railed ten or twelve feet above the pit, from
which there was an afcent to it ; and thus fituated, tlie chorus
might eafily turn either towards the aftors or towards the
fpeftators.

On the profcenium ftood the fcena, a large front, adorned
with orders of architefture, behind which was the poft-
fcenium, or places where the aftors made themfelves ready,
retired, &c. So that the fcena, in its full extent, compre-
hended all the part belonging to the aftors. In the firil
ages of the Roman commonwealth, theaters were only tem-
porary, and formed of wood : tlie mod celebrated of thefe
was that of M. Scaurus, mentioned by Pliny. The firfl
fixed theater was erefted by Pompey the Great, who built
it very magnificently with fquare ilone.

In the Greek theaters, the orcheftra made a part of the
fcena, but in the Roman theaters, none of the a6tors ever
defcended into the ot;chefl.ra ; which was taken up by the
feats of the fenators.

The moft celebrated theaters remaining of antiquity, are
the theater of Marcellus, and that of Pornpey ; which are
alio called amphitheaters.

At Athens are Hill feen the remains of the temple of
Bacchus, which was the firft theater in the world, and was
a mafter-piece in architefture. All theaters were confecrated
to Venus and Bacchus.

Theatek, among the Moderns, more peculiarly denotes
the ftage, or place on which the drama, or play, is exhi-
bited ; anfwering to the profcenium of the ancients.

In its full latitude, however, the theater includes the
whole play-houfe : in which fenfe it is a fpacious room, or
hall, part of which is taken up by the fcena, which compre-
hends the ftage, the decorations, and the machines ; and the
reft is diiUibuted into a fpace, called the pit, or parterre,
wliich is covered with feats, boxes, &c. and terminated with
an elevation of one or two galleries, difpofed into benches
afcending over one another. See D?;amatic Scenery, Play-
Houfe, and Scenography.

Theater is alfo ufed in ArchiteSure, chiefly among the
Itahans, for an affemblage of feveral buildings, which, by
a happy difpofition and elevation, reprefents an agreeable
fcene to the eye.

Such are moft of the vineyards at Rome ; but particu-
larly that of Monte Dragone, at Frefcati ; and in France,
the new caftle of St. Germain en Laye.

Theater, Anatomical, in a fchool of Medicine and Sur-
gery, is a hall, with feveral rows of feats, difpofed in the
circumference of an amphitheater, having a table, bearing
on a pivot, in the middle, for the difteftion of bodies.

Such is the anatomical theater of the royal garden at
Paris.

The Theater at Oxford is a beautiful building, crefled
by archbilhop Sheldon, for the ufe of fcholaftic cxercifes.
See Oxford.

THEATINES, an order of nuns, under the direftion
ot the TheatLns.

There are two kinds of Theatines, under the title of
Vol . XXXV.

" Sifters of the Immaculate Conception," who form two
different congregations, the one engaged by folemn vows,
and the otlicr only by fimple vows. Tiieir common foundrefs
was Urfula Benincafa. Thofe who make the fimple tows
are the moft ancient, and are called abfolutdy " Theatines
of the Congregation :" they had their rife at Naples in

'583-

Tlie others are called " Theatines of the Hermitage :"
the whole bufincfs of thefe is praying in retirement, and an
auftere folitude, to which they engage themfelves by folemn
vows.

The Theatines of the firft congregation take care of the
temporal concerns of thefe laft. Their houfes ftand toge-
ther, and communicate by a large hall. Their foundrcfs
drew up their conilitutions, and laid the foundation of their
houfe at Naples ; but died before it was finifhed.

Gregory XV. who confirmed the new inftitute under the
rule of St. Auguftinc, appointed that they ftiould be under
the direftion of the Theatins. Urban VIII. revoked this
article by a brief in 1624, and fubjefted them to the nuncio
of Naples : but Clement IX. annulled this brief, and fub-
mitted them anew to the Theatins by a brief in 1668.

THEATINS, a religious order of regular priefts : thus
called from their firft fuperior Don John Pietro Cai-afi"a, arch-
biftiop of Chieti, in the kingdom of Naples, which was an-
ciently called Theate.

The fame archbidiop became afterwards pope, by the
name of Paul IV. after having been a companion of Gaetaii,
or Cajetan, a Venetian gentleman, the firft founder of this
order, at Rome, in 1524.

The Theatins were the firft who affumed the title of regu-
lar clerks. They have not only no lands, or fixed revenues,
either in common, or in propriety ; but they do not even
aflc or beg any thing ; but wait for what Providence ftiall
fend them for their iubfiftence.

They employ themfelves much in foreign miflions ; and
in 1627, they entered upon Mingreha, where they have an
eftabliftiment : they have had the like in Tartary, Circaflia,
and Georgia ; but this they have fiiice abandoned.

Their firft congregation appeared at Rome in 1524, and
was confirmed in the fame year by Clement VII Their
conftitutions were drawn up at a general chapter in 1604,
and approved by Clement VIII. They wear the prieft's
habit.

THEATRE. See Theater and A.MrHnnEATER.

THEATRIC Bandages, a term ufed by Hippocrates,
to exprefs the parade of furgery in applying bandages for
fliow, when there was no real ufe in them. All fuch ban-
dages he called theatric, only proper to be looked at.

THEAUA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, in
the interior of the Tairagonenfis.

THEAVE, a term applied in fome diftrifts to an ewe
of the firft year. It is fometimes written thave, and alfo
thief in different diftrifts.

THEBjE, or Thebes, in Ancient Geography, a confi-
derable, and in fome refpefts the principal, town of Boeotia,
fituated towards the middle of the country, near the river
Ifraene, S.E. of the lake Copais. This town owed its
origin to Cadmi!s ; but being confiderably augmented, the
part of the town which was feated upon an eminence, and
which was called Cadmasa from the name of its founder,
was regarded as a citadel in reference to the lower town.
Here was a fpring, which conveyed water to the city by
fubten-aneous channels. Amphion and Zethus, having taken
poffeffion of the country, joined the upper ana lower towns,
and called the place Thebes. According to Homer it liad
feven gates, the intervals being occupied by walls. It is
3 M • faid

THE

faiJ to have been 43 ftadia (l league 1563 toifes) in cir-
cumference. Its environs arc embellidied by two rivers, by
meadows and gardens. Myron of Byzantium fays, that
Amphion was the firft pcrfon who eroacd an altar to Mer-
cury, and that the god recompenfcd his zeal by giving h:m
a lyre. The Thebans carried on various wars with the Pla-
txars for afcertaining their rcfpcaive hmits ; and againfl
the Athenians at Platiea for having fought the friendfhip of
the king of Perfia againfl; the common intereft of the Greeks.
In procefs of time, the Thebans avenged themfclves by de-
feating the Athenians at Delium, near the Tanagra. The
Macedonians, after the battle of Cheronxa, placed a garri-
fon at Thebes, where it remained till after the death of Phi-
lip. Alexander having taken tlie city, and expelled its in-
habitants, who retired to Athens, CalTander, the fon of An-
tipater, re-eftabliflied them there, with the affiftance of the
Athenians, the Meflenians, and the Megalopolitans. Sylla
at length reduced them to extreme mifery, for having de-
clared in favour of Mithridates.

In the time of Paufanias, the whole lower part of the
town was in ruins, except the temples, and the citadel only
was inhabited and denominated Thebes. The temple of
Apollo was fealed on an eminence near one of the gates, and
the river Ifmcne, which paffed by it, gave to the god and
the hill on which his temple ftood the name of Ifmenius.
Mercury and Minerva had each 3 ftatue of marble at the
entrance of the veftibule of this temple : that of Mercury
was the work of Phidias, and that of Minerva was exe-
cuted by Scopas. The ftatue of Apollo in the temple was
wrought of cedar-wood. In this temple were alfo brazen
tripods of excellent workmanfhip. Hercules Promachus
had a temple near another of the gates of the city, in
which was his ftatue of marble ; a coloflal figure by AI-
camenes, and his labours by Praxiteles. The temple of
Amnion had a ftatue executed by Calamis and dedicated
by Pindar. Here was alfo the temple of Fortune, and the
goddefs held Plutus in her arms under the form of an
infant. The temple of Ceres Thefmophorus, or the legif-
latar, had been anciently the houfe of Cadmus, in which was
exhibited a buft of the ftatue of the goddefs. The theatre
was near another gate, and near it a temple of Bacchus Ly-
iius. The temple of Diana Euclea was in the fame quar-
ter ; the ftatue of the goddefs was the work of Scopas.
Jupiter, fumamed the Highejl, had a temple near the gate of
this appellation. Here were a place of exercife and a ftadium ;
and in the midft of the ftadium was the tomb of Pindar.
The river Irce paffed near Thebes, and beyond it were the
ruins of the houfe of Pindar, and a kind of chapel which
this poet had built in honour of Cybele. Her ftatue was
formed of Pentehc mirble, Entrance into the chapel was
allowed only one day in the year. The temple of The-
mis was near one of the gates of Thebes, and her ftatue
was of white marble. Jupiter Agoreus and the Parcss had
alfo their temples. The ftatue of Hercules Rhinocoluftes
was in full view in this part of the city. The facred wood
of Ceres Cabiria and of Proferpine lay at about 23; ftadia
from Thebes. The temple of the Cabiri was at the diftance
of fe.yen ftadia. According to Paufanias, there was feen at
Thebes a ftatue of Venus Urania, which was faid to have
been formed of parts of the ftiips that brought Cadnius
into Greece. It was the moft ancient ftatue in Greece.
The population of this city was very confiderable. When it
was taken by Alexander, more than 6cx>0 perfons perifhed,
and more than 30,000 were fold for ftaves. Some priefts
were fpared and many citizens fled. Hence we may prcfume,
that the number of inhabitants in Thebes and its diftrift
might amount to 50,000 of all ages and fexes, without in-

THE

eluding (lave?. The inhabitants, like thofe of Athens, were
divided into three clafl'es ; the firft compofed of citizens,
the fecond of naturalized foreigners, and the third of flaves.
The Thebans were deemed to be courageous, infolent, and
vain ; and murders were frequently the confequence of the
moft frivolous quarrels. The women were both well made
and generally of a fair complexion, of a noble carriage, and
not inelegant drefs ; their voice was remarkably fweet and
tender ; and that of the men harfti and difagreeable, and in
fome meafure fuited to their charafter. The " facred bat-
talion" of Thebes is famous in hiftory. It confifted of a
body of young warriors, brought up together, and main-
tained at the public expence, in the citadel. Their exev-
cifcs, and even their amufements, were regulated by the me-
lodious founds of the flute ; and in order to prevent their
courage from degenerating into blind fury, care was taken
to infpire them v.'ith the nobleft and moft animated fenti-
ments. Each warrior chofe from the band a friend, to
whom he remained infeparably united. Thefe 300 warrior.,
were anciently diftributed in troops at the head of the dif-
ferent divifions of the army. Pelopidas, who had frequently
the honour of commanding them, having made them fight
in a body, the Thebans were indebted to them for almoft all
the advantages they gained over the Lacedjemomans. Phihp
deftroyed this hitlierto invincible cohort at Cheronxa ; and
the prince, feeing tfeofe young Thebans ftretched on the
Seld of battle, covered with honourable wounds, and lying
fide by fide on the ground on which they had been Rationed,
could not reftrain his tears, but bore a noble teftimony
to their virtue as well as their valour. Travels of Anachar-
fis, vol. iii. See Thjva.

ThebjB, a town of Upper Egypt, on the right bank of
the Nile. According to the ideas given us of this town by
Homer, it was the moft celebrated of antiquity. Ancient
authors have given very different accounts of its extent.
In the time of Strabo, this city had been deftroyed. It had
been ravaged by Cambyfes j it was afterwards defpoiled of
its riches by Ptolemy Philometer ; and under the reiga of Au-
guftus, it was feverely treated by Gallus on account of its
rebellion. From this time it fell into a ftate of decline, from
which it has not recovered. Tacitus mentions it as a town
in ruins ; and Juvenal fpeaks thus of it : This city extended
on both fides of the Nile, although it was more particularly
fituated on the right bank of this river : a confiderable por-
tion of it lay to the left, which, according to Strabo, bore
the name of " Memmonium." For a further account of
this city, fee Thebes.

Theb.^ was a name given to. many ancient towns. Thebe
was a town of Afia, in Cilicia hypoplaciana, fituated on a
plain, at the foot of mount Placion. — Alfo, a town of Ju-
dea, in the half-tribe of Manaffeh, on this fide of Jordan. —
Alfo, a town of Macedonia, in the Phthiotide, 100 ftadia
from the town of Alos, according to Strabo. — Alfo; a

town of Afia Minor, in Ionia, in the vicinity of Miletus

Alfo, a town of Greece, in Attica. — Alfo, a town of Afia,
in Cataonia. — Alfo, a town of Afia, in S)Tna. — Alfo, a town
of Paleftine, in the tribe of Ephraim. — Alfo, a towTi of
Arabia Felix, upon the coaft of the Red fea, in the coun-
try of the Cinsdocolpites. Ptolemy.

THEBAID, TirEBAis, a famous heroic poem of Statins,
the fubjeft of which is the civil war of Thebes betwee.n
the two brothers Eteocles and Polynices ; or Thebes taken
by Thefeus.

Statins was twelve years in compofing his Thebaid, which

confifts of twelve books : he wrote under Domitian. He

is cenfured by the beft critics, as Boflii, &c. for a vicious

multiplicity of fables and aftions, for too much heat and

9 extra-

THE

T 11 E

extravagance, and for going beyond the bounds of pro-
bability.

Several Greek poets had compofed Thebaids, or poems of
this name, before liim; the principal were Antagoras, Anti-
phaues of Colophon, Menelaus the ^.gcan ; and an anony-
mous author mentioned by Paufanias, lib. ix.

Ariftotle, prailing Homer for the fimplicity of his fable,
oppofes to him the ignorance of certain poets, who imagined
that the imity of fable or adlion was abundantly provided
for by the unity of the hero, and who compofed Tiieifeids,
Herculeids, &c, in each of which, they coUedled every thing
that had ever happened to their principal perfon.

THEBAIS, or Thebaid, called alfo Snid, in ylncient
Giography, a name given to Upper Egypt, from its princi-
pal city Thebes. It is in fcripture called Pathros. This
is the moft fouthem part of Egypt next to Ethiopia, and
is almoft as extenfive as all the other parts of Egypt, in-
cluding the country on both fides of the Nile down to the
Heptanomis or Middle Egypt ; its beft city, according
to the ancients, being Lycopolis, (fee Siux,) on the
vreflern, and Antxopolis on the eaftern fide of the river.
Thefe dimenfions agree pretty exaftly with the prefent extent
of Al Said, the moll northern city of which is Manfelilt. In
this part of Egypt there were formerly fevcral cities of
great note ; fuch as Lycopolis, on the fcite of which is fup-
pofed to be the prefent ManfelQt ; Hypfele, or Aboutig,
about a mile W. of the Nile ; Aphroditopolis ; Ptolemais ;
Abydus, once the fecond city of the Thebaid, famous for the
magnificent palace of Memnon, but in the time of Strabo
only a village ; Little Diofpolis, probably the prefent
Hou (which fee) ; Tentyra, the inhabitants of which vsrere
famous for their enmity to the crocodile, the ruins of which
are ftill to be feen at Dendera (which fee) ; Latopolis, or
Efneh (which fee) ; Great Apollinopolis, on the fcite of which
Etfu is now fuppofed to ftand (fee Apollinis Urbs, and
Etfu) ; and Elephantine, on an ifland of that name, where
are the ruins of a fmaJl temple. On the eaft fide of the
Nile are Antseopolis, on the fcite of which Siout is fuppofed
to have been built ; PalTalus, conjedlured to be the prefent
Gava-Kiebre, where is feen a very beautiful portico of a
temple, with eighteen pillars, in three rows ; Panopolis and
Cherarriis, fuppofed to be the fame city, but diftinguifhed
by Herodotus ; the fcite of PanopoHs is faid to be that of the
prefent Akraim, about a mile from the river; Chenobofcia ;
Caene or Neapolis, perhaps the prefent Kene, a fmall town
on an eminence, about a mile from the river Coptos or Kept,
and called by Phny the emporium of commodities brought
from India and Arabia ; Coptos, where Chriftians were
formerly very numerous (fee CoPTOs) ; ApoOinopolis
(fee Apollini.sUrbs, or ylpoUinopolii Pdr-vaor Kous) ; and
Thebes ; which fee. To the fouth of Thebes, and on the
fame fide of the river, were the following cities : i;iz.
Chnumis or Cnuphis ; Elethya or, city of Lucina ;
Onebos, now Comombo, or the hill of Ombo, on which are
feen the ruins of an ancient temple (fee Comombo) ;
Syene ; Philae, (fee Piiiloe,) an ifland deemed facred
from an opinion that Ofiris was buried there. The Thebaid
in the firil ages of the church was rendered famous by the
number of hermits who reforted thither.

Thebais, a river of Afia Minor, in Caria. Pliny fays
that it traverfed the town of Tralhs.

THEBAN Harp. See Hakp.

THEBANUS Ophites, in Natural Hijlory, a name
given by fome of the ancients to that fpccies of the ophites,
or Terpentine marble, more commonly called ophites niger, the
black Terpentine.

THEBARMAI, in Antiint Geography, Ormed, a town

of Afia, S.W. of lake Spauta, and at fome diftance from it,
lies between a mountain and a fmall river that falls into this
lake. The worfliip of fire prevailed in this province, under a
perluafion that the firll pyraeum was kindled by Zoroafter
himfelf.

THEBES, the capital city of the Thebais, or Upper
Egypt, which was defcrvedly reckoned one of the hnell
cities in the world. It was alfo called Diofpohs, or the
city of .lupiter, and was built, as fome fay, by Ofiris, but
according to others, by Bufiris. Its length, in the time of
Strabo, was eighty furlongs, or ten miles ; but this was
very inconfiderable, compared with its ancient extent, before
it was ruined by Cambyfes, which, we are told, was no left
than 420 ftadia, or 52^ miles. Its wealth was fo great,
that, after it had been plundered by the Perfians, what was
found, on burning the remains of the pillage, amounted to
above 300 talents of gold, and 2300 of filver. The 1 00
gates of Thebes are mentioned by Homer, and, after him,
by many others ; but fome think that this was not the
number of the gates, but of the temples ; and that from
them the city had the epithet Hecatompylos, expreffing a
definite for an indefinite number. Pomponius Mela, and
others, by the 100 gates, underftand fo many palaces of
princes, each of whom could, on any occafion, arm aiid fend
out 20,000 fighting men, and 200 chariots. A modern
traveller could obferve no figns or remains of walls round
Thebes : and if it had none, we muft conclude, that by
100 gates, were meant the gates of the temples, or rather
the palaces of great men. In Strabo's time the city flood
chiefly on the eaft fide of the river. At Thebes there were
anciently four remarkable temples 5 one of them is faid, by
Diodorus Siculus, to have been i| mile in circnmterence,
and 45 cubits in height, with walls 24 feet thick.

Tlie venerable ruins of this city, probably the moft an-
cient in the world, fays Mr. Browne (Travels, &c.), extend
for about three leagues in length along the Nile. Eaft and
weft they reach to the mountains, a breadth of about 25
leagues. The river here is about 300 yards broad ; the cir-
cumference of the ancient city muft therefore have been
about 27 miles. In failing up the Nile, the firft village that
occurs within the precinfts is Kourna, on the W., with few
houfes, as the people chiefly live in the caverns. Next is
Abuhedjodj, a village, and Karnac, a fmall diftridl, both on
the E. The largeft portion of the city ftood on the eaftern
fide of the river. On the S.W. Medinet-Abu marks the
extremity of the ruins ; for Arment, which is about two
leagues to the S., cannot be confidered as a part. Modern
authors have ftyled the fcite of Thebes, " Luxor" (which
lee); and others have denominated it " Akfor ;" both
which terms are, in Mr. Browne's opinion, coiTuptions of
" El Kaftur,"the appellation ftill appUed to the ruins by the
Arabs. The moft confiderable ruins are thofe on the E.
of the Nile. The chief of thefe is the " great temple," an
oblong fquare building of vaft extent, with a double
colonnade, one at each extremity. The mafTy columns and
walls are covered with hieroglyphics. The " great temple"
ftands in the diftricl called Karnac. Next to this in im-
portance is the temple at Abu-Hedjadj, and here are nu-
merous ruins, avenues marked with fphinxes, &c. On the
W. fide of the Nile appear two coloflal figures, apparently
of a man and woman, formed of a calcareous ftone like the
reft of the ruins : — remains of a large temple, with caverns
excavated in the rock: — the magnificent edifice ftyled
the " palace of Memnon," fome of the columns being
about 40 feet high, and about 9^ in diameter : the columns
and walls are covered with hieroglyphics : this ftands at
Kourna. Behind the palace is the paflage denominated
3 M 2 " Biban-

T II E

«« Biban-cl-Molfik," Icadintj up the mount.iin ; at the ex-
tremity of which pudago, iii the lidcs of the rock, are the
celebrated caverns known as the fepulchres of the ancient
kings. Thefr fepiilclires, which have lately been difcovered,
are particularly defcribod by Mr. Browne. In the cells or
recclTes of the pafTage of the largell of thefe, appear the
chief paintings, reprefenting the iiiyfteries, which, as well
as the hieroglyphics covering all the walls, are very frefh.
Our traveller particularly obferved the two harpers defcribed
by Bruce, but his engraved figures, he fuggefts, feem to be
from memory. Although Pococke and many others are of
opinion that Thebes was never furrounded by a \vall,
Mr. Browne inclines to a contrary opinion, from feme faint
remains which are it ill vifible.

We are principally indebted to Denon (Travels in Upper
and Lower Egypt, in 3 vols. 8vo. tranflatcd by Aikin),
for an interfiling account of the magnificent ruins of Thebes,
as well as of other places in Egypt, illuftrated by beautiful
engravings. Four large hamlets (fays Denon) divide
amongft them the remains of the ancient monuTnents of
Thebes, whilft the river, by the finuofity of its courfe,
feems ftill proud of flowing among its ruins. In croffing
the ground occupied by tlie ancient Thebes, Denon found
nothing but temples ; not a veftigeof the 100 gates fo cele-
brated in hillory ; no walls, quays, bridges, baths, or
theatres ; not a fingle edifice of public utility or conve-
nience. Temples indeed were numerous, and walls covered
with obfcure emblems and hieroglyphics, which attefted the
afcendancy of the priefthood, who ftill feemed to reign over
thefe mighty ruins. The fpace occupied by this incom-
prehenfible town now enfolds four villages and as many
hamlets, thinly fcattered over immenfe fields. Faffing
through the ten-itory of Thebes on another occafion, Denon
faw at the diitance of three-fourths of a league from the
Nile, the ruins of a large temple not before noticed by any
traveller, which may give an idea of the immenfity of that
city, fince, if we fuppofe that it was the laft; edifice on the
eaftern fide, it is more than 2-| leagues dlftant from Medinet-
Abu, where the mofl weilern temple is Ctuated. The
temple, on the fcite of which the village of Karnac has been
built, is of fuch a circumference, that it would require half an
hour to walk round it. Herodotus has given us a more
correft idea of its grandeur and magnificence. Diodorus
and Strabo, who examined it in its ruinous fl;ate, appear to
have furnifhed a defcription of its prefent condition, but
none of the travellers who have copied the accounts of thefe
writers haTe prefumed (fays Denon) to prefer to this
temple that of Apollinopolis at Etfu, that of Tentyra, and
the fimple portico at Efneh. It is probable (fays this
writer) that the temples of Karnac and Luxor were built
in the time of Sefoftris, when the flourifhing condition of
the Egyptians gave birth to the arts among them, and when
thefe arts were difplayed to the world for the firll time.
Of the 100 columns of the portico of the temple of Karnac
or Cariiac (which fee), the fmallcft are yi feet in diameter,
and the largeft 12. The fpace occupied by its circum-
vallation contains lakes and mountains. This edifice is now
in a degraded ftate. Tlie fphinxes have been wantonly
mutilated ; and the avenue that leads from Karnac to Luxor,
nearly half a league in extent, contains a fucceffion of chime-
rical figures to the right and left, with fragments of ftone
walls, of fmall columns, and of ftatues.

Luxor (which fee), the fincft village in thefe environs, is
alfo built on the fcite of the ruins of a temple, not fo large as
that of Karnac, but in a better {late of prefervation, the
maffes not having as yet fallen through time, and by the
prelTure of their own weight. The mofl; coloffal parts con-

T H E

fift of fourteen columns of nearly eleven feet in diameter,
and of two flatues in granite, at the outer gate, buried up
to the middle of the arms, and having in front of them the
two largeft and bell preferved obcliflis known.

A peculiarity belonging to the temple of Luxor, is, that
a quay, provided with an epaulement, fecured the caflern
part, which was near the river, from the damages the inun-
dations might othcrwife have occafioned. The epaulement,
which fince its original ftrufture has been repaired and aug-
mented in brick-work, proves that the river has not changed
its bed; and its prefervation is an evidence that the Nile has
never been banked by other quays, fince no traces of fimilar
conftruftions are elfew'here to be met with.

Nothing can be more grand, and at the fame time more
fimple, than the fmall nimiber of objefts of which thts en-
trance is compofcd. No city whatever makes fo proud a
difplay at its approach as this wretched village, the popula-
tion of which confifts of two or three thouiand fouls, who
have taken up their abodes on the roofs and beneath the
galleries of this temple, which has, neverthelefs, the air ot
being in a manner uninhabited.

Denon has particularly defcribed the tombs above-nien-
tioned, in the village of Kurnu, the ancient Necropolis of
Thebes ; and he concludes with remarking, that the myf-
tery and magnificence obfervable within thefe excavations,
and the number of flaves by which they aix' protcdled, in-
dicate, that the religious worfliip which had fcooped out
and decorated thefe grottoes, was the faivie as that which
had raifed the pyramids; but our limits forbid a farther
detail.

THEBET, in Chronology. See Tebet.
THEBIT Ben Corah, or Thabet Ebn Korra, in
Biography, an Arabian teacher of philofophy and mathe-
matics, was a native of Harran, and belonged to the feft
of the Sabscans, and on this account was furnamed " Al-
Sabi-Al-Harrani." The time in which he flourilhed is un-
certain. Some fay that he was born in the 22lflyear of
the Hegira, or A.D. 835 ; others refer him to the loth
century ; and others again have placed him in the 1 2th or
13th century. He was fecretary to the caliph Mothaded;
and was , diftinguilhed by his il<ill in the mathematics, and
by his knowledge of aftronomy. He is faid to have ob-
ferved the dccUnation of the echptic, which he fixed at
23" -33' 30": and from this circumfl;ance it has been con-
cluded, that he lived in the 12th or 13th century, or that
he was contemporary with Almeon and Profalius, who
about that period afligned to the echptic the fame declina-
tion. To Thebit has been afcribed the origin of the aftrc-
noniical fedl, which maintained the trepidation of the fixed
ftars. It was his opinion, founded on fome erroneous ob-
fervations, that the fixed ftars moved for fome time accord -
ing to the order of the figns ; that they afterwards pro-
ceeded in a retrograde direftion and returned to their former
places, after which they affumed a direft motion ; and that
then they had an irregular motion, which was rapid for a
certain period, then became (lower, and at laft infenfible.
According to Tliebit, the obUquity of the ecliptic was
variable, and fubjcft to fimilar periods of increafe and dc-
creafe. His opinions prevailed for a coufiderable time, not
only among the aftronomers of his own nation, but among
fome Chriftians. Moatucla Hift. de Math. Pococke, p. 377.
Fabr. Bib. Graec. v. ii. p. 35'^..

THECA, Sheath, in Anatomy, hollow organs, ferving
to contain others. The thecs of the fingers are ftrong
(heaths binding down the flexor tendons. The theca vcrte-
bralis is the fheath of dura mater lining the vertebral canal,
and containing the medulla fpinalis.

Tkeca,

THE

THE

TiiECA, in Botany, the Latin word for a cell, fheath, or
cafe, is ufed occafionally by fome botanifls in their dcfcrip-
tions of feed-vcflols ; and cfpccially by Acliarius, fur thoie
minute vertical panJlel cells, in the diflv of the fliields or
tuberclus of a Lichen., in which its feeds ai'e lodged. See

LiCHENES and PfiZlZA.

THECHES, in ulncient Geography, a mountain of Afia,
ill Annenia, according to Xcnophon, who fays that the
Greeks, after leaving Gymnias, arrived on the fifth day at
the facred mountain called Thecljes, and from thence they
for the iirft time perceived the Euxinc fea, whicli occafioncd
loud exclamations of joy.

THECUA, a town of PaleRine, in the tribe of Juda ;
fituated 12 miles S. of Jerufalem, according to Eufebius
and Jerome. Jofephus fays that it was in the vicinity of
Herodium. See Tekoa.

THEDINGHAUSEN, in Geography, a town of Ger-
many, in the county of Hoya ; J 2 miles N.N.W. of
Hoya.

THEDO, in Ichthyology, a name given by Figulus and
others to tlie trout.

THEFT, FuRTUM, in La-u, an unlawful, felonious
taking away another man's moveable and perfonal goods,
againft the owner's will, with an intent to ileal them. See
Larceny.

Open theft from the perfon, or in the prefence of the
owner, is properly called robbery ; which fee.

THEFTBOTE, the receiving of a man's goods again
from a thief, or ether amends, by way of compofition, and
to prevent profecution, that the felon may efcape un-
puniihed ; the punifhment of which is now fine and im-
prifonment.

This is frequently called compounding of felony. By
25 Geo. II. c. 36. even to adv:'rtife a I'eward for the re-
turn of things llolen, with no queftions afked, or words
to the fame nnport, fubjefts the advertifer and the printer
to a forfeiture of 5c/. each.

THEIFENEGE, in Geography, a town of Cai'inthia ;
3 miles N.E. of Wolfsberg.

THEIMSDORF, a town of Lufatia ; 6 miles E. of
Rothehburg.

THEINRED, in Biography, precentor of the monaf-
tery of Dover, and author oi a treatife on niuCc, in Latin,
preferved among the MSS. of the Bodleian Librai-y, in
three books, written about the year 1 37 1.

The iirft book treats of mufical proportion ; " De Pro-
portionibus Muficorum Sonorum." This is a very early
treatife upon haiinonics, in which, when he fpeaks of the major
and minor femitone, and of the different portions into which
they are divifible, his doftrine is dluftrated by many nu-
merical tables, and nice fplittings of tones into commas ;
" De Comatis ; alia Proportio ejufdem Comatis, &c.''
which prove a temperament of the fcale to have been then in
ufe.

The fecond book treats of mufical concords ; " De. Con-
fonantiis Muficorum Sonorum." Here, after fpccifying
the different kinds of concords, he informs his reader, that
in organifmg, major and minor thirds, as well as fixths, are
admiffible in fucceflion.

The third book contains diagrams and fcales innumerable
of different fpecics of oftave, in a literal notation. No
mufical charafters, or examples of praftical mufic in com-
mon notes, appear throughout the treatife.

The praifes beftowed by Pits, Bale, Tanner, and others
on Theinred, whofe name is fometimes written Thaured, and
Thinred, make it neceffary to acquaint fuch of our readers
as may be inclined to take the trouble of examining this

traft ihemfelvfs, that, like many other mufical wrirings of
the middle and lower ages, it but ill rewards the ditidgcjy
of an entire and careful pcrufal ; for after pcrfeverance has
vanquifhed the abbreviations, and the barbarifm and ob-
fcurily of the Latin, the vain fpeculations and ufelefs divi-
fions of the fcale, with which this work fo much abounds,
and whicli could have been but of fmall utility to pratlical
mufic, at the time when it was written, are fuch, that now,
fince the theory of found is fo much better underilood and
explained by the writings of Galileo, Merfeniius, Holder,
Smith, and many others ; our old countryman, Theinred,
may henceforth remain peaceably on his flielf, without much
lofs to the art or fcience of mufic. Bodl. 842. I. De
legitimis ordinibus Pentachordorum et Tetraciiordorum,
Pr. Quoniam Muficorum de his Cantibns frequens eil di-
ftinftio, S;c. 46 folios, fmall fize. \Val\hcr in his Lexi-
con calls this work a Pliccnix.

THEIOCRUS, in the Materia Medico of the yiucients,
a name given by fome to the melanteria.

The name theiocriis fignifies only fulphur-coloured, and
was at firft ufed with the name of vitriol, as cxpreffive of
the difference of this kind from others ; but in time it be-
came common to ufe it alone.

THEISM. See Deism.

THEISOA, or Thisoa, in ^indent Geography, a town
of the Peloponnefus, in Arcadia.

THEIUM, a town of Greece, in Athamenia.

THEIUS, a river of the Peloponnefus, in Arcadia,
which difcharged itfelf into the Alphseus.

THEKA, in Botany, the Malabar name of the Teak
tree, retalnL-d as generic by Jtiflieu. See Tectona.

THEKUPH.E. See Tekuph.^.

THELA, in Botany, fo named by Loureiro, Cochinch.
119, from (.!,>.>•, a nipple, in allufion to the little glandular
prominences which cover the calyx, apf>ears, by his de-
fcription, to be the fame genus with the Linnasan Plum-
B.tco. See that article.

THELARY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,. in
Bah.nr ; 1 8 miles S. W. of Bahar.

THELBALANA, in jincient Geography, a town of
Afia, in the Greater Armenia. Ptol.

THELBENCANA, a town of Afia, in Babylonia, on
an ai"m of the Euphrates.

THELDA, a town of Afia, in Mefopotan^ia, on the
banks of the Euphrates. Ptol.

THELE, a word ufed by fome to exprefs the nipple,
and by others for the whole breaft.

THELEB0.(E, in u^ncient Geography, a people of
Epirus, in Acarnania, vvho paffed into Italy, and efta-
bliihed themfelves in the ifland of Caprea.

THELEBOLUS, in Botany, from Or,x-n, a nipple, and
^a>,o:, a cajl, or throw, becaufe the little veficle, lodging
the feeds, refembles a nipple, and is thrown off with a de-
gree of elafticity. The name was originally written Thelta-

bolus, but the above is juftly preferred Tode Mecklcnb.

V. I. 41. Perf. Syn. 116. — Clafs and order, Cryptcgomia
Fungi. Nat. Ord. Fungi angiocarpi.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle cup-like, fomewhat globofe, en-
tire at the edge, difcharging a papillary, nearly naked,
feed-veffel,

I. 'T\\. flercoretu. Small Nipple-fungus. Pe-l. n. I.
Tode n. I. t. 7. f. 56. — Found by Tode on the dung of
fwine, after rainy weather in June and July. He compares
it to the roe of fi(h in appearance, and to poppy-feed
nearly in fize. Tlie colour is a tawny yellow. Each in-
dividual is globular, attached at the bottom by capillary
roots, and crowned with a fmall papillary tubercle, of a

THE

more orange or golden liuc than the roll. This is at length
thro-.va oft', with a ludclcn and llroiig claftic force, leaving
a ir.inute, bordered, vilcid pit, or cup, wliich gradually
dilates into a level furface.

The minute fungus .ibove defcribed is clofely related to
.Spii/h;Ronoi,u.s, and Hill more nearly perhaps to Pilobolus.
( See thoie articles. ) Wliether it might be allowable to com-
prehend them under one genus, may admit of much difpute.
Even the many-cleft riccplacle, or involucrum of Spharobolus
can hardly be deemed a fufficient important difference to
fupcrfede this mcafure, and Hill lei's the elongated figure,
or pellucid fubftance, of Pilobolus. Botanifts who bellow
their concentrated attention exclufively on particular tribes
of plants, are prone to multiply dillinftions ; but they are
not raftily to be corredted by thofe who have not looked fo
clofelv, nor, perhaps, fo well.

THELEDA, in Ancient Geos;rap!iy, a town of Afia, in
Syria, fituated on a plain 'W. of Seriana, and E. of
Cap pars.

THELEPHORA, in Botany, from S.An, a nipple, and
fitpi', to hear, becaufe of the generally papillary covering of
the under furface. — Willd. Berol. 396. Perf. Syn. 565.
Schrad. Spicil. 182. (Craterella; Perf. Obf. Mycol. v. i.
39. Corticium ; ib. 37.)— Clafs and order, Cryptogmma
Fungi. Nat. Ord. Fungi gymnocarpi,

Eff. Ch. Head coriaceous, dilated ; minutely papillary,
briftly, or fmooth, beneath. An ample, and, in our opi-
nion, rather vague genus of the fungus tribe, of which
Perfoon reckons up forty -feven fpecies, ranged under three
feftions, once confidered by him as diftinft genera. 'We
fhall, after our ufual manner, feleft a few examples of
each.

SeSi. I. Craterella. Head undivided, hoHoiu or
f:mnd-Jhaped above, luith eijkaggy dijh. Two fpecies.

Th. pallida. Pale Thelephora. Perf. n. I. " Ic. et
Defer. Fung. 3. t. I. f. 3, fub Cmterella." — " Aggre-

fate, corky, pale. Head concave, Ihaggy with fcales." —
Larely found on the ground in moid woods. The Jlalh
is very fhort ; villous at the bafe. Head rough beneath,
with little briftles, vifible under a magnifying glafs. Per-
foon.

Th. caryophyllea. Carnation Thelephora. Perf. n. 2.
Albert, and Schwein. Nilk. 272. (Craterella ambigua ;
Perf. Obf. Mycol. v. i. 39. t. 6, f. 8 — 10. Helvella
caryophyllea; Schxff. Fung. v. 4. 115. t. 325. Dickf.
Crypt, fafc. i. 20. Auricularia caryophyllea ; BuUiard.
t. 278. 483. Sowerb. Fung. t. 213.) — Head funnel-
fhaped, thin, purplifh -brown, fringed, varioufly jagged or
crifped. — Found on the ground in fir woods. Mr. 'Wood-
ivard firft met with this fpecies in Britain, near Bungay,
Suffolk. Continental botanifts ufually fpcak of it as rare,
but Mr. Sowerby fays it is " a very common parafite on
the expofed fantaftic roots of old firs, in autumn." The
fubftance is tough and fomewhat woody ; the colour a
chocolate-brown. The plants often grow in maffes, at-
tached by their upper fide to flicks, old bark, &c., and
are from one to three inches in diameter. Sometimes the
^^ggy ^'^gs 's white. Perfoon in his Obf. Mycol. above
quoted feems difpofed to think the prefcnt fungus may vary
fo much as to become Ramaria palmata of Holmlkiold,
Fung. Dan. v. i. 106. t. 33 ; but furely the multiplied
divifions and ramifications of the latter, as well as its fmooth-
nefs and colour, preclude fuch an idea.

Seft, 2. Stekeum. Head halved, finally horizontal.
Thirteen fpecies.

Th. terrejiris. Ground Thelephora. Perf. n. 3. Ehrh.
Crypt, n, 179. (Th. mefenteriformis j Willd. Berol. 397.

THE

t. 7. f. 15.) — Somewhat imbricated, dull brown. Head
flattened, fliaggy with fibres. On fandy ground. This
fcems to us a mere variety of the laft, or rather its moft
ufual form, as reprefentcd in Mr. Sowerby's t. 213. Yet
Perfoon cites this plate, with doubt, under his fourth fpe-
cies, Th. laciniata. He ieems to lay too much ftrefs on the
aUfence or prefence of a ftalk, and perhaps makes too many
diftintlions.

Th. rubiginofa. Rufty Thelephora. Perf. n. 6. (Th.
fragilis; Eiirh. Crypt, n. 238. Helvella rubiginofa ; Dickf.
Crypt, fafc. I. 20. Auricularia ferruginea ; BuUiard.
t. 378. Sowerb. Fung. t. 26.) — Imbricated, rigid, rufty-
brown, fmooth on both fides, with fcattered, rather larg.-,
knobs. — Not uncommon On gate-pofts or pales, generally
placed fo low as to be partly hid by the earth and neigh-
bouring plants, as Mr. Sowerby remarks. It is very dif-
tinft from the foregoing, foft like velvet to the touch ; the
under fide bearing fcattered, roundifh prominences, which,
however, do not appear concerned in the fruftification.
The edge is ufually pale. No part is hairy or fhaggy.
The diameter of each plant is about an inch.

Th. ferruginea. Snuff-coloured Thelephora. Perf. n. 9.
Albert, and Schwein. Nilk. 273. (Auricularia tabacina ;
Sowerb. Fung. t. 25.) — Wavy, fomewhat reflexed, bright
brown. Head thin, nearly even, flightly downy ; hairy
underneath.' — Frequent on ftumps and rotten branches, in
various fituations. The plants are feffile, attached by the
back, projefting over each other, of an elegant undulated
figure ; the colour of both fides a bright reddiffi-brown,
efpecially the upper, elegantly contrafted with the light-
yellow border.

Th. hirfuta. Common Hairy Thelephora. Perf. n. 11.
Willd. Berol. 397. Albert, and Schwein. Nilk. 274. (Th.
pallida; Ehrh. Crypt, n. 169. Auricularia reflexa ; Bul-
liard. t. 274. Sowerb Fung. t. 27.) — Aggregate, rounded,
coriaceous, convex, fomewhat zoned, yellowilh; fhaggy above ;
fjnooth and tawny beneath — Frequent on rotten ftumps,
pofts, pales, tubs, &c. ; either growing fohtary, and roundifh,
about an inch in diameter ; or in continued, confluent, fome-
what imbricated maffes. The under fide is yellow or tawny ;
the upper of a pale yellowiili-brown, marked with different
concentric fhades, and rough with imbricated foft fliaggy
hairs. The whole is often tinged with black, as if fmoked.
It varies in fize as well as colour, and often confifts of an
expanded orange-coloured furface, clofely preffed by its
back to the wood, previous to its acquiring any projeftion
by which the upper fide is expofed. In this ftate it might
be referred to the next feftion. Auricularia papyrina, Bul-
liard t. 402, feems nearly akin to tliie.

Se£l. 3. Corticium. Plant laid entirely on its back, inde-
terminate in form, papillary , various in fubftance- — Thirty-two
fpecies, divided into fubordinate feftions, according to the
colour, whether pale or dark red, yeDowifh, brown, grey,
or white. — It is very neceffary to trace the progrefs of the
fpecies of this divifion, in order to be certain they do not,
at any period, acquire a diftinft upper furface, fo as to
range under the preceding.

Th. quercina. Oak Thelephora. Perf. n. 16. Albert,
and Schwein. Niflt. 276. (Th. cai-nea ; Ehrh. Crypt,
n. 269. (Auricularia corticalis ; BuUiard t. 436. f. I.) —
Oblong, coriaceous, rugofe, pale ilefh-coloured ; the margin
fomewhat involute, of a blackifh-brown at the back. —
Found running longitudinally along decayed branches of
oak. Each plant is two or three inches in length, fome-
what oval, of a light flefh-coloured hue, with a powder)- or
downy furface, which water will not moiften, and which
is befprinklcd with round depreffed protuberances, obfcurely

reprc»

T H E

T H E

rcprefenting the (hields of a Lichen. Tlic margin foon be-
comes elevated and indexed, efpecially by drought or cold,
and difplays the blackifh under fide, which ought to be the
upper.

Th. cruenta. Blood-red Thelephora Perf. n.^4. —
" Smooth, coriaceous, tuberculated, blood-red." — An ele-
gant fpecies, found on the branches of trees, and communi-
cated by Ludwig from Mifnia. Pcrfoon.

Th. ftinguinfii. Gory Thelephora. Perf. n. 25. (Tre-
mella cruenta ; Engl. Bot. t. 1800.) — " Widely fproading
on the ground, fomewhat gelatinous, blood-coloured,
fmooth." — "This Angular fpecies," fays Perfoon, "grows
in the llreets of towns, about the walls of houfes, looking
at a diftance like blood poured on the ground. By drying
it becomes paler. Is it not rather to be referred to the
order of jUga?" In this laft fuggeftion we readily concur.
The whole is truly an expanded niafs of minute, uniform,
gelatinous, pellucid granulations, with nothing of a coria-
ceous or fungous texture, nor any other charafter of the
prafent genus.

Th. hydnouka. Awl-bearing Thelephora. Perf. n. 28.
Albert, and Schwein. Niflc. 279. (Corticium hydnoideum ;
Perf. Obf. Mycol. v. i. 15.) — Spreading, concealed, orange-
yellow, bearing awl-(haped elongated prominences This

fpreads under the feparated cuticle of decayed dry branches
of beech, which it fometimes totally encircles, extending to
the length of four or fix inches. Its great peculiarity confifts
in the awl-diaped proje<Jtions, thrown out from its furlace,
to the height of two or three lines, which cither penetrate,
or force off, the fuperjacent cuticle of the tree, and, except
in their great irregularity of fize and figure, referable the
prickles of a Hydnum.

Th. umbr'ma. Umber-brown Thelephora. Perf. n. 36.
Albert, and Schxvein. Ni/k. 281. — Spreading on the
ground, foft, of an umber brown ; the margin whitifli and

rather downy Found on the ground, in a fandy foil,

fpreading to the extent of two or three niches, and not of a
very thin fubftance. Perfoon fpeaks of it as very rare,
hut the obferving authors of the Fungi Ni/iienfis find it not
^infrequently, in Auguft and the following months, in fhady
fandy places.

Th. cie/ia. Grey Ground Thelephora. Perf. n. 40.
(Corticium caefium ; Obf Mycol. v. I. 15. t. 3 f. 6.) —
Orbicular, on the ground, nearly fmooth, of a greyifh
alh-colour. — Not unfrequent in autumn, on the bare ground,
from one and a half to three inches broad, with a white,
Sbrous, rounded, fcoUoped edge. The grey farface is
befprinkled with minute powdery fads, regularly difpofed
in fpots, four together. Perfoon.

Th. laSea. Milk-white Fir Thelephora. Perf. n. 45. —
" Nearly orbicular, of a livid white ; fomewhat fleihy in the
middle ; fibrous at the margin." — Rarely found on the
bark of the Spruce Fir. The furface is fmooth. The
colour becomes paler bv drying. Perfoon.

Albertini and Schweiniz defcribe feveral more fpecies of
this genus, to which every thing of a membranous texture,
and fungous afpeft, feems to be referred by authors. Some
fuch may poSibly be imperfeft vegetable produdlions, whofe
growth, when completed, might prove them of a different
nature. When their fmooth furface difcharges powdery
feeds, they are to be confidered as perfeft fpecies of
Thelephora.

THELIGONUM. .See Thelyconum.

THELMENISSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Afia, in Syria, on au immenfe plain on the E. of the
Orontes, N. of Apamea, and S.W. of Chalcis.

THELONIUM, Telonium, fignifies toll.

Among the Romans, telonium denoted a cuflom-houlc, or
place where the toll was coUefted.

Thklonio, Breve ejfendi quieli de, a writ lying for
the citizens of a city, or burgeffes of a town, that have a
charter or prefcription to free them from toll, againil the
officers of any town or market, who would conflrain them
to pay it, contrary to the faid grant or prefcription.

Thklonio ralionaliili hahenao pro Jominis habentilus Jomi-
nica regis ad firmnm, a writ lying for him that hath of tJie
king's demefne in fee-farm to recover reafonable toll of the
king's tenants there, if his demefne hath been accuRomed to
be tolled.

THELOTREMA, in Botany, from 0«Xr, a nipple, aiid
r^ri^a, an orifice, in allufion to the pierced protuberances of
the cruft ; a genus of the order of Lichen s, inftitutcd by
Acharius, in his Melhodus, 130. The original type of thii
genus is Lichen pertufus of Linnaeus, which is reduced, by
the writer of the prefent article, to Endocaki'ON, (fee
that article,) in Prodr Fl. Grac- v. 2. 304. The reft of
the fuppofed fpecies may perhaps be in like manner dif-
pofed of, or referred to Urceohiria.

THELPIISA, in Jncienl Geography. See ThALPUSA.

THELSEA. See Thai.sea.

THELYGONUM, in Botany, a mmc of very whimfical
derivation, concerning which LinHa;us has fallen into an
error, like profeflbr Martyn and M. De Theis, who have
both of them been lefs penetrating than ufual in their en-
quiries. They all deduce it from fl/Au , female, and yam, a
joint, or inee ; and the laft of them fuppofes the original
plant, which was our Mercurialis, (fee that articlei) to
have been called Q-nXv.ovov, becaufe its fwelled joints refembled
the knees of a. woman. This we modeftly prefume to be a
very unauthorized comparifon ; and Pliny, from whom the
name is borrowed, leads us to a lefs injurious, if not a wifer,
folution His fapient pages atfure us that Arfeiiogonon
(ap3-i;«t)>ovov, or K|jf»»o7f.vo») was taken to procure male chil-
dren, its fruit refembling a part of the male organs ; while
Thelygonon, which, though otherwife the fame, bore no fuclv
fruit, was fuppofed to caufe the produftion of females.
The word therefore is compofed of GnXt/ , and v-yo-r, genera-
tion, or offspring, Jv^'-"', a leaf, being underflood, a confirm-
ation of which may be found under the 6th fpecies of our
article Mercurialis, above-mentioned. If we may be
allowed to play further upon this word, we fhould remark
that Its own generation is truly anile. Yet hence arofe
Bauhin's Mercurialis te/liculata. Jive mas, and fpicata, fire
famina; appellations perverfely beftowed on the two fexes
of our Mercurialis annua, as well as of perennis. How
Linnasus came to transfer Thelygonum to the genus which
now bears it, can no otherwife be accounted for, than from
the fuppofed affinity of the plants to each other, and both
having borne the name of Cynocrambe, or Dog's Cabbage ;
a name retained by Gsertner, after Tournefort, and hable
to no objeftion, except being compofed of one already efta-
blifhed, which doubtlefs caufed Linnaeus to rejed it. The
iinaginary affinity juft alluded to has apparently itamped a
poifonous charafter on the herb before us, which, confider-
ing its natural order, is probably undeferved. — Linn. Gen.
494. Schreb. 644. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 420. Mart.
Mill. Ditl. V. 4. ' Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 285.' Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Gra:c. Sibth. v. 2. 237. Juff. 405. Lamarck llluftr.
t. 777. (Cynocrambe; Tourn. t. 4S5. Gaertn. t. 75.) —
Clafs and order, Monoecia Polyandria. Nat. Ord. Scairidu;
Linn. Urlicic, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. Perianth of one leaf, turbinate,
coloured, cloven half way down into two revolute fegments.
Cor. none. Stam. Filaments numerous, from fix to twelve

or

T H E

or more, capillaiy, prominent, as long as tlie calyx, anthers
verfatile, luiear, llraight.

Female, on the fame plant, Cal. Periantli minute, of two
ercft, lanceolate, acute, lateral leaves, permanent. Cor.
none. Pyi. Gerracn fuperior, globofe ; ilylo lateral, be-
tween the calyx-leaves, tliread-fhaped, much longer than
the germen ; lligma llmple, curved. Peric. none. Seed
folitary, globofe, ieated on a callous annular receptacle, which
falls off with it.

Etr. Ch. Male, Calyx in two revolute fegments. Co-
rolla none. iStamens .about twelve.

Female, Calyx Lateral, of two leaves. Corolla none.
Style one. Seed naked, on a deciduous annular receptacle.

I. Th. Cynocramlie. Dog's Mercury. Linn. Sp. PI.
1411. WiUd. n. I. Ait. n. I. Sm. Fl. Gr^c. Sibth.
t. 941, unpublidied. (Cyiiocrambe Diofcoridis ; Bauh.
Prodr. 59. C. alfinefoha ; Barrel. Ic. t. 335. Alfines
facie planta nova ; Column. Pliyt. 28. t. 30. ed. alt. 120.
t. 36.) — The only known fpccies, found in wafte ground
and the fiflures of rocks, efpecially in fliady or moift places,
in the fouth of Europe, as well as in Afia, flowering
at almofl all feafons. About Rome and Naples it is
very frequent. Its feeds may have been brought, from
time to time, into our curious botanic gai'dens, but the
plant has no charms, nor any known quality, to render it a
popular favourite. The root is annual, fimple, cylindrical,
with many fibres below. Stems icveral, fpreading or prof-
trate, a fpan long, leafy, fcarcely branched, round, vei-y
fmooth and (hining, moftly purplirti. Leaves alternate,
ftalked, each with an axillary tuft of fmaller ones, ovate,
rather fucculent, an inch, or thereabouts, in length, of a
bright fliinlng green, very fmooth on both fides ; roughirti
at the edges. Footjlalks almofl; as long as the leaves,
dilated at the bafe into an annular toothed Jllpula. Flotuers
fmall, whitifli, from the bofoms of the upper leaves. The
ealyx of the males is not unlike the corolla of a honey-fuckle
in miniature. Seed purplifh -brown, furrowed, not much
bigger than muftard-feed. The general afpeft of the plant
evinces its affinity to Par'ietar'ia, though the Jloiuers in

detail are extremely different Dr. Sibthorp's figure has

but injlamens. We have ufually found more, and authors
defcribe from twelve to nineteen.

That this herb is the >tt.v»-<, or^u«v_^-x,^.iSv, of Diofcorides,
there can fcarcely be a doubt. He defcribes it fufEciently
well, and informs us that it was fometimes called Wild Male
Mercury ; which renders the name of Thelygonum flill more
unfuitable ; but Linnaeus did not always fearch deeply into
fuch matters, though he will commonly be found quite as
learned as mod of his critics or coiTeftors. Diofcorides
fpeaks of the plant in queilion as a gentle purge. This
probably caufed the Mercurialis to be taken with the fame
intention, though at the peril of the patient's hfe, as we
have already mentioned in its proper place ; where alfo it
may be feen that fome of the eariier European botanifls
took that very plant for the •'vm^-ii^Si,.

THELYMITRA, from SnXv , female, and ^..r^a, a dia-
dem, or ornament for the bead. This name of Forfter's, not
one of the moii happy, alludes to the cap or hood, orna-
mented with a pair of plumy tufts, and covering the imme-
diate organs of fruaification Forfl. Gen. t. 49. Swartz

Aft. Holm. 1800. 228. t, 3. f. L. Ejufd. in Schrad. Neues
.Tourn. v. I. 56. t. I. f. L. Sm. Exot. Bot. v. 1. ct.
Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i. 314. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 79.
Alt. Hort. Kew. V. y. 200.— Clafs and order, Gynandrla
Monandria. Nat. Ord. Orchidea:.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of three equal, ovato-lanceolate,
coloured leaves, exadly refembling the petals. Cor. Petals

T H E

two, ovato-lanceolale, the fize of the calyx, and exaftly like
it. Neftary a feffile lip, of the fhape, fize, and appearance,
of tlie petals and calyx, without a fpur. Stam. Anther pa-
rallel to the fligma, permanent, of two cells clofe together,
attached to the central lobe of a three-cleft hooded append-
age to the column ; " maffes of pollen powdery, pendulous
by a thread from the gland of the fligma." Brown. Pifl.
Germen inferior, obovate ; flyle fliort, united with the
hood ; ftigma in front, obtufe. Perk. Capfule obovate,
furrowed, with one cell and three valves. Seeds numerous,
chaffy.

Eff. Ch. Calyx-leaves coloured, the fize and figure of
the petals and lip. Column encompalTed by a three-lobed
hood. Anther parallel to the ftyle, permanent.

I. Th. Forfleri. Forfter's Thelymitra. Swartz Aft.
Hohn. 1800. 228. t. 3. f. L, c. Willd. n. I. (Th. longi-
lolia ; Forfl. Gen. t. 49. Serapias regularis ; Forfl .
Prodr. 59.) — Lateral fegments of the hood plumous : in-
termediate one vaulted. Clufter many-flowered Ga-
thered by Forfter in New Zeeland. The flem is above a
foot high, round, ftriated, fomewhat fpiral, clothed with a
few Iheatfiing lanceolate leaves. Clufter terminal, ereft,
three inches long, of about a dozen upright_^owfrj, fcarcely
half the fize of the next fpecies, each accompanied by an
elliptic -lanoeolate zcute brciSea, longer than the partial ftalk.
Of the colour of thefoiuers we have no information. Their
f;ood appears, by the dried fpecimen, as well as Forfter's
figure, to have its middle fegment vaulted, convex, and
undivided.

3 Th. ixioides- Large-flowered Thelymitra. Swartz
Aft. Holm. 1800. 228. t. 3. f. L, a, b, d— g. Willd. n. 2.
Br. n. I. Ait. n. i. Sm. Exot. Bot. v. i. 55. t. 29 —
Lateral fegments of the hood plumous : intermediate one
three-cleft ; its lateral lobes jagged ; central one fhorteft,
cloven, crefted at the back. Clufter many-flowered. — Found
In the neighbourhood of Port Jackfon, New South Wales,
from whence we received fpecimens and drawings about the
year 1790. Mr. G-Caleyfentout plantsto Kew in i8lo,bul
they do not appear to have fucceeded there. This is a larger
talJer fpecies than the foregoing ; its fowers above an inch in
diameter, very handfome, of a fine blue, fpotted, according
to Mr. Brown, with a deeper colour. The Ixod is fringed
with hairs, juft below the fummit, and overtopped by its
two lateral, ftalked, plumous tufts. The calyx, petals, and
lip, fprcad almoft equally in both thefe, and, we believe,
ail the following fpecies, except our n. 9, Mr. Brown's
venofa.

3. Th. media. Intermediate Thelymitra. Br. n. 2. —
" Outer fegments of the hood plumous ; intermediate one
naked at the back, three-cleft ; its central lobe emarginate,
half the length of the others. Spike (or clufter?) many-
flowered." — Gathered by Mr. Brown, near Port Jackfon.

4. Th. canalictdata. Channelled Thelymitra. Br. n. 3. —
" Outer fegments of the hood plumous : intermediate one
naked at the back, many-cleft ; lobes corrugated ; the outer
one longeft and moft remote. Spike many-flowered." —
Found by Mr. Brown, in the tropical part of New Holland.

J. Th. paaciftora. Few-flowered Thelymitra. Br. n.4.
— " Hood half the length of the petals : its outer fegments
plumous : intermediate one naked at the back, emarginate,
with rounded entire lobes. Spike of few flowers." — Ga-
thered by Mr. Brown, near Port Jackfon.

6. Th. tiuda. Naked Thelymitra. Br. n. 5 — " Hood
half tlie length of the petals ; its outer fegments plumous ;
intei-mediatc one naked at the back, emarginate, with rounded
entire lobes. Spike many-fiowered." — Gathered in the
ifland of Van Dicmen, by Mr. Brown. By the above defi-
nition,

T H E

nition, this fpecies differs from the laft only in having more

numcrous^/^ow^'j-.

7. T\\. angujlifolia. Narrow-leaved Thelyttiitra. Br. n. 6.

" Outer fegments of tlic liood phimous ; iiUermt'dlatc one

naked at the hack, cmarginate, with toothed lobes. Spike
of few flowers. Leaf as tall as the flowcr-dalk." — Found
by Mr. Brown, in tlie neiglibourhood of Port Jackfon.

8. Th. carnea. Flefli -coloured Thelymitra. Br. n. 7.

" Calyx and petals fpreading. Outer fegments of the

hood finely toothed, beardlefs. Stalk with one or two

flowers." Found by Mr. Brown, near Port Jackfon. A

drawing in our pofTeflion, which feems to belong to this
fpecies, reprefents the Jialh about four inches high, with a
light-red terminal ^ow«-, above an inch wide, and a few
fhort, radical, lanceolate leaves.

9. Th. -vemfa. Veiny Thelymitra. Br. n. 8.—" Calyx
and petals converging. Outer fegments of the hood beard-
lefs, fpirally involute." — Gathered alfo near Port Jackfon,
by Mr. Brown.

10. Til. tigrina. Tiger-fpotted Thclymiira. Br. n. 9.

«' Lateral fegments of the hood diftinft, with tufted beards ;

intermediate one (hortcr, crefted. Leaves linear, channelled."

Difcovered by Mr. Brown, on the fouth coaft of New

Holland. ThQjlowcrs are yellow, with darker fpots.

1 1 . T\\. ftifco-liitea. Brownirti-yellow Thelymitra. Br. n. 10.
— " Lateral fegments of the hood converging, connefted,
fringed ; intermediate one erect, naked. Leaves lanceolate."
— Gathered by Mr. Brown, in the fame country with the
tigrina. He defcribes the yellow colour of the Jlowers as pe-
cuhar to thefe two laft fpecies ; all the reft, as far as hitherto
difcovered, having them generally blue, fometimes white, or
flefli-coloured. We have neceflarily, for want of authentic
fpecimcns, except of the firft two fpecies, adopted the fpe-
cific charadlers of the excellent author whofe name we have
cited. — He eftablifhes a genus under the name of Epiblema,
whicli appears to differ from Thelymiira, in having a ftalked
lip with tufts of fibres at its bafe ; an appendage to the bafe
of the column, connefted with the claw of the lip under*,
neath ; and the anther accompanied at each fide by a petal-
like lobe. Of this there is only one fpecies, E ■ grandiflovuvi,
found on the fouth coaft of New Holland. Its Jlowers are
large, blue, and handfome.

THELYPHONON, from driKvf, female, and ®ovo,-, murder,
or deJlruBion, the name of an herb mentioned by Pliny,
book 25, chap. 10, which he fays is by fome called Scorpion,
from the refemblance of its root to afcorpion, and the touch
of which is fatal to that animal, as a remedy for whofe fting
it is given internally. He adds, that the fame root kills any
fort of quadruped, if apphed to the parts of generation ;
and that its leaf, which refembles that of Cyclamen, produces
the fame effeft within the courfe of a day. His defcription
soiwento the Doronleumfcorpioides, Wiild. Sp. PI.V.3.ZI 14;
D . latifolium, Cluf. Hift. v. 2. 16; Great Leopard's-bane,
Ger, Em. 759 ; but there is apparently much fuperftition,
miftake, or exaggeration, intermixed in his relation.

THELYPTERIS, h-omf^n-kvc, female, mA irli^i;, a fern,
a name by which Pliny defignates a fpecies of the Fern tribe,
whofe habit appears to be more delicate than that of his Filix
mas,cT Male Fern. The latter fhould feem, by his defcription,
to be our Pterts aquilina. (See Pteris. ) Tlie name of
Filix mas, however, has remained with a large fpecies of
Jifpidium, Sm. Fl. Brit. II2I. Engl. Bot. t. 1458; and
that of Filix fcemina with a more flender and finely-divided
one of the fame genus, Engl. Bot. t. 1459 : while a third,
whofe texture is more thin and tender than either, has received
the appellation of Affidium Thelypteris, They were all
/rfcrred by I-innseus, under the fame fpecific names, to

Vol. XXXV.

THE

PoiATOmuM. ( See tliat article. ) Owr ^rcknt Thelypteris,

therefore, muft not be taken for that of Pliny, being rather
a north-country plant, not hitherto noticed in Greece by any
botanical traveller.

THEMA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Syria, in the
Chahbonitide territory ; and alfo of Arabia Deferta.

THEM AN, a town of Arabia Petraea, 5 miles from Pe-
tra, which had a Roman garrifon. — Alfo, a town of Judea,
in the half-tribe of Manaifeh, on the other fide of Jordan ;
famed foi- the wifdom of its inhabitants. EJiphaz, one of
Job's three friends, came from this place.

THEMAR, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
county of Henneberg, on the Werra ; 1 2 miles S.E. of Mei-
nungen.

THEME, Thema, a fubjeft or topic, upon which to
write or compo/e.

Theme, among AJlrologers, denotes tlic figure they con-
ftruft when they draw the horofcopc ; reprefenting the ftatc
of the heavens for a certain point, or moment, required ; i. e,
the places of the ftars and planets for that moment.

The celeflial theme confills of twelve triangles, inclofed
within two fquares, and called the tivelve hotifes.

Theme, in Grammar, denotes a verb, confidered in its
primary and abfolute fenfe, and not limited to any particular
mode or tenfe : or it is the verb in its primitive radical ftate,
whence its different formations are derived.

Theme, in Mufic ; Thcma, Lat. ; Tema, Ital. ; Moltivo, Sag-
getto, is a feries of notes felefted as the text or fubjeft or a
new compofition, or an old favourite and well-known air to
grace and embelhfh with variations. About the middle of
the laft century, the mufical world was overwhelmed with
dull, unmeaning, and monotonous variations to old and new
tunes, which confilled of nothing more than a regular multi-
plication of notes, without fancy, talle, or harmonical re-
fources ; till Haydn, in the flow and graceful middle move-
ments of his quartets and fymphonies, by a richnefs of ima-
gination, by double counterpoint, and inexhauftible refources
of melody and harmony, rendered variations the moft inge-
nious, pleafing, and heart-felt of his admirable produftions
a grand orchejira ; and Mozart, in a totally different ftyle, and
for a totally different purpofe, has rendered little favourite
French, Itahan, German, and Enghfh airs the moft beauti-
ful, amuiing, and ufeful compofitions for the piano forte that
have ever been produced fince the invention of that inftru-
ment. More than twenty of thefe have been printed in
England that were brought from Vienna by Mrs. Peploe,
who played them, as ftie did all other mufic, with a firmnefs,
accuracy, and fpirit, which neither dilettante nor profeffor
has ever exceeded.

Thefe themes feem to have been a feries of leffons, com-
pofed exprefsly to form the hand and tafte of fome difciple
of the author, who promifed to be a great performer. In
everyone of thefe themes, there are fome peculiar difficulties
of execution, refinement, and expreffion to vanquifti, at
which it is in vain for mediocrity to afpirc.

THEMEDA, in Botany, a genus of graffes, fo called
from its Arabic name Thicmcd. — Forfli. ^gypt-Arab. 178.
Juff. 447 — It is found in Yemen, near Hadie. Forlkall
names the only fpecies T. IriiinJra, and defcribes it as
follows.

X. " A polygamous grafs. Spilclels proceeding from a (heath,
capitate ; the cuter ones whorled, male. Calyx of one valve,
fingle-flowcred. Corolla of two valves. Styles and anvns
wanting. In the middle of the head of flowers arifes a flwrt
ftalk, bearing two ilalked male fpilrkts, and a feffile herma-
phrodite one ; the calyx is of one valve, corolla of two ; atUK
proceeding from the receptacle, much longer than the flower.

3 N Stemt

THE

THE

Siems raeemofe. Shealis compreffcd, broad, fword-fliaped,
concealing the branches, and the he:ids of Jlomers, before ex-
panfion. All the heads are originally concealed in the (heath
of a leaf."

This can only be the Linnian jinthijlina, a genus which
Mr. Brown, in his Prodr. Nov. HoU. v. i. 200, aflerts to
have been firft defcribed by For(kall,bnt he gives no reference
to the Themeda, which oraiflion has caufed us much trouble,
and after all, leaves the matter in fome uncertainty. Des-
fontaines, in his Fl.Atlant. v. 2. 380, has reformed the cha-
rafter of y^«/Aj/?/na, and has given a figure, t. 254, oi yi.
vlauca, called by fome authors Stipa paleacea, which agrees,
as nearly as pofTible, with Forfkall's defcription. It does
not appear that Vahl, Willdenow, or any other author, has
advened loTkemcda, except Juffieu, who has merely admitted
it, on FordoU's avithority, into his appendix, without exa-
mination or elucidation.

We prefume here to obfervc, that every correft writer
ought invariably to cite the page of his author ; efpecially in
referring to a confufcd pofthumous work, without an index,
like that of Fordvall.

THEMIS, in yinchnt Geography, a town of Africa Pro-
pria, fituated between Tabraca and the river Bagradas.

Themis, in Geography, a river of Tranfylvania, which runs
into the Alaut, near Marienburg.

Themis, in /IJlronoiny, a name given by fome to the third
fateUite of Jupiter.

Themis, in Mythology, the daughter of Coelumand Terra,
or of Uranus and Titaia, the eldeft filler of Saturn, and aunt
of Jupiter.

Themis, according to Diodorus, eftablifhed divination,
facrifices, the laws of religion, and every regulation that
contributed to maintain order and peace among men. She
alfo applied herfelf to aftrology, iffued prediftions, and after
iier death temples were erefted to her, in which oracles were
delivered. She had a temple on mount Parnanus, and an-
ofher in the citadel of Athens.

THEMISCYRA, in Jncunt Geography, a town of Afia
Minoi", m the kingdom of Pontus, fituated in the open
country to which it gave name, upon the banks of the
river Thermodon, towards its mouth in the Euxine fea.
Diodorus Siculus fays that it was a royal city of the
Amazons, and that they founded it.

THEMISONIUM, a town and country of Afia, in
Phrygia.

THEMISSUS, a town of Afia Minor, in Caria.
THEMISTEAS, a promontory of Afia, in Carmania.
THEMISTIUS, furnamed Eupkrades, or the fine
fpeaker, in Biography, an Eclectic philofopher, was born
in an obfcure vJlage of Paphlagonia, about the year 317,
and having fixed his refidence at Conftantinople, taught
eloquence and philofophy with great reputation and fuc-
cefs. His difciples, both Pagan and Chriftian, were nu-
merous ; to the former clafs belonged Libanius, and to
the latter, Gregory Nazianzcn. By the emperors he was
highly efteemed, and they conferred upon him diftinguifhed
honours. In the year 355, Conftantius admitted him
mto the fenate ; and in return for an eloquent eulof^ium,
prefented him with a brazen ftatue. Julian correfponded
with him as a friend ; and in 362, appointed him prasfedl
of Conftantinople. His charafter and eloquence induced
other emperors to beftow upon him peculiar favours.
When Jovian iflued his edift of toleration, Themiftius was
deputed by the fenate to exprefs its loyalty ; and on this
occafion he expatiated with elegance and liberality on the
rights of confcience, and the independence of the human
nnind. Of his candour and liberality, the following me-
5

morable inftance is recorded by Socrates, Sozomeii, anni
other ecclefiaRical hiftorians. The emperor Valens, who
favoured the Arian party, treated the Trinitarians with
great fevcrity. Tliemillius, difapproving the meafures which
the emperor purfued, addreffed him in an eloquent fpeech,
ftating that the diverfity of opinions among Chriftians was
inconfiderable, comp.ired with that of the Pagan philofo-
phers ; and urging upon his attention, that tnis diverfity
could not be difpleafing to God, fince it did not prevent
men from worfhipping him with true piety. By fuch
arguments, Themiftius, it is faid, prevailed upon the em-
peror to treat the Trinitarians with greater lenity. What
an example does this Pagan philofopher exhibit even to
Chriftian divines ! In the year 376 Themiftius vifitcd Rome,
but though folicited to take up his abode there, he preferred
returning to Conftantinople. It redounds very much to the
honour of this philofopher, and alfo to the liberal fentiments
of Theodofius the Great, that during his vifit tothe Weftern
empire, the emperor entrufted Themiftius, notwithftandinjf
difference of religion, with the care and education of his
fon Arcadins. Themiftius was no lefs diftinguiftied by
gentlenefs of temper and urbanity of manners, than by hi?
eloquence and wifdom, and ability in the conduct of public
affairs. After a long courfe of civil honours, he withdrew
about the year 387, at an advanced age, from public bufi-
nefs ; and foon after died. Themiftius, the fubjeft of this
article, wlio does not appear to have ever deferted the Pa-
gan fchools, ftiould be diftinguiftied from a Chriftian deacon
of the fame name, who lived after the council of Chalcedon,
held in the year 551, and who was the head of the fe£l
called yfgnoels; which fee. As a philofopher, Themiftius
illuftrated feveral of the works of Ariftotlc, particularly the
Analytics, the Phyfics, and the book on the Soul, in com-
mentaries, written with great perfpicuity and elegance.
His "Orations," which were thirty-fix, and of which thirty-
three are ftill remaining, are ftrongly marked with the fame
chaTadlers. The beft editions of his Orations are thofe of
Petau, Gr. and Lat. Paris, 410. 1618; and of Hardouin,
Gr. and Lat. Paris, fol. 16S4. Fabr. Bib. Grsc. Biucker
by Enfield. Gibbon. Lardner's Works, vol. viii.

THEMISTOCLES, an Athenian ftatefman and com-
mander, the fon of Neocles, a perfon of middle rank at
Athens, At a very early age he manifefted, both in his
amufements and in his literary purfuits, thofe views and in-
clinations, which marked the charafter and deftiny of his
maturer years. To thofe who ridiculed him on account of
his apparent contempt of ornamental accompliftiments, he
replied, " It is true, I never learned how to tune a harp, or
play upon a lute ; but I know how to raife a fmall ftate to a
great one." Ambition feems to have been his ruling paflion,
and he loft no opportunity of acquiring military and politi-
cal diftinftions. He fought popularity with a view to his
perfonal advancement ; and lels pure and difinterefted tn his
principles than Ariftides, his folicitude for the glory of his
country was fubfervient to his own reputation and emi-
nence. After the defeat of the Periian invafion by the battle
of Marathon, an event which interefted his feelings and roufed
into exercife his predominant love of glory, he forefaw that
the attempt might be renewed by fea as well as by land ;
and he therefore exerted his influence in rendering the Athe-
nian ftate a naval power. With this view, he induced his
countrymen to appropriate the revenue accruing from the
filver mines to the equipment of a number of galleys ; and
as he poffeffcd the chief authority at Athens, in confequenee
of the baniftiment of Ariftides, he found no obftacle to the
execution of his defign. In the courie of three years after
tliis event, the hoilile preparations of Xerxes for an expedi-
tion

THEMISTOCLES.

tion into Grwce to enforce the demand of fubjeftioii, fur-
liillied Iwiii with a plea for urging the Grecian ftates to com-
promife their mutual dlfTentions, and to unite in defending
themfelves againft the invader. In the choice of a general,
with whom the command fhould be intruded in this emer-
_i(eucy, the Athenians favoured the claims of a democratical
orator, named Epicydcs, who had fafcinated them by liis elo-
quence ; but Themiftocles induced him to furrender his pre-
tenfious to an office for which he was totally unqualified by
a bribe, and thus fecured the appointment for liimfelf with-
out a competitor. When news arrived tiiat the Perfian
army, conreyed by a fleet, was approaching the (traits of
Thermopylae, Themiftocles propofed that the Athenians
ihould lit out th?ir galleys and fail to meet them ; but this
counfel being rejefted, he took the command of their troops,
and having joined the Lacedsmonians, marched towards
Tempe. In the mean while, intelligence was received that
the paflage of the ftraits had been forced, and tliat Boeotii
had iubmitted to the invaders ; and upon this alarm the army
returned without feeing the enemy. In thefe circumttauces
of apprehended danger, the Athenians, according to their
Ciiftomary praftice, had recourfe for counfel to tlie Delphic
oracle. The anfwer, probably fuggefted by Themiftocles
himfelf, was, that they (hould rely folely on their fleet. It
was now propofed, that the city fliould be wholly abandoned
to the Perhans, without any attempt for its defence ; that
the women, children, and aged ftiould be removed to fonve
place of fecurity ; and that all who were able to bear arms,
ihould erabark on board the galleys, and watch the event.
A decree was obtained, after much fruitlefs oppofition, to
this purpofe ; and this was followed by another, which per-
mitted all exiled citizens to return. Ariftides was one of
this number, who nobly facrificing, in tlie moment of his
counti-y's danger, all private animofities, concurred in all
the fpirited meafures of his former rival.

Eurybiades, a Spartan, to whom the command of the
confederate fleet was affigned, and who was very unequal to
the office, differed with Themiftocles as to the meafures pro-
per to be purfued ; and behaved with an infolence, which,
probably for the fake of the pubhc fervice, the latter did
not think proper to refent. Eurybiades was pacified by the
gentlenefs and felf-comiaand of Themiftocles, and convinced
by his reafoning. Finding it prudent, however, to change
the meafures which he originally contemplated, he employed
a ftratagem to induce the Perfians to advance and make an
attack. This was followed by the famous battle of Salamis,
which took place in the year B.C. 480, and which termi-
nated in the fignal defeat of the Periian navy. The viftory
has been chiefly afcribed to the fl^ill and valour of Themif.
tocles ; and having thus fucceeded, he advifed the confede-
rates to fail immediately to the Hellefpont, in order to de-
ilroy the bridge of boats by which the army of Xerxes had
paffed over, and thus to intercept his communication with
Afia ; but being overruled in this propofal, he difpatched a
fecret meflenger to the Perfian king, with information that
the Greeks intended to break his bridge, and advifing him
to retreat immediately before the defign was executed. The
policy of Themiftocles, as we may judge from this inftance,
was not always uniform and confiftent ; and in another cafe,
which remains to be mentioned, on the authority of Plu-
tarch, it was iiiexcufably flagitious. When the combined
Grecian fleet was wintering at Pegafa in Magnefia, he
informed the Athenians, that be had conceived a projeft
which would be of uifinite fervice to the repubhc, and at
their defire, he would communicate it to Ariftides. This
virtuous man told them, that the fcheme of Themiftocles
iv.suld be highly advantageous, but that nothing could be

more unjull ; upon which, very much to tlieir honour, they
determiiud not to adopt it. The plan was to burn all tlie
(hips of the fleet, except thofe of Athens, by which (he
would remain complete miftrcfs of the fcas.

The viftory at Salamais advanced the name and ch;iratter
of Themiftocles to the higheft pitch of glory throughout
Greece. On his vilit to Sparta, he was received with every
token of refpeft ; and whilft the (irft prize of valour was
decreed by the people to their countryman Eurybiades, the
ohve wreath of fupcrior wifdom was placed on the head of
the Athenian ; and tliey alfo prefented him with a magnifi-
cent chariot, and ordered three hundred of their youth to
attend him back to the borders. At the next Olympic
games, the eyes of the whole alfembly were fixed upon The-
miftocles, and he was jiointed out to ftrangers as the moft in-
terefling obje£l at the fpeftacle. Themiftocles himfelf ac-
knowledged, that this was the nobleft day of his life. When
the conllitution of Athens was about to be re-eftabli(hcd, after
the rebuilding of the city, Themiftocles, in conformity to
the political principles whjch he had adopted, propofed that
every citizen fliould have an equal right to participate in the
government, and that the members (hould be chofen from
the body of the people, witliout diftinftion ; and in his pro-
pofals the people unanimoufly acquiefced. He alfo propofed
to fortify the city ; but as the Lacedsemonians objefted to
the propofal, he was deputed upon an embafTy to Sparta
with a view of concihating them. He contrived, however,
by various artifices, to prolong the negociation, fo that the
Atlienians had conftru^ed their walls before the Spartans
were duly apprized of the faft. Themiftocles vindicated
this artifice by alleging, " that all things are lawful in ferv-
ing our country ;" and the Spartans, admiring his patriotifm,
filently acquiefced. In the following year, his fcheme for
rendering the PyrKum the principal port of Athens, and
conneftlng it with the city by long walls, was adopted and
accomplirticd.

Independently of the deceits which Themiftocles had
praftifed with regard to the Lacedsemonians, another cir-
cumllanee had occurred which increafed their enmity againft
him. He had fucceisfuUy oppofed their fending deputies
to the Amphiftyonic council, and thus degraded their au-
thority in Greece. Incenfed againft him, they joined his
rivals at Athens, and ufed all their influence to deftroy his
reputation. His own conduft alfo had excited jealoufy and
refentment ; for he had caufed to be erefted near his own
houfe a temple to " Diana Ariftobule," or " of the beft
counfel," thus intimating, that his counfels had been the
beft for the Grecian community. His enemies prevailed, and
procured his baniftiment from Athens by the fentence of
Oftracifm. During his exile at Argos, his enemies gained
an additional advantage .over him. Apprized of the trea-
fonable dcfigns of Paufanias, the Spartan, againft the li-
berty of Greece, he declined the difclofure of them ; and
after the deteftion and death of Paufanias, letters of The-
miftocles were found, which proved that they had conferred
on this bufinefs. The Lacedimonians preferred an accufa-
tion againft him to the Athenians ; and they called him to
account in the prefence of the ftates of Greece. Dreading
a trial, he fled to Corcyra, and thinking himfelf infecure
there, he v^athdrew to Epirus : and at length was reduced
to the neceffity of feeking the proteftion of Admetus, king
of the Molofli, whom he had formerly offended. The ven-
geance of the Spartans purfued him, and Admetus was
threatened with a war, if he protefted the criminal. The
king difmiffed him with money acrofs the continent to a port
in the iEgcan fea, whence he reached Afia in fafety. In
the year B.C. 462, he arrived at the Perfian court ; but here
3 N 2 his

T H E

Ilia naine was fo obnoxious, that a reward pf 200 taknts
had been offered for apprehending; him. Here he appeared
in difguife, and pretending that he had important informa-
tion which he \vi(hed to communicate to the king in perfon,
he was admitted to the royal prefence, and favourably re-
ceived : the 200 talents, which were the price of his head,
were paid to himfclf, and a more ample recompence was
offered to him, if he would give iifcful information concern-
ing Greece. He was granted time for acquiring the Perfian
language, and after a year he appeared at court Tike a native.
The king and royal family treated him with diftinftion ; and
it is faid tliat tlie "revenues of three cities, -viz. Magnefia,
Lampfacus, and Myus, were affigned him, under the name of
bread, «ine and meat ; and as fome fay, two more, for
lodging and wardrobes. In this ftatc of luxury and magni-
ficence he was joined by the members of his family, who had
been conveyed to hini by his friends, and to them he ex-
preffed a kind of fatisfaftion with his condition, which
proves that moral meannefs may accompany exalted talents.
The clofe of his hfe is involved in obfcurity. Plutarch
relates, that upon the revolt of Egypt, fupported by the
Athenians, againll the Perfian dominion, the Greek king,
rcfolving to fend an expedition into Greece, difpatched an
order to Themiftocles at Magnefia, reminding him of his
promifes, and claiming the fulfilment of them : upon which
it is faid, that, in order to avoid the difgrace of bearing
arms againft his country, after facrificing to the gods and
taking folemn leave of his friends, he drank poifon, and died
in that city at the age of fixty-five years. Thucydides,
his contemporary, fays that he died of a diftemper ; and
others again report, that he poifoned himfelf, becaufe it was
not in his power to accomplilh what he had promifed. The
Magnefians honoured his memory with a fumptuous tomb ;
but his remains, according to his own orders, were privately
conveyed to Attica, where they were interred. It is fur-
ther faid, that the Athenians, repentinjj of their treatment
of him, raifed a tomb for him in the Pyrsum, which was
an interefting objeft to all who vifited that port. His An-
gular talents, and the fervices which he rendered to his coun-
tnr, mufl be acknowledged ; and thofe who think favourably
of liira, afcribe his defertion of them to unjuft perfecution.
But in Themiftocles we look in vain for the virtues of an
Ariftides ; and he can only be allowed the honour of a dif-
tinguifhed general and ftatefman. Thucydides. Plut. in
Them. Ancient Un. Hift.

THEMNA, TiMNA, or Thamnata, in Ancient Geogra-
phy, a town of Paleftine, in the tribe of Dan. Jo(h. xix.
43. — Alfo, a town of Arabia Deferta, on the confines of
Mefopotamia.

THEN, in Geography, a river of France, which runs
into the Weze, near Francremont.

THENA, in Ancient Geography, an ancient town of
Africa, fituated N.E. of the Tanais and near it, and two
miles in circuit — Alio, a town of Samaria, in the vicinity
of Sichem.

THENAC, or Thanac, a royal town of Judaea, in
the half-tribe of Manafleh, on this fide of Jordan. It \vas
given to the Levites of this tribe, and its king was one of
thofe who were vanquilhed and flain by Joftiua.

THEN^, a town of the ifle of Crete, near Cnoffus.
THENAR, in Anatomy. The eminence in the palm of the
hand, formed by the mufcles of the thumb, has been called
thenar : and fome of the mufcles have been defcribed under
the fame name.

The thenar of Riolan and Winflow includes the abduftor
pollifis brevis, and the opponens pollicis.

THENEATE el Gannim, the Sheep Cliffs, in Gcogra-

T H E

phy, mountains of Africa, in Sahara ; 90 miles S. of Al-
giers.

THENEZAY, a town of France, in the department of
the Two Sevres ; 10 miles N.E. of Partenay.

THENGEN, a town of Germany, which gives name
to a principality, fituated in the Hegau, bordering on Schaff-
haufen ; 8 miles N. of Schaffhaufen.

THENON, a town of France, in the department of the
Dordognc ; 6 miles miles N.W. of Montignac.

THENONGOUN, a town of the Birman empire ; 4
miles S.W. of Ava.

THENOPSYCHITES. See Thnetopsychitrs.

THENSA, among the Romans, a veil or canopy, ufed
in the chariots of games ; and likewife to cover a feat of
ftate.

Thenfas could not be granted to any but by the exprefs
allowance of the fenate. Hift. Acad. Infcript. vol. i.

P- 359-

THEOBALD, Lewis, in Biography, a profeffed
writer, was the fon of an eminent attorney at Sittingbourn,
m the county of Kent, and is here noticed as one of the nu-
merous editors of Shakfpeare. Of his various works, critical,
poetical, and dramatic, it is needlefs to give any account, as
they have funk into oblivion. He had the misfortune of
becoming, to an undue degree, the objeft of Mr. Pope's
contempt and fatire, and of having the firft place affigned
him in the Dunciad, though he was afterwards fuperfeded
by Gibber. His edition of Shakfpeare was preceded hy a
work entitled " Shakfpeare reftored," andpublilhed in 1726;
and alfo by that of Mr. Pope. It is thus characfterized by
Dr. Johnfon : " Pope was fucceeded by Theobald, a man
of narrow eomprehenfion and fmall acquifitions, with no
native and intrinfic fplendour of genius, with little of the
artificial light of learning, but zealous for minute accu-
racy, and not negligent in purfuing it. He collated the
ancient copies, and reftified many errors. A man fo
anxioudy fcrupulous might have been expefted to do
more; for what little he did was commonly right." Of
the tragedy which he brought on the ftage, and which is
entitled " The Double Falfehood," the greater part is
afcribed by him to Shakfpeare ; but Dr. Farmer has proved
that this is a miftake.

THEOBROMA, in Botany, the Chocolate-tree, received
that name from Linnaeus, who probably, hke the prefident
Bachot, cited by De Theis, was fond of the delicious pro-
duce of this tree ; for the word is formed of Sio;, a god,
and ^fajM, food. A French writer, M. Tuflac, in his
magnificent Flore des AntiUes, has objefted to the above
generic name, for a reafon which we confefs to have been
one of the laft we fliould have thought of ; that " it carries
with it the fignification of a quahty, and feems therefore
more fit for the name of a fpecies." Surely nothing can be
more defirable than a generic appellation which conveys
information ; on which account Amaranthus, Artocarpus,
Biferrula, are excellent ; we need not run through the bota-
nical alphabet in fearch of numerous others. Such probably
was the origin of moft names, in every language, and who
can tell that the American word Cacao, fubftituted, or rather
reftored, by Tuffac, may not exprefs fome quality of the
plant ? Neither is it an objeftion to any fignificative gene-
ric names, that they exprefs merely fome general property or
peculiarity, not found in every one of the fpecies, witnefs
Urtica. The idea of ftinging is aflbeiated with the name of
a Nettle ; hke rednefs with that of a Rofe ; though there
are Dead Nettles, and White Rofes. — Linn. Gen. 391,
with an erroneous defcription, correfted in Linn, Suppl.
341. Schreb. J13. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 1422. Mart.

Mill.

THE

Mill. Dia. V. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. t. 4. 408. Jiiff. 276.
Lamarck Illullr. t. 635. ( Cacao ; Tourn. t. 444. Gaertn.
t. 122.) — Clafs and order, Polyadelphia Decandrla. Nat.
Ord. Colummferit,\Ani\. ■ Malvacea, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Ciil. Perianth inferior, of five ovato-lanceolatc,
acute, fpreading, coloured, deciduous leaves. Cor. Petals
live, rather longer than the calyx ; their clawB dilated, con-
cave, hooded, marked internally with two ribs from the bafe,
aiid one from the fummit : their borders roundidi-OTate,
pointed, fprcading, each contrafted at the bafe into a narrow,
ereCl and recurved flalk, connefted with the claw. Nei^ary
ihort, cup-fliaped, crowned with five long, ereft, awl-
Ihaped, pointed, equal, converging fegments. Stam. Fila-
ments five, thread-fliapcd, ereft, recurved at the upper part,
concealed in the hollow claws of the petals, inferted into the
outfide of the neftary between its fegments, but not above
half fo long ; anthers two to each filament, (one on each
fide, at the fummit,) vertical, two-lobed, one lobe over the
other. Pyi. Germen fuperior, nearly feffile, ovate, with
five furrows; llylc cylindrical; fligma in five awl-lhaped
fegments. Peru. Berry elliptic-oblong, beaked, coated, of
one cell. Seeds large, ovate, fmooth, numerous, in five
rows : their cotyledons in many deep lobes.

EIT. Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Petals five, vaulted at the
bafe. Neftary cup-fliaped, with five taper points. An-
thers two to each filament. Stigma five-cleft. Berry
coated. Seeds ovate.

Obf. Gxrtner obferves that he could find no traces of
the five cells attributed by authors to this fruit. It is pro-
bable, however, from analogy, that they may exifl in the
germen, and Aublet's account is fufHciently explicit of their
prefence in the fruit. The drawing in the Linnafan herba-
rium, which appears to have been fent by AUamand from
the Weft Indies, has led us to fuppofe each filament bore
four anthers ; but it feems there are only two, each of two
round, diftindl, vertical lobes, as reprefented by Aublet,
t. 275, and copied by Lamarck. The order of Decandria
muft therefore be reflored in the clafs Polyadelphia. See
Sm. Intr. to Bot. ed. 3. 340. Linna:us's cliaraiSers of
Tlieobroma in Gen. PI. were taken chiefly from Plumier's
Guazuma, the Bubroma of Schreb. Gen. 513; fee that
article. He has left a more correft defcription in manu-
fcript, from which perhaps his fon corapofed what is given
in the Supplementum. From thefe fources, with the help of
Allamand's drawing, and what is to be found in Aublet and
Schreber, we have drawn up our account, having no oppor-
tunity of examining a flower.

I. Th. Cacao. Smooth-leaved Chocolate-tree. Linn.
Sp. PI. 1 100. Suppl. 341. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. \. (Th.
n. 2 and 3 ; Browne Jam. 306. Cacao ; Merian. Surin.
t. 26 and 63. C. Theobroma ; Tuflac Flore des Antilles,
t. 13. Arbor cacavifera americana ; Pluk. Almag. 40.
Phyt. t. 268. f. 3.) — Leaves entire, fmooth on both fides.
— Native of South America. Miller appears to have had
this plant alive at Chelfea, but it has never long fucceeded
in our ftoves ; being extremely tender, even in fome parts of
the Weft Indies. Browne fays the Chocolate-trees, though
naturalized in the woods of Jamaica, are very delicate, and
rarely furvive when once they are loofened in the ground by
hurricanes. (See Chocolate. ) Thefe trees are the fize
of a middling apple-tree, but feldom exceed fix or feven
inches in diameter. They are very beautiful, efpecially
when laden with fruit, which is difperfed, on ftiort ftalks,
over the Jlem, and round principal branches ; its yellow hue
and warty furface fomewhat refembling a citron. The leaves
are alternate, ftalked, drooping, a foot long, and three
inches broad, elliptic -oblong, pointed, entire, flightly wavy.

THE

very fmooth on both fides, with one mid-rib, and many
tranfvcrfc ones, connefted by innumerable, minute, re-
ticulated veins. Foo//?a//f/ round, hairy, an inch long. 5/i-
pulas minute, deciduous. Flowers fmall, feveral together in
tufts, at the fides of the branches, on fimple ftalks, only
one in each tuft, commonly producing fruit. Calyx light
rofe-colourcd. Petals yellow.

2. Th. guianenjls. Downy-leaved Chocolate-tree. Willd.
n. I. Ait. n. I. (Cacao guianenfis ; Aubl. Guian. v. 2.
683. t. 275.) — Leaves wavy, and fomewhat toothed;
downy beneath Native of marftiy woods in Guiana, bear-
ing flowers and fruit in September. Of rather more himible
growth than the foregoing. The leaves are, at moft, but
eight inches in length, and three in breadth ; their margin
wavy, or rather bordered with fiiallow teeth, towards the
extremity ; their upper furfacc fmooth and green ; the under
clothed with fhort, a(h-coloured, or rufty pubefcence, and
reticulated with fine veins. Footjlalks ftiort, channelled,
downy. Flowers fituated like the former. Calyx green
without, yellow within. Petals yellowifti. Fruit elliptical,
with five angles, and clothed with ftiort rufty down. Aublet
fays it has five cells, feparated by membranous partitions ;
the feeds enveloped in a gelatinous, white, melting fubftance ;
their kernel white, very good eating when frefti. He fpeaks
of this fpecies as the Chocolate of Guiana, though he men-
tions a Cacao fativa, with entire leares, as a cultivated kind,
under which he cites Theobroma Cacao of Linnseus, and its
acknowledged fynonyms.

Aublet has alfo a Cacao fylveflris, v. 2. 687. t. 276, with
entire leaves, downy beneath, and a downy fruit, without
ribs. WiUdenow aflerts, we know not on what authority,
that this laft is Duroia Eriopila, Linn. Suppl. 209, of which
we, unfortunately, have met with no fpecimen. A branch
of Aublet's plant, communicated from his own herbarium
by fir Jofeph Banks, appears a variety of the laft, its leavet
being obfcurely toothed in a fimilar manner ; but for want
of j?owfrj we cannot fay how far it anfwers to Duroia, be-
tween which and Theobroma there is no affinity in that refpeft.
Aublet clearly defcribes his as a Theobroma, and we cannot
help fufpefting fome error in WiUdenow, as well as, pof-
fibly, a difagreement between Aublet's figure and our above-
mentioned fpecimen, which latter may be, as above hinted,
his Cacao guianenfis. At any rate, the two fpecies of Theo-
broma which we have defcribed, are certainly and perma-
nently diilinft.

Theobroma, in Gardening, contains a plant of the exotic
tree kind, of which the fpecies ufually cultivated is the cho-
colate nut-tree (T. cacao).

In its natural ftate, this tree produces a nut or fruit which
is fmooth, of a yellow, red, or of both colours, about
three inches in diameter : it has a fleftiy rind, near half an
inch in thicknefs, which is flefh-coloured within : the pulp
being whitifti, of the confiftence of butter, feparating from
the rind in a ftate of ripenefs, and adhering to it only by
filaments, which penetrate it, and reach to the feeds. Hence
it is known when the feeds are ripe by the rattling of the
capfule when it is ftiaken : the pulp has a fweet and not un-
pleafant tafte, with a flight acidity ; it is fucked and eaten
raw by the natives; it may be eafily feparated into as many
parts as there are feeds, to which it adheres ftrongly, and
they are wrapped up in it, fo that each feed feems to have
its own proper pulp : the feeds are about twenty-five in
number : when frefh, they are of a fiefli-colour : gathered
before they are ripe, they preferve them in fugar, and thus
they are very grateful to the palate : they quickly lofe their
power of vegetation, if taken out of the capfule, but kept
in it, they preferve that power for a long time ; the tree
4 bears

T II E

but
De-

• three

tears leaves, flowers, and fruit all the year througJi ;
tlie ufual feafons for gatiicriiig the Iruit are June aiid
cember : in two years from the feed, the tree is abov.
feet hiffh, and foreads its branches, not more than hve ot
which are fulfered to remain. Before its third year is com-
plete, it niews for fruit ; a tree yields from two to three
pounds of feed annuaUy. Such Uecs are of courfe Tery

produftive. r , , 3 r

Mithodof CwAun-.— Itisincreafedby feed obtained from
abroad, fowing it as foon after its arrival as poflible, in pots
idled witli liglit eartli, and plunging them m a bark-bed,
where they will foon come up ; and when the plants are
about three inches high, potting them off feparately, and
replunging them in the bark-bed in the ftove, managing
them as other woody exotics of the Hove kind afterwards.
Tliey afford an agreeable variety in ftove collections.

Tliis tree is cultivated to confiderablc extent, and with
very great attention in its native fituations in the hot parts of
America, for the fake of its fruit, the kernels of which are
much ufed in the making of chocolate there, as well as in
this country. In this intention, they are firft brought to a
pulverixable ftate by drying or roafting in a proper appara-
ratus ; they are then reduced into a fine powder by mills or
other contrivances : after which, this fine powder is wrought
up into a pafte with orange-water, milk, and other liquids

THE

abolilhed the royalty, and declared Jupiter the only king of
the people at Athens.

THEOCRITUS, in Biography, a Greek poet, efteemed
as the model of paftoral poetry, was a native of Syracufe,
and the fon of Praxagoras and Philina. The tinw in which
he flourifhed is afcertained by two of his poems, one ad-
dreffed to Hiero, king of Syracufe, who begau liis reign
about the year B.C. 265, and the other to Ptolemy Phi-
iadelphus, whofe reign comprehended the interval be-
tween 281 and 246 B.C. Although Hiero is reported
to hare been a patron of literature, perfons of rank,
as we may infer from. Theocritu^'s poem, did not f^>l-
low his example, at leafl in granting encouragement to
poets ; and therefore Theocritus left Sicily, and vifited
the court of Ptolemy Philadelphus at Alexandria, on
whom he pronounces a fplendid eulogy. The compofitions
of this poet are denominated " Idylls ;" they are written in
the Doric or ruftic dialeft, and few of them are paftorals,
thouj^h moil of them relate to rural life and manners. The
purely paftoral are diftinguiilied by the truth and fimplicity
of the manners, defcending fometimes even to coarfenefs,
and the pleafing defcription of natural objedls, drawn from
the life. To thofe who have a tafte for genuine fimplicity,
and the beauties of nature, fays one of his biographers, the
poetry of Theocritus is highly agreeable. The moil

cho, Lugd. Bat. 8vo. 1779-, Suidas. VolTius.
Biog.

THEODOLITE, or Theodolet, is an inftrument
ufed for meafuiing horizontal and vertical angles in land-
fuxveying. This mftrument was at firft made on a fmall
portable fcale, fupported by a tripod that will fhut up into
the form of a walkiug-ftick, when tlie inechanifm of brafs-
work is difmounted : and the ftate of dividing circles is
now brought to that perfeftion in England, that fmall po!"-
table theodolites are ftill in ufe among land-furveyors, who
confine themfclves to the planning of fingle eftates, for
which thefe inftruments are competent ; but for furveys on
a large fcale, fuch as county furveys, or trigonometrical
raeafureraent of diftant ftations, theodolites of an enlarged
conftru&ion have been ufed with correiponding advantage.
Out of the numerous modifications of this inftrument, that
different artifts have contrived, we propofe to leleft two
for particular defcription, which are generally confidered
as the beft for accurate furveys ; one by Ramfden, and the
other by Troughton. We will begin with that large in-
fl:rument already referred to in a former article, which was
made by Ramfden, in the year 1777, for the ufe of general
Roy, when he undertook his grand trigonometrical opera-
tions, and which is defcribed in the 80th vol. of the Phi-
lofophical Tranfaftions of London (1790), with all the
conftituent parts given feparate in four large plates. A
Cmilar inftrument, by the fame maker, has fince been
ufed for the grand general furvey of the different coun-
ties, by MeiTrs. Mud^e and Dalby. Plate VIU. fg. i.
of Surveying, ftiews the perfpeilive view of this mafter-
piece of workmanthip, nearly as reprefented in geoe-
ral Roy's third plate ; but his account, having reference
to the feveral plates, will not anfwer our purpofe. The
ftand on which the inftrument is placed for ufe, is a foxir-
legged mahogany ftool ABC, braced as fecn in the figure,
with an oftagonal top perforated at the centre by a hole
of nine inches diameter. This ftool or ftand, when ufed,
while the fons of Codrus were difputing the fucceiCon, the has its feet fcrewed faft to the tops of four piles driven into
Athenians, wearied out with the miferieB of an intcftine war, the ground, and nicely levelled, befoje the inftrument is

plajccd

exportation and fale in the European and other markets, if
prepared in the places of its native growth.

It is employed fomewhat in the manner of coffee as a fine
rich breakfaft article of diet, and ufed pretty extenfively for
that purpofe in this and fome other countries.

THEOCATAGNOSTiE, formed from ©eo?, Ged,
and xMTayim(rKw, I judge, or condemn, a feft of heretics, or
rather of blafpheraers, who prefumed to find fault with cer-
tain words and aftions of God, and to blame many things
in the Scriptures.

Marftial, in hit Tables, places thefe heretics in the feventh
centmy ; for what reafon we know not. Damafcenus is
the only author that mentions them, but without taking any
notice of the time of their appearance.

THEOCRACY, formed from @io; God, and xjaxo;,
pov-'er, empire, a ftate governed by the immediate direftion
of God alone.

According to Jofephus, the ancient government of the
Jews was theocratic ; God himfelf ordering and directing
every thing belonging to the fovereign authority.

By the oracle of Jehovah himfelf, all laws were enadled,
war was proclaimed, and magiftrates were appointed ; in
which three particulars the Jumma potejlas, or fovereign au-
thority, of any ftate, confifts. And as Jehovah was the
king, as well as the God of Ifrael, the priefts and Levites,
who were the ftated attendants on his prefence, and to whom
the execution of the law in many cafes was committed, were
properly minifters of ftate and of civil government, as well
as of rehgion. The facrifices alfo, befide their religious
ufe, were intended for the fupport of the ftate, and civil
government.

This theocracy lafted till the time of Saul ; when the
Ifraelites, weary of it, dcfired they might have a king
like other nations ; and theace forward the ftate became
monarchic.

There was alfo a kind of imaginary theocracy at Athens

THEODOLITK.

^iaccil on it, aiul one of tiic four fafteiiing fircws may be
feen at B, at the jiinAion of the bracinj^ bars. Upon this
llool another, but larger, oftagonal board of mahogany,
U E, r' lU, whicli has a ring or circular curb on its plane,
about half an inch from tiie fides of the odagon : tliis upper
octagonal board may be fixed to, or rcleafed from, the top of
the Hand by four vertical fcrcws, wliich penetrate both boards,
but which allow one to flide over the other, fo as to he either
concentric or excentric, as the adjullmont of a plumb-line to
the mark, or hole under the inilrument may require, for the
exaft place of the Itation, over wliich the centre of the
iuflrument mult be exaftly fixed. Tlie four horizontal
fcrews of adjullment, of which three are feen at F, F, and V,
carried by the board D E, are fo contrived as to effeft this
adjuftment by prefTnre againft the edge of the (land, after
whicli the two otlagonal boards are made fad logetlier by
the faid four verticil! fcrews not fhewn. The upper odta-
gonal D E has an open conical focket of brafs, three inches
in diameter, in its centre. Next above the board D E, thus
adjufted and fccurcd, comes the third board, which is cir-
cular, and which forms the bafis of the inilrument. In the
centre of this bafe another brafs conical focket, three inches
and a quarter in diameter, is made faft, and flips over
the fmaller conical focket of the board D E of adjuftment
for central pofition, fo that the centre of the inilrument
being concentric with this board partakes of the adjuftment,
while the plumb-line defcends through both fockets down
towai-ds the ground. The large mahogany circle G H, of
more than three feet in diameter, is uipportcd by feveral
pillars connefted with the circular board, which we have
called the bafe of the inilrument, and forms with tliem a
haluftrade, that proteftslhe inilrument, as feen in the figure.
A brafs circle of three feet diameter, within the haluf-
trade, is attached by ten ftrong conical radii to the hu'ge
vertical hollow axis, formed into the fruftum of a cone, of
twenty-four inches in height above the metallic v/hcel, which
we fhaU in future denominate the graduated circle, when
confidered with its radii and hollow axis attached to it.
This axis, by way of diftinftion, may be called the exterior
axis ; it has a collar of eaft-lteel driven faft into the cavity of
its inferior or thicker end, and a plate of bell-metal, with a
lloping edge, kirmounts the fuperior end, which plate may
be raifed or lowered by means of five fcrews afting verti-
cally. The inftrument ftands on three fliort feet near
D and E, and at an equidiftant point not feen behind, which
feet are firmly united together, at the place where they
branch off, by a circular ftrong plate of bell-metal, upon
which is carried an attached vertical cone of metal fmaller
than the former one, and as it fills the cavity of the other,
we will call it the interior conical axis ; the exterior one being
moveable round the interior one without the leaft perceptible
liberty, beyond wliat is neceflary for rotatory motion. On
the vertex of this interior axis is inferted a caft-fteel pivot with
floping cheeks, which, entering the central hole of the bell-
metal plate, exaftly fits its cheeks there, while the bell-
metal bafe of the interior axis fits the caft^-fteel collar in-
lerted into the lower extremity of the exterior conical axis.
This mode of centering allows the wheel to be taken off
and put on without injury, and is alfo free from the objedlion
that applies to thofe large inllruments that have the
fuperior end of the vertical axis fupported in a frame that
is liable to alter in its dimenfions by expofure to the fun ;
of which imperfeftion, as we have noticed in our article
Circle, Piazzi had great reafon to complain. Befides,
this kind of centre -work allows of carriage from one place
to another, without any danger of injury being done to the
inftrument when properly packed. There are two achro-

matic tclefcopes with double objcft-glalicsof each thirty-fi>;
inches focus, with eye-pieces of different powers both for
ere6t and inverted pofitions. One of thcfe telefcope» lies
acrofs the body of the inftrument, with the ends feen be-
tween the oppofitc pillars of the baluftrade, the ufe of which
is to watch the pofition of the inftrument during the time
of an oblervation being made ; and, therefore, it requires
but little elevation in altitude : the other is mounted,
cxaftly like a tranfit-inftrument, over the top of the ex-
terior vertical axis, and has a lemi-circle attached to the
extreme end of its horizontal axis of motion, of fix inches
radius, and graduated for ftiewing angles of altitude or of
deprcflion. The Y's in which the pivots of the upper
telefcope move, are fupported by the horizontal bar I K,
which is braced by the ladder-pieces attached to the
thick part of the exterior conical axis, and made faft
to the top of this axis by its focket, as feen in the
fedlion in Ji^. 4 ; which feftion exhibits moreover the
internal fittings of both the internal and external axes at
their fuperior ends. This tipper telefcope has a fpirit-
level witli tlie ufual adjuftments at the Y's, and at the bar
of fufpenfion for the horizontal pofition ; and, as it will
reverfe in the Y's, and has moveable wires in the focus of
the eye-piece, it may alfo be adjufted by a horizontal
mark for colhmation, and for taking cxaci altitudes, (as
well as for taking minute angles of elevation withoat the
femi-circle by the motion of the micrometrical wires,) when
the level is applied to a rod on the Jicic of the tube, as is the
cafe in our drawing. When thefe adjuftments are made,
by dividing the errors between the proper fcrews, as ufual,
the level is hung to the crofs-bar I K to watch its pofition
while this telefcope is ufed, aud when both tclefcopes con-
tinue to bifeft the fame diilant mark during an obfervation,
with the bubble of the level in the middle, it is a proof
that the inftrument keeps its pofition. When a ftar or
other objetl is viewed by night, the illuminating lamp K
throws light into the axis of the telefcope, which has a dia-
gonal perforated refledlor, as is ufual in tranfit tclefcopes.
A fyftem of darkening prifms is alfo applied to the fame
end of the axis to regulate the quantity of light that ftiall
come to the eye. All thefe adjuftments and appendages
have been minutely explained under our articles Cikcle and
TRAHSlT-Iii/lruiTKnt, and therefore need not be detailed in
this article ; but it may be proper to obferve, tliat the
femi-circle has a moveable clamping-piece, bearing the fteel
arbor of a vertical fcrew, the lower end of which falls on
a poliftied piece of fteel on the plane of the horizontal bar
I K, the ufe of which clamp and fcrew is n >t only to give
a flow motion in altitude, but to allow the preponderating
eye-end of the telefcope to reft fteady thereon, while the
obfervation has been read and repeated. The obfervation
in altitude is read by the compound microfcope at I, which
is nine inches long, and which, by means of its micrometricafl
fcrew, reads the divifions of the femi-circle to the accuracy
of 5", when an allowance of iz" is made for excentricity.

When this theodolite was firft brought into ufe, it was
found that the fcrew L, with an ivory thumb-piece, moved
the circle in azimuth by jerks, on which account the appa-
ratus for (low motion, feen in Jig. 2, was fubftituted, in
which two crown-wheels and a Hooke's joint are in-
troduced to give motion to the tangent-fcrew ; which addi-
tion not only remedied the jerks, but allowed the obfervcr
to reach the handle while his eye remained at th ■ upper tele-
fcope. The large brafs horizontal circle is divided into
quarters of a degree, and the fubdivifioiis are made by the
vertical micrometrical microfcope.i, the divided heads of
which read exaft fecon^s, when properly adjufted for zero,

for

THEODOLITE.

for diftinft vifion, and for power. The fcrew of tlie ver-
tical micrometers has feventy-two threads in tJie inch, and
the notches that indicate the fifteen minutes on tlie micro-
metrical fcale of fteel, are formed by this fcrew, which we
mention particularly, becaufe this mode of reading was pro-
bably an original mode, though now become commou-
Thefe vertical microfcopes, G and H, have each a ftage,
reprefentcd by Plate IX. /^. 4 ; and a dot made on a thin
flip of gold, C3\\tA 2i gold tongue, lies under the objeft-lens in
fuch a fituation, that the capflan fcrews can adjull it to a
given place in the field of view of each microfcope, fo as to
become a mark for making the adjuftments by, and for
bifeding the circle at reverfed oppoiite readings. The
pofition of the three glaffes of each microfcope is feen
in Jig. 3. of the fame plate, together with the magnified
appearance of the notched fcale and divifions of the
circle. In Jig. 5. the general plan of the micrometer is
exhibited, and in Jig. 6. is the plan of the ftage where the
pillars enter, that fupport the microfcope. Fig. 7. (hews
the lower or fteel Aide, and fg. 8. the upper or
brafs Aide, that feparate the wires of the micrometer ;
while^^. 9. is a reprefentation of the long horizontal micro-
fcope that reads the divifions of the femi-circle above
noticed, at the letter I in the large figure of Plate VIII.
As it was not eafy to defcribe the conftruAion of the three
feet, two of which, we have faid, only are vifible, oppofite
to D and E, we have added ^^j. 3. and 5. in Plate VIII.
to illuftrate their pofition. In Jg. 3. the piece F F, as
before, is a portion of the ftand, and D E a portion of the
oftagonal board, to which the fcrew F is attached, that
prefles againft the angulai- corner of the ftand, into which
a piece of brafs is let for the fcrew to prefs againft, an end
fettion of which is fhewn in_^^. j, with the fame letters of
reference to the fame parts : M N is a feclion of the bafe
of the inftrument, and O one of the thi-ee brafs branches
that bears the foot-fcrew P, and its two fide fcrews or tight-
ening fcrews Q, R, as feen in Jig. 5. At S is a curved piece
of box, faft to M N, which bears the principal part of the
weight laid on this fcrew, and does not gall the parts
on which it Aides, when a circular motion is given ; but, to
take off a part of the weight, a cylindrical roller near S is
put to a horizontal fpring bearing the central pin of the rol-
ler, which fpring prefTes the roller even with the face of the
curved block of box, and may be made to take more or lefs
of the weight by a fcrew preffing upon it from above, and
giving it more or lefs tenfion. Hence all the parts of this large
inftrument are ftrong, and yet the moving parts are made to
go freely and fmoothly ; and the only alteration that can appa-
rently be made for the better, is the addition of a third vertical
microfcope, for which the conftm Aion is peculiarly adapted ;
for each branch of the triple bar that carries the three feet,
being braced firmly, is made as though each was intended
to have a microfcope over it, which is the cafe with only
one ; and an additional foundation for the fecond ftage is
made to receive the fecond microfcope, as we think, unne-
ceffarily ; for if three equidiftant microfcopes had been
ufed inftead of two oppofite ones, not only would the
errors of divlfion and of eccentricity have been leflened
thereby, but in the reverfed pofition new parts of the circle
would have been pointed to, equidiftant from the former
three, fo that fix portions of the circle would thus have
been employed in meafuring a reverfed obfervation, which
the prefent aftronomer royal firft pointed out to be an ad-
VMtage pecuhar to three readings on a horizontal circle.
We have been informed, that it is yet intended to have thi-ee
microfcopes attached to the horizontal circle of this large
inftrument, to be ufed as we have here fuggefted. For the

advantage of a triple reading, fee our table for tlu-ee veniiers
in the article ClRCj-E.

After having given a defcription of Ramfden's great
theodolite, we proceed, in the next place, to explain how
its different adjuftments are made, for putting it into a ftate
proper for ufe, which we cannot do better, tlian by adopt-
ing the dircftions laid down by general Roy himfelf.

The AdjuJlmenl oj the Axis Level. — The axis of the upper
or tranfit telefcope, being brought over any one of the feet,
and the circle being clamped, hang the axis level on the
pivots, or anfx of the telefcope, and bring the bubble to
the two indices ; then reverfe the level, that is, turn it end
for end, and note the difference. BifeA this difference,
one half by the level's adjufting fcrew, and the other half
by that foot-fcrew only which is in a line with the axis.
This operation being repeated until the difference wholly
vanifties, the level will be truly adjufted, that is to fay,
the bubble will reft between the fame points in both
pofitions.

Adjujlment oJ the Eleniation Level. — This level being fuf-
pended on the rod attached to the outfide of the tranfit
telefcope, fcrew the ereft eye-tube on, to make that end
preponderate. Adjuft the bubble to the indices by the
fteel finger-fcrew at the tail of the femi-circle's clamp,
reverfe the level, and note the difference. Then bifect
that difference, and correft one half by the finger-
fcrew, and the other half by the proper adjufting fcrew
under the level, and fo on, repeatedly, until the difference
wholly vanifties. The level may then be hung on the two
pins that projeft from the horizontal bar which carries the
telefcope, where, being parallel to the axis level, it will
ftiew, when that is removed (as is commonly the cafe when
terreftrial objefts only are obferved) whether the plane of
the inftrument fuffers any alteration. If this ftiould have
happened, the level on the horizontal bar is at all times
fufficient to correft it.

To fit the vertical Axis perpendicular. — This may be done
by either level, but beft with the axis level, which, being
fufpended on its pivots, muft be brought parallel with two
of the feet of the inftrument ; and by the fcrews of thefe
two feet, the bubble is to be brought between its indices.
The circle being then turned round 180°, if the bubble
changes its place, half the difference is to be correfted by
one of the feet -fcrews, and the other half by two capftan-
headed fcrews, that aft againft each other, under and be-
longing to one of the Y's, or fupports, in which the pivots
reft. When the bubble is found to be juft in thefe two
pofitions, turn the circle 90°, which will neceffarily bring
the axis over the third foot of this inftrument : then correft:
any error there may be by that foot-fcrew. In this manner
the circle will be made to revolve again and again, without
any alteration whatever of the bubble, which ftiews that
the vertical axis is then truly perpendicular to the horizon.

To make the Line oJ Collimation in the Telefcope at right angles
nuith the tranfverje Axis. — The pivots refting in their Y's,
direft the telefcope to fome diftant well-defined objeft, and
let the circle be clamped. Then reverfe the axis, that is,
turn the telefcope upfide down. If the intcrfeftion of the
wires does not coincide with the objeft in both pofitions,
half the difference muft be correfted by the motion of the
circle with the Hooke's joint, and the other half by the
motion of the brafs Aide in the eye-end of the telefcope, by
applying the milled-head key in the fmall focket feen in
the figure ; and fo repeatedly until the difference whoUy
difappears.

Tofet the Rod on tuhieh the Elevation Level hangs parallel to
the Line of Collimation. — The vertical axis being fuppofed to

be

THEODOLITE.

be nearly vertical, hang the level on its rod, and reftify the
bubble by the finger-fcrcw of the clamp. Set the horizon-
tal wire on the fteel Aide, to interfedl the centre of the
oblique wires, and place the dart or index at zero on the
micrometer head. Then obfcrve fome dittant diftinft ob-
ieft covered by the horizontal wire. Invert tin- fcmi-
circle, that is, turn the azimuth circle i8o°, and the tcle-
fcope upfide down, fo as to bring the wire upon, or nearly
upon, the fame objeft. Now, if the level be not right,
reftify it by the finger-fcrew at the tail of the clamp. If
the telefcope does not now accurately cover the fame objeft,
as in tlie former pofition, bifeft the difference by the finger-
fcrew of the clamp, and then reftify the bubble by the
capftan-nuts under one end of the rod. Repeat this opera-
tion until the level is right, when the telefcope fees the fame
objcft in both pofitions, and thereby tlie rod will be
brought parallel in altitude to the line of coUimation, or
«xis of vifion.

We have defcribed other and more recent conftruftions
of large circular inftruments, imder the word Circle, that
have all the properties of the theodolite which we have here
defcribed, and fome of which have the advantage of a large
vertical circle, that renders their ufe in aftronomy co-exten-
five with their application to geodetical operations, and
which tlierefore we recommend in preference to the bulky
inftrument with which the EngUfh trigonometrical furveys
were performed.

A theodoUte of a portable fize, and of Troughton's bcft
conftruftion, is exhibited in Plate Y!^. fig. I. of Surveying,
fuch as is adapted for land-furveying, or for tlie furveying
of harbours. A, B, C, are the three mahogany legs of a
tripod, furmounted with brafs joints which allow the legs
to form one entire cylinder, about four feet long. The
brafs-work above the three joints has a male fcrew, upon
which a focket, under the brafs circular plate D E, fcrews,
and bears the inftrument, whicli is alraoft entirely of brafs.
This plate D E has four fockets made faft into it, projcft-
ing both above and below, as feen in the figure, in which
are exhibited three out of the four, with as many fcrews
with milled heads, that afcend and defcend as they are
turned round, forwards or backwards, by means of their
connexion with their refpeftive fockets, that have each a
female fcrew : the heads of thofe fcrews prefs againft the
inferior face of the upper circular brafs plate F G, to
vrhich a ball, ending with a vertical axis, is attached, and is
embraced by the upper portion of the focket of plate D E,
within the four fcrews. The intention of the ball and
focket, and of the two plates with the four intervening
fcrews, is to place the axis of the ball in a vertical pofi-
tion, and to keep it in that pofition while the parts above
are employed in making an obfervation ; which office this
mechanifm will perform on Hoping as well on level ground.
The axis of the ball, however, is made hollow, to admit of a
fmaller folid axis within it, and has alfo two fockets or
tubes furrounding it ; all which have feparate motions, when
the ball is made faft by the prelTure of the four fcrews.
The inner tube is attached to the graduated circle L M, of
eight inches diameter, the chamfered edge of which circle
is folid filver, that receives the dividing ftrokes read by
the microfcope K : and the clamping piece, feen feparately
mjig. 2, will fix the faid tube and graduated plate in any given
fituation by means of the fcrew F, after which the fcrew G
with the milled head, attached to the plate F G, will pro-
duce the flow motion when neceflary. The lower telefcope
H I turns on two pivots not feen, one of which pivots has
Its. hole in a cock, borne by a fmaller circular plate under
the graduated plate, into which the two fcrews H and I
Vol. XXXV.

enter, and the other pivot enters the butermoft tube; fo
that an elevation or depreffion bf about 20° can be ef-
fefted by this telefcope, before its motion is limited by
the fupcrior and inferiof plates. This telefcope has 1
proper motion in azimuth, independently of the graduated
plate, which motion is produced by the thumbjfci-ew H,
the axis of which has a pinion afting with a concealed
wlieel made faft to the graduated plate ; but when the
clamping-fcrcw I is maHo faft, then the telefcope and gra-
duated plate have but one common motion, Tvhich is com-
manded by the tangcnt-fcrew G of the clamping-piece F G.
The ufe of the feparate motion of this telefcope will be
explained prcfently. Above the graduated plate L M, and
in clofe contaft with it, the veniier-platc revolves with the
folid or innermoft axis, that is faft to it, and its clamp and
fcrew of flow motion are hid from tlie fight by the fuper-
incumbent frame. This plate, which has four oppofite ver-
niers, each reading to the accuracy of 15", will move fepa-
rately, or may be clamped to the graduated plate, as occa-
fion may require. Upon the plane of this vernier-plate, two
fpirit-levels arc placed with their proper adjufting-fcrews,
one of which is feen at N ; but the other, which ftands at
right angles to this, is concealed in the drawing by the
frame-work. A compafs and magnetic needle are alfo con-
cealed within the frame, but may be conceived to be con-
centric with the vernier-plate witiiin the faid frame. The
tail-piece of the revolving microfcope K fits into a circular
groove under the graduated plate L M, and, without hav-
ing a centre of motion, wiU Aide along the groove into
any of the four pofitions, where the verniers require to be
read, without interfering with any of the other motions.
The inftrument now before us has been fome years in ufe,
and is drawn on an enlarged fcale, that all the parts may be
the better defcribed ; but the moft recent theodolites of this
conftruftion have only three verniers, in preference to four,
by reafon of the property, which this number has, of mea-
furing ztjix different and equidiftant points on the gra-
duated limb, when the meafurement of an angle is repeated
in a reverfcd pofition of the fuperior telefcope ; fij that
whatever errors of excentricity or of graduation may exift
in the horizontal circle, they will be made to vanifti, in a
great meafure, by their counteraftion in the reverfed pofition
of the verniers. Upon the plane of the vernier-plate is
fcrewed, by three fcrews, forming an ifofceles triangle, the
frame which fupports the pivots of the horizontal axis
of the femi-circle P O, on which the upper telefcope T U
is placed. The arm, which beai-s the microfcope O for
reading the altitude or depreflion meafured by the femi-
circle, has a tube that Aides upon the projefting horizontal
axis, that allows of fome degrees of motion between the
end-bars of the frame ; and another arm, that clamps the
oppofite end of the faid axis, has a tangent-fcrew of flow
motion at R, which finifties the final contaft of the inter-
fefting point of the fpider's lines, within the eye-end of the
telefcope, with the objeft viewed. The vernier for the
femi-circle is fcrewed to the frame, after fpanning over the
compafs-box ; and its exaft place may be adjufted by the
fcrew of the frame above M, which ftands at the apex of
the ifofceles triangle formed by the three fcrews. The
level, that is feen under and parallel to the upper telefcope,
is attached to it by two pairs of fcrews, one pair of wliich
adjufts for the elevation or deprcffion of one end of the tube
that holds the bubble, and the other pair adjufts laterally
for true parallelifm in this refpeft : when the pins T and U
are removed, the upper femi-circle of each ring, V and W,
will turn back each on a hinge, and allow the telefcope to be
taken out of its Y's, for the purpofe of being reverfed in
3 O po-ltion;

THEODOLITE.

pofition ; ai\d in both fUuitions the telcfcope is capable of
Itavlng d circuloi- motion, tliat carriss the attached level
round \<ith it an entire revolution. During this revolution,
an eye obferving the interfeiled point of the field of viev?,
as projeded on a diilant point, will fee whether or not aay
adjultment of the fpider's lines is neceffary, and in what
relpeft. The aperture of each telefcope is an inch and a half,
and the ordinary magnifying powers are from teu to eleven,
with nearly fourteen inches of tute ; but the upper or raca-
furing telefcope has a fecond eye-piece of the pofitive kind,
whicii produces a magnifying power of twenty times. There
are tliree fpider's lines in each eye-piece, one horizontal, and
two crolTnig it fo as to include a fmall angle between
them ; which method of fixing the lines, allows the obferver
an opportimity of bifecting the faid fmall angle by a ver-
tical ilaff ereftcd at a dillance, which is better than cover-
ing the ftafT with a vertical line, that would dilappear upon
the pknc of fuch ilaff. Before we proceed to explain how
this tJieodolite is ufed in the field, it will be requifite to
fliew how the pre\-ious adjuftmcnts are to be performed.

When the iiiltrument is fcrewed to the head of the tripod,
the legs mull be opened wide enough to enfure a firm pofi-
tion, and the points muil be preffed into the ground equally,
cxaAly over the hole into which a ftation ftafF has been, or is
intended to be, inferted ; fo that the plumb, fufpended from
a pin at the junftion of the legs, will fall exadlly upon the
faid hole ; in which fituation the Jiaiion, marked 0, is faid
to be taken.

When the theodolite has been properly fixed in its ftation,
the firft adjuftment that will require to be made, is that
wliich regards tiic line of collimaiion. When all the parts of
the inftrument are properly in their places, let the upper
telefcope be pointed in a horizontal line, that paffes over
two of the four fcrews of plate D E, and note what point
in a diftant objedt is covered by the horizontal fpider's line,
near the middle of the field of view ; then turn the telefcope
half round in the Y's, till the level lies above it, and obferve
if the fame point is again cut by the faid line ; if not, ele-
vate or lower the horizontal line by the proper fcrews in the
eye-piece, releafing one and fcrcwing up the other, till the
diftance between the two points, correfponding to the two
pofitions, is bifedled by the horizontal fpider's hne : and if,
vrken the telefcope is turned back to its original pofition,
with the level under it, the fpider's line covers the point ad-
jufted to, the line of coUimation in altitude or depreffion
will be correft ; but if not, the operation muft be repeated
delicately, till the horizontal line covers the fame diftant
point in both pofitions. The fame operation will alfo put
the vertical hne correft, or rather the point of interfedlion,
when there are two oblique lines inftead of a vertical line,
as in Troughton's theodolite ; and the adjuftments will be
known to be complete, when the point of interfedlion con-
tinues on the fame diftant point, while the telefcope is made
to revolve round the line of colhmation as an axis.

The fecond adjuftment is that which puts the long level pa-
rallel to the rcftified line of collimation. While the telefcope
remains parallel to the line that joins two oppofite fcrews
of plate D E, adjuft thofe two fcrews by turning them in
oppofite direftions, until the bubble is obferved to be in the
middle of its tube under the telefcope : then, the femi-rings
V and W being previoufly turned back, reverfe the ends of
the telefcope, and alfo of the level attached to it ; and if the
bubble will refume its former fituation in the middle of the
tube, both the line of collimation and the level will be truly
horizontal, and confequently parallel to each other ; but if
the bubble recedes to one end, bring it back one half by the
fcrews that elevate or deprefs one end of the level, and the

10

other half by the fcrews of plate D E. Let this operation
be repeated till the bubble will remain in tlie middle of the
tube, after the telefcope has been reverfed into both pofi-
tions. The adjuftment of tJie level, however, is not yet com-
plete ; for though the axes of the two tubes may be equi-
diftant at both ends of the level, yet may they be in-
clined fo as to form an horizontal angle with each other
at fome diftance, and in this cafe the bubble will run to
the higher end of its tube, when the telefcope rotates ;
there are therefore two lateral fcrews, which adjuft the paral-
lelifm of the two tubes, fo that the bubble will remain in
the middle, in every part of a rotation of the telefcope
round its line of collimation, which adjuftment muft now
be made ; and if this lateral adjuftment ftiould be found te
derange the vertical one before made, it muft be re-adjufted,
and the level will then be in a proper ftate for ufe, provided
the Y's are alike, and alfo the cylinders that reft in them ;
but if not, the bubble wfll not reft in the middle in both of
the reverfed pofitions, tiU they are made fo.

The third adjuftment that we propofe to explain, is that
which puts the line of collimation exaftly at right angles
to the axis of the femi-circle's vertical motion, which ha.";
not yet been defcribed, but which is eflentially neceftaiy
to be attended to, more particularly by the maker. Let
the upper telefcope be diredled to fome horizontal well-
defined mark, that is included within the angular fpace
formed by the two obhqiie lines, juft where the vertical
line would have been, if fuch line had been ufed, while zero
of the vernier coincides with zero (360*) of the horizon-
tal limb of plate L M ; then all the fcrews being faft, ex-
cept the one which allows the vernier-plate to revolve, turn
180° in azimuth, and reverfe the telefcope by taking it out
of its Y's, into its original pofition with refpedl to the
mark ; and if this is feen in precifely the fame fituation in
the angular Ipace, (though not perhaps with refpedl to alti-
tude, if the axis of the vernier-plate was not previoufly
adjufted,) the line of collimation will be at right angles
to the axis of the vertical motion ; but fliould this not
prove to be the cafe, one of the Y's will require to be al-
tered laterally, but the adjuftment of the level will not be
deranged thereby. This alteration of one of the Y's had,
however, better be eff"efted by a regular workman, and
ftiould never be negleifled by the maker.

The fourth adjuftment, which might have preceded the
third without inconvenience, is that which makes the com-
mon axis of motion of the vernier-plate and horizontal gra-
duated circle truly vertical. This is done partly by the
fcrews that fix the ball and focket, inferted into plate D E,
and partly by the adjufting-fcrew R of the vertical ferai-
circle. Hitherto the upper telefcope has lain over two of
the four fcrews only, and in a horizontal line, with the bub-
ble in the middle. Let it now be turned along with the
vernier-plate juft 90°, till it lies over the other pair of op-
pofite fcrews, and fee if the bubble be now alfo in the
middle, if not, make it fo by thofe fcrews ; and if, after this
operation, the bubble will remain in the middle during a
whole revolution of the vernier-plate, in both the reverfed
pofitions of the telefcope, the vertical axis of motion will
be truly adjufted.

The fifth adjuftment relates to the levels fixed to the
plane of the horizontal graduated circle, which are ufe-
ful in watching the horizontal pofition of the inftrument,
while an obfervation is making ; thefe, which are at right
angles to each other horizontally, muft alfo be feparately
at right angles to the vertical axis that carries them round.
When this axis has been adjufted, as we have juft explained,
by the level of the upper telefciape, the bubbles of both

the

THEODOLITE.

tie fixed levels muft be brought to the middle of their re-
ipcdivo tubes by their proper fcrews, fo that tlie bubbles
ol' all tlie three levels may remain ftationary in every part
of tlie revolution of die vernier-plate, which they will do
if its axis is truly vertical.

The fixth adjullment'is that which puts the axis of the
femi-circle's motion truly horizontal, or at right angles to
the vertical axis of the horizontal circles : this is known to
be fo, when the point of interfeftion of the fpider's lines
will cover a long plumb-line, fufpendcd at a diftancc, as the
angle of elevation increafes, from the inferior to tiic fuperiof
end of the fufpended line ; and ftill better by trying if the
pole ftar, and its reflefted image, feen in a bafon of quick-
filver, will be fuccefTiTely covered by the faid point of interfec-
tion of the fpider's lines. In fome theodolites, the horizontal
axis lies in adjuftable Y's, like thofe of a traiifit-inltrnment ;
but in the inllrument before us, the adjuftment was made
permanent by the maker.

Lailly, the adjuftment of the vernier to zero of the femi-
circle is made by the fcrew near M, which elevates or de-
preffes the whole frame in which the telefcope and femi-
circle move, and confequently alters the fituation of the
level, which has its bubble brought back again by the fcrew
R, that gives flow motion to the feini-circle, when the
clamp at the fuperior end of the arm is made faft to the
axis of motion ; but it is not eifential that zero of the
vernier (lioiild be at zero of the femi-circle when the level is
right, bccaufe when an altitude or depreflion is repeated in
the reverfed pofitions of the telefcope, the two i-eadings
will have equal and oppofite errors ; and one half of the
difference of thofe readings will be the conftant index error,
which may be afcertained with great prccifion from an
average of a number of reverfed obfervations.

The lower telefcope, being placed as a guard to watch
any azimuthal alteration in the pofition of the inftrument,
requires no adjuftments, except that- for diftinft vifion, after
it is brought to its objeft by its proper vertical and hori-
zontal motions, in which fituation its horizontal motion is
clamped by tlie fcrew I under the horizontal plate.

After the adjuftments are all made, or examined, the
theodolite may be ufed for meafuring either horizontal or
vertical angles in the following manner. Let us fuppofe
two ftaves erected vertically on level ground, one towards
the eall and the other towards the fouth of the ftation
where tiie inftrument ftands in a ftate of adjuftment; and let
it be required to afcertain the angle fubtended at the centre
of the inftrument by a Hne joining thefe ftaves : in the firft
place, the lozenge of the vernier No. i. muft be clamped to
360" on the horizontal circle, and the clamping fcrew F
muft be releafed, fo that the upper telefcope, vernier-plate,
and graduated horizontal circle, may all move in azimuth
together, till the ftafl^ to the eaft is feen in the field of
view ; tliis clamp F may then alfo be made faft, and the
fcrew of flow motion, G, will bring the ftaff to bifeft the
angle formed by the fpider's lines, in which fituation zero
of the meafuring circle is truly placed : in the next place,
bring the lower telefcope, by its proper fcrew H, into pre-
cifely the fame fituation, and fix it there by the fixing
fcrew I ; then, having examined that the upper telefcope
has not moved from the ftafF by any accident, releafe the
clamping fcrew that held the vernier-plate, and turn the
upper telefcope, till the fecond ftaff in the fouth bifecls the
angle of the fpider's hairs ; which may firft be done roughly
before clamping, and afterwards more exaftly,by the tangent-
fcrew of the clamp ; then, having examined the pofition of
the lower telefcope again, let all the four (or three) readings
of the vernier-plate be put down, and take the fourth (or
third) part of their amount as the true angle, and fee that

both telcfcopee have their flaws bifefling their refpeftivc
angular fpaces as at firft, after the meafurcs are read, and then
the average thus afcertained will be nearly the true angle :
but to prove the exadlnefs of the meafure thus taken, and
alfo the accurate conftruftion of the inftrument, the tcle-
fco])e refting in the Y's may now have its pofition reverfed,
and then No. 3. of the four verniers muft be clamped to the
point 360" of the graduated circle, and the fame oper.ition
muft be repeated, when aiwthcr average of four meafures
will be had, and an average of thefe two rcfults with oppo-
fite index errors, may be confidered as very near the truth ;
and more particularly if tliere are only three verniers ; for
then, as we have ftated above, the readings will be at fix
equidillant points of the circle, and will correft for exccn-
tricity as well as inequality of divifions, if any cxift. In
ordinary meafurements of angles, in fmall furveys of land,
this attention to extreme ac»uracy may be fupcrfiuous,
where the inftrument is well centered and graduated : but
where the lines to be meafured are long, the angles cannot
be taken with too much care ; particularly when any fide of
a triangle is to be determined, or checked, by the oppofile
angle.

In taking an angle of altitude or of depreflion with the
femi-circle of the theodolite in queftion, very great accu-
racy is not to be expeAed, feeing there is but one vernier ;
but by proper attention to the previous adjuftment of the
level of the upper telefcope, and by ufing the telefcope in
the reverfed pofitions, two meafurcs will be obtained with
oppofite errors, that countcraft each other's effefts, fo as to
render the meafure true to 15". It is hardly neceflTary to
add, that the meafure of a vertical angle is taken by the
horizontal fpider's line, and that the lower telefcope is of no
ufe in taking fuch meafure.

We proceed, laftly, to exemphfy the ufe of a common
theodolite by an aftual furvey of a fmall eftate, fuch as will
come within the limits of one of our plates, and by an ex-
planation of the manner in which a field-look is kept in
pradlice, and its contents transferred to the formation of a
map, agreeably to the moft approved methods of meafuring
and plotting an eftate of any affigned dimenfions. For
this part of our article we arc indebted to Mr. James Wad-
more, whofe experience and acknowledged flcill, in his pro-
feflion of land-fuiveyor, eminently qualify him for commu-
nicating the requifite information which we have referred
for this place, to render the fubjeft o{ furveying complete.

" Preparatory to making a furvey with the afTiftance of
a theodolite, I confider it indifpenfably neceffary, (fays
Mr. Wadmore, ) that the furveyor fhould feel well affured
that his inftrument is in a perfeft ftate of adjuftment, and
alfo that his chain is correft, otherwife no dependance can
be placed upon the moft partic-ular and minute field-book he
could make ; for if thefe primary things are not attended
to, the refult of his labours, on plotting his dimenfions, will
turn out to be only fo much time loft, as well as that which
he may have beftowed upon his furvey.

" In order to obviate thefe difficulties in fome meafure, I
moft earneftly recommend to the young praftitioner, that,
in choofing his theodolite, as well as his protraftor, cafe of
inftriunents, plotting fcalcs, &c. on which every thing de-
pends to enable him to complete his furveys with correft-
nefs, that he be not fparing of a fittle money in purchafing
thofe that are good, and can be rehed upon for accuracy ;
as the being furnifhcd with fuch, in the firft inftance, will
be the means of enfuring to him that ultimate difpatch in
the progrefs of his profcflion, which will lead him to tl»e
moft fatisfa£lory rcfults.

" As nearly the whole of the profaflion of furveyors

have fome material or nice diflinftiona in keeping their f^ld-

3 O 2 books,

THEODOLITE.

t)«ok., aHfing cither from the peculiar methods they have
bcc-ii taught, the inftrumcnts ihcy ufe, the methods the more
experienced have been led to adopt ; from the more enlarged
and ei.li-jhtencd views the)- may have taken to afcertain the
bell poffible manner of facilitating the defircJ objed, thatot
making a corred furvcy ; or from the move improved flate
of mathematical fcicncc; Itruft I may be permitted to ofter
the following mt-thod of taking dimenlions, the form of
keeping a field-book, and the method to be adopted in
plotting the fame. Having made ufe of the theodolite, and
endeavoured, by pradical experience, to avail myfelf of its
moft beneficial fervlccs, I have no doubt but the fpeci-
men I now fubmit will be moil readily comprehended, and
the moft intricate and difficult furveys accompliftied by the
fame means ; viz. with the aflillance of the theodolite, where
other methods, by poffibility, may be found partially (if
not wholly ) to fail.

« On commencing a furvey, I have always found it necef-
fary to look out for an intcUigent labourer, well acquainted
wth the locality of the neighbourhood, with whofe aflill-
ance, and another to carry the theodolite, I ufually com-
mence ; invariably taking the chain myfelf after the leader :
and here it may not be amifs to remind the young practi-
tioner, that, in following, he muft be moll particular in
direfting his chain-leader in a ftraight line, otherwife the re-
lative bearings of the Ilations forwai-d, taken by the theo-
dolite, will be rendered incorreft, and the protractor in
plotting will not fail to convince" him of his error, to his
great chagrin and difappointment. I muft alfo remind him
of the neceflity of keeping his chain-hand, and alfo direfting
that of his chain-leader to be kept as near the furface as
conveniently can be done, and the chain properly ftretched,
by which means he will obtain more coiTeft lengths in
mealuring from ftation to ftation, infuring thereby the
greater accuracy in his furvey (particularly if it be large) ;
as he will very early find, in the courfe of his praftice, that
en-ors, when once begun, will rapidly increafe ; to prevent
which, it wiU be found very convenient to plot every day's
work on his retmn home, before he commences another,
when, if any eiTor is found, it can be reftified on the follow-
ing day.

" Many other neceflary cautions might be given to the
young furveyor, which by fome may be thought fuperfluous,
but the following I cannot help recommending to his atten-
tion ;■ i/iz. that of being exceedingly particular in marking
and defcribing his exterior boundaries, having myfelf, more
than once, feen litigation prevented by the produftion of
correA furveys, where the boundaries of eftates in difpute
were clearly defined. And let him not be fearful of taking
too many offsets, or dimenfions ; for by trufting obferva-
tions neceiTary to his furvey to memory, he cannot but
fail to omit fome ; whereas by a copious field-book, not even
the flightell bend in a fence, or objeft of any fort, can pofli-
bly be omitted. Above all, let him feel well fatisfied of the
corrcdlnefs of his chain ; to enable him to do which, he fhould
always have a fpare one, on a large furvey, to correcl by ;
as it is well known that accidents will happen by the break-
ing of the fame, by lofs of rings, &c. ; and the offset ftaff,
from being too (hort, cannot be depended upon for this
purpofe.

" Having faid thus much, I now proceed to fhew the
method I have praftifed in furveying with the theodoUte ; in
doing which, I fiiall firft premife that I have always con-
fidcred it advantageous to take a view of the eftate to be
furveyed, by doing which, I have been enabled to avail
myfelf of ftudying the bell ftations, and to judge how the
bufinefs may be accompliftied with the grcateft facility.

" The theodolite which I have been accuiloijied to ufe

is a very good one, made by Cary, about five iitches
diameter on the limb, which is finely graduated, with a
vernier reading minutes, and with degrees numbered from
I to 360 ; it has an achromatic tclcfcope and vertical arc, for
the purpofe of afcertaining the angles of elevation and de*
preffion in hilly furveys, on one fide, and the correfponding
deduAions to be made in the chain lines on the other, and
moves by rack-work.

" The method adopted by me, after fome years' praftice,
in keeping a field-book, perhaps may be thought Angular,
namely, that of commencing at the bottom of the la(l page
of the fame, and working upwards therefrom ; but it wiU
readily be feen, on reference to the accompanying field-book
in Plate X. to be the beft way, as in proceeding, you meet
the objefts you have to defcribe in fucceflion as you advance,
and it affords a much greater facility in laying off the off-
sets from the chain-lines, than in the other way.

" It is well known that the needle is frequently affedled,
in the firft place, by the atmofphere, and liable to get out of
order ; in the fecond, the chain being made of iron as well
as the arrows, and their not being moved a fufficicnt diftaince
in general, when the theodohte is planted for taking an
angle, it may thereby be very materially affedled ; in the
third, articles of iron or fteel may be about the perfons
attending the furvey, which may have the fame effetl ; in
the fourth, it may not be found improbable, from the
very nature of the ground on which a furvcy may be carried
on, that veins of iron, or metallic ore, may exift under the
furface, which will not fail to influence the polarity, to
the utter detriment of afcertaining the true bearings ; and,
laftly, without a vernier, the angle cannot be read with fuffi-
cient accuracy.

" Trufting that the foregoing remarks wiU fufiice to con-
vince thofe, who may be carrying on furveys by the needle
alone,of the danger of trufting to this method, as well as to pre-
vent the ftudcnt in the profeffion from fo doing, I now proceed
to (hew, that by taking the included angles of the furvey
upon the limb of the theodolite, and by carefully noting
them in the field flcetch, (as feen in the plate,) no fuch danger
can pofTibly exift. The following problem will give fuffi-
cient proof of the accuracy of this method of meafuring the
internal angles of any geometrical figure, whatever may be
the number of its fides ; viz. double the number of fides, and
multiply them by 90° ; and then, if 360° be fubtradled
from the produft, the remainder will be the fum of all the
internal angles ; for if we fuppofe lines drawn from every
angle to one common point in or near the middle of the
figure, there will be as many triangles as there are fides, and
the fum of all the angles at the apex, or point affumed, will
be 360°, as will appear when circumfcribed by a fmall circle :
therefore, as every triangle contains 1 80°, the amount of all
the triangles wiU be as many times iSo^ (or 90° x 2) as
there are bafes, when diminifhedby 360°. In our example,
tlie furvey is bounded by five chain lines, with as many in-
cluded angles, and therefore the amount of the angles will

be 5 X 90° X £< — 360° ; or 900° — 360° = 540°, agree-
ably to the fubjoined meafurements taken in the field ; viz.

At O 2 - - 85° 14'

O 4 - - 88 18

f 60 4l

1+74 2oi

" 1+ 71 16]:

©I - - 87 12

O 6
O 10

Total fum

540

Havirj

THEODOLITE.

'' Having faid fo much iclalivc to the means of applying
live theodolite moft beneficially, I fliall now explain an
example of each of the methods I have alluded to ; in doing
which, I beg it may be underllood, that although the
difficulties I have enumerated may in fome cafes exiit,
yet it is pofTible a furvcy of moderate extent may be carried
on by the needle with caution fufficient to obviate them ;
though I am fully fatisfied, from experience, that the latter
method is the moll to be relied upon ; I fhall, liowever,
proceed to exemplify both ni the order before-mentioned.

" The Method of vjlng ih- Theodolite in afcertmiiing ihi!
Betiii/igs by the Needle It will be feen by the field-
book, tliat I commence at (llation) " i, at the back of
the manfion : here, having the theodolite firmly fixed in
th^ ground, by means of the four adjulling-fcrews, I fet
it perfeftly level, firft in the direftion or the magnetic
north, and afterwards at right angles : being tluis fatis-
fied, I fet the vernier on the upper limb correctly to
360° on the graduated circle, and loofen the fcrew that
fixes the inftrumcnt. I then move the graduated circle
round until I afcertain that the needle points to N. in
the compafs-box, and then tighten the fame fcrew, which
prevents it from moving. Being now ready to take the
bearing from © I to © 2, I direft the tclefcope to fome
objeft in that direction, keeping as near to the boundary -fence
as can well be admitted, in order to reduce the length of the
offsets ; ai.d having brought the crofs-wires in the tclefcope
to bear upon the objetl, I then look to fee what part of the
limb is cut by the vernier, which I find to be 330° 2', and
in a north-WLfl direftion. This I note down as in the
field-book, and afterwards examine whether it is correft. I
then dir^ft the chain-man to move forward towards that
objeft, leaving a mark behind, to return to, and proceed by
firil takirg the following offset at 00 ; that is, at the place
of commencement, I find an offset to the right of 86
links to lady Buckinghamfhire's fence, and 40 from thence
back to the building, which I note down. I then proceed,
and at 212, I meafure 5 links to the right, to a tree ; and
going forwards at 274, I meafure 2 links to the left, to
another tree, (wliich objefts I am always induced to mark
in the furvey, for the purpofe of embellifhing the fair map) :
proceeding onwards at 310, the offset to the corner of lady
Buckinghamfhire's fummer-houfe is 10 ; at 360, the chain
touches the fence, confequently I mark the offset o (no-
thing) ; at 738, there is an offset to the left of 23 links, to
a tree ; and at 917, one to the fence of 13 : continuing the
line, I fet up a mark at 950, and write the fame down in the

?ield-book, thus " (950^ (y) mark left," meaning it for

a ftation,no join to hereafter : I call it ftation ^3^, being

the next number following the ftation I am meafuring to-
wards ; and I mclofe it in a circle, to make it more pro-
minent to refer to ; and mark the 950, the number of hiiks
on the chain-line, alfo in a circle, that I may not err in
plotting off the fituation of the fame. I then go on, and
at 960 come to the outer edge of a fmall clump of trees ;
at 975, an offset to the left afcertains the width of the
clump that way to be 50 links, and one to the right of 1 3
links to the fence ; 986 paffes the outer edge of the
clump; at 1031, an offset of 31 links on the left to the
canal; at lioo, pafling clofe to the edge of the canal,
there being no offset on the left, I mark it o (nothing);
at 1155, I crofs the gravel-walk, the width of which was
previoufly noted in the field-book to be 8 links ; and at
1 1 80, I halt, and mark the offset to the fence on the riglit
5 links. Here I again plant my tlieodolite, as before,

9

cxaftly over the (lation-hole ; and after fetting it pcrfcAly
level, and having brouglit the vernier 360'-' on the circle, and
afcertained that the needle was corrcdtly pointing to N. in
the compafs-box, I tighten the fixing fcrew, then jnove the
tclefcope round gently to the left, until the crofs-wires cut
a confpicuous objeft in the dircftion in which I mean to
proceed, and afcertain that the vernier cuts 235" 7' in a
fouth-weft direction in the box. This I note down imme-
diately in the field-book, as there rqirefented ; and after
examining that I had done fo corre<ftly, I proceeed on to
meafure the line from © 2 to '• 4, taking the oflsets right
and left, and making the neceffary remarks, to enable me to
give a correft map and defcription of the eflate, and fo on
throughout the furvey. I have been particular in the field-
book, which I trutt, by the above defcription, will be con-
fidered to be a plain and facile way.

" The Method of ujiiig the Theodolite in afcertainwg the Anglts
upon the graduated Circle, "without Reference to the Needle.
— On commencing, I plant the theodohte firmly in the
ground, and after adjufting the level perfeftly, and fet-
ting the vernier to 360° on the hmb, I move the circle
round, imtil I afcertain that the needle in the compafs-box
points corredlly to N. ; then tightening tiie fcrew tliat fixes
the inflrumcnt, as before, I move the telefcope gently
round in the direftion of the Ime to © 2, in doing whicli,
I find that the vernier cuts upon 330° 2' N.W. This is noted
down, in order to fhew the bearing of the eflate upon the
map, and which, on being dedufted from 360'^, leaves an
angle to the left of the meridian of 29° 58', as lliewn in the
example : then leaving a mark at flation © I, and having
proceeded along the line to flation ' ■ 2, and taken the
offsets, and made the neceffary remarks in the field-book,
as in tlie former method, on arriving at (•) 2, I again
plant the theodolite firmly in the ground, and adjulling it
as before, move the telefcope round until the crofs-wires
cut the lower part of the mark left at . •, ' : then noting in
my field fl<etch the number of degrees . cut by the vernier
upon the limb, without regarding zero, I afterwards move
the telefcope carefully round to the right, and direft it to-
wards 4 ; and bringing the crofs-wires in the telefcope
to cut the objeft propofed to be meafured to, I look and fee
the number of degrees cut by the vernier on the limb, as
before : dedufting one from the other, I get the Z. at © 2,
•viz.. 85° 14'; and after having meafured the line,, on my
arriving at G 4, I proceed exaftly in a fimilar way, by
firil looking back to the laft flation, and then forward to
the next, dedufting the number of degrees and minutes
in one direftion from thofe read in the other, which gives
the angle 88*^ 18'. Following this courfe, I proceed on
the furvey until all the angles and fides are completed.

" It is neceffary, however, before quitting each ftation, to
take particular care in reading off the angles by tiie vernier,
and alfo in writing them down correftly : and in this way
of proceeding, the trouble of adjufting for zero of the
vernier to 360"^ at every ftation is avoided.

" By plotting, is un'derftood the making of a draught of
the eftate from the field-book ; and as the inftruments necef-
fary to be ufed by the furveyor, in taking the dimenfions
in the field, are fuch, that he may be enabled to afcertain
diftances and angles correftly ; it naturally occurs that
correfponding requifites are neceffary to make a ground-
plot, or draught thereof, for laying down the quantities of
the feveral angles, and of the diftances meafured by the
chain upon paper, wliich are ufually accomphfhed by means
of the protraftor for the former, and fcales of equal parts
for the latter.

" With refpcft to the protraftor, I have hitherto ufed,
and recommended the young furveyor to ufe, one of eight

inches

THE

mclifs diameter, ^adiiatod to half a degree, and numbered
from 1 to 36o'',tocorrofpoiid with my tlieodolite, with a ver-
nier to mark off the angles to one minute of a degree, and
a projefting pointer of two inches and a half beyond the
outer radius of it, wtiich in general furveying will be found,
with care, to be fufficiently correft. This I had alfo from
Mr. Gary of the Strand, together with the fet of ivory
plotting-fcales, of about twelve inches long, decimally divided
the whole length clofe by the edges, which are chamfered,
to lay clofe to the paper, and give additional facility in
pricking off thechain-hnes, numbered l, 2, 3, 4, &c. which
are chams : thefe again are fubdivided into tenths, every
one of which divifions are reckoned 10 links. The numbers
are fo placed as to reckon backwards asd forwards for con-
venience ; but the method of ufmg them is now fo univer-
fally known, and fo eafily underftood, as to preclude the
neceflity of any further defcription. I fhall, therefore,
proceed directly to (late the method ufed by me of trans-
ferring the dimenfions of the eftate from the field-book,
which is as foUovi-s ; I'/z.

" Having provided myfelf with a flieet of drawing-paper
of fufficient lize, I proceed to draw a line acrofs the fame
in pencHI, which line is Hominally reprefentative of the
magnetic meridian, or that which the needle in the compafs
box points to. On a convenient fituation on this line, with
a fine pointer, I make a mark thus ©, v.nd calling that
(ftation) ©1,1 lay the protractor with its centre upon the
liation-point, and take care that 360° of the protra&or
cuts the line oa the northern fide, and 180° the fouthern
fide of the meridional line : I then turn the moveable
pointer to the left, until the centre of the vernier thereof
cuts 330° 2' on the limb of the protraftor, when I prefs
down the pointer fuflSciently hard to make a vifible mark ;
then taking off the protraftor, I draw a fine line with a
pencil from 0 i to the point fo pricked off ; and afterwards,
with a fcale of chains, mark off the length of the firft cha.in-
line, -viz. 1180 links: I alfo mark off 950 links for 0 3,
where a mark was left to join to. This done, I draw a line
parallel to the firft magnetic meridional line through 0 2 ;
when I put the protraftor upon the fame, taking care that
the centre is exaftly upon 0 2, and that 360" and 180°
exaftly cut the meridional hne north and fouth refpeftively ;
which being done, I move the pointer to the left ; and when
I find the vernier cuts 235° 7' on the limb, I again prefs
down the pointer, and make a fufficient imprelTion on the
paper, to which I draw a line from © 2 : then taking
the fcale, I prick off the length of the chain-hne from •, 2
to 0 4, being 1274 finks, and alfo 994 links on the fame
line from ^ 2 to a mark left there, and called in the field-
book 0 5. I proceed in this manner until the whole of the
bearings and chain-lines are laid down, the laft of which, or
the connecting-line, viz. from 0 10 to 0 i, on beino-
laid down, and the protraftor having pricked off the
angle 62° 41' N.E., I draw the pencil-line, and finding
that it clofes upon O I, both as to bearing and diftance, I
am fatisfied the whole is correft.

" In laying down the angles and chain-fines of the fur-
vey taken by the latter method, without the ufe of the
needle, little need be faid ; for, having firft drawn the mag-
netic meridian line, marked N. S., a mark is made on fome
convenient part thereof for 0 i ; then laving the centre of
the protraftor thereon, and 360° and 1 80° thereof cutting
the meridian line north and fouth refpeftively, I prick off
29° 58' on the left-hand, or north-weft fide,' as being the
relative bearing of © 2 from © 1 ; then dra\ving a fine fine,
I mark off the length of the chain-line, and lay the centre
of the protraftor upon © 2, and mark off the /. between
O I, which I firft look back to, and O 4, the angle of

T H E

whidi, on dedufting the quantity of one from that of \hc
other, I find to be 85° 14' : this I prick off, and drawing
a line thereto, I mark off the length of the chain-line 1274
links, and fo continue to proceed until the boundary is
fiiiifhed. I then proceed to mark off the offsets at their
proper points in each chain-fine, and connefting the points
of uich offsets, I have the boundary defined of its true
(liape and dimenfions, as feen iii the map. Laftly, I caft
up the dimenfions of the feveral triangles and offsets, coo-
fidered as fmall trapezia, the method of doing which has
been explained under the word Chain, and find the con-
tents as expreffed in the fubjoined table.

Freehold in Hand.

A. Manfion, out -buildings, ffirub-'l

baries, lawn, canal, &c. &c.J

B. Garden ....

C. Part of Pightle (formerly 1

WooUey's) - - - J

D. Adjoining ftirubbery and lawn

E. Freehold part of garden

F. Stable ....

G. Cottiige and garden

Total freehold

Copyhold in Hand.

A. R. P.

H. Sheds and yard - - - o O 21

I. Copyhold part of garden -00 5

K. Woolley's, three acres - 3 I 21

L. Late Slatt's - - - o i 27

A. R» P.

8

I

16

p

3

JO

0

2

»-3

0

0

37

0

I

14

0

0

2

0

I

0

10

II

3 3 34

Total of eftate

THEODORE I. pope, in Biography, was the fon of a
biftiop of the fame name, and born at Jerufalem. He fuc-
ceeded John IV. in the papal chair in the year 642. Of
this pope no material circumftance occurs, except his contro-
verfy with the church at Conftantinople, concerning the
doftrine of the MonotheUtes ; and this controverfy is fo
fittle interefting to our readers, that we ftiall pafs it over
without any farther notice. Theodore died in the year 649.
Befides fome letters relating to the above-mentioned contro-
verfy, a memorial againft Pyrrhus, the depofed patriarch of
Conftantinople, and his errors, addreffed to the Eaftern
biftiops, is preferved. Bower.

Theodore II. pope, a native of Rome, fucceeded Ro-
manus about the clofe of the year 898. During his pof-
feflion of the fee, which he held only for twenty days, he
caufed the body of his predeceffor Stephen to be taken out
of the Tyber, and interred in the Vatican, and declared all
his afts to be legal and vafid. Bower.

Theodore Lascaris I. a Greek emperor, *\'as fon-in-
law of Alexius Angelus, who imprifoned his brother Ifaac
and ufurped the throne. Having vafiantly but unfuccefs-
fully defended Conftantinople againft the French and Vene.-
tians in the year i 204, he withdrew from the fcene of con-
teft acrofs the Bofphorus, and put himfelf at the head of a
body of troops ; but when he found that the confederates
were purfuing him, he fought refuge with the Turkifti ful-
tan of Iconium. Being joined by the inhabitants of Bithy-
nia, he took poffeflion of the country from the river Mean-
der to the Euxine fea, and fixed his refidence at Nice, where
he was crowned by the patriarch of Conftantinople. When
his father-in-law heard of his fuccefs, he went over from

Greece,

THE

THE

Greece, where ho had remained concealed, to Alia, and im-
plored the affiftanee of the fultan of Iconium in recovering
that part of liis dominions of whicii Theodore had taken pol-
feflion ; and having induced him to march with 20,000 men,
he laid iiegc to Antioch on the Meander. Theodore, at the
head of 2000 men, marched to its relief, and routed the be-
fiegers. Tiie fultan renewed the contell, and fingling out
Theodore, beat him off his horfe ; but the emperor recover-
ing himfelf, unhorfed the fultan, cut off his head, and plac-
ing it on a pole, terrified his enemies, fo that they all fled.
Alexius was carried, as a prifoner, to Nice, where he was
confined. Theodore, having made peace with the Turks,
formed a treaty with the Latin emperor of Conflantinople,
and fpent the remaining eighteen years of his reign, in fe-
curing his newly-founded empire, which he tranfmitted to
his defcendants ; bequeathing it, at his death, to his fon-in-
law, John Ducas Vataces. Tlie Nicscan empire terminated
about fifty-feven years after its ellabliflmient by the elevation
of its pofTeffor, Michael Palxologus, to tiie throne of Con-
llantinople. Anc. Un. Hill. Gibbon. Gen. Biog.

Thf.odoke, bifliop of Mopfuellia in Cilicia, was prieft, and
probably native, of Antioch, a difciple of Diodorus, and
an intimate friend of John Chryfoftoni. He was ordained
bifliop in 392 or 394, and died in 428 or 429.- Sozomen
fays, that he was well flvilled in the facred fcriptures, and in
the liberal fciences of the rhetoricians and philofophers : and
Theodoret calls him the dodlor of the whole church, faying
that he was bifhop thirty-fix years, and that he wrote againll
all herefics, particularly thofe of Arius, Eunomius, and
Apollinarius. He wrote commentaries probably upon all
the books of the Old and New Teflament, though two or
three of them are not pai'ticularly mentioned : and in thefe
commentaries, as Photius fays, he avoided all allegorical in-
terpretations, and confined himfelf to the hiftorical and lite-
ral fenfe. He defended this mode in a work concerning
allegory an! hiftory againfl Origen. Some have charged him
with treating the book of Job, tlie Canticles, and the Pfalms,
with difrefpcft ; but thefe are the accufations of his enemies,
and perhaps founded in error, as he aftually wrote com-
ments on fome of thefe books. The book of Job he is faid
to have reprefented as written in a fabulous manner, though
founded on truth ; the Canticles he is faid to have confidered
as a nuptial poem, and the Pfalms as chiefly referring to the
hiflory of -the times. His other works were numerous, and
related to the controverfies of his times, and to various theo-
logical doftrines. Moft of Theodore's works are now loft,
but fome fragments of them may be found, chiefly in Latin,
and perhaps not fairly reprefented, in the Afts of the fecond
general council of Conftantinople, or the fifth general coun-
cil, held in 553, and alfo in Facundus, and in the Greek
Chains. Fabricms affures us, that his commentary upon the
Twelve Prophets is flill extant in manulcript in the empe-
ror's library at Vienna ; and Montfaucon fpeaks of its being
in the hbrary of St. Mark at Venice, as well as in the library
at Vienna, and in the Vatican.

Theodore was no lefs celebrated as a preacher, than as a
copnmentator and general writer : under the former charac-
ter he was admired at Antioch, at Conftantinople, and all
over the Eatl. Diftinguifhcd by his learning and liberality,
confidering the time in which he lived, he has been charged
with adopting the fentimentsof Neftorius and Pe'.agius ; and
fome moderns have called him the parent both of Pelagianifm
and Neftoriaiiifm ; whilft others allow, that he held the Pe-
lagian principle, but are of opinion that the charge of Nef-
torianifm is not fo clear. The above-mentioned council de-
voted a conference to the examination of Theodore's writ-
ings ; and began with reading a creed attributed to him :

upon wiiii li the bilhops clamoured for an analhima againll
his books and his perfon, and againft all who did not join in
'that analliema. Several bifliops, however, rofe in liis de-
fence, and rcfufed to concur in the anathema. Some learned
moderns have charged him with adopting fentiments con-
cerning the perfon of Chrill fimilar to thofe of the prefent
Unitarians ; but of this fadl there is no fatisfaftory evidence.
Moflicim. Lardner.

Theodore ofTarfus, a monk of that city, was ordained
bilhop by pope Vitalian, and being fent into England in the
year 668, at the defire of king Egbert, was appointed to
govern the churcii of Canterbury. In this high ftatiun he
afTiduoufly employed himfelf in fettling the faith and eccle-
fiallical difciplinc of England ; and after having fpent
twenty years in the performance of various important and
ufeful fervices, he died in 690, at the age of eighty-eight
years. With a view to the rilloration of the neglected
difcipline of penance, he pubhflicd a book of canons, under
the title of " Penitential." In this book, fins were dillri-
buted into various claffes, according to their refpeftive na-
ture and aggravation ; and various kinds of penance were
afTigned to them ; forms of confolation, exhortation, and ab-
folution were prefcribed, and other fuch matters refpefting
difcipline were regulated. This Penitential paffed from
Britain to other countries, and became tlie model of fimilar
works. It is ftill extant, in an imperfeft (late ; and an
edition of it was publifhed at Paris by Petit, in 1 679, 410.
with notes and dilTertations. Duptn. Mofheim.

Theodore Stodita, an eminent ecclefiaftic of the ninth
century, was educated under Plato, head of the monaftery
upon mount Olympus, the government of which was com-
mitted to him in the year 795. By avowing his oppofition
to the marriage of Conltantine Copronymus to one of the
maids of honour of his wife, whom he had compelled for
this purpofe to take the religious vows, and by his fcpara-
tion from the communion of the patriarch of Conftantinople,
Theodore incurred banifhment ; but at the death of tlie em-
peror he returned, and was .appointed abbot of the monaf-
tery of Studa, in the fuburbs of Conftantinople. On ac-
count of his difapprobatioii of the decifion of a fynod
which declared the fecond marriage of Conftantiue lawful,
he was banifhed a fecond time. After the death of the em-
peror Nicephorus, in 81 1, he returned from banifhment, and
was reconciled to the patriarch. For his zealous defence of
image-worfhip in the reign ef Leo, he was banifhed a third
time, and treated by the emperor with great feverity. In
821 the emperor Michael allowed him to return to Conftan-
tinople, where he indulged a freedom of fpeech that obliged
him to withdraw. He died in the year 826, in his fixty-
feventh year. He was a man of learning, and author of
many works, which were pubhfhed by Sirmond, in Greek
and Latin, at the end of his own works. Dupin. Mofheim.
Gen. Biog.

THEODORET, a learned prelate of the Greek church,
was born at Antioch about the year 386, and placed at the
age of feven in the monaftery of St. Euprepius. He was
educated under Theodore of Mopfuellia and John Chry-
foftom, and from his youth addifted himfelf to all the auf-
lerities and exercifes of a inonaftic life. Upon the death of
his parents, he diftributed his whole property among the
poor. In the year 420, or 423, he was confecrated, againft
his own inclination, bifliop of Cyrus in Syria, in the Eu-
phratenfian province, the inhabitants of which were ignorant
and barbarous, and notorious for their fuperllitious praftices
and heretical errors. Theodoret laboured indultrioufly and
fuccefsfully in enlightening and reforming them. In his
own condiitt he was an exemplary paftor ; and in every

thing

THE

tl.in? that related to liis own gratification, he was felf-
.Icnying :mJ frugal, that ho .night polTefs more ample mea.is
of relieving the poor and promoting works of public utility.
No bifhop of his time v,ms more aftive in pe-rform,ng the
duties that pertained to his profemo,, and ftation, or had
.rr^ator influence in every kind of public bufinefs, part.cu-
farlv of an ecclef.anical nature. He was prudent in counfel,
pacific in his temper, and always difpofcd to compromile
differences that occurred, and to rL^commend mutual forbear-
:mce and union among contending parties. Bat like other
pacificators, he could not efcape obloquy and liarlh treat-
ment. Between him and Cyril, however, an irreconcileable
antipathy fubfitled, as was gener.illy the cafe between the
Eaftern •nd Egyptian bidiops ; and this antipathy was mani-
fefted, even after Cyril's death, by his fiiccelTor Diofcorus,
who caufed Theodoret to be anathematized, and to be de-
pofed in a general fynod at Ephefus. In the reign of the
emperor Marcian, a general council was affembled at Chal-
cedoi>; and this council decreed, that Theodoret was worthy
to hold his fee, and he was accordingly reftored to the
church of Cyrus. He died, without any further moleftation,
in the beginning of th; reign of the emperor Leo, A.D.
457 or 458.

Theodoret bears a high rank among the ancients as a
commentator on the fcriptures for the purity of his Attic
llyle, and the clearnefs and good fenfe of his explanations.
He wrote commentaries upon moft parts of the facred fcrip-
tures. His canon of the Old Teftament was very little, if
at all, different from that of the Jews. With regard to the
New Teltament, it appears that he received only four gofpels,
the book of Ads, which he afcribed to St. Luke, and four-
teen epiftles of the apoftle Paul, upon which he wrote com-
mentaries ; digefting them according to the order of time in
which th°y were written, and noticing the places from which
they were fent. He has feldom quoted th? Catholic epiftles,
though they are not wholly overlooked. He feems to have
received the epiftle of James, the firft of Peter, and the firft
of John ; but there is no certain proof that he received the
book of the Revelation, or the other four Catholic epiftles :
fo that we may conclude, that his canon of the New Tefta-
ment was the fame with that of the Syrian Chriftians. His
" Ecclefiaftical Hiftory," comprifed in five books, may be
coiifidered as a fupplement to thofe of Socrates and Sozo-
men : bejinninof where that of Enfebius ends, at the rife of
Arianifm in 322 or 323, and terminating in 428. Its ftyle,
according to Photius, is clear and fublime, but too much
abounding in metaphors. It is deficient in chronological
precifion, but contains many valuable documents, and fome
remarkable circumftances, which other ecclefiaftical hifto-
rians have omitted. His " Philotheus," or treatife on the
monaftic life, the genuinenefs of which fome have qiieftioned
without fufficient reafon, relates the aftions and extols the
piety of the Eaftern monks, and abounds with inftances of
tlje credulity and fuperftition of the times. In his work en-
titled " Of Heretical Fables," in five books, he diftributes
the different herefies into claffes, and concludes with a ftate-
inent of the faith of the Catholic church. " The Cure of
the falfe Opinions of the Heathens," in twelve diicourfes, is
a learned and valuable apology for Chriftianity. Lardner has
given copious extrafts from this performance, which merit
high commendation. His other works confift of letters and
trafts on different theological fubjefts. They are all com-
prifed in the beft edition of his writings, which is that of
Father Sirmond, in four vols. fol. Gr. and Lat. printed at
Paris in 1642. To thefe the Jtf.ut Garnier added a fifth in
1684. Beaufobre gives the following candid account of
Theodoret, " Theodoret is, in my opinion, one of the moft

THE

valuable of the Fathers. He is le.-u-ned ; he reafont well,
efpecially in his dialogues againft the Greek herefies of his
times : he is a good literal interpreter of the fcriptures. I
cannot but admire his prudence and moderation, when 1
confider that he ended his ecclefiaftical hiftory at the time
when the Neftorian difputes, in which he was fo deeply in-
terefted, begun. But, I fear, his zeal againft heretics im-
pofed upon him almoft as much, as his admiration of the
heroes of the Afcetic life, with whom he was charmed.
Monafteries have undoubtedly fent forth great men into the
world ; but the difciplcs of the monks contrafted in their
youth a fuperftitious difpofition which is fcarcely ever Ihaken
off; and the weak fide of this able man feems to have been
an exceflive credulity." Dupin. Moftieim. Lardner.
Beaufobre.

THEODORIC I., king of the Vifigoths, was the fon
of Alaric, and in 419 fucceeded Wallia in the kingdom
eftabliflied in the fouthof France. After raifing the fiege
of Aries, he made peace with the Romans, and was fubfi-
dized by them in the Spanifti war ; bat being defirous of re-
newing his attempts in Gaul, he took an opportunity, in
43;, of refuir.ing his hoftilities againft them, and laid fiege
to Narbonnc ; but beinp- compelled to raife the fiege, lie
was under a neceffity of direfting his attention to the fafety
ofTouloufe, his own capital, which was invefted by a body
of Huns, under the command of count Litorius. In a very
fanguinary engagement with the affailaiits, he totally routed
them, and took Litorius prifoner ; who was firft expofed to
the infults of the populace at Touloufe, and then thrown
into a dungeon, where he died. After this event, Theodoric
made peace with the Romans. His rank among the fo-
vcreigns of that period was refpeftable ; and both his fona
and daughters were well educated. The latter formed
matrimonial conneftions with the eldeft fons of the kings of
the Suevi and Vandals, who reigned in Spain and in Africa.
But thefe conneftions proved unfortunate. The hufband of
the Suevian princefs was maffacred by his brother ; and the
Vandal princefs, being fufpefted of a defign to poifon her
father-in-law, Genf:>ric, was doomed to lofe her nofe and
ears, and in this mutilated condition was fent home to her
father. Theodoric eagerly fought an opportunity for re-
venging this cruel infult. With this view, the Vifigoths and
Romans formed an alliance to refift Attila tie Hun, who,
inftigated by Genferic, invaded Gaul in 441 ; and Theodo-
ric, at the head of his army, m.arched to therelief of Orleans,
which was befieged by the Huns. In their way the hoftile
armies met on the plains of Chalons, and a dreadful battle
enfued. Theodoric was wounded by a Goth in the fervice
of Attila, and being difmounted, was trampled to death
under the feet of his own cavalry. When his body was
found, his funeral rites, were performed in the face of the
retiring enemy.

Theodoric, king of the Oftrogoths, furnamed the Great,
was a defcendant of the Gothic race of the Amali, and
born near Vienna, A.D. 455. At the age of eight years,
he was fent to Conftantinople as a hoftage for the fulfilment
of the fubfidiary treaty formed by the emperor Leo with
the Goths. Here he had an opportunity of acquiring that
charafler which he fuftained among the princes of that age :
but his means of inftruftion muft have been very limited,
when it is confidered that, though he excelled in all military
exercifcs, he was io badly taught, as not to be able to write
liis own name. After ten years' refidence at the court of
Leo, he returned to his father, Theodomir, who was then
the fole ruler of the Oftrogoths, in whofe fervice he diftin-
guilhed himfelf by his martial fpirit. Upon the death of his
father, in 475, the crown devolved on Theodoric. The em-

pcrop

THE

T H E

peror Zeno, wi/hing to lecure the attachment of the young itig powers for the fecurity of Iiis kingdom. He ellabhlhed

peace with the imperial court at Conftantinoplc, married a
daughter of the king of the Franks, and bcttowed his own
two daughters by a concubine, one on tlic king of the Vifi-
goths, and the other on the fon of the king of the Burgon-
dians, and his filler on tlie king of the Vandals. He fe-
cured the attachment of his foldiers by afiigning to them a
third part of the lands of Italy ; and he reUriftcd the mili-
tary pi-ofcflion to his countrymen the Goths, whilil hcencou-

varicty of events occurred ; but, upon the whole, Theo- raged indulhy and the arts of peace among his Italian fub

prince, invited him to his court, and conferred upon him the
rank of patrician. After having rendered lubftantial fervice
to ihe emperor, he was reduced to the ncccfiity of deferting
the Roman caufe, and forming an alliance with Theodoric,
the fon of Triarius. Having been altogether neglefted by
Zeno, he marched in an iioftilc manner into the fertile pro-
vinces of Thrace, whicli he laid watte with wanton cruelty.
In the war that enfued between the empire and the Goths, a

doric became more and more formidable, and by the death
of the fon of Triarius, he was placed at the head of his na-
tion. Such was the power he acquired, tliat the emperor
found it neceffary to cede to him part of Lower Moefia
and Lower Dacia, and to honour him with the confulate,
which office he difcharged at Conftantinoplc. But con-
ceiving that he was an objeft of jealoufy, and that his life
was in danger, he withdrew into Thrace, and afterwards
avowed himfelf an undifguifed enemy to the empire. De-
clining to lay fiege to Conftantinople, he determined, as it is
faid, at the fuggeftion of Zeno, to turn his forces againft
Odoacer, who having depofed Anguftulus, the laft Weftern
emperor, had affumed the title of king of Italy.

In the year 488, Theodoric, having coUefted together all
the fwarms of Goths that had fucceffively arrived on the
frontiers of the empire, fet out on his Italian expedition ;
and after encountering many difficulties in his progrefs, de-
Icended from the Italian alps, and rejched the banks of the
Sontius near Aquileia. Here, in Auguft 489, he attacked
Odoacer's numerous hoft, and forced him to retreat as far as
the plains of Verona. The refult of a fecond engagement
was a complete vidory on the part of the Goths, which
compelled Odoacer and his fugitives to take refuge within the
walls of Ravenna, while the conqueror obtained pofFeffion
of the cities of Pavia and Milan. But, as the fortune of war
is uncertain, one of Odoacer's commanders, having deferted
to Theodoric, proved treacherous, and induced feveral of
the officers of the Gothic king to join his former mafter.
Odoacer, having alfo gained an acceffion of other fugitives
from the Gothic fervice, recovered Milan, and obliged
Theodoric to immure himfelf in Pavia. Theodoric, how-
ever, in this crifis of danger, obtained a powerful reinforce-
ment from Alaric II. king of the Vifigoths, fettled in Gaul,
and attacking Odoacer on the Addna, totally defeated him.
Upon this difafter, Odoacer fted to Ravenna ; where, in the
autumn of 492, he was befieged by Theodoric, who had
made himfelf mailer of all Italy, except this city. In the
following fpring, Odoacer was reduced to the neceffity of
propofmg terms of accommodation, with which Theodoric
complied ; and the confequence was the furrender of Ra-
venna to the Gothic army. It was ftipulated between thefe
two fovereigns, that they ffiould govern Italy with equal
authority. Such a ftipulation was not hkely to produce any
permanent effeft ; and it v^as very foon violated on the part
of Theodoric, by an aft which entails on his memory eternal
difhonour. Having invited Odoacer to a banquet, he ftabbed
him, as it is faid, with his own hand, under a pretext that
his dead rival had formed a fimilar defign with regard to him-
felf. After this event, Theodoric ailumed the enfigns of
royalty, and caufed himfelf to be proclaimed by his army
" king of Italy." This affumption was reluftantly con-
firmed by Anaftafius, the fucceflor of Zeno. The manner
in which he excrcifed the royal authority, however unwar-
rantable the means by which he acquired it, placed him far
above all the fovereigns of that ag'". Sicily having been
united to Italy by a voluntary ccffion, Theodoric fhcathed
the fword of war, and cultivated alliances with neighbour-
VoL. XXXV.

jefts. The Goths held their lands and benefices as a mili-
tary ftipcnd, in confideration of which they were engaged to
march on a fummons under their provincial officers : and the
whole extent of Italy was dillributed into the quarters of a
well-regulated camp. The civil offices were committed to
the native Italians ; and the form of government, and dillri-
bution of magiftracies and of provinces, which had pre-
vailed under the emperors, were continued ; fo that the tranf-
fer of power from the Romans to the Goths was fo.ircely
perceived. The taxes remained the fame, and on occafion of
any public calamity, were remitted. He fixed his ordinary
refidence at Ravenna ; and when he removed his court, it
was to Verona. In the year 500 he vifited Rome, and was
treated with refpedl. He ifTued edifts for preventing the
demolition of ancient monuments, and appropriated reve-
nues to the repair of public edifices. He decorated other
cities of Italy ; and it has been faid, that, after the flourirti-
ing times of Rome, this country was never fo profperous and
happy. He provided a fleet for guarding the country againfl
maritime attacks : and thofe wars by land in which he en-
gaged, were terminated without difturbing the peace and ha-
zarding the fecurity of Italy. By his prudent conduft, .iiid
military achievements, he maintained the balance of power
in the Weft, till it was overthrown by the ambition of Clovis,
who defeated and put to death Alaric, the Vifigoth king :
neverthelefs he faved the remainder of his family and people,
and checked the career of the Franks.

Theodoric, with regai-d to his religious fentiments and
profeffion, was an Arian ; but he manitefted no aident zeal
for making profelytes to his own opinions, nor did he moleft
others in their profeffion. Such was the government of
Theodoric, that it reflefted a fhort-lived luftre on the Gothic
name, and eftabliffied an era of public happinefs which it is
pleafing to contemplate. His fecretary Caffiodorus, who was
himfelf a man of erudition, and who caufed his untaught
mafter to patronize literature, has recorded in his twelve
books of Epiftles, the events at which we have here glanced.
It mult not be difguifed, however, that the reign of Theo-
doric was not exempt from the evils infeparable from a def-
potifm upheld by mihtary power. The yoke of a foreigner
was galling ; and more efpecially that of a foreigner who
was confidered as a barbarian and a heretic. The tolerant
principles of Theodoric did not accord with the orthodox
zeal ot his fubjefts ; and his puniftiment of fomc outrages
committed againft the Jews, who were fettled in the cities of
Italy, was reprefented as a perfecution of the church. An
intolerant edift againft the Arians, iffued by the Byzantine
court, provoked the king to retaliate on the Catholics under
his jurifdiftion ; and ftiortly before his death an order was
prepared to forbid the exercife of the Catholic worftiip in
Italy after a certain day. In the mean time, jealoufies of the fe-
natorial party in Rome, and of their conneftion with the impe-
rial court, took pofieffion of the m.ind of Theodoric, who was
made fufpicious by age ; and an inftance of tyranny infliftcd
upon two exemplary charafters, fays one of his biographers,
is unhappily the laft aft recorded of a fovereign diftinguifhcd
for the mildnefs and equity of his adminiltration. For an ac-
3 P count

THE

THE

count of thf fircumftancosto wtiich wrficrc rcfrr, fee thear-
iklt Bor.Tiiius. Thcodoric, at the clofc of life, reflefted
wnbout doubt with rcmorfc and felf-reproach on liis conduft
to\¥ard8 Boethius and Sfmmachus. It is faid that, whilil he
w ai fittinff at table, he perceived the gaping head of a large
fiih, whicli was ferved up before him, and at the fight ex-
ilaimcd, that he beheld the angry and menacing countenance
vf Symmachus. Then probably did that fever commence,
which being attended with a dyfentery, terminated his life
within three days, Augiift, A.D. 526, in the -jid year of
his age, and the 34th of his reign, dating its commencement
with the death of Odoacer. His dominions were divided by
his teftament between his two grandfons, Araalaric and Atha-
naric, aflSgning the Rhone as their boundary ; and the guar-
dianftiip of the latter, who was king of Italy, was entrufted
with his daughter Amalafuntha. He erefted to his memory
a. fpleiidid monument in a confpicuous fituation above the
ci:y of Ravenna. Anc. Un. Hift. Gibbon's Rom. Hift.
Gen. Biog.

Theodoric, or Thierry ofNkm, an ecclefiriftiral writer,
Wiis born at Paderborn, and ferved Gregoiy XI. Urban VII.
and feveral fucceeding popes, as under-fecretary. The time
ir. whicli he lived may be inferred from his " Hillory of the
Schifm of the Popes," written between the years 1400 and
1410 ; in which work he fays that he had lived near thirty years
at the court of Rome, and that being then worn down with age,
it was his intention to withdraw from public bufinefs. Tnis
work, compofed in Latin, comprifed, in three books, the
interval from the death of Gregory XI. to the eleftion of
Alexander V. Another work relating to the fame fubjeft
was entitled " Nemus Unionis." In 141 2 he publiihed a
" Treatife on the Rights and Privileges of the Emperors in
the Inveftiture of Bidiops and Abbots." He alfo wrote
a journal of the proceedings of the council of Conftance,
ending in June 1416, in which year he died. From his own
obfervation, he exhibits a (hocking pifture of the court of
Rome, and the clergy of tliat period. Dupin. Moreri.

THEODOROPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Mosfia, founded by the emperor Juftinian, who called it
a/ter the name of his wife.

THEODORUS, in Biography, a Cyrenaic philofopher,
was a difciple of Aaicerris, and for fpeaking freely concern-
ing the gods, he was ftigmatifed with the appellation of
Atheiit, and banifhed from Cyrene. At Athens, where he
lought refuge, he was protected by Demetrius Phalereus,
and gained accefs to the court of Ptolemy Lagis. After-
wards, upon his return to Athens, he is faid to have fuffered
death by hemlock ; but it has been difputed whether atheifm,
or contempt of the Grecian fuperttitions, was the caufe of
his death. He is joined by Sextus Empiricus with Eume-
rus, and others, who maintained, that thofe who were
efteemed gods, were men who had poffefled great power on
earth ; and Clemens Alexandrinus exprefies his furprife, that
Eumerus, Nicanor, Diagoras, Theodoras, and others, who
had lived virtuoufly, fhould be pronounced atheiils from
their oppofition to gentile polytheifm. Briicker by Enfield,
vol. i.

Theodorus, an Athenian flute-maker, the father of
Ilocrates the orator. How great the demand was at
this time for flutes at Athens, may be conceived from a
circumftance mentioned by Plutarch in his hfe of the orator.
His father, fays he, acquired wealth fufficient by his bufi-
nefs, not only to educate his children in a liberal manner, but
alfo te bear one of the heaviefl: public burdens to which an
Athenian citizen was liable ; that of furnifhing a choir or
chorus for his tribe, or ward, at feilivals and religious cere-
monies. See IsMBNiAs.

THEODOSIA, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated
on the S.E. coaft of the Tauric Cherfoncfus. See Caffa.
— Alfo, a town of Afia, in the Greater Armenia.

THEODOSIOPOLIS, a town of Afia, in the Greater
Armenia, on the frontiers of Perfarmenia. — Alfo, a town of
Afia, in Mefopotamia, upon the river Chaborras.

THEODOSIUSI. furnamed the Great, in Biography, 0.
Roman emperor, was the fon of an eminent general of the
fame name, who was executed for trcafon at Carthage in the
year 376. He was bom about the year 346, as fome fay,
at Caucha, in Gallicia, or according to others, at Italica, near
Seville. His education was liberal, and he learned the art
of war by ferving under his father, both in Britain and in
Africa. The death of his father put a temporary Hop to
his military career, and he retired to Spain for the improve-
ment of his mind and the cultiu-e of his paternal eftate.
He was in this fituation when the emperor Valens was
killed in battle, and the empire was left in great danger.
Thus circumfl;anced, the other emperor, Gratian, fent for
Theodofius, and in January, A.D. 379, declared him his
partner in the empire. To him was committed the care of
Thrace and the eallern provinces, threatened at this time by
numerous bands of barbarians. The refult of his campaign
was, that fome of the Goths fubmitted to his authority,
and the refl; evacuated Thrace. Having been baptized ia
the fecond year of his reign, in confequence of a dangerous
difeafe, he became a zealous advocate for the orthodoxy of
the church, and was^much applauded by the Catholics.
He iflued an edift, enjoining the fubjecls of his government
to adhere ftedfaftly to the rehgion taught by St. Peter,
which aflerts the fole deity of the Father, the Son, and the
Holy Ghoft, under an equal majefty and a pious Trinity ;
and to aflunie the title of Catholic Chrlilians, all other
perfons who did not embrace this dodlrine being branded as
infamous heretics, and their churches being declared conven-
ticles. It alio announces, that befides the condemnation of
divine juftice, thefe perfons mufl expedl the fevere penalties
which his authority, guided by heavenly wifdom, Ihall think
proper to infliiil upon them. This declaration, fo incompa-
tible with the geriuine fpirit of the religion and the pro-
feffion in which he had been initiated, was followed by corre-
fpondent deeds. When he entered Conftantinople, after
the campaign of 380, his firll aft was to remove the patri-
arch Demophilus, and to offer him the alternative of fub-
fcribing the Nicene creed, or refigning all his dignities to the
orthodox party. The patriarch nobly chofe the latter alter-
native, and withdrew into exile. Soon after he iffued a
decree for expelUng from their churches all the clergy who
refufed to accept the Nicene creed, and he appointed a mi-
litary force for the execution of it. By thefe meafures the
emperor fucceeded, without tumult or bloodflied, in eftablifh-
ing, through the provinces of the Eaft, the Catholic faith
upon the ruins of Arianifm. So alliduous was the emperor
in this exercife of his zeal, that he is faid to have promul-
gated, in fifteen years, at leafl fifteen penal edifts againfl
heretics, fome of which denounced capital punifhment : and
it is moreover afferted, that the office of iiiquifitors of the
faith was firfl intlituted in his reign. It has been affirmed,
however, that he chiefly meant intimidation, and that the
threatened penalties were feldom carried into effeft.

The military ardour of this emperor feems to have been
exercifed with greater prudence than his rehgious zeal. In
order to liberate the provinces from the barbarians, he con-
trived to weaken their flrength by fomenting divifions
among their chiefs, .ind he conciliated others by his gene-
rofity : fo that about four years after the death of Valens,
he figned a capitulation with the whole nation of the Goths ;

and

THE

THE

and as tlieir own country was occupied hf tlie Hune, Le
permitted them to fettle iu Xhrace and Moclin, with exemp-
tions from tribute and taxes. With Maximus, who had
revolted againll the emperor Gratian, Theodolius entered
into a treaty, by which it was ftipulated that the ufurpcr
ftiould retain the countries beyond the Alps, and that Valen-
tinian, the brother of Gratian, (hould be fecured in the pof-
feflion of the remaining part of the Weftern empire. Maxi-
mus was acknowledged by Theodofius as his colleague in the
Roman empire, and Arcadius, the fon of Theodofius, though
only eight years of age, was admitted to a (hare in the purple.
At this time Theodolius iffued fome fevere edifts againft
heathen idolatry : and he pafTed a law againft the marriage
of coufins-german, which condemned both parties to be
burnt alive, and which declared their children illegitimate.
In 386, the Gruthungi,orOftrogoths, in their attempt to pafs
the Danube, were defeated witii great flaughter. In 387,
Maximus invaded Italy ; and Valentinian, deferted by his
fubjefts, took refuge in the dominions of Theodofius, who
married Galla, the fifter of that emperor. In this year tht?
people of Antioch, having without effeft remon.'trated
againft the proceedings of 1 heodofius, both as to religious
matters and the impofition of an extraordinary tax, broke
out into an infurreftion ; threatened the hfe of the governor ;
and, difappointed in this effort of their rage, dcmolilhed the
llatues of the emperor and his family. Theodofius, in the firft
tranfports of refentment, upon receiving intelligence of thair
conduft, ordered the city to be laid in afties, and all the inha-
bitants, without difcrimination of age or fex, to be put to
the fword. Upon cooler reflettion he revoked this fanguin-
ary order, and contented himfelf with degrading Antioch
from the rank of a city, aiid depriving the inhabitants of
their cuftomary largefs of bread. ThoTe who upon inquiry
were found guilty, were condemned to death. But by the
interceflion of the bifliop of Antioch, and other holy men,
the culprits were pardoned, and the city reftored to all its
privileges.

Theodofius, on a vifit to Valentinian at Thcflalonica, pre-
vailed on him to renoimre Arianifm, and to adopt the Nicene
faith ; and determined totake up arms in his caufe againft Maxi-
mus. After feveral fuccefsful encounters with the ufurper,
he was defpoilcd of all his imperial ornaments, and dragged
like a malefaftor into the prefence of Theodoiius, who
caufed him to be beheaded. His fon Viftor was alfo put
to death ; and the civil war terminated A.D. 388. In con-
fequence of thefe events, Theodofius became the fole head
of the Roman world ; and he inverted the fon of Valen-
tinian, now a minor, with the fovercignty of the provinces
wrefted from him by Maximus, and alfo with the pofleilion
of Gaul, Spain, and Britain, of which Gratian had been de-
prived by this ufurper. Theodofius remained three years
in Italy, giving vigour to the law, correding abufes, and
adopting a variety of raeafurcs for totally eradicating pa-
gaHifm.

In 390, a fedition took place at Thcffalonica, which was
followed by many difaftrous confcquences, and by the ex-
ercife of a degree of cruelty, which the emperor was obliged
to expiate by a public penance. About this time he took
advantage of a religious tumult at Alexandria for demolilh-
ing the famous temple of Serapis, and of all the heathen
temples throughout Egypt. He alfo ifiued a final edift
Rgainft the ancient worlhip.

In 392, the emperor Valentinian was murdered by his ge-
neral Arbogaftes, and Eugenius was placed on the throne.
When this meafure was announced to Theodofius, he prepared
for war ; and having obtained a favourable anfwer from
a holy hemiit in Thebais, whom he confulted, ilTucd new

eJifts againft herefy, and abrogated the ancient penalties of
treafon againft thofc v/ho uttered feditious words againft the
prince ; he ojx-nly took up arms, A.D. 394, and forcing; the
paflagc- of the Aljjs, dcfccndeil into Itsily. He met Euge-
iiius and Arbogaftes witl i irr -^t force, and after feveral
couflitts, Eugeniiis was t^'^aily defeated, and put to death
by the ioldiers. His ch \1ren, however, and thofe of Arbo-
gaftes, who put an end to his own life after the battle,
were treated humanely, and removed to their paternal pof-
fcflions.

After this fucccfs, Theodofius fent for his fon Honorius to
Milan, and declared him emperor of the Weft ; Arcadius
having been already put in pofteftion of the Eaftern empire.
In January 305, Theodofius terminated his life by a dropfical
diforder at Milan, at tlie age of fifty years, and at the clofe
of the fixteenth year of his reign.

The name of Theodofius has been celebrated, blut his cha-
ra£ler has been very differently appreciated. Politically con-
fidered, whilft it exhibits many virtues and excellencies, it is
chargeable with many errors and obliquities. Conncfted
with the ecclefiaftical interefts of the period in which he lived,
his conducl on various occaCons was altogether indefenfible ;
and we may add, that how much foever he has been extoBed
by partial hiftorians, his bigotry and intolerance were very
reprehenfible. Anc. Un. Hift. Gibbon's Rom. Hift.
Gen. Biog.

TiiEODOSiOs II., fon of the emperor Arcadius, and grand-
fon of the preceding Theodofius, was born in the year 401 ;
and being of feeble faculties, was educated merely to fuftain
the pageantry of a throne ; or, as Mr. Gibbon exprefles it,
" to reprefent with grace and dignity the external figure of
a Roman emperor." His only aftive purfuit was hunting ;
and his more private exercifes were painting and carving,
making elegant tranfcripts of religious books, and finging
pfalms. He alfo failed, gave credit to miracles and doc-
trines prefented to his faith, and paid due homage to all
the dead and Hving faints of the Cathohc church. His dif-
pofition was genUe and kind ; in his conduft he was free
from vices, and yet, as his biographer fays, " he did not rife
to virtues." Upon liis father's death, A.D. 408, he fiic-
ceeded him in the Eaftern empire. To the influence of his
fifter Pulcheria, fuperior in talents to himfelf, he implicitly
fubmitted ; and in 414 he raifed ^her to the rank of Au-
gufta, and entrufted with her the reins of government. By
her feleftion and recommendation he married, A.D. 42 1, the
celebrated Athanais, aftewards named Eudocia. The war
which broke out in 422, in confequence of a perfecution ex-
cited by the Magi againft the Chriftians, terminated in a
truce of a hundred years, and a divifion of the kingdom of
Armenia between the contending powers. On the death of
the emperor Honorius, in 423, the throne of the Weft was
ufurped by Joh;i ; but Theodofius reftored it to its proper
heir, Valentinian III., who afterwards married his daughter.
When Attila made an irruption into the Roman empire, he
was oppofed by Theodofius, whofe armies were repeatedly
defeated : and Theodofius himfelf was compelled iu 446 to
make a humiliating treaty with the king of the Huns. By
one of his favourites, the eunuch Chry faphius, he was induced
to free himfelf from Attila by afraffination,but the treachery
was defeated, and he received a juft and fevere reprimand from
th£ barbarian. Soon after this mortification, he died in cdnfe-
quence of a fall from his horfe, A.D. 450, in the fiftieth year
of his age. What his grandfather had done towards the fub-
verfion of the Pagan religion in the Eaft, Theodofijs com-
pleted. He always approved himfelf a dutiful for of the
church, but he is faid to have favoured the Eutychian herefy.
His principal merit was the publication, A.D. 438, of the
3 P ? " Theodo/ian

THE

" Tbeodofian Code." Anc. Uii. HiiK Gibbon. Geo,

Biog.

Thiodosius, an eminent mathematician, was born at Tri-
poli, and flourilhed about the fccond or third century. On
the doftrine of the Sphere he wrote three books, containing a
confiderable number of propolitions, demonftrated in the pure
geometrical manner of the ancients, and cftablifhing the geo-
metrical principles of aftronomy. Ptolemy and fucceeding
writers availed thcmfelves of thefe book.s,\vhich were tranflated
by the Arabians from the original Greek into their own lan-
guaac. They were afterwards tranflated from the Arabic
utto Latin, and printed at Venice; but the defefts of the
Arabic verfion v/ere fupplied in a more complete edition,
publidied in Greek and Latin at Paris in 1556, 410. by John
Pena, regius profeflTor of aftronomy. On this work there
have been many comments ; but the edition of Theodofius's
Spherics now generally ufed is that of Dr. Barrow, pubhihed
in 1675, illuftrat^'d and demonftrated in a new and concife
method. Theodofuis was alfo the author of two other trea-
tifes, one " De Habitationibus," and the other " De Diebus
et Noftibus." Greek copies of thefe were preferved
in the king's library at Paris, and a Latin edition was pub-
lifhed by Peter Dafypodius in 1572. Montucla Hift. des
Mathem.

THEODULF, a learned prelate of a Gothic family, was
a native of Cifalpine Gaul ; and being invited to France by
Charlemagne, he was promoted to the bifhopric of Orleans,
A.D. 794, and the abbacy of the monaftery of Fleury.
He continued in favour at court till the death of Charle-
magne, and for feme time under the emperor Lewis. But
being implicated in the confpiracy of Bernard, king of Italy,
againfl; Lewis, he was committed to prifon at Angers, where
he remained in confinement for three years. After his
liberation, and before his return to his diocefe, he died at
Angers, about the year 821. Theodulf was the friend of
Alcuin, and deferves honourable mention as one of the vo-
taries and promoters of literature in a dark age. He was
the author of feveral works, publiftied by Father Sirmond, in
1646, 8vo. One of his hymns, beginning

" Gloria, laus et honor tibi fit. Rex Chrifte Redemptor,"

has been adopted by the Catholic church for the fervice on
Palm-Sunday. Dupin. Gen. Biog.

THEOGAMIA, ©:oyay.iu, in Antiquity, a Sicilian fef-
tival, in honour of Proferpine, which feems to have been in-
ftituted in memory of her marriage with Pluto.

THEOGNIS, in Biography, a Greek poet, was a native
of Megara, in Attica, and flourifhed about the year B.C.
546. He has been denominated " Gnomologus," or the
writer of fentences : and we have extant a work written by
him, without order, confift;ingof moral maxims or precepts,
fimply expreffed and deftitute of poetical ornaments, verfi-
fied probably for aflifting the memory. Athensus reckons
him among the advocates for hcentious pleafures ; and
Suidas refers to a work of his compoiition, entitled " Ex-
hortations" or " Admontions," which contained various
iinpurities. In the verfes that now remain, nothing of this
kind appears ; fo that if the charge be true, they muft have
undergone caftigation. " The Sentences of Theognis"
have been often printed by themfelves, and with the works
of other minor Greek poets. Among the beft editions are
thofe of Camerarius and Sylburgius. Voffii Poet. Grjec.
Gen. Biog.

THEOGONY, formed from ©sot, God, and ymr,gemture,
feed, offspring, that branch of the heathen theology which
taught the genealogy of their gods.

Hehod gives us the ancient theogony, in a poem unde»

THE

that title. This poem treats of the origin and defcent of
the gods ; or rather, under the allegoricaTdrelo of theogony,
reprefents the formation of the world, and the liiilory
of eminent men. The plan of this work is intricate and
confufed. (SccHesIOD.) The writer feems to have made
uie of feveral different theogonies, and to have blended
them together with little regard to confiftency. He alfo
frequently adds, for the fake of poetical ornament, fiftiona
of his own, which have no relation to the hiilory and origin
of the world. Ariftophanes, in his comedy of " Tiie
Birds," has introduced a defcription of the formation of
the world, which was borrowed, without doubt, from the
ancient theogonies ; but it deferves Lttle attention. All
the theogonies make an eternal chaos the origin of all
things. Thus Ovid. Met. 1. i. v. 5.

" Ante mare, et terras, et quod tegit omnia coelum,
Unus erat toto natura: vultus in orbe,
Quern dixere Chaos, rudis indigeftaque moles.
Nee quicquam niu pondus iners, congeftaque eodem
Non bene junfturam difcordia femina rerun;."

" Ere fea and earth, and heav'ns high canopy
Were form'd, great Nature's face was one ;
A lifelefs, rude, and undigefted mafs
Of jarring feeds in one wild chaos lay." See Cn/cos.

Whether, befides this chaotic mafs, the ancient theogo-
nies fuppofe an infinite, a(Sive, intelligent principle, who
from the firft matter formed the univerfe, is a quelUon that
has occafioned much debate. It is cedent, upon the moft
curfory review of the ancient theogonies, that God, the
great Creator of all things, is not exprefsly introduced ;
but it is doubted, whether the writers meant to exclude
him from their fyftem, or indirecUv to fuppofe his exift-
ence, and the exertion of his power in giving motion to
matter. In the folution of this queftion, it ought to be
confidered, whether the theogonifts fuppofed God to have
exifted before chaos, and to have created it from nothing ;
or thought hrm to have fprung from a pre-exifting chaos ; or
conceived God and matter to have been two co-exifting and
independent principles : whether they imagined God to have
been the foul of nature, informing the eternal mafs of mat-
ter ; or were of opinion, that God fent forth matter as an
emanation from himfelf ; if the latter, whether this emana^
tion was the effeft of neceffity, or of a free aft of volition ;
whether it was from all eternity, or began at fome limited
period of duration. It muft alfo be inquired, whether,'ac-
cording to the doftrine of the theogonies, a divine mind in-
terpofed in the formation of the world, or the efFeft was pro-
duced by the neceflary laws of motion afting upon homo-
geneous and heterogeneous portions of matter. If the latter
of thefe was their doftrine, it is to be farther confidered,
whether it neceftarily follows, that they denied the exiilence
of God, or whether it may not be fuppofed, that, neglefting
all confideration of deity, they only endeavoured to explain
the phyCcal formation of the world, by laws originally im-
prefled upon matter by the author of nature.

The theogonies certainly do not fuppofe God to have
been prior in the order of time to matter : they fpeak of
chaos as eternal, and feem to have been wholly unacquainted
with the doftrine of creation from nothing. But, on the
other hand, they never fuppofe the Deity to be derived from
chaos : for Jupiter is not to he confounded with the Su-
preme Being, but merely to be confidered as the chief of
thofe inferior divinities, who, according to the Grecian the-
ology, were either portions of the divinity, inhabiting and
animating parts of nature, or departed fpirits of heroes and

iUuf-

THE

T H K

Tlluflrlout men, exalted to divine honours. There is no fuf-
iicient proof, that Orpheus, Hefiod, or any other Grecian
cofniugonift, fuppofed two independent principles in nature :
(Or, though they afcribe the origin of evil to Chaos, they
might, neverthclefs, be of opinion, as we !h;\ll find to liave
been the cafe with many later philofophcrs, that matter is
derived from God.

There were, perhaps, different opinions among the ancient
cofmogonifts, concerning the firft caufe of nature. Some
might, poiTibly, afcribe the origin of all things to a ge-
nerating force, deftitute of thought, which they conceived
to be inherent in matter, without looking to any higher
principle. But it is probable, that the general opinion
among thsm was that which had prevailed among the Egyp-
tians and in the Eaft, and was communicated by tradition
to tlie Greeks, that matter, or chaos, exifled eternally
with God, and that by the divine energy of emanation,
material forms were fent forth from him, and the vifible
world arofe into exiftence. This principle being admitted,
the whole fyftem of the ancient theogonies appears confift-
ent, and a fatisfaftory explanation may be given of moft of
the Grecian fables. Upon tliis fuppofition, the lum of the
doftrine of the theogonies, divefted of allegory and poetry,
will be as follows :

The firft matter, containing the feeds of all future being,
exifted from eternity with God. At length, the divine
energy upon matter produced a motion among its parts, by
which thofe of the fame kind were brought together, and
thofe of a different kind were feparated, and by which,
according to certain wife laws, the various forms of the
material world were produced. The fame energy of ema-
nation gave exiftence to animals and men, and to gods who
inhabit the heavenly bodies, and various other parts of
nature. Among men, thofe who pofiefs a larger portion of
the divine nature than others, are hereby impelled to great
and beneficent actions, and afford illuftrious proofs of their
divine original, on account of which, they are after death
raifed to a place among the gods, and become objefts of
religious worfhip.

Upon the bafis of thefe notions, it is eafy to conceive,
that the whole mythological fyftem, and all the religious
rites and myfteries of the Greeks, might be founded.
Brucker's Hift. Phil, by Enf. vol.i.

Among the moft ancient writers. Dr. Burnet obferves,
that theogony and cofmogony fignified the fame thing. (See
Cosmogony. ) In effeft, the generation of the gods or the
ancient Perfians, fire, water, and earth, is apparently no
other than that of the primary elements.

THEOLOGICAL Crii^icism. See Criticism.

Theological Prebend. See Prebend.

THEOLOGIUM, formed from ©ro,-, and \oyoi fpeech,
or difcourfe, in the ancient theatre, was a place, or little
ftage, above that on which the ordinary aftors appeared.
See Theater.

The theologium was tlie place where tieir gods appeared.
It alfo included the machines on which they defcended,
and from which tliey fpoke.

There was a theologium required for the reprefentation
of the Ajax of Sophocles, the Hippolitus of Eiu-ipides,
&e. Seal. Poet. lib. i. cap. i.

THEOLOGY, compounded of ©soj, God, and Xoyoc, dif-
courfe, divinity ; a fcience, which inftrufts us in the know-
ledge of God, and divine things ; or which has God, and
the things he has revealed, for its objeft.

Theology is a fcience which (hews us what -we arc to be-
lieve of God, and the manner in which he would be ferved.

It h divided into turo branches, the natural, and the revealtd

or fuptrnatural.

TiiEOLOGV, Natural, is the knowledge we hare of God
from his wor' , by the light of nature, and reafon.

Theolog; , Supernatural, is that wliich we learn from re-
velation. See Religiok.

Theology, Pofitive, is the knowledge of the iioly Scrip-
tures, and of the fignificatiou of them, confoimably to the
opinions of the fathers and councils ; without the afTiftance
of any argumentation. But fome will have it, that this
ouglit to be called expofttive, rather than poftti'ue.

Theology, Moral, is tliat which teaches us die divine
laws relating to our manners and aiAions ; in contradiftinc-
tion to

Theology, Speculative, which explains and eftablifhes the
doftrines of rehgion, as objeds of faiUi.

Theology, Schola/lic, or School, is that wliich proceed*
by reafoning ; or that derives the knowledge of feveral
divine things from certain cftabhftied principles of faith.
See Scholastic Divinity.

The ancients, according to Varro, Scxvola, and Plu-
tarch, had a tluee-fold theology ; the firft fiv^LKn, mythic,
fabulous, which fiourifhed among the poets ; and was
chiefly employed in the theogony, or genealogy, and hif-
tory of tlie gods : to whom all things were attributed,
which men, and even the vileft of men, could be guilty
of. Neverthclefs, the popular religion and worfliip were
in a great meafure founded upon that mythology, which
run through the whole of their religion, and was of great
authority with the people. Many unexceptionable proofs
of this are produced by Dr. Leland, in his " Advantage
and Ncceffity of the Chriftian Revelation," vol. i. part i.
chap. 6.

The fecond, raoXiTixr, political, or civil, was that efta-
bllfhed by the Roman laws, and chiefly embraced by the
politicians, priefts, and people, as moft fuitable and expe-
dient to the fafety, quiet, and profperity of the ftate.
This, though not the true, was the vulgar theology, and
conftituted the pubhc and authorized religion. It was
that which the philofophers themfelves, whatever private
opinions or fpeculations they might entertain, or difpute of
in their fchools, univerfally conformed to in their own prac-
tice, and alfo exhorted others to do fo. Varro informs us,
that tliis theology particularly determined what gods they
were publicly to worftiip, what facred rites they were to
obferve, and what facrifices to offer.

Although even the vulgar among the Pagans feem, in ge-
neral, to have had fome notion of one fupreme God, yet
their theology was properly polytheifm ; and the providence
they acknowledged, was the providence, not of one God,
but of many gods. The learned Dr. Cudworth, who
feems inchned to put the moft favourable conftruftion upon
the Pagan theology, acknowledges, that the civil theology,
as well as the poetical, had not only many fantaftic gods
in it, but an appearance of a plurality of independent dei-
ties ; feveral being made fupreme in their refpeftive territo-
ries or fundlions. Ariftotle (Oper. torn. i. p. 1246. edit.
Paris, 1629) intimates, that according to the laws of cities
and countries, that is, in the civil or political theology, there
feems to be no one abfolutely powerful or all-perfeft being,
but a plurality of gods, one of whom Is fuppofed to be
more powerful in one refpeft, and another in another refpeft.
Eefides, the pubhc religion was made up partly of the phy-
fical, and 'partly of the poetical theology. Thofe poetical
tables, which Varro cenfurcs as unworthy of the gods, and
as afcribing to them aftions which none but the viJeft of

THE

n,en would be ffuiky of, were not ^^^Y f^'^J^f^ '^ ^
uded on tl>e public theatres, and heard wuh p oafui-e by he
people, but Ihey were regarded as things pleal.ug to the
^,themfelvcs, by which they were P'-°P"t'=>^'^f .^"^ ,^"-
Led favourable; and ^accordingly they were taken nUo
the public religion. Games were celebrated, and p ay we^e
fotufded upon them ; and the pubhc games and plays were
on certain occafions conCdered as ^ft^°f/<^''g'°"'/"'°"■
raged bv their deities, and celebrated m honour of them
It is alfo iuiUy obferved, that the images, forms, habits, and
ornaments of their gods, their different faxes and ages, and
the facrcd feftivals inftituted to their honour, had all ot them
a reference to the fables of the poets and mytho ogifts, and
were founded upon them ; fo that the civil and the fabulous
thcolo<ry might each of them be called civil, and each tabu-
loas. Hence proceeded many abfurd and ridiculous, and
many immoral and inhuman rites, which were made ule ot
in the worOiip of their gods, and which were either prefcribed
by the laws, or were eaablilhed cuftoms, countenanced by
the magiftrates, and which had obtained the force of laws,
and may, therefore, be regarded as belonging to the pubhc
religion of the Pagans. See Leland's Chriftian Revelation,

ubi fupra, cap. 7. , . n , • , i_ i.

The third, .-t/T.^, natural, was chiefly cultivated by the
philofophers, as moft agreeable to nature and reafon. The
phyCical or natural theology acknowledged one only fupreme
God ; to which it added dxmons or fpirits, as mediators
between him and man.

Dr. Leland has urged a variety of confiderations to prove
that, notwithftanding the high encomiums which have been
bellowed upon the philofophical theology of the Pagans, it
was of little ufe in leading the people into a right know-
ledge of God and religion, and for reclaiming them from
their idolatry and polytheifm. To this purpofe he obferves,
that, if the philofophers had been right in their own notions
of religion, they could have but little influence on the people,
for want of a proper authority to enforce their inftrudions.
The affeded obfcurity of the Pagan philofophers was an-
other caufe wliich rendered them unfit to inftruft the people
in religion : to which it may be added, that fome of them
ufed their utmoft efforts to deftroy all certainty and evidence,
and to unfettle men's minds as to the belief of the fundamen-
tal principles of all religion ; and even the beft and greateft
of them acknowledged the daiknefs and uncertainty they
were under, efpecially in divine matters. The philofophers
themfelves were alfo, for the moil part, very wrong in their
own notions of the Divinity ; they very much corrupted
the ancient tradition relating to the one true God and the
creation of the world, and endeavoured to account for the
formation of all things without the interpofition of a Deity.
And the opinions of thofe philofophers who were of a nobler
kind, were chargeable with great defefts : they generally
expreffed themfelves in the polytheiftic ftrain, and inftead
of leading the people to the one true God, they fpoke of a
plurality of gods, even in their moil, ferious difcourfes ;
afcribing ihoie works to the gods, and directing thofe duties
to be rendered to them, which properly belong to the fu-
preme. The philofophers likewiCe referred the people for
inftrudtion in divine matters to the oracles, which were ma-
naged by the prieils : this was particularly the cafe with So-
crates, Plato, and the Stoics.

It was an univerfal maxim among them, that it was the
duty of every wife and good man to conform to the reh-
gion of his country ; and they not only worfhipped the
gods of their refpeftive countries according to the efta-
blilKed rites, gnd exhorted others to do fo ; out when they

T H E

took upon themfelves the ch?rafter of legiflators, and drew
up plajis of laws, and of llie bell forms of government,
polytheifm, and not the worlhip of the one true God, was
the religion they propofed to eftablifh. Moreover, they
employed their learning and abihtics to defend and juftify
the popular idolatry and polytheifm. The worfhip of in-
ferior deities was recommended by them, under pretence
that it tended to the honour of the fupreme. Some of the
moft eminent of them endeavoured to colour over the moil
abfurd part of the Pagan poetical theology, by allegorizing
the moll indecent fables. They apologized for the Egyp-
tian animal worfhip, which the generality of the vulgar Pa-
gans in other nations ridiculed. They vindicated idolatry
and image-worfhip, as necelTary to keep the people from
falling into irrehgion and atheifm ; and befides, fome of
the more refined philofophers were againfl any external
worfliip of the fupreme God.

Many of the philofophers, and of the learned and polite
Pagans, denied a providence. Of thofe who profeffed to
acknowledge it, fome confined it to heaven and heavenly
things ; others fuppofed it to extend to the earth and to
mankind, yet fo as only to exercife a general care and fuper-
intendency, but not to extend to individuals ; others,
again, fuppofed all things, the leafl as well as the greateft,
to be under the care of providence ; but they afcribed this not
to the fupreme God, who, they thought, was above con-
cerning himfelf with fuch things as thefe, and committed
the care of them wholly to inferior deities. See the illuflra-
tion and proof of thefe feveral allegations by Dr. Leland,
ubi fupra, cap. 10 — 17.
Theology, Bachelor in. See Bachelor.
Theology, My/lic. See Myotic.
Theology, Polemical. See Polemical.
THEOMANTIA, @icua.y^tl!t, tn Aniiqvity, divination
by the fuppofed infpiration of fome deity. For a particular
account of which, fee Potter, Archaeol. Grasc. lib. ii.
cap. 12. tom. i. p. 298.

THEON, in Biography, a mathematician of the Platonic
fchool, was a native of Smyrna, and flourilhed under the empe-
rors Trajan and Adrian. His mathematical treatifes are faid
to have been written for the purpofe of elucidating the philo-
fophy of Plato ; and his difcourfes, treating of geometry, arith-
metic, mufic, aftronomy, and the harmony of the univcrfe,
may ferve to throw fome light upon the Pythagorean fyftcm.
Part only of his work, " De iis qux in Mathematicis ad
Platonis leAionem utiha funt," or that which relates to arith-
metic and mufic, has been publifhed. The remainder, which
pertained to aftronomy and geometry, is faid to have been
preferved/ in the Ambrofian library at Milan. Ptolemy re-
fers to his allronomical obfervations. Brucker by Enfield.
Montucla Hift. des Math.

Another mathematician of the ' ne name belonged to the
Alexandrian fchool, and flour!. .led about A.D. 365. He
was the father of the learned but unfortunate Hypatiai
His works are various : among thefe we may mention his
" Recenfio Elementorum Euchdis," pubhfhed by Comman-
deni ; his " Fafti Grjeci priores, et Fragmenti Commentarii
in Ptolomxi Canonem expeditum, five Recenfio fuccinfta
Chronologica regem a Nabonaffaro ad Antoninum Pium ;"
" Schoha in Aratum," faid to be interpolated ; and" Cora-
mentarius in Magnum Ptolomaei Syntaxin," which is incom-
plete. Montucla.

THEOPASCHITES, Theopaschit^, in Ecckftajl-
eal Hijtory, a fett of heretics in the fifth century, the fol-
lowers of P#trus FuUenfis, or Peter the Fuller, who
ufurped the fee of Antioch ; and after having been feveral

times

T II E

T H E

times depofcfl, and condemned, on account of his oppofition
to the council of ChalcL-don, was at laft fixed iu it, A.D.
482, by the authority of the emperor Zeno, and tlie favour
of Acacius, bifhop of Coiiftantinople ; whence they are alfo
fometimes denominated Fulloniani.

Their diftiiiguilhing dodrine was, that the whole Trinity
fuffered i.i the palfion of Jefus Chrift.

This herefy was embraced by the Eutycliian monks of
Scythia, or, according to La Croze, of Egypt ; who
ufing their utmoft efforts to make it obtain, raifed groat dif-
orders towards the beginning of the following century.

It was condemned, at its firll rife, in the councils of Rome
and Conftantinoplc, held in 483. It was again revived in
the ninth century, and again condemned in a council at
Rome, held in 862, under pope Nicolas I.

F. le Quien, in his notes on Damafcenus, fays, that the
fame error had been taught before FuUenfis, by Apolli-
narius, whofe difciples were the firft that were called Theo-
patitit:, or Tbeopafchit<t.

THEOPHANES, in Biography, a Greek hiftorian and
poet, was of noble extraction, and born at Mitylene, in the
illand of Lefbos. About the commencement of the Mithri-
datic war, he is iuppofed to have come to Rome in his youih ;
and when Pompey was appointed to the cliief command
againft Mithridates, he took Theophancs with him to record
his exploits, procuring for liim the citizenfliip of Rome, and
adding to his name tliofe of " Cornelius Balbus." It is alfo
fuppofed that it was principally on his account, that on liis
return he vifitcd Lefbos, and reflored to the Mitylenians the
privileges of which they had been deprived by the Roman
fenate. At Rome he connedled himfelf with tlie mofl dif-
tinguidied citizens, and he was deputed to Alexandria for
the confirmation of treaties of aUiance with Ptolemy Auletes.
After the defeat of Pompey at Pharfalia, he accompanied
liim in his flight ; and by his advice this commander dechned
to take refuge with Juba, king of Mauritania, and failed to
Egypt, where he met his fate. Theophanes afterwards
joined the party of Csefar. The moft important of his
writings was a " Hiftcry of the Wars of the Romans, in
different Countries under the Command of Pompey." Of
this work there remain only five fragments, quoted by
Strabo, Plutarch, and Stob^us ; but Plutarch is fuppofed
to have made great ufe of his authority in his life of Pom-
pey, though he does not fpeak favourably of his charadler.
He fays, " Theophanes afTerts, that in the private papers of
Mithridates taken at Csnon, there was found a memorial,
compofed by Rutilius (Rufus), exhorting Mithridates to
maffacre all the Romans in Alia. But it is generally be-
■lieved, that this was a malicious fiftion of Theophanes to
blacken RutiHus, whom probably he hated, becaufe he was
a perfeft contrail to himfelf ; or it might be invented by
Pompey, whofe father was reprefeiited by Rutihus in his
hiftory, as one of the worfl of men." Rutilius was a man
of fuch excellent charafter, as to be incapable of the crime
with which he is charged ; and without dOubt fuch a falfi-
iication of hiftory, for bafe and private purpofcs, is fuffi-
cient to deftroy all eftcem for the writer.

Of trie poetry of Theophanes, which was celebrated in
his time, there remain only two epigrams, inferted in the
Anthologia. VofTius. Moreri. Gen. Biog.

Theophanes, George, a Conftantinopolitan Greek, of
a rich and noble family, married young, but from fuperfti-
lious motives lived in a ftate of celibacy. He afterwards
became a moak. At the general council held in 787, he
was prefent, and was treated with rcfpeft. When Nicc-
phorus, patriarch of Conftantinople, was exiled by the

envperor Leo the Armenian, Theophanes paid him txUi-
ordinary honoiu-s, and was himfelf baniflied to the iflc of
Samothrace, where he died in 8 1 8. His chronicle, com-
mencing where that of Syncellus tenninated, was extended
to the commencement of the reign of Michael Curopalata.
This was printed at Paris, with the Latin veifion and notes
of F. Goar, under the care of Combefis, in 1665, fol.
It is valuable for its fafts, but difplays the credulity and
weak judgment of a fuperflitiout mind. Voflius. Gen,

Theophanes Puokopovitch (the fon of Procopius),
archbifhop of Novogorod, a learned RiifTian hiftorian, and
mifccllaneous writer, was born at Kiof in the year 1681,
and having fludied under his uncle Theophanes at the Brat-
fkoi convent in Kiof, travelled into Italy in his eighteenth
year. In three years he completed his courfe of preparatory
lludy, and then returned to his native town, where he read
leftures on the Latin and Slavonian art of poetry, at the
feminary where he had received his education. Having
afTumed tlie monallic habit, with the name of Thcophain'S,
he was appointed, at the age of twenty-five, prefcft of the
feminary, and profclfor of philofophy. By a Latin oration
and a fermon, delivered before c/.ar Peter the Great, he
attracted his notice, and was chofen his companion in his
war againft the Turks. In 171 1 he was made abbot of the
monallery of Bratflcoi, reftor of its feminary, and profcffor
of divinity. By cenfuring the ignorance of the clergy, and
endeavouring to excite a tafte for literature, he recommended
himfelf to the czar as a projier coadjutor in his plans for re-
forming the church. He was accordingly placed at the head
of the fynod, in the new ecclefiaftical eftablifhment, the
plan of which he had prepared, and in 1718 he was pro-
moted to the bilhopric of Plefliof. In 1720 he was created
archbilliop of the fame dioccfe, and foon after the acceffion
of Catharine I. he was advanced to the rank of archbifhop
of Novogorod, and metropolitan of all RufTia ; and in tfiis
ftation he died in 1730. This prelate was in a high de-
gree the patron of literature, and engaged in a variety of
ways, by his perfonal munificence and labour, in promoting
it. His works were fermons and theological tradls, a trea-
tife on rhetoric, and rules for compofing Latin and Slavonian
poetry, Latin verfes, and more efpecially the Life of Petet
the Great, terminating with his battle of Pultawa. Le
Clcrc aflerts that he endeavoured to perfuade Peter to intro-
duce the Proteftant religion into Ruflia, and that this event
would have taken place, if it had not been prevented by
Peter's death. The prelate's education at Rome, and the
high rank he fuftained In his own church, render this anec-
dote improbable. Coxe's Travels in Ruflia.

THEOPHANIA, 0!o?i..,i.«, formed of Qfof, God,
and Zci.nu, I aftpear, in Antiquity, a feftival obferved by the
Delphians upon the day on which Apollo firft manifefted
himfelf to them.

THEOPHANY, in Church Hipry, is fometimes ufed
in the fame fenfe with Epiphany.

THEOPHILA, in Ancient Geography, a'town of India,
on this fide of the Ganges.

THEOPHILE, named Viaud, \n Biography, a French
poet, was born at Clerac, in the Agenois, about the year
1590. By education he jv-as a Calvinift, but in his condudi
and writings he was licintious. In 1 619 he withdrew to
England, and unfuccefsfuUy attempted to introduce him-
felf to king James. After his return he abjured Calvinifm,
but his manners remained the fame. On account of a work
entitled " Le Parnaffe Satirique," publifhed in i62 2,)»and
attributed to him, in which were fevcral pieces oircnfivc to

dcccucy

THE

decency and religion, he \vas profecuted. Being arretted in
Picardy, he was brought to Paris, and thrown into the dun-
geon that had been occupied by Ravaillac, where he re-
mained for two years. He was at length releafed by the
parliament, and fentenced to bani(hment. The duke of
Montmorency took him under his proteftion, and at his
hotel he died in 1626. His writings are partly profe and
partly verfe. His verfes are negligent and irregular, but
they difplay genius and imagination. His works coniift. of
odes, elegies, fonnets, &c. ; tragedies ; a dramatic dialogue
on the immortality of the foul, entitled " Socrate Mou-
rant ;" apologies for hirafelf, and letters. A coUeftion of
his poems and apologies was printed at Rouen in 1627, 8vo.;
and his fri;nd Mairet printed his French and Latin letters at
Paris, in 1642, with his portrait prefixed. Nouv. Didl.
Hift. Gen. Biog.

THEOPHILUS, emperor of Conftantinople, was the
fon of Michael the Stammerer, and fucceeded his father
in 829. He began his reign with the exercife of jultice
in its utmoft rigour, heedlefs not only of the claims of
gratitude, but of the feelings of humanity. His father
had been indebted for his life and crown to the murderers
of his predecefTor Leo IV. Theophilus, under a pre-
tence of paying the debts of his father to thofe who had
contributed to his elevation, fummoned them, among other
confiderable perfons in the empire, to his prefence ; and dc-
firing the former to withdraw into an adjoining apartment,
that their claims might be examined, he ordered them, on
their own confeffion, to be capitally punifhed. In another
cafe, a poor woman threw herlelf at his feet, complaining of
the injury which ihe had fuftained from a powerful neigh-
bour (the emprefs's brother), who had raifed the wall of his
palace fo high, that her humble dwelling was deprived of
Eght and air. Theophilus gave her the palace, with the

f round upon which it flood, and caufed the offender to be
ripped and fcourged in the public fquare of the city. The
effeft of his fingular rigour, though altogether indefenfible,
was, that a fcrutiny of feventeen days coud not difcover a
fingle crime or abufe in the court or city.

During this emperor's whole reign he was engaged in
wars with the Saracens, the detail of which we fhall omit.
Theophilus died in 842, after a reign of more than twelve
years. His zeal againfl the worfhip of images has caufed
his charafter to be treated with great feverity, and his faults
to be exaggerated. Although he was inexcufably rigorous
in his adminiftration, he was a reformer of manners. Of
his fuperiority to avarice, and high ideas of the dignity of
the regal charafter, the following anecdote furnilhes an
inftance. Seeing one day a merchant-fhip, which was deeply
laden, entering the harbour of Conftantinople, he afked the
mariners to whom it belonged : they replied, " to the em-
prefs." " God has made me (he exclaimed) a prince, and
is my wife a merchant ? If princes trade, their fubjefts
muft ftarve :" he then ordered the vefTel to be fet on fire with
all her cargo. Anc. Un. Hift. Gibbon's Rom. Hift.

Theophilus, bifhop of Antioch, was ordained to this
fee in i68 or 170, and governed it for twelve or thirteen
years. In his zeal againft herefy, he wrote againft Marcion
and againft Hermogenes, and he compofed other trafts,
fome of which are preferved. We have alfo extant three
books againft Autolycus, a learned heathen, in which he
difplays great learning, and from which it appears that he
had once been a heathen. Thefe works afford, as it is faid,
the earlieft example of the ufe of the term " Trinity," ap-
plied by the author to the three perfons of the Godhead.
Some have fuppofed that he approaches to Arianifm, when
4

THE

he alTerts that the Word may exift in place, ind that he was be-
gotten in time. Theophilus's books to Autolycus were pub-
lifhcd in Latin by Conrad Gefner at Zurich, in 1 546, and were
inferted in the " Orthodoxographia," Bafil, 1 555. Ttiey
were annexed in Gr. and Lat. to the Supplement of the
" Bibliotheca Patrum," 1624 ; and were printed at the end
of St. Juftin's Works byMorellus. Lardner.

Theophilus, bifhop or patriarch of Alexandria, of vio-
lent and turbulent difpofition, was ordained to that fee in
385. He gained reputation and influence by his zeal in de-
ftroying the temple of Serapis, and other pagan temples of
Egypt in 389. (See Theodosius.) He was, under tlie
guife of a friend, a fecret enemy to John Chrj'foftom,
after he had been ordained to the fee of Conftantinople in
397. Without much real regard for religion, he was tlie
«ealous cliampion of orthodoxy ; and having called a coun-
cil at Alexandria in 399, he prevailed with the afl'embly to
condemn all the followers of Origen, and with the afliftance
of a band of foldiers, compelled them to abandon their
refidence on mount Nitria. The poor monks, failing to
find a fecure refuge, repaired to Conftantinople, to lay their
complaints before the emperor. The humanity of John
Chryfottom irritated Theophilus, who was employed by the
emprefs Eudoxia, for profecuting her revenge againft Chry-
foftom. Accordingly, he arrived at Conftantinople at the
head of a body of Egyptian failors and dependent bifhops,
avowing that he was going to depofe John. His purpofe
was executed at the fynod of Chalcedon in 403. (See
Chrysostom.) His malignity purfued this venerable pre-
late in his exile, by a libel filled with abufive exprefTions,
which was tranflated at his requeft by Jerom, from Greek
into Latin. Theophilus died at Alexandria in 412. The
moft confiderable of his works was a large treatife againft
Origen. Some of his epiftles are found among thofe of
Jerom, and fome of his canonical epiftles are contained in
the coUeftions of Zonaras and Balfamon. Of this prelate
Dupin has given the following charafter : " There is no-
thing in the writings of Theophilus that can turn to his
commendation ; they are obfcure, unintelligible, and full of
falfe and impertinent reafonings and refleftions. He was a
good politician, but a bad author. He knew better how to
manage a court intrigue, than to refolve a queftion in divinity
The only rule for his opinions was his intereft or his ambition.
He was ready to embrace any opinion or party that fuited
his purpofe, without examining whether it was juft or rea-
fonable." Dupin. Lardner. Gibbon.

THEOPHRASTA, in Botany, fo called in memory
of the father of all natural hiftorians, Theophraftus, native
of Erefos in the ifle of Lefbos ; whence Plumier named
this genus Eresia. ( See that article. ) Linnaeus on fucli
occafions always preferred the appellation by which the per-

fon intended to be celebrated was beft known Linn.

Gen. 84. Schreb. no. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 824. Mart.
Mill. Dift. V. 4. Swartz Obf. 58. Juff. 150. Lamarck
Illuftr. t. 119. (Erefia; Plum. Gen, 8. t. 25.) — Clafs
and order, Pentandria Monogynla. Nat. Ord. Apocineis
ajine, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, fmall, of one leaf, in
five deep, obtufe, permanent fegments. Cor. of one petal,
bell-fhaped, fpreading, cut more than half way down into
five rounded equal fegments. " Neftary five fmall, ovate,
obtufe glands, thickeft at the point, lying upon the feg-
ments of the corolla." Jacq Stam. Filaments five, thread-

(haped, united below to an internal membrane, fo as to
form a fhort, thick, furrowed column, crowned with a five-
rayed horizontal dlfk ; anthers five, of two feparate oblong

lobes.

THE

THE

lobes, attaohed to the fides of each fcgment of the dilk,
underneath. Pi/?. Germcn fuperior, ovate ; ftyle cyhn-
drical, the length of tiie ftamens, ereft ; ftigma in five ob-
tufe lobes. Pfrii:. Berry globofe, coated, of one cell.
Seeds feveral, roundifh, fomcvvhat compreflcd.

Eff. Ch. Corolla bell-fliaped, in five obtufe fpreading
fegments, with a nciSlary of five incumbent glands. Berry
coated, of one cell, with feveral ieeds.

I. Th. americaim. Large-fruited Theophraila. Linn.
Sp. PI. 212. WiUd. n. I. Swartz Obf. 59. (Erefia
foliis aquifolii longiflimis ; Plum. Ic. 119. t. 126.) — Leaves
obtufe. Clullers terminal, ereft. — Native of barren dry
buihy fliady places in Hifpaniola. Stvartz. Stem (lirubby,
one or two feet high, ereft, fimple, leafy in its upi)er half,
round, thorny, clothed with rufty down. Leaves oppofitc
or whorlcd, on very fhort ftalks, ereft, oblong-lanceolate,
obtufe, tapering at the bafe, very rigid, ferrated ; their ler-
ratures alternately inflexed and reflexed, each tipped with a
fmall, prominent, rigid, black-pointed fpine. Footjlalks thick,
rufous, clofely preffed to the Item. ■Clujlers {hort, terminal,
from the midft of the terminal leaves, many-flowered, par-
tial Jloiver-Jfalks numerous, fhort, curved, fingle-flowcred.
Fruit two inches in diameter, yellow, brittle, often for the
mofl part hollow or empty, its receptacle juicy at the bottom.
Seeds black, hard, attached by their bafe. Swartz. We
prefume the chifters, from Plumier's figure, to be ereft, and
l\\i feeds numerous.

2. Th. longifoUa. Small-fruited Theophrafla. Jacq.
Coll. V. 4. 136. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 1. 62. t. 116.
Willd. n. 2. — Leaves acute. Clufters lateral, drooping. —
Native of the Caraccas. It flowered in the ftove at Schoen-
brun from Augufl till November. Thejlem is faid to be
twenty feet high, but always unbranched. Leaves imper-
feftly whorled, near two feet long, reclining, with fpinous
ferratures, fmooth, of a dark fhining green, with nume-
rous tranfverfe veins from the mid-rib. Clujlers numerous,
fcattercd between the whorls of leaves, ftalked, drooping,
a fpan long, of numerous little orange-coloured or fcarlet
Jlowers. Fruit in its native country about an inch in dia-
meter, with about four feeds ; but in the garden it did not
attain more than half that fize, and pcrfefted only one. If
there be no miftake in Dr. Swartz's defcription of the firft
fpecies, there is a prodigious difference between the flature
of the two. Yet we have a fufpicion, that they may pof-
fibly not be more than varieties of each other. As to the
generic chai'after, Plumier's reprefentation of the parts of
the Jloiver is too impcrfeft for us to fuppofe him more right
than the faithful Jacquin. Swartz's defcription may eafily
be reconciled with the Hortus Schoenbrunenjis.

THEOPHRASTICS, a name given to the followers
of Paracelfus, from liis name Theophraftus.

THEOPHRASTUS, in Biography, a diftinguifhed
Greek philofopher, the favourite pupil of Ariflotle, and
nominated by him as his fucceffor in the fchool of the Ly-
ceum, was born at Erefium, a maritime town of Lcfbos,
in the fecond year of the I02d Olympiad, B.C. 371. His
firfl rudiments of education were received under Alcippus
in his own country, and being fent by his father to Athens,
he became firft a difciple of Plato and afterwards of Arif-
totle. Such were his natural talents, that, under fuch tui-
tion, he made great progrefs both in philofophy and elo-
quence : fo that l;is original name, Tyrtamus, was changed,
either by his mafter or his followers, into Theophraftus.
After he undertook the Peripatetic fchool in the year B.C.
J23, his reputation was fo diftinguifiied, that the number of
his fcholars was about 2000. His erudition and engaging
manners recommended him to the notice of Caffander and

Vol. XXXV.

Ptolemy : by tlie former he was invited to Macedon, and
by the latter to Egypt ; and among the Athenians he
was fo great a favourite, that, when he was accufed by
one of his enemies of teaching impious doftrincs, the ac-
cuier could not without difficulty cfcape the punifliment
which he endeavoured to bring upon Theophraftus. Theo-
phraftus is no lefs highly celebrated for his generofity and
public fpirit, than for his induilry, learning, and eloquence.
He is faid to have twice favcd his country from the oppref-
fion of tyrants ; and he contributed liberally towards de-
fraying the expence of public meetings held by philofophcrs
for learned and ingenious convcrfation. In the public
fchools he appeared, after the manner of Ariftotle, in an
elegant drefs, and was very attentive to the graces of elocu-
tion : and hence it is faid he obtained the appellation of
Theophraftus, the divine fpeaker. Towards the clofe of life,
wliich was prolonged to the age of 85 }4ars, he becam* very
infirm, and was conveyed to the fchool in a carriage. In
contemplating the fhortnefs of life, he cxpreffed great re-
gret ; complaining that long life was granted to ftags and
crows, to whom it was of little value, but was denied to
man, who, if it were of longer duration, might attain the
fummit of fcience : whereas now, as foon as he arrives
within fight of it, lie is taken away. His laft advice to his
difciples was, that fince it ia the lot of man to die as fopn as
he begins to live, they fliould take greater pains to enjoy life
as it pafTes, than to acquire poflhumous fame. A large
body of Athenians attended his funeral.

The works of Theophraftus comprehended a variety of
fubjefts, and were numerous. His doftrinc differed in fpme
refpedls from that of his mafter Ariftotle. Pie taught
that the predicaments, or categories, were as numerous as the
motions and changes to which beings are liable ; and that
among motions, or changes, are to be reckoned defires, ap-
petites, judgments and thoughts. He maintained, that all
things are not produced from contraries ; but fome from con-
traries, fomefrom fimilar caufes, and fome from fimple energy ;
that motion is not to be diftinguiflied from aflion ; and that
there is one divine principle of all things, by which all
things fubfift. By this divine principle, it is thought that
Theophraftus meant tlie Firft Mover, without whom other
things could not be moved, and therefore could not fubfift.
Of his moral maxims, the follovi'ing are the raoft worthy of
notice. " Refpeft yourfelf, and you will never have reafon
to be afliamed before others. Love is the pafTion of an in-
dolent mind. Blufliing is the complexion of virtue. Time
is the moft precious expenditure."

Few of his works, of which Diogenes Lacrtius enume-
rates more than 200, have reached our time : of thefe, the moll
famous is entitled " Charafters," defcribing different moral
clalfes of men, fuch as the flatterer, the impudent, the dif-
contented, the garrulous, the fuperilitious, &c. ; fo diftin-

fuiflied and defcribed, as to fhew great knowledge of man-
ind. Of his other works on natural hiftory, the prin-
cipal are his " Hiftory of Plants," in nine books, which
Haller has particularly recommended to tlie notice of bota-
nical ftudents ; "On the Caufes of Plants," relating chiefly to
the natural and artificial means of bringing them to maturity ;
to agriculture and horticulture; to the taftes and odours of
vegetables; « On Stones;" " On Winds ;" " On Fire j"
" On Honey ;" " On the Signs of Fair Weather, and of
Tempefts and Rain ;" " On Animals which change their
Colour ;" " On Animals which are born fuddenly ;" " On
Fifh which live out of Water." Theophraftus ranks
amongft the moft diftinguifhed of the ancients for compre-
henfive genius and dihgent enquiry into nature. The lall
edition of the whole extant works of Theophrallus is that
3Q of

THE

of Dan. Heinfius, Gri-ek and Latiu, fol. Lugd. Bat.
1613. Of his hidory of plants, the moft complete is that
of Budxus, Greek and Latin, fol. Amft. 16+4. Among
tlie moll elleemcd editions of his " Charaaers," which are
numerous, we may reckon thofe of If. Cafaubon, of Need-
ham, with the notes of Duport, Cantab. 17 12, and of
I. Fr. Fifcher, Coburg. 1763. Diog, Laert. Brucker
by Enfield. Haller Bib. Bot.

THEOPHYLACT, named Simocattn, a Greek hiftorian,
a native of Greece, but of Egyptian origin, flouriihed about
A.D. 612. His liiltory of the reign of the emperor Mau-
rice is comprehended in eight books, and terminates with the
maflacre of this prince and his children by Phocas. Cafau-
bon reckons Simocatta one of the bell of tlie later Greek
hillorians. The work juft mentioned was printed at the
Louvre, in 1647, fol. and forms a part of the Byzantine hif-
torians. An edition of his " Epiftles, Moral, Rural, and
Amator)'," was given by Aldus. His " Phyfical Pro-
blems" were publilhed firll by Vulcanius at Leyden, and
afterwards by Andrew Schottus. Hit " Hiftory of the
Habitable Worid" is cited by Euftathius, in his Commen-
tary on the Periegefis of Dionyfius. Gen. Biog.

TiiEoriiYLACT, archbiiliop of Acris, the capital of
Bulgaria, was a native of Conftantinople, and flouriflicd
under the emperors Michael Ducas, Nicephorus Botoniates,
and Alexis Comnenus. After his elevation to the arch-
biftiopric of Acris, by the perfuafion of the wife of Ducas,
he diligently laboured in propagating the Chriftian faith,
and compofed feveral works, which give him r.ink among
the principal ecclefiaftical writers of his age. The time of
his death is not known; but he was living in 1071. His
" Commentaries on the Four Gofpcis, the Acts of the
Apoftlcs, and the Epiftles of vSt. Paul," which are his
chief work, are for the moft part abridged from Chryfof-
tom and others. He alfo wrote " Commentaries on the
Minor Prophets." Several editions of his Commentaries
have been publilhed in Greek and Latin, and alfo in Latin
only. " Seventy-five Epiftles" of this author were publilhed
by Meurfuis, in Greek, in 161 7, and a Latin tranflation in
1622. Some other trafts have been attributed to this author.
Dupin fays, that the Commentaries of Thcophylaft are very
ufcful for the literal explanation of the Scriptures : and
Lardner obferves, that he quotes no forged writings or
apocryphal books of the New Teftament, many of which
he excludes by his obfervation on John, i. 31 — 34. that
Chrill wrought no miracle in his infancy, or before the
time of his public miniftry. Dupin. Lardner.

THEOPNEUSTiE, e^OTvturai, formed of Qior, God,
and ■ativu!, I breathe, an epithet given to enthufiaftical
diviners.

THEOPOLIS, in jineient Geography, a town of Gallia
Narbonnenfis, belonging to the Aventici, N.E. of Forum
Novum.

THEOPROPRIA, ©!o~po7n«, formed of ©so;, Go</, and
■sjp!57i, / excel, a defignation given to oracles. See
Oracle.

THEOPSIA, ©EOTTiK, formed of ©io.;, God, and oT.-of/rji,
I fee, in Mythology, denoted the appearance of gods. Cicero,
Plutai-ch, Arnobius, and Chryfoftom, mention appeai'ances
of this kind.

THEORBO, TiiiORBA, or Tiorba, a mufical inftru-
ment, made in form of a large lute ; except that it has two
necks, or juga, the fecond and longer of which fuftains the
four lall rows of chords, which are to give the deepeft
founds. See Lute.

The word is formed from the French ieorbci or theorbe.

THE

and that from the Italian t'lorbe, which fignifies the lame,
and which fome will have to be the name of the inventor.

The theorbo is an inftrument which for many years fuc-
ceeded to the lute, in the playing of thorough bafles ; it is
faid by fome to have been invented in France, by the fieur
Hotteman, and thence introduced into Italy, &c.

The only difference between the theorbo and the lute is,
that the former has eight bafs or thick ftrings twice as long
as thofe of the lute ; which cxcefs of length renders their
found fo exceedingly fott, and keeps it up fo long a time,
that it is no wonder many prefer it to the harpfichord itfelf.
At leaft it has this advantage over it, that it is ealily removed
from place to place, &c.

All its ftrings are ufually fingle ; though there are fome
who double the bafs-ftrings with a little oclave, or the fmall
ftrings with an unifon ; in which cafe, bearing more re-
femblance to the lute than the common theorbo, the Italians
call it the arcileuto, or arch-lute.

THEOREM, in the Mathematical Method, a propofition
which terminates in theory, and which confiders the properties
of things already made or done.

Or, a theorem is a fpeculative propofitipn, deduced from
feveral definitions compared together. Thus, if a triangle
be compai-ed with a parallelogram ftanding on the fame bafe,
and of the fame altitude, and 'partly from their immediate
definitions, and partly from other of their properties already
determined, it is inferred, that tlie parallelogram is double
the triangle : that propofition is the theorem.
Theorem ftands contradiftinguiftied from problem.
There are two things to be chiefly regarded in every
theorem, ijiz. the propofition and the demonftration : in the
firft is exprefr^d what agrees to fome certain thing under
certain conditions, and what does not.

In the latter, the reafons are laid down, by which the
iinderftanding comes to conceive, that it does or does not
agree to them.

Theorems are of various kinds : as,

Theorem, Umverfal, is that which extends to any quan-
tity without reftriftion, univerfally. As this, that the
reftangle of the fum and difl"erence of any two quantities
is equal to the difference of their fquares.

Theorem, Particular, is that which extends only to a
particular quantity. As this: in an equilateral right-lined
triangle, each of the angles is fixty degrees.

Theorem, Negative, is that which expreffes the impofli-
bility of any aflertion. As, that the fum of two biqua-
drate numbers cannot make a fquare number.

Theokem, Local, is that which relates to a furface. As,
that triangles of the fame bafe and altitude are equal.

Theorem, Plane, is that which either relates to a reftili-
near furface, or to one terminated by the circumference of a
circle. As, that all angles in the fame fegment of a circle
are equal.

Theorem, Solid, is that which confiders a fpace ter-
minated by a folid ; that is, by any of the three conic
feflions. E. gr. this : that if a right line cut two afymp-
totic parabolas,' its two parts terminated by them fliall be
equal. See Solid.

Theorem, Reciprocal, is one whofe converfe is true.
As, that if a triangle have two equal fides, it muft have
two equal angles : the converfe of which is likewife true,
that if it have two equal angles, it muft have two equal
fides.

Theorem, in Algebra and Anahfts, is fometimes tifed
to denote a rule, particularly when that rule is expreffed
in fymbols or formula, of which there is of courfe a great
number j but of thefe, fome few, either from their im-
portance.

THEOREM.

povtaiice, ciiviority, or otlifr coiificlcrations, have retained
particular denomiiiatioiis, uiicler which they are frequently
referred to bv modern authors : it is therefore neccliary to
liaTe them fo clafTed, that a reader may be able to afcertain
the principles on which they are founded, the purpofes tliey
are intended to anfwer, and the cafes to which they will
heft apply. The theorems to wliich we here allude, are
Bernoulli's theorem, the Binomial theorem, Cotcs's, Taylor's,
Maclaurin's, &o.

BcrnouUi's Theorem, is a general formula for the de-
velopement of any fluent or integral, of any propofed
fluxion or diflercntial ; which may be llated as follows : iiiz.
X being any function of .v,

■■c' d'X .v'

1.2 d x - " I . 2 . 3

d'X .V*

- -j— - . , &c.

d .V ^ 1.2.3.4

Let us denote by Y, the value of this integral when x =: o,

X, ^, 414. Sec- bemg alfo denoted by Y', Y", Y'", &c.
d .V d .V

and we (hall have generally.

/xd.v = x^-'\2i

-^ I d .V

/Xd.v = Y + Y' —

+ Y".

- + Y'" -
2 I

+ &c.

1.2 1.2.3

Now, in order to pafs from the general value of yX d x,
which we Ihall reprefent by y, to that which anfwers to tlie
cafe of X = o, it is evident that we mufl in Taylor's formula
make A = ~ x, which gives

^=^-di:--T^d~

.V

I . 2

v-!

fubftituting in this equation, in the place oi y.

1.2.

y

+ &c.

d y d*j'

d X d x'

, &c.

their refpeftive values, and taking that of y X d .y, wc fhall
have

rxdx=Y+x. -— . +:t-T- Sec.

J I dxi.2 dxi.2.3

the quantity Y being ftill a conftant arbitrary. By inte-
grating, we arrive alfo at this developement : thus, if we
decompofe the differential X d x into its two faftors X and
d X, and integrate the fecond, we (hall have

/Xdx = Xx-/xdX.

But

^dX , X dX , . -d^X

= / -] . X d X = i X ^ i / X - — —

.^dx ^ dx ■'.'dx

d X

d'X

dx '
. d'X

^d'X

, ^d^X , ^ 3d3X

J dx' J Ax'

&c.

x' dx= i x"
&c.

And putting fuccelTively for/x d X,/x
refpeftive values, there refults,

/"Xdx

dx

d^X

d.-,

&c.
d' X

x dX

A. -; —

I dx

2 "*" dx'

3

-&c.

&c. their

which is the theorem of John Bernoulli, and is the fame
with regard to the integral calhilus, as that of Taylor to the
differential.

Binomial Theorem, or Newtonian theorem, ii a (/eiieral
formula for the developement of any binomial of the

fomi (a + x)" ; viz.

{a -I- x) " =

" r m f x\ m m — « / X \ ' m m — n

a- X]i + -{ — ) + -. (_ +- . —

(. n \ a / n 2 n \a / n 2 n

m — 2 n / X V „ ?
. — -) + &c. \

See Binomial Theorem.

Briggs's Theorem. — There are more than one formula that
have received this defignation, but we believe that the fol-
lowing is generally underftood to be iipplied ; vi%.

" The «th differences of any confecutive nth powers, or
of any nth powers whofc roots are in arithmetical pro-
greffion, are expreffed by the formula

„(„_,)(„_ 2) („_ 3) (n- 4) . . . i.d»

d being the common difference of the roots."

The demonftration of this theorem is commonly made to
depend upon principles drawn from the fluxional analyfis j
but we prefer giving a fl^etch of that which appeared in
vol. xi. of the Irifli Tranfaftions by Mr. Burk, being de-
duced from the moft elementary confiderations.

We know that the expanfion of (^ -|- x)*, is of the form

p" + nxp'-'+ Cxy-'+ Dx'/)"-' + &C.

Let 0, p, q, r, s. Sec. be the terms of any decrealing arith-
metical progrefTion, of which the difference is d ; then lince
o=/ + d, ^ = ^ + d, &c. we have

0"= {p + d)''=p" + ndp"-+Cd^p'-'+ &c.
/."= {q + dY = q" + ndq"-'+Cd'q"-'+ &c.
q"={r + d)' = r" + ndr"'+ Ci^r'-'+SiC.
Taking the firfl, fecond, third, &c. differences, we have

Fiijl Differences

ndp''^'+ Cd'^p"~'+ &c.
ndq'-'+ Cd'q'—'+ Sic.
nd;-"-' -1- Cd'r'-'-f- &c.

And fmce />"-'= {q + d)"~' = q"~' + (n — ijdy""- &c.
we have for the

Second Differences

«d (n — l) dq"-- + &c.

«d (n- I) dr"—--\- &c.

nd (n — i) d j"~'-t- &c.

Third Differences

nd{tt— l) d (« — 2) dr"-» + &c.
nd {« — i) d (« — 2) dj"-"+ &c.

Fourth Differences
nd{n— l)d(n — 2)dj"-'(n — 3) dr"-'+ &c.
Whence, by an infallible and obvious deduAion,

eth D'fferences

«d (n — ») d (n — 2) (n — n — I ) d'oi" "

(a + \)th Differences

nd(n— i)d(n — 2) {n — n)dv~' .

3 Q 2 But

THEOREM.

But fince n — n = o, the (« + i)th differences =: o ; and
fincc ■a;" ~ ' = w" = I , the nth differences become

„(„_,)(„_ 2) („- 3) 3.2.1 d."

It may not be amifs to obferve, tliat we have only em-
ployed the firft term of the feveral orders of differences,
which however is fufBcient for our purpofe, fince it is ob-
vious that the nth difference can have but one term ; for
the developcment of {p + d)"give8 n + i terms ; and fince
one term vanifhes with every difference, the firfl difference
will have 11 terms, the fccond n — i, the third n — 2, &c. ;
and confequcntly the nth difference will have « — (" ~ 0
= I term only. See Irifh Tranfactions, vol. xi. or Monthly
Review, vol. Ixxiv.

Coles's Theorem, or Cotejian Theorem. — The geometrical
properties of this very interefling theorem are explained
under the article Cotesian" Theorem; it will only be necef-
fary therefore in this place to ftate the fame analytically. In
this cafe, the general enunciation is :

" All the imaginary roots of the binomial equation x" —
1=0, are contained in the general formula x^ — 2 cof.

2 k;r

'- .V -I- I = o ; and thofe of x" + I = o, in the formula

n

. (2/5+ l)^ ,, .

X — 2 col. — .V -}- I = o, « bemg any mteger not

divifible by n, and ^ reprefenting the femi-circumfcrence."
See Reciprocal Equations.

Euler's Theorem is ufed to denote the theorem or formula
firft given by this author, for afcertaining the direft integra-
bility of differential equations, which is as follows. The
equation being reduced to the form

Md.v + Ndji = o,

M N
where M and N are functions of x and v ; if ^— = -r— , then

ay ax

the integration may be obtained by a direft procefs ; but if

this equality have not place, the integration can then only

be effefted by indireft means, which frequently involve con-

fiderable difficulty.

Fermai's Theorem There are feveral theorems in the

theory of numbers which are due to this ingenious analyft ;

but that which is more particularly defigned by Fermat's

theorem is this; •viz. " Neither the fum nor difference of any

two integral powers, above the fquare, can be equal to a

rational power of the fame dimenfion:" or,' which is the

fame, the equation

is always impoffible in rational numbers, if « be greater
than 2.

The cafes of n = 3 and n = 4 have been demonftrated ;
but notwithftanding the numerous attempts of the 1110ft ce-
lebrated anal)'fts of the laft and of the prefent age, the cafe
of n = 5, and all the fucceeding values of «, remain with-
out demonftration ; and as this is now the only theorem of
this author which has not fubmitted to the power of the
modern analyfis, the National Inftitute of France has made
it the fubjeft of the prize of 3000 francs, to be decided
by 1818.

Under the article Numbbrs, amongft the mifcellaneous
propofitions, we have mentioned another theorem of Fermat's,
which had not then been demonftrated, but which has fince
been effefted by M. Cauchy, correfponding member of the
Inftitute. The reader will alfo find fome farther remarks
relative to the equation jc" + f = z", under our article
Power.

Gau/s's Theorem is ufed to denote a theorem invented by
this diltinguifhcd mathematician, for the folution of certaii;
binomial equations. We have feen, in the article Recipro-
cal Equations, \n what manner the roots of binomial equations
may be obtained by means of a table of fines and cofines ;
but Gaufs's theorem is the converfe of this, and fhews in
what manner the fines and cofines of certain angles may be
obtained, by tlie numerical folution of fuch equations. See
Polygon.

Guldin's Theorem h the fame as the Centrobaryc Method;
which fee.

Lagrange's Theorem is commonly ufed to denote the gene-
ral formula affumed by Lagrange as the foundation of his
theory of funftions ; which may be thus enunciated.

" If C X be any funftion whatever of a variable quantity
X, and if x changes its value, and becomes x + i, then the
<i [x + i) may be reprefented or refolved into a feries of
tlie form

?> [x + i) = f .V + Pi + Qi' + Ri' + &e.

in which the co-efBcients of the powers of i are new func-
tions of .V, derived from the primitive funftion x, indepen-
dent of / ; and, moreover, that every co-efficient is derived
from the preceding one, in the fame manner as the firll m
derived from the original funftion." See Functions.

Leibnitz's Theorem is a theorem propofed by this author foi-
differencing under the i\gnf, and it may be exhibited under

, , d/Md.v ,dM^ ... Au ^ .

the form -^^-^j = I — — d x, where JVl := -j— , u being

ay -^ ay ax

any funftion of x and y.

„. d M d «

omce - — ,— =

— by the known principles of the

Q.vdj ay ax

differential calculus ; if we make u = / M d .■«, we fhall have

d« ,, d^a dM _,. . .,

- — = JVl, - — -^— = -r — ; and integrating with regard to x,
ax ax ay ay 00 o

we fhall find

/• d" a

.^ d V d X dy *^ d V

d X dy J dy d x

This is called by Leibnitz differentiatio decurva in curugm,
becaufe in the queftion which he propofed to refolve, he
paffed from one curve to another of the fame fpecies, by
making one of the conftant quantities variable. See La
Croix " Calcul Integral."

AJaclaurin's Theorem is a formula which we owe to this
author for expreffing any funttion y, of a variable quantity x ;
•viz. adopting the differential notation,

x^ -\- &e-

where {y), [j^\ (-j— ^j, &c. reprefent what thefe feveral

quantities become when x = o.

Let jr c= A + B.M + C.v^ + Dk^ + &c.
differencing, and dividing by d x, we have

dx

ix

d\y

dx3

= B -f- 2C.-C +

T^.= 2C -I-

3D.-e' + &c.
2 .3 D« + &c.

+ 2 . 3 D -f &c.

coufe-

THEOREM.

confequently, when .v in each of thefc = o, we have

« = -.0 = «^(7^) = =^

2 . 3 d.v

= D;

therefi

ore,

Sec Maclaurin's " Fluxions," and Boucharlat's " Calcul
DifFerentiel, &c."

Moivre's Theorem. See the next article.

' Myltinom'tal Theorem, fometimes called Moivre's theorem,
having been firfl difcovered by that author, ?3 a general
expreffion or formula for determining any power or root
of a given quantity confiding of any number of terms.
This theorem was firil pubhfhed by its author in N° 230.
of the Phil. Tranf. 1697 ; but it was afterwards fim-
plified by Euler in his " Calcul DifFerentiel," and the
fame has alfo been done by Arbogaft in his " Calcul des
Derivations."

The general form of this theorem, as given in Bonny-
caftle's Algebra, is as follows :

(A + A.V + A.\-- + Ax3 + . . . . Ax')" = A" +

c I -J 3 n

wAB. Jl +

. o A ^

2m A B"

a o

+

3 m A B

+

4m A B

+ (m-i)ABf2A + (2"'-i)ABljc3_ +(3,n_i)AB

+ {»; - 2) A B

Where B = A", and B, B, B, &c. are the co-efficients

00 12 3

of the terms immediately preceding thofe in which they firft
appear ; and the manner of applying this theorem to any
particular cafe, is by fubflituting the numbers or letters in
the given example for A, A, A, &c. and the numerical

O 1 3

value of m for m. It would lead us too far to attempt the
demonftration of this theorem in this place, we muft, there-
fore, refer the reader for fuch information to the works
above-mentioned.

Ncwtoman Theorem. See Binomial Theorem.

Taylor's Theorem, an elegant and highly valuable formula,
which was firft publifhed by Dr. Brook Taylor in his
" Methodus Incrementorum," which is as follows ; wz.

" If Y reprefent any funftion whatever of the variable
quantity x, and if x be increafed by any difference ^ x, the
value of Y, viz. Y -H AY, becomes (employing the dif-
ferential notation )

A»-d"Y Ax'd^Y

Y + AY=:Y +

AxAY

A Y =

A^-dY

+

1 .2

A.v"-d

d.v

Y

+

1 . 2 . 3dx

Ax'd3 Y

+ &c.

I . 2 . d.t- I . 2 . 3 d.v
The demonftration of this celebrated theorem is given very
concifely by La Croix, on the following principles.

Let Y be any funftion of x, and let Y' denote what this
funftion becomes, when x becomes x -t- /', we may write
Y' = A + B/. + CA^ + D^3 ^ &c.

in which developemeiit, it is obvious that A, B, C, &c.
are funftions of .v.

If now we difference this equation with h variable and x
conftant, we obtain, dividing hy A.h,

Y'

y-; = B + 2C/j + 3D/J' + &c.

Again, differencing with .v vaiiable and h conflant, we have
Y' dA dB, dC,^ dD,, ,

J- =-~ + h 4 -r— h' + -— h' + &C.

Qx doc ax ax ax

But as X and h enter cxattly in the fame manner, it follows

Y' Y'
that — = -r-^ whence the firil of thefe feries is equal to the

+ (2 m — 2) A B
+ (m - 3) A B

4A

+ &c.

focond ; equating, therefore, the co-efficients of the like
powers of h, we have

2 d;

Now

B = - — ,

d X

D =

3 d .%■'

&c.

A = Y, B =

whence
Y' = Y

dY

d.v

,C =

d-Y
I . 2 . d.\

l.D =

d'Y

dY

h +

dT

I .2

h^ +

d'Y

Or writing

Y' =
we have

AY ^"''^

I . 2 . 3 d .V
Y + A Y, and .-« -i- A = .-v -I- A x.

,3 d:

//-H&c.

1 .Ax

+

^d = Y

, 2 . d .V

+

A.v3d3Y

+ &c.

I . 2 . 3 dj
See La Croix " Calcul Differentiel," p. 21.

Trinomial Theorem is only a particular cafe of the MM-
nomialTheorem, which fee.

Wdfon's Theorem is a curious formula relative to prime
numbers, publifhed firfl by Waring in his " Meditationes
AlgebraicjE," which is as follows.

" If n be any prime number, then will

I . 2 . 3 . 4, &c. {« - i) + I
be divifible by n."

This curious theorem was not demonflrated by fir John
Wilfon, wlio firfl difcovered it, nor by Waring, by whom it
was firfl made pubhc ; it lias, however. Since received
different demonflrations from Lagrange, Gaufs, &c. the
latter of which is very fimple, and has been adopted by
Barlow in his " Theory of Numbers," to which work we
beg to refer our readers, as it would require more room
than we can allow ourfelves to give it at full length in this
place.

The above include, we believe, all thofe theorems which
are known by any particular defignation ; there are, doubt-
lefs, many others equally important, and whicli are equally
entitled to bear the names of tlieir refpeftivo authors,
but cuflom lias not fanftioned the adoption ; and we have,
therefore, not introduced them.

THEO.

T H F

THEORETIC, Thkorf.tical, or Theoric, fom\ed
from S..--. /A or.onlrml,lju, fomething relating to theory,
or tliat t'.Tii.ii..ilcs in fpeculatio... In which fenle it Hands
oppofcd to hraBical.

The Iciences are ordinarily divided yMo theoretical, asthco-
lofry, philofophy, &c. ; md praflical, as medicine, law, &c.

Set SllKSCK. ,• 1 •

TiiKORETir, Theoretiais, is an appellation peculiarly given
to an ancient fed of phylicians, contradiftingui(hed by it from
the empirics. See EMflKiC.

Theoretic plivficiaiis were fiich as applied themfelves to a
careful lludy and confideration of what relates to health and
difeafes ; the principles of the human body, and its ftrufture
and parts, with their actions and ufes ; whatever befals it,
cither naturally or pretcrnaturaUy ; the differences of dif-
eafes, their nature, caufes, figns, indications, &c. ; the tex-
tures, properties, &c. of plants, and other medicines, &c.
In a word, the liieoretic phyficians were fuch as proceeded
in their judgment and praftice on the fool of reafon, in op-
pofition to the empirical phyficians, who proceeded wholly
on experience. See Medicine.

Theoretical Arithmetic and Philofophy. See the fub-
llantivcs.

THEORI, Swfoi, in Antiquity, an appellation given to
thofe Athenians who performed the foleumity called thcoria.
THEORI A, Siifix, a folemn annual voyage to Apollo's
temple, in the ifland of Delos, performed by the Athenians
always in the fame (hip in which Thefeus went. For the
particularities of this naval proccflion, fee Potter Archasol.
Grncc. lib. ii. cap. 9. torn. i. p. 284, feq.

THEORIC lAo'St.\,\n Ancient Authors, was what was
raifcd, by way of tax on the people, to defray the expences
of theatrical reprefentations, and other fpeftacles.

There were particular quedors and treafurers of the theoric
money. By a law of Eubulus, it was made a capital crime
to pervert tlic theoric money to any other ufe ; even to em-
ploy it in the occafions of war.

THEORICAL Astronomy, is that part of aftronomy
which conliders the true llrufturc and difpofition of the hea-
vens, and heavenly bodies ; and accounts for their various
phenomena therefrom. Sec Astronomy.

It is thus called, in oppofition to that part which con-
fiders their apparent ftrufture, or their difpofition as viewed
by the eye, which is cA\cA fpherical aftronomy.

The feveral parts of theorical aftonomy, fee under Sys-
tem, Sln, Star, Planet, Earth, Mook, Satellite,
and Comet.

THEORY, a doftrine which terminates in the fole fpe-
culation, or confideration, of its objeft, without any view to
the praftice or apphcation of it.

To be learned in an art, &c. the theory fuffices ; to be a
mafter of it, both the theory and praftice are i-equired. Ma-
chines, many times, promife very well in the theory, yet fail
in the praftice.

We fay, theory of the moon, theory of the rainbow, of
the microfcope, the camera obfcura, the motion of the heart,
the operation of purgatives, &c.

Theories of the Planets, &c. are fyftems or hypothefes,
according to which the aftronomers explain the reafons of
the phenomena or appearances of them. See Syste.m.

Tjieory, in AJufic, in the hands of a mere mathematician
is f onfined only to ratios and the philofophy of found. ( See
Harmonics.) I5ut among praaical muficians, the theory
of harmony or compofition is connefted with the combina-
tion of agreeable founds, ^nd the praftice and performance
pi real mufic.

Theory, Atomic, in Chemifiry, the means of explaining
9

THE

the compofition and dccompofition of chemical bodies, br
confidering their ultimate atoms or particles as peculiar anif
diftinft elementary fohds, never changing in their figure,
weight, or volume, under any circumltances.

It would be difficult to conceive the exiftencc of any com-
pound, without fuppofing it to have originated by union, in
fome way or other, of particles of its elcmentaiy conftituents ;
but the prevalence of a doftrine, which has been generally
advanced by mathematicians, -ufz. the infinite divifibility of
matter, has never allowed philofophcrs to conclude that the
circumftance of compounds being made up of particles, muft
neceffarily limit the proportions in which the elements com-
bine. If the elementary bodies be conceived infinitely divi-
fible, the molecules, or compound particles, may be con-
ceived infinitely fmall, and the number of mean compounds
exifting between any two given extremes may be alfo con-
fidcrcd Infinite.

If fuch were the nature of elementary matter, and no
other caufes interfered, there could be no limitation to the
proportions in which fimple matter would combine. Thisj
however, is contrary to faft; as it is a faft known from the
carlicft dawnings of chemical knowledge, that bodies are
limited in the proportions of their elements ; the moil
ftriking of thefe fafts being the mutual faturation which
takes place between an acid and an alkah, and the uniform
proportions afforded in the analyfis of many native com-
pounds.

Philofophers were always fatisfied to confider this faft of
the limitation of the proportions of bodies as one of the hidden
fecrets of nature, as difficult to conceive as the nature of the
atti aftion by which their elements were held together. Ber-
thoUet appears to have been the firll to attempt this arduous
tafk, in his ingenious work, entitled " Chemical Statics."
He fuppofes that the particles of bodies, when brought within
the fphere of attraftion, combine without controul till the
compound affumes fome definite form, by which it is with-
drawn from the fituation in which it was formed. He fup-
pofes the chemical affinity of bodies to be diftinft from that
power on which their cohefion depends, and alfo that power
by which they tend to an elaftic ftate.

Hence he concludes, that every folid compound is deter-
mined by the cohefion which takes place at fome limit in the
proportion of its elements : fuch he fuppofes to be the cafe
with falts and other cryftallizable compounds. On the other
hand, he fuppofes the hmitations of the proportions of the
elements of gafeous compounds to arife from the elaftic
form which they aflume in certain ftages of combination.
This hypothefis was fupported by fo many ftriking fafts,
that it was thought by fome to explain in general the caufe
of limited proportions. All agreed, that whatever might
be the true theory, the caufes pointed out by Berthollet had
confiderable influence in the compofition and decompofition
of bodies, but they faw at the fame time numerous cafes in
which this hypothefis failed to explain the fafts.

Chemifts have, from the earlieft times, been acquainted
with thofe points of limitation which we call mutual fatu-
ration, and have been long familiar with thofe limited aug-
mentations of their proportions, called by fome dofes and
by others particles. Among the oxyds of metals, which
had been little examined before the time of Lavoifier, it was
found, that inftead of having an infinite number of means
between the loweft and higheft ftages of oxydation, only a
certain number of oxyds of each metal could be formed, in
which the ratio of the metal to the oxygen is uniform.
Many of the falts in the fame way are formed by limited
dofes of acid. Some of the fafts in the latter have been
explained on BerthoUet's hypothefis, while its application

to

THKORY.

lo the former fafts is totally intufficient. Long previous to
tlie true caufe of thofe*liniited doles, the fafts were fo coiifpi-
cuous, that a decided nomenclature was adopted for the pur-
pofe of exprelling thefe difTereut Rages ot combination. The
oxyds have been dillinguiflied by the Greek numerals prol,
ilait, tr'it. Sec. The falts containing two dofes of acid have
been cMed fuper-falts ; and thofe containing an extra dofe of
bafe, have been ca\\edful)-Jhl/s.

Although chemills have frequently ufed a language which
appeared to Ihew their acquaintance with the real caufe of
the definite proportions, fuch as one compound being forced
by one proportion, dofe, or particle uf one of its elements,
and another with two proportions, dofes, or particles : on
the other hand, we find exprcfllons which would favour the
idea of indefinite proportions ; fuch as bodies lofing a
fmall portion of their oxygen, or abforbing a little oxygen
from the atmofphere. Salts are foraetimes faid to contain a
flight excefs of acid, or a fmall excefs of bafe.

The moll decided language ufed in any chemical work
before the difcoveries of Mr. John Dalton, giving any idea
that the dofes are limited bv diftinct atoms, will be found in
a work by Mr. Higgins, entitled " A Comparative View of
the Phlogiftic and Antiphlogiftic Theories." We beg leave
to correal a miftake in a former article, in which we have
entitled this work a Treatife on Phlogifton.

This work was written for the exprefs purpofe of com-
batting the phlogiftic theory, and principally in anfwer to
Mr. Kirwan's treatife of phlogifton. In order to fhew the
<;ontradiclions and abfurdities of the phlogiftic doftrine,
which, under the name of phlogifton, confounded a number
of bodies which were very different, he exhibited by
<5iagrams a number of chemical operations, in which he
liippofed the elementary bodies concerned to be ultimate
particles, and their immediate compounds molecules. He
in the fame diagrams alfo ufed numbers, which he fuppofed
to be eftimates of the ftrength of affinity of the combin-
ing particles. By this means he very fuccefsfuUy fhewed
many of the inconfiftencies which muft be admitted to
explain the phenomena on the phlogiftic theory. In this
mode of proceeding, however, the numbers exprelling the
relative attraftions, ferved his purpofe much more than the
:onfideration of the proportions being caufed by diftiniS
r.toms ; and the language which would induce the belief
that he had fucli a conception of the nature of elementary
matter, occurs only in a very few parts of his work.

After concluding that it is unneceflary to admit the ex-
iftence of the imaginary fubftance phlogifton in fulphur, he
concludes, in page 36, that fulphurous acid is compounded
of one ultimate particle of fulphur with one of oxygen,
and that fulphuric acid confifts of one of fulphur and two
of oxygen.

In the fame page he alfo obferves, that water is formed
by one ultimate particle of water united to one of oxygen.

In page 81, he fuppofes fulphuretted hydrogen to confift
of nine ultimate particles of fulphur with five of hydro-
gen. Previous, however, to this conchifion, he believes
that the fulphur and hydrogen are not chemically combined,
but that the fulphur is dilTolved in hydrogen, as a fait dif-
folves in water.

After ufing arguments to ftiew , in anfwer to Mr. Kirwan,
that the nitric acid does not contain what was thought to be
phlogifton, he concludes, in page 132, with giving what he
conceives to be its conftituents, «/2. that the nitrous oxyd
confifts of one ultimate particle of azote and one of oxygen ;
litrous gas, of one of azote and two of oxygen ; red ni-
trous vapour, one of azote and three of oxygen ; ftraw-

coloured nitrous acid, one of azote to four of oxygen; and
laftly, that the nitric acid is conftituted by one of az.ote and
live of oxygen. Tliefe fafts are certainly very remarkable,
as they agree with the conclufions in the prcfent time, and give
a ftrong proof of Mr. Higgins's genius at the time he wrote.

He does not, liowever, lay any llrefs upon thefe remai'ks,
and was not probably aware that they would be confirmed
by future refearch. We are induced to think fo, from the
manner in which he exprefles himfclf in other parts of his
work, in which he frequently fpeaks of the abforption of
fmall portions of oxygen, and of bodies having a fmall
portion of oxygen more than tliey can retain. This vague
manner of fpeaking, and others which we do not immediately
recolleift, is fuflicient to fliew that Mr. Higgins had no
fixed notions of the caufe of definite proportions, and that
the language in which he has ufed the words ultimate par-
ticles and molecules, was employed rather with a view to
illuftrate his examples, than to broach any new theory to
explain indefinite proportions. Indeed it would have been
inconfiftent to have treated two fubjefts, fo very different in
their objefts, in the fame pages.

As a proof that there was nothing ftriking in the remarks
in which the words ultimate atoms and molecules are men-
tioned, we only need refer to the article which Mr. Hig-
gins himfelf quotes from the Analytical Review, written
foon after the appearance of the work in queftion. The
reviewer gives him the higheft praife for the able manner in
which he lias refuted the doftrine ot phlogifton, but does not
even hint at his diagrams or the ultimate particles. Indeed
we can venture to aftert, that if no more had been faid on
the fubjeft of definite proportions than is to be found in
this work, w» might yet have been as much in the dark
as we were twenty years after the publication of Mr. Hig-
gins's " Comparative View."

It was not enough to know that compound bodies were
formed of particles, to enable us to explain the caufe of
definite proportions ; and we waut no greater proof of this,
than the faft of the true caufe not being known till twenty-
eight years after Mr. Higgins liad told us that one particle
of fulphur and one of oxygen formed fulphurous acid,
and that one to two formed fulphuric. acid. Thefe
loofe expreflions v/ere but a fmall ftep indeed tow.irds the
difcovery of the atomic theory in its prelent form, which
has placed chemiftry on the fame ground with that on
which the difcovery of the laws of gravity placed the
fcience of aftronomy.

We are inclined to believe that the firft ftep towards this
important difcovery was given by Richter. He found,
in the double decompofition of falts, that the acid of one
fait was always juft fufficient to faturate the bafe of the
other, and •vice' verfd. He alfo afcertained, that when one
metal was precipitated by another, the oxygen of the pre-
cipitated metal was juft what was required by the preci-
pitating metal.

The inference to be drawn from thefe fafts was, that
if A combine with .v to faturation, and B with y to the
fame ; then, if A ihould be found to faturate y, B
would alfo faturate x. This inference may be ftill further
extended ; for if A be a body capable of combining -with
B, they will mutually faturate each otlier.

It is the means of drawing thefe inferences arifing from
the mutual fitnefs of thofe parts of bodies which combine,
that conftitutes the importance of the atomic theory, and it
is for the eftablilhment of this new principle that we are in-
dcbtedy to Mr. John Dalton. When Mr. Higgins can
Ihew, ftom the data given in his work, that fimilar infer-

euce*

THEORY.

anct3 could be drawn, he tlicn will be eotitled to (hare
ui the merit of the difcovery of tlie atomic theory. Wc
lay (hare with him, for wc are iinnly convinced that Mr. Dal-
ton had never read Mr. Higgins's book previous to the pub-
lication of his own work.

We perfcftly recoileft the time, not more than four or
five years ago, even when Mr. Dahon's book was before
the public, vcr)' few chemills underllood the true fpirit of
the atomic theory ; and thofe who conceived they did under-
llaiid it, in general difcarded it. All knew that he con-
fidered compounds to be formed of atoms united i to i,
I to 2, I to 3, &c. : but it was not till the reciprocal
fitnefs of thefc atoms with each other was found to agree
with analyfis, that it was generally received. When they
faw that the numbers, whicli Dalton called tlie weights of
the atoms, expreffed tlie fimple proportions in which bodies
combine, they knew it could not be the effeft of chance,
and have willingly joined in the refearcli. It is for this
part of the difcover)- that Mr. Dalton juftly merits the
fame he has acquired.

We have given all the fafts on which Mr. Higgins could
poflibly found liis claim to the difcovery ; and we muft
leave it to our readers to judge, whether they contain the
fmallell data on which to eftablilh what in the prefent time
wc call the atomic theory.

In all the chemical articles fince the article Iron, we have
had the grcateft confidence in the atomic theory ; and we
have never failed to compare the analyfes of different autho-
rities with the refults given by theory. We have in general
found, that thefe refults have been nearer to the beft of thefe
authorities, than they have been to each other.

We have already given an outline of the atomic theory,
with a table of the weights of the fimple atoms, and an-
other of fome of the moft confpicuous compounds, in our
articles Dcjinite Proportions, and Simple Bodies.

The French chemifts have adopted the atomic theory
under another form, which will be found to agree with the
language given by Berzelius, who ufes the word •volume for
atom, as we have already explained in the article above al-
luded to.

Gay Luffac feveral years ago publifhed a nevv- law refpeft-
iiig the combination of gafeous bodies. He held that gafes
which combine chemically, either unite in equal volumes,
or I to 2, or fome multiple of i, by a whole number.
Although a number of facls feemed to agree with this law,
the truth of it was doubted by fome chemifts, and princi-
pally becaufe no apparent reafon appeared for fuch a law.

In ftating (under the article Proportions) the notion
of Berzehus refpefting volumes, we have pointed out a
curious coincidence between the fpecific gravity and the
weight of atoms of the gafes, which has fince been con-
finned by Dr. Prout in Dr. Thomfon's Annals. In order
that the weights of the atoms may be equal to their fpecific
gravities, we have there ftated, that the number of particles
in equal volumes of all gafes muft be equal, and tlic dif-
tance between the centres of the particles of all gafes the
fame, fo that the weights of equal volumes of different
gafes, would be as the weights of the atoms.

This would alfo 'require, that the attraftion between the
particles ftiould either be the fame in all, or that it (hould
be nothing ; and the diftance of the particles be at points
where the repulfion of the calorific atmofphere is balanced
by the incumbent prclTure.

The ftate hc-re fuppofed, however, is not the cafe, fince
we find tiiat the weights of the atoms of the gafes gene-
rally are not equal to the fpecific gravity, when reduced to

the fame ftandard, although it is Itriclly the cafe with a
great proportion of them. And in thofe cafes where they arc
not equal, the one is faid to be fome multiple of the other,
by a whole number.

This circumftance favours the hope that fome general
law exifts, by which the weights of the atoms of bodies are
intimately connefted with their fpecific gravities in the
elaftic form. When the fpecific gravity is double the weight
of the atom, as is the cafe with oxygen, we have to fup-
pofe, that the particles are nearer each other in the propor-
tion of 2 to 1, or that two particles come together, and
are furrounded by the caloric, which belongs to one o£
them in tlieir fingle ftate.

It would appear that the oxygen puts on this fingle ftate
of exiftence in the formation of carbonic oxyd, becaufe that
gafeous body contains only one atom of oxygen ; hence
its fpecific gravity is the fame as if it were formed from a
gafeous oxygen of half the real fpecific gravity united to
an atom of carbon without any change of volume, the fame
as takes place when fulphur or carbon is burned in oxygen
gas. Hence we may explain the gi-eat tendency that oxy-
gen has to combine in double dofes with bodies, as is the
cafe with carbon, fulphur, phofphorus, iron, and many
other bodies.

We have alfo an inftance of a compound gafeous body be-
coming of double the fpecific gravity which would be ex-
pefted in olefacient gas, which is compofed of an atom of
carbon and an atom of hydi-ogen. The fpecific gravity
(hydrogen being i) ought to be i -(- 5.4 = 6.4; but
in faft it is about the double of this. Hence we fhould
conclude, that the repulfion between the particles is halved,
or that the compound atoms have united in pairs, by which
the denfity is doubled.

Theory of the ManufaRwe and ProduB'ion of Bread, in
Rural Economy, the explanation of the principles and prac-
tices on which it depends in different cafes. The means which
are employed in fuch cafes are moftly well undcrilood ; but
the principles upon which they depend are far from being
fo well known. The writer of a late work on the " Ele-
ments of Agricultural Chemiftry," has, however, thrown
fome light on this hitherto intricate fubjeft. He has no-
ticed, that a number of the changes taking place in the
vegetable principles, depend upon the feparation of oxygen
and hydrogen as water from the compound ; but that there
is one of very great importance, in which a new combina-
tion of the elements of water is the principal operation :
this is in the manufafture of bread. When any kind of
flour, which confifts principally of ftarch, is made into a
pafte with water, and immediately and gradually heated to
about 440°, it increafes, it is faid, in weight, and is found
entirely altered in its properties ; it has loft its folubility in
water, and its power of being converted into fugar. In this
ftate it is unleavened bread.

And when the flour of corn, or the ftarch of potatoes,
mixed with boiled roots of the fame kind, is made into a
pafte with water, kept warm, and fuffered to remain thirty
or forty hours, it ferments, carbonic acid gas is difengaged
from it, and it becomes filled with globules of elaftic fluid.
In this ilate it is raifed dough, and aff"ords by baking
leavened bread ; but this bread, it is faid, is four and dif-
agreeable to the tafte ; and that leavened bread for ufe is
made by mixing a little dough that has fermented, with new
dough, and kneading them together, or by kneading the
materials for the bread with a fmaU quantity of yeaft.

It is ftated, that in the formation of wheaten bread, more
than one-fourth of the elements of water combine with the

flour ;

r H E

THE

flour ; that more water in proportion is confolidated in the
formutioii of bread from barley, and ftill a larger quantity
ill that from oats; but that the gluten in wheat, being in
mucli larger quantity than in other grain, feems to form a
combination with the ilarch and water, which renders
wheaten bread more digellible than other fpecies or kinds
of bread.

On this principle too it is probable, tliat this fort of
bread may be more fuitable and proper for the lefs labori-
ous clafTes of fociety, though the other kinds may be equally
or more .nourirtiing and lauing for thofe who are engaged
in hard work.

THEOSOPHI'STS, the denomination of a clafs of
philofophers, who profefs to derive their knowledge of na-
ture from divine revelation. Not contented with the natural
light of human reafon, nor with the llmple dotlrines of
fcripture underllood in their literal lenfe, thefe perfons have
recourfe to an internal fupernatural hght, fuperior to all
other illuminations, from which they pretend to derive a
myfterious and divine philofophy, manifefted only to the
chofen favourites of heaven. They boall, that, by means
of this celeftial light, they are not only admitted to the
intimate knowledge of God, and of all divine truth, but
have accefs to the moft fublime fecrets of nature. They
afcribe it to the Angular manifeftation of divine benevolence,
that they are able to make fuch an ufe of the element of
fire, in the chemical art, as enables them to difcover the
cflential principle of bodies, and to difclofe ftupendous
myfteries in the phyfical world. (See Fire Philofophers.)
They even pretend to an acquaintance with thofe celeftial
beings, which form the medium of intercourfe between
God and man, and to a power of obtaining froui them, by
the aid of magic, ailrology, and other fimilar arts, various
kinds of information and afliftance. This they afRrm to
have been the ancient fecret wifdom, firft revealed to the
Jews under the name of Cabbala, and tranfmitted by tradi-
tion to pofterity. Philofophers of this clafs have no com-
mon fyftem ; but every one follows the impulfe of his own
imagination, and conftrucls an edifice of fanaticifm for him-
felf. They only agree in abandoning human reafon, and pre-
tending to divine illumination. Many traces of the fpirit of
Theofophifm are to be found in the whole hiftory of philo-
fophy, in which fanatical and hypocritical pretenfions to divine
illumination frequently occur. Among moderns, the fii-ft
name that is mentioned with any diftinftion in this clafs of
philofophers is Paracelfus. ( See his biographical article. )
He was fucceeded by Robert Fludd, who compounded
into a new mafs of abfurdity all the myfterious and incom-
prehenfible dieams of the Cabbahfts and Paracelfians. He
fuppofed two univerial principles, the northern or condenf-
ing power, and the fouthern or rarefying power ; and over
thefe he placed innumerable intelligences and geniufes, and
called together whole troops of fpirits from the four winds,
to which he committed the charge of difeafes. ( See his
article.) Another dazzhng luminary in the conftellation of
Thcofophifts was Jacob Bcehmen. See Behmen.

A more fcientific Th.eofophift than Boehmen was Van
Helmont. (See Helmont.) The moft elegant and philofo-
phical of all the Thcofophifts was Peter Poiret, who was
born at Metz in the year 1646, and educated in the academy
of Bafil. In 1668 he became a ftudent in the univerfity of
Heidelberg, with a view of qualifying himfelf for the cleri-
cal profeflion, and in 1672 he alTumed the charafter of an
ecclefiaftic in the principality of Deux-Ponts. After a
fevere fit of illnefs, he wrote his " Cogitationes Rationales de
Deo, Anima, et Malo," in which he moftly followed the
principles of Des Cartes, having in his youth ftudied the

Vol. XXXV.

Cartefian philofophy ; a work which he defended againft
the cenfures of Bayle. Being obhged by the public tumults
to withdraw from his clerical cure, he removed to Holland,
and afterwards to Hamburgh, where he became acquainted
with the celebrated myftic Mad. Bourignon, and cnhfted
himfelf in the number of her difciples. Abandoning Car-
tefianilm, and fafcinatedwith Bourignonian myfticifm, he re-
jected the light of reafon as ufelefs and dangerous, and in-
veighed againft every kind of philofophy that was not the
effeft of divine illumination. Towards the clofe of his life
he fettled at Rheinfburg, in Holland, and employed himfelf
in writing myftical books ; luch were his treatifes " Dc CEco-
nomia Divina," " De Eruditione Triphci," and the laft edi-
tion of his " Cogitationes Rationales." He died in the year
1 7 19. Some of his myftical notions may be colleAed from
the preliminary differtation prefixed to his works : they are
fuch as thefe : " It hath pleafed God, in order that he may
enjoy a vivid and delightful contemplation of himfelf, be-
yond that folitude which belongs to the divine eftence, to
create external beings in whom he may produce an image of
himfelf. The eftence of the human mind is ' thought,'
capable and defirous of light, and joyful complacence ; the
properties in which it bears a refemblance of the divine
effence. Nothing is more intimate or eflential to the mind
than this defire ; by which it is borne always towards the
true and infinite good. In order to fatisfy this defire, the
illumination of faith is neceffary ; by means of which the
mind, confcious of its weaknefs and impotence, difclaims
all the fiftions of human reafon, and direfts itfelf towards
God with an intenfe and ineffable ardour, till, by the fiknt
contemplation of him, it is filled with tranquillizing light
and joyful complacence ; although, whilft opprefTed with
the load of mortahty, it cannot behold his unveiled face.
From this divine illumination proceeds the moft pacific fe-
renity of mind, the moft ardent love of God, and the moft
intimate union with him."

To the clafs of Thcofophifts it has been ufual to refer
the entire fociety of Rofycrucians ; which fee.

It will be fufficient to obferve, at the clofe of this article,
that the whole fyftem of Theofophifm is founded in delu-
fion, and that it is injurious both to philofophy and rehgion.
Thefe fuppofed illuminations are to be afcribed either to
fanaticifm or to impofture. The faftidious contempt, with
which thefe pretenders to divine wifdom have treated thofe
who are contented to foUow the plain dictates of common
fenfe, and the fimple doftrine of fcriptures, has unquef-
tionably impofed upon the credulous vulgar, and produced
an indifference to rational enquiry, which has obftrufted the
progrefs of knowledge. And their example has encou-
raged others to traduce philofophy and theology in general,
by reprefentiug them as refting upon no better foundation
than enthufiafm and abfurdity. It is to be charitably pre-
fumed, that thefe deluded vifionaries have not been them-
felves aware of the injury which they have been doing to
the interefts of fcience and rehgion. Neverthelefs, it muft
be regretted, both on their own account, and on account of
the multitudes they have mifled, that whilft they have
thought themfelves following a bright and fteady luminary,
they have been led aftray by wandering meteors. Brucker
by Enfield.

THEOTOCUS, Deipara. See Mother 0/ Go//.

THEOXENIA, eic^ina, in Jntiqmty, 3. feftival in ho-
nour of all the gods, and celebrated in many cities of
Greece, but efpeciaHy Athens.

THEOXINI Malagma, the name of a fort of cata-
plafm, good againft pains of the feet.

THERA, m Ancient GeographyyOXX of the iflands called

3 R Sj^QradfS)

THE

rt*,nJn, in the jEgein fea, bclween the inand of Crete aiiJ
the Cycladw. It is faid to have taken its naine from Theras,
a priuco of the race of Cadmus, who removed from Lace-
dimon into this inaiid, which was occupied by the defccnd-
ants of the Membharii, who had poffeffion of it 1 550 years
before our era ; wher.-as Pliny fays that it firft appeared in
the fourth year of the 135th olympiad. Tins ifland is now
called Sanlorin; which fee — Alfo, a town of the idand of
the fame name.— Alfo, a town of Afia Minor, in Caria, be-
tween Idymus and Pyllus.— Alfo, a town of Afia, in Sog-

diana.

THE RAMBUS, a town of Macedonia, in the penin-

fula of Fallen^.

THE RAM N^, a town of Afia Minor, in Lycia ; con-
fecrated to Apollo.

THERAPEUTjE, SepxTsura., a Greek term fignifying
fervants, more efpecially thofe employed in the fervice of
God. The -Greeks gave the appellation therapeutic to fuch
as appliL'd themfelves to a contemplative life, whether it
VKie from the great concern they had for their fouls, or
from the particular mode and manner of their religion ; the
word 5,:a-£i/Fi», whence therapeuta, fignifying the care a
phyfician takes of his patient, or the fervice any one renders
another.

Philo, in his firfl book of the Contemplative Life, relates,
that there were a people fprcad throughout moft of the
known world, but particularly throughout Egypt, and
about Abxandria, who renounced their friends, their goods,
&c. and who, after difcharging themfelves of all temporal
concerns, retired into folitary places, where they had each
their feparate manfion, called femne'ium, or monajlery, and
placed their whole felicity in the contemplation of the divine
nature.

The principal fociety of this kind was formed near
Alexandria, where they lived, not far from each other, in
feparate cottages, each of which had its own facred apart-
ment, to which the inhabitant retired for the purpofes of de-
votion. After their morning prayers, they fpent the day in
ftudying the law and the prophets, endeavouring, by the
commentaries of their anceftors, to difcover fome allegorical
meaning in every part. They alfo amufed themfelves with
compofmg facred hymns in various kinds of metre. Six
days of the week were thus pafled in folitude. On the
feventh day they met, decently clothed, in a public affembly,
where, feated according to their age, they held the right
hand between the breaft and the chin, and the left at the
fide. Then one of the elders, ftepping to the middle of
the alTcmbly, difcourfed, gravely and calmly, on the doc-
trines of the feft ; the audience remaining filent and occa-
fionally exprefling their approbation by a nod. The chapel
in which they affembled was feparated into two apartments,
one for the men, the other for the women. At the clofe,
the fpca-ker fung a hymn of praife to God, in the laft verfe
of which the whole anVmbly joined. On great feftivals,
facred mufic was performed, accompanied with folemn danc-
ing ; and thefe vigils were continued till morning, when the
aflembly, after a morning prayer, in which their faces were
direfttd towards the rifiiig fun, was broken up. Such was
their abftemioufncfs, that they commonly ate nothing before
the fctting fun, and often faded two or three days. They
wholly abltaincd from wine, and their ordinary food was
bread and herbs.

There are two points relating to thefe therapcuts ex-
ceedingly controverted among critics, viz. i. Whether
they were Jews or Chriftians ; and, 2. If they were the
Jatter, whether they were monks or feculars >.

Molhehn affirms, that the therapeutse were neither Chrif-

10

THE

tians nor Egyptians, as fome have erroneoufly imagined ;
they were undoubtedly Jews ; nay, they gloried in that title,
and ftyled themfelves, with particular affectation, the true
difciples of Mofes, though their manner of life was equally
repugnant to the inftitutions of that great lawgiver, and to
the diftates of right reafon, and (hewed them to be a tribe
of melancholy and wrong-headed enthufialls.

Calmet alfo, in his Diftionary of the Bible, alleges a
variety of reafons to prove, that the therapeutx were Jews
and not Chrillians ; and that they were not monks in the
fenfe which ecclefiaftical writers affix to this term. Some
have imagined that they were judaizing Gentiles ; but Philo,
by claffing them with the Effenes, evidently fuppofes them to
be Jews. Others have maintained, that they were an Alex-
andrian feft of Jewifli converts to the Chriftian faith, who
devoted themfelves to a monaftic life. But this is impoffi-
ble ; for Philo, who wrote before Chriftianity appeared in
Egypt, fpeaks of this as an eftablifhed feft. From a com-
parifon of Philo's account of this feft with the ftate of phi-
lofophy in the country where it flourifhed, we may reafon-
ably conclude, that the therapeutx were a body of Jewifh
fanatics, who fuffered themfelves to be drawn afide from the
fimplicity of their ancient religion by the example of the
Egyptians and Pythagoreans. It is uncertain how long
this feft continued ; but it is thought not improbable, that,
after the appearance of Chriftianity in Egypt, it foon be-
came extinft. See Essenes.

THE R APEUTICE, Therapeutics, ^i^axw^^x-n, form-
ed from 9ffa^iU!i'.', to ezttend, to nurfe, cure, &c. that part of
medicine which is employed in feeking out remedies againft
difeafes, and in prefcribing and applying them to effeft a
cure.

Therapeutice teaches the ufe of diet, pharmacy, furgery,
and the methodus medend'i.

Therapeutice is alfo ufed figuratively, in fpeaking of
the mind, and of difcourfes made to correift the errors and
defefts of it.

Such is the Therapeutice or Therapeutics of Theodoret ;
being a treatife againft the errors of unwholeiome opinions
of the Greeks, i. e. the heathens.

THERAPHIM, or Teraphim, an Hebrew term, which
has given great exeixife to the critics. We meet with it
thirteen or fourteen times in Scripture, where it is com-
monly interpreted idols : but the rabbins are not contented
to have them fimply fignify idols, but will have it denote a
peculiar fort of idols or images intended for the knowledge
of futurity, /. e. oracles.

R. David de Pomis obfcrves, that they were called thera-
phim, from nD~l> raphah, to leave, becaufe people quitted
every thing to confult them.

Others hold, that the theraphim were brazen inftrun>ents
which pointed out the hours and minutes of future events,
as direfted by the ftars.

R. Eliezer tells us the reafon why the rabbins will have
the theraphim to fpeak, and render oracles : it is, fays he,
becaufe it is written in the prophet Zechariah, x. 2. " The
theraphim have fpoken vain things."

The fame rabbin adds, that to make the theraphim, they
killed a firft-born child, clove his head, and feafoned it with
fait and oil : that they wrote on a plate of gold the name of
fome impure fpirit, laid it under the tongue of the dead,
placed the head againft the wall, lighted lamps before it,
and prayed to it, and that it then talked with them.

Vorftius alfo obferves, that, befide the paffage of Zecha-
riah, juft quoted, it appears hkewife from Ezekiel, xxi. 21.
that the theraphim were confulted as oracles.

F. Kircher direfts us to feek the origin of the theraphrnt

THE

THE

in Egypt ; adding, that the word is Egyptian. Spencer,
ill his diiTei-tation on the urim and thumnum, maintains the
word to be Chaldee, and to fignify tiie fame with feraphini :
tlie Chaldeans being frequently known to change tlie ^ into
J^, that is/into /. He adds, tliat thofe images were bor-
rowed from the Amorltes, Chaldeans, or Syrians ; and that
the Scrapis of the Egyptians is the fame thing with the
theraphim of the Chaldeans. See Selden de Diis Syris,
fynt. i. cap. 2.

Calmet obferves, tliat the figure of a winged ferpent,
called yjj-.j^/;, whence the name ieraphim, has given rile to
the appellation theraphim, becaufe in the abraxas and other
tahfmans of the ancients, which arc real tlieraphims, we
find the figures of ferpents both with and without wings ;
whence he infers, that the theraphims of Laban, which were
ftolen by Rachael, were real tahfmans. Jurieu conjeftures,
that thefe theraphims were the penates, or houfliold gods ot
L.aban, which, he fays, were the fouls of the heroes of
families, deified and worlliipped ; and he adds, tliat the the-
raphims of Laban were the images of Noah, the reftorer of
the human race, and of Shem, tlie chief of the family of
Laban. But Calmet, in reply to this conjetluie, obferves,
that it is by no means credible, that the worfhip of the
penates and lares was known in the time of Laban ; and
that it is not likely, that Laban fhould have ranked among
the gods Noah and Shem, who had died fo near his own
time: for Noah died A.M. 2006, and Shem A.M. 2158,
about eighty-feven years before Jacob came to Mefopotamia
after Laban.

THERAPIDION, in Botany, a name given by fome
authors to the common oyfter-green, orfea-laver, a fubftance
of the tremella kind.

THERASIA, in Geography, a fmall rocky ifland in the
Grecian Archipelago, feparated from the N.W. coaft of
Santorin (the ancient Tliera) by a narrow channel, which
forms a fecure harbour for boats ; 3 miles N. of St. Nicolo.
Therafia is faid by Townefort and Sonnini to be the prefent
Afpronifi (^\v\ac\\ fee) ; but Olivier mentions them as diftinft
iflands. Therafia, fays this laft -mentioned traveller, on which
Ptolemy places a town, and which Pliny conjedlures, with
reafon, to have been detached from Thera, cannot be taken
for Afpronifi, nor the latter for the former, as Tournefort
imagines. Afpronifi is not large enough to have had upon
it the fmalleft village, or the imalleft habitation ; whereas
Therafia has fufficient extent, and ite territory is fufficiently
good, to have been always the fcite of a town, as one is ftill
to be feen there at the prefent day.

THERESA, a river of Africa, which runs into the
Atlantic, S. lat. 1 3°.

Theresa, Ordir of Maria, a military order inftituted
by the emprefs-queen in Gewnany, on the i8th of June,
1757, and compofed of two clafles, viz. grand crofles and
knights. To thefe the emperor Jofeph H., in the year 1765,
added an intermediate clafs, under the appellation of com-
manders. The number of knights is not fixed, and the em-
peror is grand-mafter. The badge of the order is, " a crofs
of gold, enamelled white, edged with gold ;" on the centre
are the arms of Auftria, vi'z. " gules, a feffe-argent, encir-
cled with the word Fortitudini ;" on the reverfe is " a cipher
of the letters M. L. F. in gold, on an enamelled green
ground." The badge is worn pendant to a ftriped crimfon
and white ribbon.

THERGUBIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
in the interior of Mefopotamia, fituated on the bank and
towards the fource of the river Chaborras.

THERIACA, Stipiaica, Treacle, in Medicine, a name
given by the ancients to various compofitions eileemed good

againil poifons ; but afterwards chicfly"re(lfained to what,
by way of diftindion, has been called thcriaca Andromachi, or
y'enice treacle : but now altogether out of ufe.

This is a compound of no lefs than fixty-four dnjgs, pre-
pared, pulverized, and reduced, by means of honey, into an
cleftuary. The bafis or foundation of the compofition is
viper's flefh. M. Charas has written a particular hillory of
the animals, plants, and minerals, which enter the compofition
of this famed remedy.

It is faid to be fovereign againft the bites of venomous
beads, and in the wind-colic ; and was alfo ufed in inter-
mitting fevers, and in cafes requiring perfpiratives and dia-
phoretics ; alfo in continual fevers, efpccially fuch as are ma-
lignant, and where the pulfe is low and ticking ; and in the
fmall-pox and meafles : and, as mod of the ingredients of it
are very hot, in all difeafes where the natural heat is weak
and languid.

Andromachus, Nero's phyfician, paffcs for the inventor
of the theriaca ; at leaft, it was he who gave the firft de-
fcription of it in elegiac verfes ; his fon did the fame in profe,
and Damocrates in iambics.

Anciently, the treacle made at Venice had all the vogue ;
and many ftill retain the ancient prejudice ; but it has been
fince prepared at Montpellier, at Paris, and at London, with
as much advantage as at Venice.

There is another vulgar kind of theriaca, called diatejfarov,
becaufe it only confifts of four ingredients.

Treacle-water and trcacle-vinegai- are found good prcferva-
tives againft putrid aii-, whether by only being fmelt at, or
by rubbing the wrifts, temples, and nofe with them.

Theriaca Rujiicorum, a name given to garlic, from its
ufe as an antidote againft the contagion of peftilential and
other putrid diforders.

THERIOMA, from S'fiow, to rage, in Surgery, a ma-
lignant ulcer.

THERMA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Cappadocia,
on the route from Tavia to Cxfarea, between Tavia and So-

anda. Anton. Itin Alfo, a town fituated on the confines

of Macedonia, or rather of Theflaly, towards Thermopylae.
This town was fituated on the gulf called Thermasus, whence
its name.

Therma Pythia, baths of Afia Minor, in Bithynia. Pro-
copius mentions this place, and fays that Juftinian conftruftcd
here a bath for public ufe, and a canal to conduft into it
frefli water, and that he alfo provided others, which indicated
a magnificence truly royal.

THERMiE, Ssfiucii, in ArcbiteUure, ancient buildingi,
furnifhed with baths, efpecially of the hot kind.

Among the nobleft monuments of ancient Rome, are
reckoned the thermae, or baths of Dioclefian. See Bath.s.

Thermae, or hot fprings, it is commonly argued, owe heat
to a coUuftation, or effervefcence, of the minerals in them.
Though Dr. Woodward afcribes it to the fubterraneous
heat, or fire, which communicates with them by fome fpi-
racle, or canal, whereby a greater quantity of heat is derived
thither, than to ordinary fprings. See Bath.

Thermae, in Ancient Geography, a place on the fouthern
coaft of Sicily. Pliny denominates this place a Roman co-
lony ; and Antonine calls the fources of the hot water which
gave the name of Thermae to this place " Aqua Larodae."
There were alfo baths at Sehnonti in Sicily, called Thermae
Selinuntise. The name thermit was alfo given to thofe highJy
faline warm waters that were found in the neighbourhood of
Corinth.

THERM^US Sinus, a gulf of the JEgean fea, on the
coaft of Macedonia.

THERMASMA, a word ufed by fome of the ancients
3 R 2 to

T H E

to cxpreU any thing that warms the body, and by others
particularly for a warm fomentation, prefcribed by Hippo-
crates for rrmoving pains in the fido, and giving eafe in
plcurifics.

THERMKS, in jlncimt Geography, a town of Hifpania
Citerior, S. of Niiinantla.

THERMl, in Geogrnphy, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
the province of Natolia ; 24 miles N. of Burfa.

THERMIA, an illand in the Grecian Archipelago, fo
called from its abounding \vith hot fprings. It is not fo
mountainous as fomc of the other iflands, and the foil, when
well cultivated, produces very large quantities of barley,
wine, and figs. The ifland alfo affords plenty of honey,
wax, partridges, a great quantity of fine filk, and as much
cotton as the inliabitants require for their own ufe. The
Greek Chrillians in this ifland are computed at 16,000.
Thermia is the fee of a bifhop, and contains fifteen or Cxteen
churches, and feveral convents. On the ifland are flill vifible
the ruins of two cities ; one of which, on the fouth coaft,
mull have been of extraordinary fplendour. N. lat. 37° 20'.
E. long. 24"^ 32'.

Thermia, a town and capital of the ifland of Thermia.
N. lat. 37^ 24'. E. long. 24° 26'.

THERMOMETER, Thermometrum, derived from
flte^io;, heat, and nslji', to meafure, an inllrument fhewing, or
rather meafuring, the increafe and decreafe of the heat and
cold of the air.

The degree of heat, as afcertained by a thermometer, is
only to be confidered in relation to the furrounding bodies,
by virtue of which a body fupports the equilibrium of tem-
perature, when it is in the neighbourhood of bodies equally
heated : thus, if a thermometer flands at 60°, both in a vefTel
of water and in another of mercury, we may infer that the
water and the mercury may be mixed without any change
of their temperature ; but the abfolute quantity of heat con-
tained in equal weights, or in equal bulks, of any two bodies
at the fame temperature, is by no means the fame. See
Heat.

The general principles upon which the conftrHftion and
ufe of thermometers, or meafurers of heat depend, are ftated
and explained under the articles Caloric, Cold, Conge-
LATio.v, Freezing, Heat, &c.

It will be fufficient to obfervc in this place, that the well-
known and moft general effeft of heat, whether it be ob-
tained by comprelfing a certain fubflance into a narrower
fpace, fo that a quantity of heat may come out of it and
be communicated to certain bodies, or by expanding a cer-
tain fubflance into a larger fpace, fo that it may abforb a
quantity of heat from furrounding bodies, and thus cool
thcfe bodies, or in whatever other way it be procured, is
a dilatation of bodies, or an augmentation of their bulks.
The contrary effeft is produced by cold, «. e. by a diminu-
tion of the free caloric. It muft, however, be obferved,
that bodies of equal bulks, but of different kinds, are not
expanded alike by being heated to the fame degree ; nor
are the increments of bulk in the fame body always pro-
portional to the quantities of heat which are communicated
to It. E. gr. if a given quantity of water, by being heated to
a certain degree, be increafed in bulk one cubie inch, the
addition of double or treble that quantity of heat will not
increafe its bulk two or three cubic inches refpeftively ;
therefore the expanfions of water are not proportional to the
increments of heat.

The only prafticable method of meafuring the expanfions
ot fluids, is by iDclofing them in certain veffels, and by mea-
iunng that part of the cavity of each veffel which is occupied
by the particular fluid which fills it in different temperatures.

3

T H E

It is evident, that the fubflance of the velTel is alfo expanded
by the heat, and of courfe its cavity is enlarged. Therefore,
when we find that the bulk of the fluid is increafed, that
apparent increment is only the difference between the en-
larged capacity of the veflel and the increafed bulk of the
fluid. For this reafon thofe veffels mufl be made of fuch
fubftances as are leaft expanfible by heat. Indeed glafs
is the fubflance which is univerfally ufed for fuch pur-
pofes, both on account of its httle expanfibility, and of its
tranfparency, bcfides its having other remarkably ufeful
properties.

A glafs veffel filled to a certain degree with a liquid, for
the purpofe of fliewing theexpanfion of that liquid in differ-
ent temperatures, or for the purpofe of fhewing the temper-
ature by the correfponding expanfion of that liquid, is called
a thermometer.

The thermometer and thermofcope are ordinarily ac-
counted the fame thing : Wolfius, however, makes a differ-
ence ; but fhews, at the fame time, that what we call ther-
mometers are, in reality, no more than thermofcopes.

The invention of the thermometer is attributed to feveral
perfons by different authors, -viz. to Sanftorio, Galileo,
Father Paul, and Drebbel. The invention is afcribed to
Cornelius Drebbelius of Alcmaer, about the beginning of
the feventeenth century, by his countrymen Boerhaavc
(Ghem. i. p. 152. 156.) and Mufchenbroeck, Introd. ad
Phil. Nat. vol. ii. p. 625.

Fulgenzio, in his life of Father Paul, gives him the ho-
nour of the firft difcovery. Vincenzio Viviani (Vit. de
I'Galil. p. 67. See too Oper. di GaUl. pref. p. 47.) fpeaks
of Galileo as the inventor of thermometers. But Sanc-
torio himfelf (Com. in Galen. Art. Med. p. 736 — 842.
Com. in Avicen. Can. Fen. i. p. 22. 78. 219.) exprefsly
affumes this invention; and Borelli (De Mot. Animal, ii.
prop. 175.) and Malpighi (Oper. Pofth. p. 30.) afcribe it
to him without referve. Upon which Dr. Martine remarks,
that thefe Florentine academicians are not to be fufpefted
of partiality in favour of one of the Patavinian fchool. But
whoever was the firft inventor of this inftrument, it was very
rude and imperfeft ; and as the various degrees of heat were
indicated by the different contraftion or expanfion of air, it
was afterwards found to be an uncertain and fometimes a
deceiving meafure of heat, becaufe the bulk of air was af-
fefted, not only by the difference of heat, but likewife by
the variable weight of the atmofphere.

There are various kinds of thermometers ; the conflruftioB,
defefts, theory, &c. of which, are as follow :

ConJlrufSion of the Thermometer, depending on the Rarefaflion
of the Air. — This aerial thermometer, which was that firft'
invented by Drebbel, confifts of a glafs tube B E ( P/ateXVl.
Pneumatics, ^g. I.), connefted at one end with a large glafs
ball A, and at the other end immerfed in an open veffel, or
terminating in a ball D E, with a narrow orifice at D ;
which veffel, or ball, contains any coloured liquor that will
not eafily freeze. Aqua fortis tinged of a fine blue colour
with iolution of vitriol or copper, or fpirit of wine tinged
with cochineal, or Brafil wood, will anfwer this purpofe.
But the ball, A, muft be firft moderately warmed, fo that a
part of the air contained in it may be expelled through the
orifice D ; and then the hquor preffed by the weight of the
atmofphere will enter the ball D E, and rife, e. g. to the
middle of the tube at C, at a mean temperature of the wea-
ther ; and in this ftate the liquor by its weight, and the air
included in the ball A, &c. by its elafticity, will counter-
balance the weight of the atmofphere. As the furrounding
air becomes vrarmer, the air in the ball and upper part of
the tube, expanding by heat, will drive the liquor into the

lower

THERMOMETER.

Jower ball, and confequently its furface will defcend ; on
the contrary, as the ambient air becomes colder, that in the
ball is condenfed, and the liquor prefled by the weight of
the atmofphere will afcend : fo that the liquor in the tube
will afcend or defcend more or lefs, according to the Rate
of the air contiguous to the inllrumcnt. To the tube is
affixed a fcale cf the fame length, divided upwards and
downwards from the middle, C, into one hundred equal parts,
by means of which the afcent and defcent of the liquor in
the tube, and confequently the variations in the cold or heat
of the atmofphere, may be obfervcd.

It muft be acknowledged, that the expanfion of elaftic
fluids affords, in fome cafes, a ted of heat, which is very
convenient from its great delicacy, and becaufe a very fmall
quantity of heat is fufficient to raife their temperature very
confiderably.

A fimilar thermometer may be conftrufted by putting a
fmall quantity of mercury, not exceeding the bulk of a pea,
into the tube B C {fg. 2.) thus bent in wreaths, that taking
up the lefe height, it may be the more manageable and lefs
liable to harm ; dividethis tube into any number of equal parts
to ferve for a fcale.

Here the approaches of the mercury towards the ball, A,
will fliew the increafe of the degree oif heat. The reafon is
the fame as in the former.

The defeft of both thefe inftruments confifts in this, that
they are liable to be afted on by a double caufe : for, not
only a decreafe of heat, but alfo an increafe of weight of the
atmofphere, will make the liquor rife in the one, and the
mercury in the other ; and, on the contrary, either an in-
creafe of heat, or decreafe of weight of the atmofphere, will
make it defcend.

In winter, for example, the hquor would rife and fink too
much ; for a froft condenfing the internal air, the liquor
would afcend, but as the air is heavier in frofty weather, its
preflure on the liquor in the veffel D E {Jg. 1.) being in-
creafed, would raife the liquor ftill higher in the tube, and
thus indicate a degree of cold greater than it really is. On
the other hand, if the vreather grows warm, as it does in
rainy weather in winter, the air in the ball will expand, and
the hquor defcend in the tube ; but as the weight of the at-
mofphere is lefs in foul weather, the liquor in D E will be lefs
prefled than it was, and fuffer the liquor to defcend more than
it fhould do, and (hew a greater degree of warmth than that
of the ambient air. The reverfe of this will happen in fum-
mer : for warm weather being fair weather, and the atmo-
fphere being then heavier than ufual, the liquor will be made
to fland higher in the tube than it fhould do, and fhew
the degree of heat to be lefs than it really is. And as in
fummer, the weather becomes cold with rain ; but the
weight of the atmofphere being diminifhed, the liquor will
cot afcend fo far as it ought to afcend by the condenfation
cvf the internal air, and therefore indicate the cold to be lefs
than it really is : and when the two caufes, thus contributing
to the rife and fall of the liquor, aft equally in oppofite di-
reftions, the liquor would appear neither to afcend nor de-
fccHd, whatever might be the changes in the temperature of
the atmofphere, on account of equal correfponding varia-
tions in its gravity. Befides, the air in the ball, &c. is liable
to be affefted more or lefs in its elaftic quality by the vapours
that detach themfclves from the included liquor according to
the degree in which it is heated or cooled. For thefe and
other mcafures, thermometers of this kind have been long
difufed.

Inftruments of this kind, when they are fubjeft to the
variations of the prelTure of the atmofphere, as \ve\] as to
thofe of its temperature, are properly called manometers,

and require, for enabliiip us to employ tliem as thermome-
ters, a comparifon with the barometer ; while, on the other
hand, they may be ufed as barometers if the temperature be
othcrwile afccrtaincd. They arc, however, very ufeful
without this comparifon, in delicate experiments of fliort
duration ; befides, the changes of the barometer are fcldom
very rajnd, and they may alfo be wholly freed from the
cffefts of the prcffure of the atmofphere m various ways.

Bernouilli's method confifts in clofing the tube of a com-
mon barometer foas to leave the column of mercury incqin-
librium with the air contained in the bulb at its aftual tem-
perature, and capable of indicating, by the changes of it's
height and of its prcffure, any fubfcquent changes in the
temperature of the air, which muft affeft both its bulk and
its clafticity. (See_^j,'-. 3.) Mr. Leflie's photometer, or
Difirent'talTllERMOMETER (which fee), has fome advantages
which render it better than this inttrument ; but it can only
be employed when the changes of the temperature can be
confined only to a part of the inftrument. The elafticity of
the air contained in the bulb is here counteraftcd, not by the
preffure of a column of mercury, but by the elafticity of
another portion of air in a fecond bulb, which is not to be
expofed to the heat or cold that is to bfe examined ; and the
difference of the temperatures of the tv.'o bulbs is indicated
by the place of a drop of a hquid, moving freely in the
tube which joins them.

M. Amontons, in 1702, with a view of perfefting the
aerial thermometer, contrived his univerfal thermometer.
Finding that the changes produced by heat and cold in the
bulk of the air were fubjeft to invincible irregularities, he
fubftituted for thefe the variations produced by heat in the
elaftic force of this fluid. This thermometer confifted of a
long tube of glafs ( (ee^g. 4. ) open at one end, and recurved
at the other end, which terminated in a ball. A certain
quantity of air was compreffed into this ball by the weight
of a column of mercury, and alfo by the weight of the at-
mofphere. The effeft of heat on this included air was to
make it fuftain a greater or lefs weight ; and this effeft was
meafured by the variation of the column of mercury in the
tube, correfted by that of tlie barometer, with refpeft to
the changes of the weight of the external air. This inftru-
ment, though much more pcrfeft than thofe in the room of
which it was fubftituted by its inrentor, is neverthelefs iub-
jeft to very confiderable dcfefts and inconveniences. Its
length of four feet renders it unfit for a variety of experi-
ments, and its conftruftion is difficult and complex : it is
extremely inconvenient for carriage, as a very fmall inclina-
tion of the tube would fuffer the included air to elcapc : and
the friftion of the mercury in the tube, and the compreffi-
bihty of the air, contribute to render the indications of this
inftrument extremely uncertain. Befides, the dilatation of the
air is not fo regularly proportional to its heat, nor is its dila-
tation by a given heat nearly fo uniform as he fuppofed. This
depends, as the abbei NoUet has fuggefted, much on its
moifture ; for dry air does not expand near fo much by a
given heat, as air ftored with watery particles ; which by
being converted into fteam, very much nicreafe the feeniing
volume of the air. For thefe and other reafons enumerated
by M. de Luc, ( Recherches fur les Mod. de I'Atm. torn. i.
p. 278, &c.) this inftrument was imitated by very few, and
never came to be of general ufe.

ConJtruSion of the Florentine Thermometer. — The acade-
mifts del Cimento, about the middle of the feventeenth cen-
tury, confidering the inconveniences of the air-thermome-
ters above defcribed, attempted another, that (hould mca-
fure heat and cold by the rarefaftion and condenfation of
fpirit of wine ; though much lefs than thofe of air, and con-
fequently

THE

to exprefs any thing that warms the body, and by others
particularly for a warm fomentation, prcfcribed by Hippo-
crates for removing pains in the fide, and giving eafe in
pleiirifics.

THERMES, in ytndent Geegraf/jy, a town of Hifpania
Citerior, S. of Numantia.

THERMI, in Gtogr/iphy, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
the province of Natolia ; 24 miles N. of Burfa.

THERMIA, an illand in the Grecian Archipelago, fo
called from its abounding with hot fprings. It is not fo
mountainous as fome of the other iflands, and the foil, when
well cultivated, produces very large quantities of barley,
wine, and figs. The ifiand alfo affords plenty of honey,
wax, partridges, a great quantity of fine filk, and as much
cotton as the inhabitants require for their own ufe. The
Greek Chrillians in this ifiand are computed at 16,000.
Thermia is the fee of a bifhop, and contains fifteen or Cxteen
churches, .nnd feveral convents. On the ifiand areftiU vifible
the ruins of two cities ; one of which, on the fouth coaft,
mull have been of extraordinary fplendour. N. lat. 37° 20'.
E. long. 24^32'.

Thermia, a town and capital of the ifland of Thermia.
N. lat. 37^ 24'. E. long. 24° 26'.

THERMOMETER, Thermometrum, derived from
fltffjo,-, hiat, and ns^i', to mtafure, an inftrument (hewing, or
rather meafuring, the increafe and decreafe of the heat and
cold of the air.

The degree of heat, as afcertained by a thermometer, is
only to be confidered in relation to the furrounding bodies,
by \-irtue of which a body fupports the equilibrium of tem-
perature, when it is in the neighbourhood of bodies equally
heated : thus, if a thermometer (lands at 60°, both in a veflTel
of water and in another of mercury, we may infer that the
water and the mercury may be mixed without any change
of their temperature ; but the abfolute quantity of heat con-
tained in equal weights, or in equal bulks, of any two bodies
at the fame temperature, is by no means the fame. See
Heat.

The general principles upon which the conftruftion and
ufe of thermometers, or meafurers of heat depend, are ftated
and explained under the articles Calokic, Cold, Conge-

LATIO.V, FilEEZlNG, HeAT, &C.

It will be fufficient to obferve in this place, that the well-
known and moft general efFeft of heat, whether it be ob-
tained by comprefling a certain fubftance into a nan-ower
fpace, fo that a quantity of heat may come out of it and
be communicated to certain bodies, or by expanding a cer-
tain fubdance into a larger fpace, fo that it may abforb a
quantity of heat from furrounding bodies, and thus cool
thefe bodies, or in whatever other way it be procured, is
a dilatation of bodies, or an augmentation of their bulks.
The contrary effeft is produced by cold, «. e. by a diminu-
tion of the free caloric. Ilr muft, however, be obferved,
that bodies of equal bulks, but of different kinds, are not
expanded alike by being heated to the fame degree ; nor
are the increments of bulk in the fame body always pro-
portional to the quantities of heat which are communicated
to It. E. gr. if a given quantity of water, by being heated to
a certain degree, be increafed in bulk one cubic inch, the
addition of double or treble that quantity of heat will not
increafe its bulk two or three cubic inches refpeaively ;
therefore the expanfions of water are not proportional to the
increments of heat.

The only prafticable method of meafuring the expanfions
of fluids, IS by inclofing them in certain velTels, and by mea-
i unng that part of the cavity of each xeM which is occupied
by the particular fluid which fillsit in different temperatures.

3

T H E

It is evident, that the fubftance of the vefTel is alfo expanded
by the heat, and of courfe its cavity is enlarged. Therefore,
when we find that the bulk of the fluid is increafed, that
app;irent increment is only the difference between the en-
larged capacity of the velTel and the increafed bulk of the
fluid. For this reafon thofe velTels muft be made of fuch
fubftances as are leaft expanfible by heat. Indeed glafs
is the fubftance which is univerfally ufed for fuch pur-
pofes, both on account of its httle expanfibility, and of its
tranfparency, bcfides its having other remarkably ufeful
properties.

A glafs velTel filled to a certain degree with a liquid, for
the purpofe of (liewing theexpanfion of that liquid in differ-
ent temperatures, or for the purpofe of (hewing the temper-
ature by the correfponding expanfion of that liquid, is called
a thermomeier.

The thermometer and thermofcope are ordinarily ac-
counted the fame thing : Wolfius, however, makes a differ-
ence ; but fliews, at the fame time, that what we call ther-
mometers are, in reality, no more than thermofcopes.

The invention of the thermometer is attributed to feveral
perfons by different authors, •viz. to Sandlorio, Galileo,
Father Paul, and Drebbel. The invention is afcribed to
Cornelius Drebbelius of Alcmaer, about the beginning of
the feventeenth century, by his countrymen Boerhaave
(Ghem. i. p. 152. 156.) and Mufchenbroeck, Introd. ad
Phil. Nat. vol. ii. p. 625.

Fulgenzio, in his life of Father Paul, gives him the ho-
nour of the firft difcovery. Vincenzio V'iviani (V'it. de
I'Galil. p. 67. See too Oper. di Galil. pref. p. 47.) fpeaks
of Galileo as the inventor of thermometers. But Sanc-
torio himfelf (Com. in Galen. Art. Med. p. 736 — 842.
Com. in Avicen. Can. Fen. i. p. 22. 78. 219.) exprefsly
alTumes this invention ; and Borelli (De Mot. Animal, ii.
prop. 175.) and Malpighi (Oper. Pofth. p. 30.) afcribe it
to him without referve. Upon which Dr. Martine remarks,
that thefe Florentine academicians are not to be fufpefted
of partiality in favour of one of the Patavinian fchool. But
whoever was the firft inventor of this inftrument, it was very
rude and imperfeft ; and as the various degrees of heat were
indicated by the different contraAion or expanfion of air, it
was afterwards found to be an uncertain and fometimes a
deceiving meafure of heat, becaufe the bulk of air was af-
fected, not only by the difference of heat, but likewife by
the vai-iable weight of the atmofphere.

There are various kinds of thermometers ; the conftruftion,
defefts, theory, &c. of which, are as follow :

Conjlruciion of the Thermometer., depending on the RarefaHion
of the Air. — This aerial thermometer, which was that firft
invented by Drebbel, confifts of aglafstube B E (P/a/fXVI.
Pneumatics, Jig. i.), connefted at one end with a large glafs
ball A, and at the other end immerfed in an open v€(rei, or
terminating in a ball D E, with a narrow orifice at D ;
which veflTel, or ball, contains any coloured liquor that will
not eafily freeze. Aqua fortis tinged of a fine blue colour
with folution of vitriol or copper, or fpirit of wine tinged
with cochineal, or Brafil wood, will anfwer this purpofe.
But the ball, A, muft be firft moderately warmed, (b that a
part of the air contained in it may be expelled through the
orifice D ; and then the liquor prefTed by the weight of the
atmofphere will enter the ball D E, and rife, e. g. to the
middle of the tube at C, at a mean temperature of the wea-
ther ; and in this ftate the liquor by its weight, and the air
included in the ball A, &c. by its elafticity, will counter-
balance the weight of the atmofphere. As the furrounding
air becomes VTarmer, the air in the ball and upper part of
the tube, expanding by heat, will drive the liquor into the

lower

THERMOMETER.

lower ball, ;!nd confeqiiently its furface will defcend ; on
the contrary, as the ambient air becomes colder, that in the
ball is condenfcd, and the liquor prefTcd by the weight of
the atmofphcre will afcend : fo that the liquor in the tube
will afceiid or defcend more or lefs, accordinnj to the (late
of the air contiguous to the inftrument. To the tube is
affixed a fcale of the fame length, divided upwards and
downwards from the middle, C, into one hundred equal parts,
by means of which the afcent and defcent of the liquor in
the tube, and confequently the variations in the cold or heat
of the atmofphere, may be obfervcd.

It muft be acknowledged, that the expanfion of elaftic
fluids affords, in fome cafes, a teft of heat, which is very
convenient from its great delicacy, and becaufe a very fmali
quantity of heat is fufficient to raife their temperature very
confiderably.

A fimilar thermometer may be conftrufted by putting a
fmall quantity of mercury, not exceeding the bulk of a pea,
into the tube B C {fg. 2.) thus bent in wreaths, that taking
up the left height, it may be the more manageable and lefs
liable to harm ; divide this tube into any number of equal parts
to ferve for a fcale.

Here the approaches of the mercury tovrards the ball. A,
will ftiew the increafe of the degree of heat. The reafon is
the fame as in the former.

The defeft of both thefe inftruments confifts in this, that
they are liable to be afted on by a double caufe : for, not
only a decreafe of heat, but alfo an increafe of weight of the
atmofphere, will make the liquor rife in the one, and the
mercury in the other ; and, on the contrary, either an in-
creafe of heat, or decreafe of weight of the atmofphere, will
make it defcend.

In winter, for example, the liquor would rife and fink too
much ; for a frofl condenfing the internal air, the liquor
would afcend, but as the air is heavier in frofty weather, its
prefTure on the liquor in the veffel D E {^g. 1.) being in-
creafed, would raife the liquor ftiU higher in the tube, and
thus indicate a degree of cold greater than it really is. On
the other hand, if the weather grows warm, as it does in
rainy weather in winter, the air in the ball vnll expand, and
the liquor defcend in the tube ; but as the weight of the at-
molphere is lefs in foul weather, the liquor in D E will be lefs
preffed than it was, and fuffer the liquor to defcend more than
it fhould do, and (hew a greater degree of warmth than that
of the ambient air. The reverfe of this will happen in fum-
mer : for warm weather being fair weather, and the atmo-
fphere being then heavier than ufual, the liquor will be made
to (land higher in the tube than it (hould do, and (hew
the degree of heat to be lefs than it really is. And as in
fummer, the weather becomes cold with rain ; but the
weight of the atmofphere being diminifhed, the liquor will
rot afcend fo far as it ought to afcend by the condenfation
of the internal air, and therefore indicate the cold to be lefs
than it really is : and when the two caufes, thus contributing
to the rife and fall of the liquor, aft equally in oppofite di-
reftions, the liquor would appear neither to afcend nor de-
fcend, whatever might be the changes in the temperature of
the atmofphere, on account of equal correfponding varia-
tions in its gravity. Befides, the air in the ball, &c. is liable
to be afFefted more or lefs in its elaftic quality by the vapours
that detach themfelves from the included liquor according to
the degree in vrhich it is heated or cooled. For thefe and
other meafures, thermometers of this kind have been long
difufed.

Inftruments of this kind, when they are fubjeft to the
variations of the prefTure of the atmofphere, as well as to
thofe of its temperature, are properly called manometers,

and require, for enabliiij; us to employ thcin as ihfrmomc-
ters, a comparifon with the barometer ; while, on the other
hand, thi-y may be ufed as barometers if the temperature be
otherwife afccrtaincd. They are, however, very ufeful
without this comparifon, in delicate experiments of (liort
duration ; befides, the changes of the barometer are feldom
very rapid, and they may alfo be wholly freed from the
cffefts of the prefTure of the atmofphcre in various ways.

Bernouilli's method confifts in clofing the tube of a com-
mon barometer foas to leave the column of mercury in equi-
librium with the air contained in the bulb at its aftual tem-
perature, and capable of indicating, by the changes of it's
height and of its prefTure, any fubfcquent changes in the
temperature of the air, which muft affeft both its bulk and
its elafticity. (See_y5io'. 3.) Mr. Leflie's photometer, or
Z)!^ri'n/;fl/ Thermometer (which fee), has fome advantages
which render it better than this inftrument ; but it can only
be employed when the changes of the temperature can be
confined only to a part of the inftrument. The elafticity of
the air contained in the bulb is here counterafted, not by the
prefTure of a column of mercury, but by the elafticity of
another portion of air in a fecond bulb, which is not to be
expofed to the heat or cold that is to bfe examined ; and the
difference of the temperatures of the two bulbs is indicated
by the place of a drop of a hquid, moving freely in the
tube which joins them.

M. Amontons, in 1 702, with a view of perfefting the
aerial thermometer, contrived his univerfal thermometer.
Finding that the changes produced by heat and cold in the
bulk of the air were fubjeft to invincible irregularities, he
fubftituted for thefe the variations produced by heat in the
elaftic force of this fluid. This thermometer confifted of a
long tube of glafs ( ke^g. 4. ) open at one end, and recurved
at the other end, which terminated in a ball. A certain
quantity of air was comprefTed into this ball by the weight
of a column of mercury, and alfo by the weight of the at-
mofphere. The effeft of heat on this included air was to
make it fuftain a greater or lefs weight ; and this effeft was
meafured by the variation of the column of merciu-y in the
tube, corrcftcd by that of the barometer, with refpeft to
the changes of the weight of the external air. Tiiis inftru-
ment, though much more pcrfeft than thofe in the room of
which it was fubftituted by its inventor, is neverthelefs fub-
jeft to very confiderable dcfefts and inconveniences. Its
length of four feet renders it unfit for a variety ot experi-
ments, and its conftruftion is difficult and complex : it is
extremely inconvenient for carriage, as a very fmall inclina-
tion of the tube would fuffer the included air to efcape : and
the friftion of the mercury in the tube, and the comprcffi-
bihty of the air, contribute to render the indications of this
inftrument extremely uncertain. Befides, the dilatation of the
air is not fo regularly proportional to its heat, nor is its dila-
tation by a given heat nearly fo uniform as he fuppufed. This
depends, as the abbfe Nollet has fuggefted, much on its
moifture ; for dry air does not expand near fo much by a
given heat, as air ftored with watery particles ; which by
being converted into fteam, very much nicreafe the feeming
volume of the air. For thefe and other reafons enumerated
by M. de Luc, (Recherches fur les Mod. de I'Atm. tom. i.
p. 278, &c.) this inftrument was imitated by very few, and
never came to be of general ufe.

ConJ{ru8ion of the Florentine Thermometer. — The acade-
mifts del Cimento, about the middle of the feventeenth cen-
tury, confidering the inconveniences of the air-thermome-
ters above defcribed, attempted another, that fhould mca-
fure heat and cold by the rarefaftion and condenfation of
fpirit of wine ; though much lefs than thofe of air, and con-
fequently

THERMOMETER.

r«(UM«lj the »UeratijJi4 ia ttie degree of heat likely to be
muili loU Ifiifiblo.

The fpirit of wine was enclofed in glafs tubes, liermctically
fe»le<l ; fo that llufc thcrnwiiietcrs could be fubjed to no
inconveuience by the evaporation of the liquor, or the va-
riable gravity of the incumbent atmotpherc. Inllrumciils
of thii kind were firll introduced into England by Mr.
Boyle, and they were fooii uiiiverfally ufed among philofo-
pliers in other countries. The Florentine thermometer con-
litts of a fmall narrow tube BCD {fg. 5.) conneaed with
a glafs ball A. The tube (hould be procured as cylmdric
as poflible : and it may be tried, by putting into one end of
it as much mercury as will till the length of one incii, and
letting this quantity of mercury pafs from one part of the
tube to another, through, its whole length ; meafure with
compafTes the length it occupies in every part of the tube ;
aiid if it every where takes up an inch, the tube is cylindric,
and a fcale of equal divifions will agree with it : otherwife it
vrill be longer where the tube is fmaller, and (horter than an
inch where the tube is larger ; and in this cafe, the divifions
mull be fuited to the contents of the bore. The glafs ball
may then be joined to the tube, and a fmall cavity be made
at the other end. Fill the ball and tube with reftified fpirit
of wine to a convenient height, as to C, when the weather
is of a mean temperature, which may be done, by inverting
the tube into a vefTel of llagnant coloured fpirit, under a re-
ceiver of the air-pump, or by many other ways. The
fpirit may be colonred by pouring a quantity of it on fmall
pieces of turmeric, which will hereby receive a red tinfture ;
and the fpirit may be repeatedly filtrated through browTi
paper, in order to feparate from it the eoarfer particles of the
root. Some perfons, in filling the ball and tube, for pre-
venting the fpirit from wholly defcending into the ball in
winter, recommend putting the ball into a lump of fnow,
mixed with fait ; or if the inftrument be made in fummer,
into fpring-water impregnated with falt-petre, that the con-
denfed fpirit may fhew liow far it will retire in extreme cold.
Jf it riles to too great a height from the ball, part of it
is to be taken out ; and that the tube may not be made
longer than necefiary, it is convenient to iramerge the ball,
filled with its fpirit in boiling water, and to mark the fartheil
point to which it then rifes. When the thermometer is pro-
perly tilled, with a lamp heat the little bubble left at the
end of D red-hot, and feal it hermetically, leaving, as Dr.
Defaguhers recommends, in the thermometer only the third
part of the air that was in it, which will give room to the
dilatation of the fpirit ; and this rarefied air will prevent the
air left in the fpirit, even after the air-pump has been applied,
from dividing the fpirit by its expanfion. To the tube apply
a fcale, divided into one hundred equal parts, from C
towards D, and alfo from C towards B.

Now, fpirit of wine rarefying and condenfing very confi-
derably ; as the heat of the ambient air increafes, the fpirit
will dilate, and ceiifequently will afcend in the tube ; and as
the heat decreafes, the fpirit will defcend : and the degree
or quantity of afcent and dcfcent will be feen in the fcale.
Yet as the ratio of yefterday's heat to to-day's is not hereby
difcovered, this inftrument is not ftriftly a thermometer, any
more than the former.

It is to be here obferved, i. That as the natural gravity
of the liquor makes it tend downwards, fo it refills its afcent
ont of the ball into the tube ; and that the more, as it rifes
lugher ; for which reafon, fome have advifed to have the
tube horizontal.

2. Since there mull of neceffity be fome air left in the
void part of the tube, over the hquor, that air, by its elaf-
ticJty, will tend downwards, and of confcquence will rcCft

the rife of the hquor, and be compreffed by it at it doM
rife : its clafticity therefore is thus increafed.

3. Since it is found from cxpei-iencc, that a lefs degree of
heat is comniunicatod more eafily to the fpirit of wine in the
ball than a greater, tlie rarefaftions of the fpirit of wine are
not proportionable to their producing caufes ; efpecially fincc
a greater degree of heat finds more liquor in the tube than a
lefs does, to which, notwithilanding, the heat may be more
eafily communicated tiian to that ftagnating in the ball.

4. Spirit of wine is incapable of bearing very great heat
or very great cold. It boils fooner than any other liquor,
and, therefore, the degrees of heat of boiling fluids cannot
be determined by this thermometer. And though it retains
its fluidity in pretty fevere cold, yet it feems not to condenfe
very regularly in them : and at Torneo, near the polar
circle, the winter cold was fo fevere, as Maupertuis informs
us, that the fpirits were frozen in all their thermometers.
So that the latitude of heat and cold, which fpirit of wine
is capable of indicating, is much too limited to be of very
great or univerfal ufe. On thefe accounts, the Florentine
thermometer, though it has been much ufed, is far from
being an accurate meafure of heat, &c. to which may be
added what Dr. Halley obferves in the PhilofopliicalTranf-
a<ftions, that he has learned from thofe who have kept fpirit
of wine long, that it always lofes part of its expanfive force
in courfe of time.

This objeftion, fuggefted by Dr. Halley, and often in-
filled on by others, has, according to Dr. Martine, no great
weight. Well reftified fpirit of wine, if fealed up in a glafs,
is in a confiderable degree unalterable. It cannot evaporate ;
and by many years experience its force of expanfion has con-
tinued the fame ; as, befide other obfervations, we know
efpecially from the Annual Regifters of M. de la Hire's
fpirit thermometer, that have been kept in the Obfervatory
for many years.

Another great defeft of thefe, and other thermometers, is,
that their degrees are not comparable with each other. They
mark, indeed, the different degrees of heat and cold ; but
each marks only for itfelf, and after its own manner ; be-
caufe they do not proceed from any point of heat, or cold,
that is common to them all. It is with them as with two
clocks, which for want of having been firfl: fet to the fame
hour by the fun, will, indeed, mark that one, two, or more
hours are paffed, but not what hour it is by the day. Nor
can we be aflTured, that when the liquor is rifen a degree in
two different thermometers, they have both fufFered the fame
imprcfTion of an equal additional heat : fince the fpirit of
wine may not be the fame in both ; and, in proportion as the
fpiiit is more or lefs reftified, it will rife more or lefs high by
the fame heat. Nor is this all ; for in graduating thermo-
meters, they often take equal lengths of the tube for equal
afcents of the fpirit : whereas, fuppofing the diameters of
the tube equal throughout, which very rarely happens, there
are fo many irregularities withinfide, that a certain length
of tube fometimea. requires double the quantity of liquor to
fill it, that the fame length in another tube of the fame dia-
meter requires. All which arifes from the unequal thickneffes
of the parietes of tubes in different places ; and from acci-
dental prominences and cavities, always found in the inner
furfaces of tubes ; and efpecially from their being always
bigger at one end than the other.

Befides, the divifions of the fcale cannot accurately indi-
cate the quantity of rarefaftion, unlefs the proportion of the
cavity of the tube D B to that of the ball A were known.
Hence it is, that the comparifon of thermometers becomes
fo precarious and defeftive. Yet the moft curious and inte-
refting ufe of thermometers is, what ought to arife from

fuch

THERMOMETER.

fucfc coniparifon. It is by this we Ihould know the heat or
cold of another feafon, of another year, another ch'mate,
&c. and what is the greateft degree of heat or cold in
which men and other animals can fubfift.

M. de Reaumur contrived a new thermometer for the pur-
pofe ; wherein the incorivnionces above recited are pro-
pofed to be remedied. He took a large ball and tube,
and knowing the content of the ball as well as that of the
tube in every part, he graduated the tube, fo that the fpace
from one diviiion to another might contain a thoufandth
part of the liquor, which liquor would contain one thoufand
parts when it Hood at the freezing point : then putting the
ball of his thermometer, and part of the tube, into boiling
water, he obferved whether it rofe eighty divifions ; and if
it exceeded thefe, he changed his liquor, and by adding
water lowered it, fo that on the next trial from the freezin.g
point to the point of boiling water, it Ihould only rife
eighty divifions : but if the liquor, being too low, fell fhort
of eighty divifions, he raifed it by adding reftified fplrit to
it. The liquor thus prepared fuited his purpofe, and ferved
for making a thermometer of any fize, whxjfe fcale would
agree with his ftandard. Such liquor, or fpirits, being
about the ftrength of common brandy, may eafily be had
any where, or made of a proper degree of denfity by raifing
or lowering it.

The abbe Nollet made many excellent thermometers upon
M. de Reaumur's principle. Dr. Marline, however, ex-
prefles his apprehenfions that thermometers of this kind are
conftrufted on principles, that will by no means be found fo
accurate as were to be widied and expefted. The balls,
or bulbs, being large, as three or four inches in diameter,
are neither heated nor cooled foon enough to fliew the
variations in the heat of bodies, and in the weather. Small
bulbs and fmall tubes, he fays, are much more convenient,
and may be conftrufled with fufBcient accuracy. Though
it muft be allowed, that Reaumur, by his excellent fcale,
and by depriving the Ipirit of wine of its air, and expelling
the air by means of heat from the ball and tube of his
thermometer, has brought it to as great a degree of perfec-
tion as it may poifibly admit ; yet it is liable to fome of the
inconveniences of J'pirit thermometers, and much inferior to
the mercurial thermometers. Thermometers of this kind,
and thofe of mercury, do not agree in indicating the fame
degrees of extreme cold ; for when the mercury has ilood
at 22° below o, the fpirit indicated only \%P \ and when the
mercury ftood at 28° or 37° below o, the fpirit refted at 25°
or 29°. See the defcription of Reaumur's thermometer at
large in Mem. de I'Acad. R. des Scienc. an. 1730, p. 645.
Hift. p. 15. Ibid. an. 1731, p. 354. Hift. p. 7.

In 1740, M. Micheh du Crefl conftrufted a fpirit thermo-
meter, to which he annexes four fcales befides its own, w'z.
that of the old thermometer in the Obfervatory at Paris,
Reaumur's, de I'Ifle's, and Fahrenheit's. See Fixed Points
of Thermometers.

Thermometer, Mercurial. It is a circumftance of prin-
cipal importance in the conftrufliofl of tliermometers, to
procure a fluid that meafures equal variations of heat by
correfponding equal variations in its own bulk or volume :
and the fluid which poffefTcs this eflential requifite in the
moft perfedl degree is mercury : the variations in its bulk
approaching nearer to a proportion with the correfpond-
ing variations of its heat than any other fluid. This general
propofition M. de Luc has very elaborately evinced, by
fhewing that the condenfations of fluids, which increafe in
bulk when they freeze, are not proportional to the dimi-
nutions of heat ; and that the dilatations of fluids, which are

eafily converted into vapour by heat, are not proportional
to the augmentations of heat : whereas the bulk of mercury
is not enlarged when it freezes, and it refifts evaporation
more than every other liquid that has been ufed in the con-
ftruclion of thermometers. Befides, it is of all liquids the
moft eafily purged of its air. It is alfo the moft proper for
meafuring very confiderable variations of heat ; for, if a fcale
be graduated with o at the point of melting ice, and 80 at
that of boiling water, mercury well purged of its air will
indicate feven times this difference of iieat, or 561 degrees
in fuch a fcale ; as it will condenfe without freezing to — 261
of this fcale, and expand witliout boiling to 300 of the
fame fcale. Mercury is alfo more fenfible than any other
fluid, air excepted, and conforms more readily to the feveral
variations of heat. Moreover, as mercury is an homogene-
ous fluid, it will in every thermometer exhibit the fame dila-
tation or condenfation by the fame variations of heat. The
expanfion of mercury is fcarcely lefs regular than that of
folids, which probably approaches the neareil to the fteps of
the natural fcale, though not without fome inequality ; and
therefore a portion of mercury inclofed in a bulb of glafs,
having a fine tube connefted with it, forms a thermometer
the moft convenient and probably the moft accurate of any,
for common ufe ; the degrees correfponding very nearly
with thofe of the natural fcale, although, according to the
moft accurate experiments, they appeal- to indicate, towards
the middle of the common fcale of Fahrenheit, a temperature
two or three degrees too low. There is an inequality ot
the fame kind, but ftill greater, in the degrees of the fpirit
thermometer ; and this inftrument has alfo the diladvantage
of being liable to burft in a heat below that of boiling water;
neverthelefs, it is well calculated for the meafurement of
very low temperatures, fince pure alcohol has never yet been
frozen, while mercury has been reduced to a iolid by the
cold of Siberia and of Hudfon's Bay ; but both mercury
and linfeed oil fupport a heat of between 500° and 600",
without ebullition.

In order to render thermometers uniform and comparable,
it is defirable that mercui-y, fo excellently adapted for this
purpofe, (liould be the only fluid ufed in the conftrudlion of
them, more efpecially as a thennometer with mercury may
be more eafily conftrufted than any others. De Luc's
Recherches, &c. vol. i. part ii. cap. 2. paflim.

Dr. Halley, though apprifed only of fome of the remark-
able properties of mercia'y above recited, feems to have
been the firft who fuggefted the apphcation of this fluid
to the conftruftion of thermometers. Phil. Tranf. Abr.
vol. li. p. 34.

Boerhaave (Chem. i. p. 720.) fays, thefe mercurial ther-
mometers were firft contrived by Olaus Roemer ; but the
claims of Fahrenheit of Amfterdam, who gave an account
of his invention to the Royal Society in 1 724 (Phil. Tranf.
N° 381, or Abr. vol. vii. p. 49.), have been generally
allowed. And though Prins and others, in England,
HoOand, France, and other countries, have made this inftru-
ment as well as Fahrenheit, moft of the mercurial thermo-
meters are graduated according to his fcale, and are called
Fahrenheit's thermometers. Thefe are made of different
lengths, and with fome variation in the form of the bulb,
according to the purpofes for which they are defigned.
Intteadofthe ball, ufed in the fpirit thermometer, a cone or
cylinder is annexed to the tube, which may be eafily enlarged
or diminiflied, and made of fuch a magnitude, that its
capacity may have a certain and known proportion to that
of the tube ; and by this means feveral thermometers may
be eonftrufted to the fame fcale : befides, the heat more

eafily

THERMOMETER.

calil)- penetrate* and reaches the uimoft paruof the cylindric
bulb, (lid caufts tlio whole content to expand unlfonnly,
aud the mercury to rife alraoll immediately; whereas in
ihennonieters with a fplierical bulb it is fecn iirft to fall,
and then to rife. Tins phenomenon has been long fince
noticed both in Florentine and mercurial thermometers,
wlif n they are fuddcniy plunged into a healed liquor, the
fpirit of wine or mercury tirll defcends, and then afcends ;
aiid when they are plunged into a cold fluid, the included
hquor lirll afcends and then defcends : this is the more re-
markable in thermometers whofe bulb is made of thick
elafi ; and the reafon of the phenomenon is obvious. The
bulb of glafs is fooner afTeded by the heat or cold applied
to it than the included fluid ; and as tlie glafs expands by
heat, the capacity of the bulb is enlarged, and the hquor
defcends in the tube, but being condenfed by cold, and its
capacity diminifhcd, the liquor is prefled upwards in the
tube : and both thefe efFefts continue till the heat and cold
equally afleft the inclofed fluid. Hence it follows, that all
the variations of afcent and defcent, to which the fpirit or
mercury is fubjeft in the thermometer, are only the differ-
ence of the rarefaiftions and condenfations of glafs, and of
the contained fluid. Hift. Ac. Royal, 1705.

The cone, or cyhnder, of the thermometer is made of
glafs of a moderate thicknefs, left, when the exhaufted tube
IS hermetically fealed, its internal capacity fliould be di-
miniftied by the weight of the ambient atmofphere. When
the mercury is thoroughly purged of its air and moifture
by boihng, the thermometer is filled with a fuflicient quan-
tity of it ; and before the tube is hermetically fealed, the
air is wholly expelled by heating the mercury, fo that it may
be rarefied and afccnd to the top of the tube. To the fide
of the tube is annexed a fcale {ice Jig. 4.) which Fahrenheit
divided into fix hundred parts, beginning with that of the
fevere cold which he had obferved in Iceland in 1709, or
that produced by furrounding the bulb of the thermometer
with a mixture of fnow or beaten ice and fal ammoniac or
fca-falt. This he apprehended to be the greatefl degree of
cold, and accordingly he marked this, as the beginning of
his fcale, with o ; the point at which mercury begins to
boil, he conceived to fliew the greateft degree of heat, and
this he made the limit of his fcale. The diftance between
thefe two points, he divided into fix hundred equal parts
or degrees ; of which 32 reckoned from o, indicates the
degree of cold when fnow or ice thaws naturally, or water
begins to freeze, and this is called t\ie freezing point : and he
marked the heat of boihng water with 212, &c. In order
more particularly to explain the divifions of this fcale, and
to (hew how the dilatation and condenfation of the mercury
are eftimated by it, we may obferve that the bulb is fup-
pofed to contain, according to Boerhaave and Mufchenbroek,
1 1 1 24 parts of quickfilver, which ftands at the lowefl; mark,
or gr. o, in an intenfe cold, &c. as above determined : if the
bulb be immerged in fnow or ice thawing naturally, or in
water beginning to freeze, the quickfilver is dilated, and
rifes in the tube 32 of thefe 11 124 parts; and therefore
the fpace of the tube from gr. o to the freezing point gr.
32, IS divided into thirty-two equal parts. When the ther-
mometer is placed in water brought to a ftrong boiling at a
middle flate of the atmofphere in places near the level of the
fca, when the mercury in the barometer ftands at about 30
inches or a very httle under it, the quickfilver is dilated 212
of thefe parts beyond its original bulk of 1 1 124, fo as now
to poffefs m the bulb and tube together a fpace equal to
1 1336 fuch parts ; and the fpace from gr. 32 to gr. Z12, is
divided into 180 equal parts or degrees of the thermometer;

which, if the tube te long enough, may be protraftifd as far
as is convenient. It may extend well enough to gr. 600,
and not much farther, for with a heat but little greater than
that the mercury begins to boil.

Dr. Boerhaave, in one place, makes the number of parts
into which the mercury in the bulb is fuppofed to be divided
to be 10782 inftead of 11 124, and in another place ftates it
at 11520, which Dr. Martine apprehends to be nearer the
truth, or about 1 1790 parts ; and he thinks the eafieft and
fureft method is to fill the bulb and tube, without being
folicitous about the bulk of the quickfilver, fo tliat in freez-
ing water, or melting ice, the mercury (hall ftand at a con-
venient height, which muft be very nicely marked gr. 32 ;
and then as accurately to obferve where it ftands when
dilated by the heat of boihng water to ^r. 212. The inter-
mediate fpace is then divided into 1 80 degrees, which fcale
may be protrafted upwards or downwards as far as we (hall
judge convenient. See Fixed Points 0/" Thermometers.

In the above method of graduating the fcale, the bore of
the tube is fuppofed to be perfeftly cylindric, which cannot
always be obtained. But though it be tapering or fome-
what unequal, it is eafy to manage that matter, in the manner
propofed by the abbe Nollet (Lemons dc Phyf. Exp.
torn. iv. p. 376.) by making a fmall portion of the quick-
filver, e.g. as much as fills up an inch or half an inch, Aide
backward and forward in the tube ; and thus to find the
proportions of all its inequalities, and from thence to adjull
the divifions to a fcale of the moft perfeft equahty. See
Obfervations on the ConJlruSion q/" Thermometers.

Other thermometers of a fimilar conftruftion have been
accommodated to common ufe, the fcale of which is only a
part of that above defcribed. They have been made of a
fmall fize and portable form, and the tube with its annexed
fcale has been enclofed in another thicker glafs hermetically
fealed, in order to prelerve it from injury. Mr. Ramfden,
at the defire and for the ufe of Mr. Hunter in his experi-
ments on the heat of animals and vegetables, conftrufted
very fmall thermometers, fix or feven inches long, and not
above two twelfths of an inch thick in the ftem ; having the
external diameter very little larger than that of the ftem, on
which was marked the freezing point. The ftem was em-
braced by a fmall ivory fcale, fo as to Aide upon it eafily,
and retain any pofition. Upon the hollow furface of this
fcale were marked the degrees which were feen through the
ftem. Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixviii. parti, p. 8.

Several varieties of thermometers are conftrufted for phi-
lofophical purpofes. For comprehending the whole range
of thermometrical temperature from the moft intenfe artifi-
cial cold to the boihng point of mercury, it is necelTary to
be provided with a very long tube ; but for moft chemical
purpofes, it need only be graduated to about ten degrees
above the boihng point, which will reach the temperature of
moft faline folutions when boihng. For experiments in in-
tenfe cold, a fpirit thermometer fhould be graduated about
100 degrees below o, and the lower extremity of the fcale
(hould be at feme diftance from the bulb, that the tempera-
ture may be obferved without lifting the bulb out of any
deep veflel that may contain the freezing mixture. The
moft delicate and fenfible thermometers are made with a very
fmall bulb, fcarcely larger than the ftem, and a tube of an
extremely narrow bore, not larger than a horfe-hair. For
chemical purpofes alfo, the fcale (hould either be fcratched
on the glafs itfelf, or, as this is difficult to be feen in a com-
mon light, an ivory fcale (hould be attached without reach-
ing fo low as the bulb, that the latter may be fafely im-
merfed in acid or corrofive hquors.

In

THERMOMETER.

Til 1733, M. dcl'ir,.- of PetJrd'jrT coiiilruifted a imrcu-
».W thermometer [kcfig. 4.) on the principles of Reaumur's
fpirit thermometer, in his thermometer, the whole bulk of
quickfilver, when immcrged in boiling water, is conceived to
be divided into 10,000, or rather 100,000 parts ; and from
this one fixed point, the various degrees of heat, cither above
or below it, are marked in thefe parts on the tube or fcale,
by the various ex panfion or contraftion of the quickfilver in
all the imaginable variety of heat. Dr. Marline apprehends
it would have been better if M. de I'KIc had made the in-
teger of 100,000 parts, or fixed point at freezing water, and
from thence computed the dilatations or condenfations of the
quickfilver in thofe parts. All the common obfervations
of the weather, &c. would have been expreffed by numbers
increafing as the heat incieafed, which is the more natural
way ; nor would there have been any great incongruity, or
inconvenience, in exprefiing, after the manner of Reaumur,
the few obfervations that occur below fimple freezing by
numbers of contraftion below gr. O, or i0O,00O. How-
ever, in praftice, it will not be very eafy to determine ex-
adly all the divifions from the alteration of the bulk of the
contained fluid. And befides, as glafs itfelf is dilated by
heat, though in a lefs proportion than quickfilver, fo that it
is only the excefs of the dilatation of the contained fluid
above that of the glafs that is obfervable ; if difl"erent kinds
of glafs be differently affefted by a given degree of heat,
this will make a feeming difference in the dilatation of the
quickfilver in the thermometers, conftrufted ie the New-
tonian method, either by M. de Reaumur's or M. de 1 !""'«
rules. Accordingly, it has been found, that the quickfilver
in thermometers, conftrufted in M. de I'lde's way, has ftood
at different degrees of the fcale when immerged in thawing
Inow. In fome it was at_fr. 154, in others at 156, and in
another at 158 : and it appears by M. de I'Ifle's own ac-
count, that his thermometers difagree confiderably from one
another. Celjlus's thermometer has been chiefly ufed in
Sweden, and hence it has been called the Siucdtfo thermo-
meter. The French chemifts have lately adopted it, under
the name of centigrade thermometer. See Fixed Points of
Thermometers, and the table at the clofe of this article.

Thermometer, Metalline, is a name given to a machine
compofed of two metals, which, whilft it indicates the va-
riations of cold and heat, ferves to correft the errors that
refult from hence in the conftruftion of pendulum clocks.
Inftruments of this kind have been contrived by Graham,
Le Roy, in 1738, EUicot, Harrifon, &;c. See Compound
Pendulum.

We have alfo an account of inftruments of this kind in-
vented by Mortimer, Frotheiingham, and Fitzgerald, in the
Phil. Tranf. vol. xliv. p. 689, vol. xlv. p. 129, and vol. li.
p. 82J ; to which we muft refer for a particular defcriptioa
of each, illuftrated by figures.

M. de Luc has likewife defcribed two thermometers of
metal, which he ufes for correfting the effefts of heat upon
a barometer, and an hygrometer of his conftruftion con-
nefted with them. In one of thefe, a ilrong rod of well-
hardened brafs, fupports upon a^ edge, at a convenient
diftance from the centre of motion, a lever, vvliich holds the
fcale of the barometer fufpended, and makes it rife or fall
by the dilatation or condenfation of the brafs rod, as the
quickfilver rifes or falls in the barometer, by the conefpond-
ing variations of heat. This fcale of the barometer, when
it moves, draws or loofens a thread of filk-grafs, which
goes over a fmall pulley placed upon the fame axis with a
much larger one, to which the tcale of the hygrometer is
hung likewife by a fimilar thread, which thus varies, by the
proportion of the diameters of the pulleys, as the heat makes

Vol. XXXV.

the quickfilver in the hygrometer vary. This inftrlinient is
convenient for meteorological obfervations : becaufe it faves
one obfervation and two corrcftions for the heat ; but it is
nccefl'ary from time to time to correft an irregularity in it,
which is eafily perceived by means of an index, carried by
the moveable fcales of the two inftruments, which, going
over immoveable fcales of the fame fort, ftiews their dtfTcr-
ence of height. When this difference is no longer con-
formable to the indication of the thermometer, it is eafily
reftified by turning fmall pegs, on which is twifted the
thread of filk-grafs, which ferves for the fufpcnfion of the
fcales. The irregularity juft mentioned confilts in this, that
when the heat, after having varied, returns to the fame point
of the quickfilver thermometer, the metallic thermometer
does not return to it exaftly, but varies nearly in the fol-
lowing manner ; during the fummer, the latter gains coii-
ftantly on the former, i. e. amidft its variations, it always
preferves a fmall part of the lengthening, which is at that
time its ordinary ftate. In winter, on the contrary, it be-
comes infenfibly ahttle too fhort. The other metallic ther-
mometer, which is more curious than ufeful, on account of
its greater irregularity, confifts of a rod of lead, which,
communicating by a thread of fdk-grafs with a fmall pulley
fixed to the fame axis with a greater one, condufts, by mear.s
of another pulley, a needle through whofe axis, which is
bored, pafTes another axis that carries the needh of a pulley
barometer. Thus this inftrument marks the heat and
weight of the air upon two concentric circles, by means of
two needles turning upon the fame centre, as in clocks ; be-
hu.' vvhich, the needle of the thermometer points out upon
a thira v'""le the correftion for the heat, to be made on the
barometer. See Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixviii. part i. p. 43 7, &c.

Thermometers, Oil. To this clafs belongs fir Ifaac
Newton's thermometer, conftrufted in 1701, with linfeed
oil inftead of fpirit of wine. This liquor has the advantage
of being fufficicntly homogeneous, and capable of a con-
fiderable rarefaftioii, not lefs than fifteen times greater than
that of fpirit of wine. It has not been obferved to freeze
even in very great colds, and it is able to bear a great heat,
about four times that of water, without boihng. With thefe
advantages it was made ufe of by fir Ifaac Newton, who
difcovered by it the comparative degree of heat for boiling
water, melting wax, boiling fpirit of wine, and melting tin ;
beyond vvhich it does not appear that this thermometer was
applied. The method he ufed for adjufting the fcale of this
oil-thermometer was as follows : fuppofmg the bulb, when
immerged in thawing fnow, to contain 10,000 parts, he found
the oil expanded by the heat of the human body fo as tq
take up one thirty-ninth more fpace, or 10256 fuch parts ;
and by the heat of water boihng ftrongly, 10725 ; and by
the heat of melting tin, 11516. So that, reckoning the
freezing point as a common Hmit between Iieat and cold, he
began his fcale tliere, marking it gr. o, and the heat of the
human body he made^r. 12 ; and, confequently, the degrees
of heat being proportional to the degrees of rarefadtion, or
10256: 10725, i. e. 256 : 725 :: 12 : 34, the heat of boil-

725 X 12

ing water was expreffed by gr. 34 ■

256

and that

of the melting tin by gr. 72. Phil. Tranf. No. 270, or
Abr. vol. iv. part ii. p. 3.

Although in this graduation fir Ifaac Newton does not
fpecify any degree of cold below that of freezing water, yet
it would be eafy to protraft his fcale downward below^r. o,
or the freezing point, and thus to adapt it for eftiraating
greater degrees of cold, like other thermometers. But
there is another infuperable inconvenience that attends all
3 S thcr-

THERMOMETER.

thermometers made with oil, or any other vifcid hqiior, viz.
that fuch a liquor adheres too mucli to the hdcs ot the tube.
In a fudden cold or fall of the oil, much of it ilicks by the
\yay, and only links ^aduallv afterwards, fo that at hrll tlic
furface appears reallr lower than the prcfeiit tempcrature
requir.'S. And brlides, as at all times lome of the oil mull
continue to (lick and moillen the iniide of the tnbe, in dif-
ferent degrees of heat and cold, the oil, becoming alternately
more or lefs vifcid, will adhere fometimes more and fomotinies
K-fs J and will, therefore, inevitably difturb the regularity
and uniformity of the thermometer. Marline's Effays,

Eff. iii. ^ , ,

ThkRMOMKTe li>;, Fixtii Points of. \ arious methods have
been propofed by various authors,' for finding a fixed point,
or degree, of heat and cold, from which to reckon tlie other
degrees, and adjuft the fcale ; fo that obfcrvations made at
the fame or different times, in different places, might be com-
pared together. For want of this, notwithftanding all the
numerous regiflers of the weather, &c. that have been kept
and publilhed by different authors, we are much at a lofs to
determine the comparative differences of heat and cold in
different countries and cHmates, and the refultof many other
obfervations. If all the weathcr-glaffes in the world had
been made according to one determined fcale, thefe incon-
veniences and uncertainties would have been prevented ;
which, indeed, are now unavoidable, and mufl ftill continue
fo, till all agree to graduate their thermometers in the fame
manner, or at lead deteiTnine fome fixed or unalterable points
of heat, to which all the different fcalcs of thofe inftruments
may be reduced. The honourable Mr. Boyle was very
feniible of this inconvenience, and much laments it ; and he
propofed the freezing of tiie effcntial oil of anifeeds, as a
term of heat and cold that might be of ufe in making and
judging of thermometers, and fo to graduate them from this
point according to the proportional dilatations or contrac-
tions of the included fpirits. He mentioned alfo the cold-
nefs requifitc to begin the congelation of diftilled water as
another fixed term that might be adopted ; for he was per-
fuadcd, that among the ordinary waters, fome were apt to
freeze more cafily than others. But he was deterred from
profecuting this fcheme of fixing a ftandard for m>aking and
graduating all thermometers in the fame way. Experi-
ments, &c. on cold, in his works abridged by Shaw, vol. i.

P- 579-

Dr. Hallcy (Phil. Tranf. Abr. vol.ii. p. 36.) feems to
have been fully apprized of the bad effefts of the indefinite
method of conftructing thermometers, and wlfhed to have
them adjufled to fome determined points. What he feems
to prefer for this purpofe is the degree of temperature
which is found in fubterranean places, where the heat in
fummer and cold in winter appears to have no influence.
But this degree of temperature is fhewn by Dr. Marline to
be a term for the univerfal conftruCtion of thermometers,
both inconvenient, as it cannot be eafily afcertained ; and a
precarious one, as the difference of foils and depths may
occafion a confiderable variation. Another term of heat
which he thought might be of ufe in a general graduation of
Ihermometers, is that of boiling fpirit of wine that has
been highly reftified : but a much more convenient term
of heat, though lefs infifted on by Dr. Halley, is that
of boiling water. The firfl trace that occurs of the me-
thod of aftually applying fixed points or terms to the ther-
mometer, and of graduating it, fo that the unequal divi-
fions of it might corrcfpond to equal degrees of heat, is the
projca of Renaldiuus, profcfTor, of Padua, in 1694: it is
thus defcribed in the Afta Erud. Lipf. " Take a flender
tube, about four pabns long, with a ball faflcncd to the

fame ; pour into it fpirit of wine, enough jufl to fill the"
ball, when furrounded with ice, and not a drop over : in
this ilate, feal the orifice of the tube hermetically, and pro-
vide twelve vefTels, each capable of containing a pound of
water, and fomewhat more ; and into the firfl pour eleven
ounces of cold water, into the fecond ten ounces, into the
third nine, &c. : this done, immerge the thermometer in the
fird veffel, and pour into it one ounce of hot water, ob-
ferving how high the fpirit rifes in the tube, and noting the
point with unity : then remove the thermometer into the
fecond velTel, into which are to be poured two ounces of
hot water, and note the place the fpirit rifes to with 2. By
thus proceeding till the whole pound of water is fpenl, the
inflrument will be found divided into twelve parts denoting
fo many terms or degrees of heat ; fo that at 2 the heat is
double to that at i, at 3, triple, &c."

But this method, though plaufible, Wolfius fhews, is
deceitful, and is built on falfe fuppofitions ; for it takes for
granted, that we have one degree of heat, by adding one
ounce of hot to eleven of cold water ; two degrees, by
adding two ounces to ten, &c. : it fuppofes, alfo, that a
fingle degree of heat afts on the fpirit of wine in the ball
with a fingle force ; a double with a double force, &c. •
laftly, it fuppofes, that if the cffeft be produced in the
thermometer by the heat of the ambient air, which is here
produced by the hot water, the air has the fame degree of
heat with the water.

Soon after this projeft of Renaldinus, viz. in 1701, fir
Ifaac Newton conftrufted his oil thermometer, and fixed
the bafe or lowefl fixed point of his fcale at the tempera-
ture of thawing fnow, and twelve at that of the human
body, &c. in the manner explained under the article Oil
Thermometer.

M. de Luc obferves, that the fecond term of his fcale
fhould have been at a greater diftance from the firft, and
that the heat of boiling water would have anfwered this
purpofe better than that of the human body.

In 1702, M. Amontons contrived his aniwr/a/ thermome-
ter, the fcale of which was graduated in the following man-
ner. He chofe for the firfl term the weight that counter-
balanced the air included in his thermometer, when it was
heated by boiling water : and in this ftate he fo adjufled
the quantity of mercury contained in it, till the fum of its
height in the tube, and of its height in the barometer at
the moment of obfervation, was equal to feventy-three
inches. Fixing this number at the point to which the
mercury in the tube rofe by plunging it into boiling water,
it is evident, that, if the barometer at this time was twenty-
eight inches, the height of the column of mercury in the
thermometer above the level of that in the ball was forty-
five inches ; but if the height of the barometer was lefs by
a certain quantity, the column of the thermometer ought to
be greater by the fame quantity, and reciprocally. He
formed his fcale on the fuppofition that the weight of
the atmofphere was always equal to that of a column
of mercury of twenty-eight inches, and divided it into
inches from the point 73 downwards, marking the divi-
lions with 72, 71, 70, &c. and he fubdivided the inches
into lines.

But as the weight of the atmofphere is variable, the ba-
rometer mufl be obfervcd at the fame time with the thermo-
meter, that the number indicated by this lafl inflrument
may be properly corrected, by adding or fubtradling the
quantity of which the mercury is below or above twenty-
eight inches in the barometer. In this fcale, then, the
freezing point is at 51^ inches, correfponding to gr.
32 of Fahrenheit, and the heat of boiling water at 73

inches.

THERMOMETER.

inclien, anfwering to gr. 212 of Fahrenheit's: and thus
tliey may be eafily compared together.

The fixed points of Fahrenheit's thermometer, which is
generally ufed in Great Britain, (as we have already ob-
ferved under ^fif/Tur/'a/ Thermometer,) are the congela-
tion produced by fal ammoniac and the heat of boiling
water. The interval between thefe points is divided into
212 equal parts ; the firft of thefe points is marked o, 32
degrees below the freezing point, and the other 212 ; the
diftance of courfe between the freezing and boiling points
being 180. The reafon why Fahrenheit fixed his fcalc fo far
below the water-freezing point was founded on an erro-
neous hypothefis relative to the real zero or point of abfolute
privation of heat ; neverthelefs it has this advantage, that
the diftinftion between the pofitive and negative terms, or
thofe which exprefs degrees above or below the zero,
much lefs frequently occurs in any experiments, and
fcarcely ever in the regifter of natural cold in temperate
climates, by which many accidental errors are avoided.
Reaumur, in his thermometer, the conftruftion of which he
pubhflied in 1 730, and which is generally ufed in France and
other parts of the continent, begins his fcale at an artificial
congelation of water in warm weather, which, as he ufes
large bulbs for his glaffes, gives the freezing point much
higher than it (hould be, and at boihng water he marks gr.
80, (the diftance between both points being 80,) which point
Dr. Marline apprehends to be more vague and uncertain
than his freezing point. The fpirit in the ihermometer,
he obferves, is abfolutely incapable of fuch a great heat
as Reaumur afcribed to it, and that not by a fmall or
trifling difference. He finds, that highly reftified fpirit of
wine cannot be heated beyond ^r. 175 in Fahrenheit's ther-
mometer, while boihng water raifes the quickfilver 37 de-
grees higher ; and common brandy was able to conceive a
heat no greater than about ^r. 190. So far, he concludes,
was Reaumur in the wrong, when he thought that all fpi-
rits, weak and ftrong, immerged in boihng water, received
a given degree of heat, and that equal to the heat of the
furrounding water. He fuppofes his ftandard heat could
take a heat only of about ^r. 180 ; lefs by 32 degrees than
what he reckoned. In order to determine the correfpond-
ence of his fcale with that of Fahrenheit, it is to be confi-
dered that his boiling-water heat is really only the boiling
heat of weakened fpirit of wine, coinciding nearly, as
Dr. Martine apprehends, with Fahrenheit's gr. 180. And
as his gr. loj is the conftant heat of the cave of the ob-
fervatory at Paris, or Fahrenheit's gr. 53, he thence finds
his freezing point, inftead of anfwering juft to gr. 32, to
be fomething above gr. 34.

The thermometer of M. de I'lde, of which he prefented
an account to the Academy of Sciences at Peterfburg in
1733, has only one fixed point, which is the hsat of boiling
water, and, contraiy to the common order, the feveral de-
grees are marked downwards from this point or zero, ac-
cording to the condenfations of the contained quickfilver, and
confequently by numbers increafing as the heat decreafes to
150, the freezing point. In order to determine the extent
of the degrees of this fcale, M. de I'llle firft weighed the
empty tube, and then weighed it full of mercury ; and
the difference of thefe two weights gave him that of the
mercury. He then expofed the thermometer to the heat of
boiling water, and took care to preferve the mercury,
which this increafe of heat forced out of it ; this he accu-
rately weighed, and dedufting its weight from the total
weight of the mercury, he made the remainder, or that
which was left in the thermometer, equal to 10000 ; he
then found by calculation how many loooo parts of this

refidue that forced out of tlie tube contained, and thefe
parts formed the divifion* of the fcale from the point,
determined by the condenfation of the mercury to the
fame, point at which it ftood before it was plunged in boil-
ing water, to the upper end of the tube ; and thefe divi-
fions formed the extent of the degrees of M. de I'lflc's
fcale. According to his llandards, the freezing point,
fays Dr. Martine, is near to his ^r. I JO, correfponding to
Fahrenheit's gr. 32, by which me:uis tlwy may be com-
pared ; but M. Ducreli fays, that this point ought to be
marked at leaft at gr. 1 54.

M. Ducreft, in his fpirit thermometer, conftruftcd in
1740, made ufe of two fixed points; the firft, or o, indi-
cated the temperature of the earth, and was marked on his
fcale in the cave of the Royal Obfcrvatory at Paris ; and
the other was the heat of boiling water, which the fpirit in
his thermometer was made to endure, by leaving the upper
part of the tube full of air. He divided the interval be-
tween thefe points into 100 equal parts ; caUing the divi-
fions upwards degrees of heat, and thofe below o degrees of
cold.

He afterwards regulated his thermometer by the degree
of cold indicated by melting ice, which he found to be
loj. In Celfius's, or the centigrade thermometer, the
freezing point, like that of Reaumur's, was o, the boiling
point at 100, and the diftance between both 100. See the
table at the clofe of the article.

The Florentine thermometers made and ufed by the
members of the famous academy dd' Cimento, being fome
of the firft inftruments of the fort, were vaguely graduated,
fome of them having many more degrees than others ; but
thofe of their moft comjmon graduation were of two forts ;
in one fort the freezing point, determined by the degree at
which the fpirit ftood in the ordinai-y cold of ice or fnow
(probably in a thawing ftate), and coinciding with gr. 32 of
Fahrenheit, fell at gr. 20 ; and in the other fort at gr. 135:
and the natural heat of the vifcera of cows and deer, &c,
raifed the fpirit in the latter, or lefs fort, to about gr. 40,
coinciding with their fummer heat, and nearly with^gr. lo?
in Ftihrenheit's, and in their other long thermometer,
the fpirit, when expofed to the great midfummer heat in
their country, rofe to the point at which they marked ^r. 80,
The freezing point of one was 20, the boiling point 174,
and the diftance between both was 154: in the other the
freezing point was 13^, the boiling point 8l|, and the dif-
tance 68|.

In the Parifian thermometer, or the ancient thermometer
of the Academy of Sciences, the freezing point was at 25,
the boiling point at 239, and the diftance between both
214.

In the thermometer of the obfervatory at Paris, made of
fpirit of wine by M. de la Hire, the fpirit always ftands at
_fr. 48, in the cave of the obfervatory, correfponding to
gr. ^^ in Fahrenheit's; and his gr. 28 correfponded with
5 1 inches fix lines in Amontons's thermometer, and con-
fequently with the freezing point, or gr. 32 of Faliren-
heit's. This thermometer of De la Hire, which ftood in
the obfervatory of Paris above 60 years, feems to have
been graduated thus ; the freezing point 28, the boiling
point 1 99 J, and the diftance between both 171-I. In Amon-
tons's thermometer the freezing point was 51^, the boiling
point 73, and the diftance between them 2ii.

In the thermometer of Poleni, made after the manner of
Amontons's, but with lefs mercury, 47 inches corre-
fponded, according to Dr. Marfine, with 5 1 in that of
Amontons's, and 53 with 59^. It was graduated thus ;
the freezing point at 47-nj> the boiling point at 62,%, and
382 th?

THERMO METER.

l!,f ililluico btlwffii thcin i5,-o- J'> Crucquius's, the
tVi-c/ing point was 1070, the boiling point 15 10, and the

ilitbncc 44c. r L D 1 c

III the aiai.-nt ftandard thrrmometer of the Royal bo-
cielv, after which thermometers were for a long time con-
llruded in England, Dr. Martin<; found that gr. 34^, an-
fwered to gr. 64 in Fahrenheit's, and gr. o to 89 or 88.
From that point the numeration afccnded and dcfcendeil
tbuj; the freezing point was 73^, t!ie boiling point 141^,
and the diftance between them 2i5i. In iir liaac New-
ion's, the freezing point was o, the boiling point 34, and
the diftance 34.

In the thermometers graduated for adjufting the degi-ees
of heat proper for exotic plant?, &c. in lloves and green
houfes, the middle temperature of the air is marked at
gr. o, and the degrees of heat and cold are numbered
both above and bdow. Many of thefe are made on no
regular and fixed principles. But in that formerly much
uled, called Fowler's regulator, the fpirit fell, in melting
fnow, to about gr. 34 under o ; and Dr. Martine found,
that his gr. 16 above o, coincided willi nearly gr. 64 of
Fahrenheit. His o feenis to have coincided with about
the 53d or 54th degree of Fahrenheit's, and from that
point the- numeration afcended and dcfcended thus ; the
freezing point 34, the boiling point 250J, and the diftance
between them 2844.

Dr. Hales (Statical EiTays, vol. i. p. 5S.) in his thermo-
meter made witli fpirit of wine, and ufed in experiments
on vegetation, began his fcale with tho loweft degree of
freezing, or gr. 32 of Fahrenheit, and carried it up to
gr. too, which he marked where the fpirit llood when the
ball was heated in hot water, o!i which wax fwimming tirft
began to coagulate, and this point Dr. Martine found to
correfpond with gr, 142 of Fahrenheit, But by expe-
rience Hales's or. ico falls confiderably above our gr. 142.
According to others, his freezing point was o, his boiling
point was 163, and the diftance of courfe 163.

In the Edinburgh thermometer, made with fpirit of
wine, and ufed in the meteorological obfervations pub-
li(hid in the Medical EtTays, the fcale is divided into
inches and tenths. In melting fnow the fpirit Hood at
X,',, and the heat of the human (kin raifed to 22 '5. Dr.
Martine found, that the heat of the perfon who graduated
it was _fr. 97 of Fahrenheit. It feems to have been gra-
duated thus; the freezing point 8;, the boiling point 47,
and the diftance between them 3Sj.

As it is often of ufe to compare different thermometers,
ill order to judge of the refult of former obfervations, we
have annexed from Dr. Maitine's Effays, the table by which
lie compared fifteen different thermometers. See PlateXVl.
Pneumatics, Jig. 4. See alfo the table at the clofe of this
article.

There is a thermometer which was formerly much ttfed
in London, called the thermometer of Lyons, becaufe M.
Criftin brought it there into ufe, which is made of mer-
cury : the freezing point is marked gr. o, and the inter-
val from that point to the heat of boiling water is divided
into 100 equal degrees.

From the above abftraft of the hiftory of the conftruc-
lion of thermometers, it appears that freezing and boiling
water have furnifhed the diftinguithing points that have
been marked upon almoft all thermometers. The inferior
fixed point is that of freezing, which fome have determined
by llie freezing of water, and others by the melting of
iLc ; ajid though the difFcrer.ce between thefe two tempera-
tures is not commonly very confidcrable, yet it is not \n-
vai-iable. * •

It is now well known, that all, or almoft all bodies, by
changing from a fluid to a folid ftate, or from the ftate of an
elaftic to that of an unelaftic fluid, generate heat ; and that
cold is produced by the contrary procefs.

In order to obtain this fixed point or limit, melting ice, or
ice powdered and mixed with water, will produce the fanu'
temperature. And thoiigii there may be fome trifling dif-
ference between the temperature of ice difpofed to melt, ai.d
that of melted ice or the water produced by it ; this differ-
ence, however, has no fenfible cffefl on the thermometer ;
confequently, the temperature of water fucceflively produced
by ice, and accumulated in its intcrftices, or from powdered
ice mixed with the water which is produced by it in melting,
affords, as De Luc obfervcs, a fixed point, which is eafily
obtained, and which fhould be adopted in the conftrudlion of
all thermometers.

The fuperior fixed point of almoft all thermometers, i»
the heat of boiling water ; but this point cannot be confi-
dered as fixed, unlefs the heat be produced by the fame de-
gree of boiling, and under tlic fame weight of the atmo-
ipherc. With regard to the firft circumftance, it is obferved,
that water, when it begins to boil, has not attained to its
greateft degree of heat, which is known by its bubbling or
foaming from the bottom of the veffel, and over the whole
furface of the water, with the greateft violence which it is
capable of acquiring ; and in this ftate the water difcovers
an augmentation of heat more than one degree above the heat
it had when it began to boil. The temperature of water
which boils with vehemence (hould, therefore, be the
ftandard of the fixed point of thermometers : neverthelefs
it is to be confidered farther, that this degree of heat with
which water violently boils, is invariably the fame, only un-
der a given prefTure of the atraofphere ; but if the preflure
be diminifned or increafed, the boihng heat is diminifhed or
increafed. It is well known that water, placed under the
exhaufted receiver of an air-pump, will be converted into
fteam with a degree of heat far inferior to that which is ne-
cefTary to its boiling in the open air ; and under the preflure
of its own vapour, confined in Papin's digefter, it is faid to
fuftain a degree of heat, without boiling, far exceeding that
which, in the open air, would convert it into fteam. Hence
it follows that, in climates where the preiTure of the at»io-
fphere is liable to confidcrab'.e change, the heat of boihng
water, in open air, will be different at different times. Con-
fequently thermometers, made in different ftates of the ba-
rometer, will difagrcc ; unlefs allowance has been made for
the effe<fl ot the variation of the barometer upon accurate
principles. That the heat of boihng was variable, accord-
ing to the prelTure of the atm.ofphere, feems to have been
known to Fahrenheit as early as the year 1724. See Phil.
Tranf. N° 385.

Some time after this period, MefTrs. le Monnier and Caf-
fini (Mem. de I'Acad. des Sc. for 1740) made fome decilive
obfervations, in order to Ihew that this quantity was very
confiderable.

M. de Luc, in 1762, made a much more complete feries
of experiments, which he has defcribed and reduced into a
fyflem in his Rccherches fur les Mod. de I'Atmofphere,
vol. !. p. 382, &c. vol. ii. p. 338, &c. and thefe have been
fince verified by fir George Shuckburgh, in 1775 and •77^-
See Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixix. part ii. p. 362, &c.

M. de Luc fixes the boihng point of his thermometer
when the barometer is at 27 Paris, or 28.75 Englifli inches,
that being its mean height at Geneva. He divides the fun-
damental interval, i. e. the whole extent of the fcale, be-
tween melting ice and boihng v/ater, after the French man-
.>;er, into eighty equal pnrlj ; and by a great number of ex-
periments

THERMOMETEil.

pentnciils on the heat of boihng water, at different heights
above the level of the fea, he hath found, that the height of
I'.is thermometer, plunged in boiling water, may be exprefTed,
i:-. all flates of the barometer, by the following formula, -vix.

— — — log:. V — a =; T : in which y denotes the height of
200000 ^ -^ -^ "

th? barometer in fixteenths of a Parifian line, T the height
of a thermometer, plunged in boiling water, above melting
ice, in hundredths of a degree of his fcale ; and a the con-
ilant number 10387.

By logarithms he always means the tabular or Briggian
logarithms, and confiders the feven figures given by the
tables, befides the index, as integral figures, ;'. e. he con-
f.ders tlie eighth figure of the logarithm as Handing in the
place of units. But as it is more ufual with mathemati-
cians, aud, in general, more convenient, to coiifider all the
figures after tiie index as decimals, the number which M. do

Luc exprefles by — ~ — log. y, would in that cafe be

200000

99 X loo

log- Ji ; Of 99 X 50 log. y. However, in the

fequel, M. de Luc's notation is retained.

Now if care were taken by the above formula, or in any
other way, to adjuft the boiling point to the main height of
the barometer in every country, the inftruments of the fame
country would always be confiftent ; but thofe of different
countries would ftill difagree ; that is, they would exprefs the
fame temperature differently, though tlieir fimilar intervals
ftould be fimilai-ly divided ; for in every fcale, the number
of degrees above or below melting ice, by which any given
temperature is expreffed, will be as the value of each degjree
inverfely ; that is, if each be a given part of the fundamen-
tal interval, as the value of the fundamental interval in-
Terlely ; but if the degrees of different fcales be different
parts of the fundamental intervals, as the value of the fun-
damental interval inverfely, and the number of degrees con-
tained in it diredtly.

In order, therefore, to compare the thermometers of dif-
ferent countries, the proportions of their fundamental inter-
vals to each other mull be afcertained, or we rauft have fome
means of finding, upon one fcale, the place of the boiling
point of another. For this piirpofe, a general folution is re-
<juslke of the following problem, viz. the fundamental in-
ttrval being given for a given height of the barometer,
to find the fundamental interval for any other given height
of the barometer. The folution is fumifhed by M> de
Luc's relearches ; and his formula, above given, is re-
duced to Englifli meafurcs, and adapted to Engliili in-
ftruments, by Dr. Horfley. As the fubjeft is curious
and important, we Ihall fubjoin the proeefs he has pur-
fued for tliis purpofe. It is but feldom that the baro-
meter in this country flar.ds fo low as 27 Paris inches.
Its main height upon the plain country about London is
near 30 EngUfli inches. It may, tlicretore, be proper for
the London workmen to fix their boiling point when the
barometer is at 30 inches. Fahrenheit's divifion of the fcale,
which makes 180 degrees between melting ice and boiling
water, and places the point o at the 3 2d degree below melting
ice, may be retained : and the thermometer thus ccnftrufted
is called by Dr. Horfley, Bird's P'ahrenheit, bccaufe Mr.
Bird, he apprehends, is the firfl; workman who took the pains
to attend to the ftate of the barometer in making thermo-
meters, and has always fixed the boiling point when his ba-
rometer has ilood at 30 inches.

T, then, being pv.t f^^r the height of a thermometer

7

plunged in boihng water, above nicltuig ict, in lo&dllio ol
a degree of De Luc's fcale, in any given ftate of the baro-
meter ; let fe> denote the fame height in loodths of a dcgrte
oi Bird's Fahrenheit ; put y for the height of the barome-
ter, in i6ths of a Paris line ; -u, for its height in Paris
fines ; .r, in loths of a Paris inch ; 2, in loths of an Eng-
hlh inch ; and for 10387 put a ; for 16, 6 ; for 10, c ; for
12, d; and let E :md F reprefcnt numbers expreifing the
proportion of the Englilli foot to the French foot.

M. dc Luc hath found that, whatever be the value ot y.

99

■log.

a ■■

T. But log. y = log. V + log. i ;

200000

and log. V = log. x + log. d — log. c ; and log. w = log.
« + log. E — log. F ; therefore log. y = log. z + log.

99

E + Jog. J + log. 1/

■ log-. F — log. c ; and — — — log.
^ ^ 200000 ^

99

+ i^ooSS ^°S- ^ + ^°S- '^ + ^°^- ^ - ^°^' ^

log.

But

F — log. c — a =

to the Engliflt as 2. 13 15 to 2

- 4171-55 = T; and

99 :

z'SS^ ^°S- E + log. J + log. 6 - log.
= — 4171.55; the French foot being

Therefore - — — — log. c
200000

99

20000000

log.

41.7155 =

= the height of the thermometer, plunged in boiling

water, above melting ice, in degrees of De Luc's fcale,
when the height of the barometer in tenths of an EagliOi

T

inch, is z. For a write 300 : then = 80.002 ; which

-^ 100 '

is therefore the height of the thermometer, in boiling water,
above melting ice, in degrees of De Luc's fcale, when the
barometer is at 30 inches Enghfli. And in the fame ftate of
tlie barometer, the height of the thermometer plunged in
boiling W3ter, above melting ice, in degrees of Bird's Fah-
renheit, or , is 1 80. Hence the numbers T and ©

too

are in the conftant proportion of 809 and 1 800, whatever
be the value of z. For the change produced in the heat
of boiling water, by any change of z, being always the
fame for both thermometers, the temperature expreffed by
T in parts of one fcale is always the fame, as 0 ex.

preffes in parts of the other ; and therefore putting - -

and — for the values of the loodthpart of a degree of tlie

T

icales of De Luc and Bird refpeftively, the fraftions — ,

^ are always equal, and T, Q are m the conftant propor-
tion of the invariable numbers L, B : confequently, when
the proportion of T and 0 is determined for any particular
value of », it is found generally for all : confequently T : 0

:: 8co : 1800. And T = -„-'- 0 = — ^- e very nearly

IBCO 2000

in air values 01 -.; : and fubftituting this val jc for T in the

equation

THERMOMETER.

for the relation between % and ©,

99

equttion exhibiting the relation between % and T, we hare,

log. « —

log. z -

made by fir George Shuclcburgh {ubi fupra) compared
with the refult of M. de Luc's rules.

20000000

4'-7'5S =

899

99

92.804 =

loooo X 899
= the height of the thermometer in boiling

2000 X ICX)

e

ICXD

water, above melting ice, in degrees of Bird's Fahrenheit,
when the height of the barometer in tenths of an Englilh
inch, is -i. And thus M. de Luc's formula, for the varia-
tion of the boiling point, is adapted to Englifli inftrumciUs,
and reduced to Engliih meafures of length.

For s write 287.7525, the length of 27 French inches m

tenths of an Engliih inch, and , the height of De Luc's

° too

boiling point above melting ice, in degrees of Bird's Fahren-
heit, comes out 177.989. Hence M. de Luc's boiUng pouit
falls upon 209.989 of Bird's fcale, i. e. upon 210 very nearly,
or infenfibly more than two degrees below Bird's pouit
of boiling. But as 899 is a troublefome divifor, the
computation will be more eafy and expeditious, by wntmg

for — 5-^— log. s, i. Then s -(- — - s - 92.804 =

lOOOOOO

900

very nearly. Upon thefe principles Dr. Horfley has

100

computed the table following, for finding the heights to
which a good Bird's Fahrenheit will rife, when plunged in
boiling water, in all dates of the barometer, from 27 to 31
Englifh inches ; which will ferve, among other ufes, to direft
inftrument-makers in making a true allowance for the effeft
of the variation of the barometer, if they are obliged to
finifh a' thermometer, when the barometer is above or below
30 inches ; though it is beft to fix the boiling point when the
barometer is at the height prefcribed.

Equation of the Boiling Point.

Barometer.

Equation.

Difference.

31.0

30-5
30.0
29.5
29.0
28.5
28.0

27-S
27.0

+ I-S7

+ 0.79

0.00

- 0.80

- 1.62

- 2.45

-3-3'

- 4.16

- 5-04

0.78
0.79
0.80
0.82
0.83
0.85
0.86
0.88

The nombers in the firft column of this table exprefs
heights of the quickfilver in the barometer in Englifli
inches and decimal parts : the fecond column (hews the
equation to be apphed, according to the fign prefixed, to
212" of Bird's Fahrenheit to find the true boiling point
for every fuch ftate of the barometer. The boiling point
for aD intermediate dates of the barometer may be had
with fufBcient accuracy by taking proportional parts, by
means of the third column of differences of the equations.
( See Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixiv. part i. art. 30. See alfo an
excellent paper on this fubjeft by Dr. Mafkelyne, in the
Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixiv. parti, art. 20.) In the following
table wc have the refult of fifteen different obfervations

Heiplii of the

Baiomeier re-

Mean Boiling

Boiling Point

(iuceii to the

Point by Ob-

bj ne Luc"s

fame Tun |)era-

fervation.

Rules.

ture of 50".

Inch.

Deg.

Deg.

26.498

207.07

208.54

27.241

208.64

208.84

27.954

209.87

210.03

28.377

210.50

210.81

28.699

211. 27

211.34

28.898

211.50

211.67

28.999

21 1.60

211.85

29.447

212.55

212.74

29.805

212.95

213.15

30.008

213.22

213-47

30.207

213.58

213.79

30.489

214.15

214.23

30-763

214-37

214.66

30.847

214.83

214.79

30-957

214.96

214.96

Sir George Shuckburgh has alfo fubjoined the follow-
ing general table for the ufe of artids in condrufting the
thermometer, both according to his own obfervations, and
thofe of M. de Luc.

Height of

( oirecl.of the

Corrcift. accord.

1

Ditfereiicc,

tbeBarom.

Bi)iling Point.

to M. de Luc.

Inch.

. Deg.

Dc^.

26.0

- 7.09

•91
.91

.90

.89

.89

.87
.87
.85
.85
.84

- 6.83

.90
.89

.88

26.5

- 6.18

- 5-93

27.0

- 5-27

- 5-04

27-5

- 4-37

— 4.16

.87
.86

28.0

- 3-48

- 3-31

28.5
29.0
29.5

- 2.59

- 1.72

- 0.85

- 2.45

- 1.62

- 0.80

•83

.82

.80

30.0

0.00

0.00

•79
.78

30-5

-1- 0.85

+ 0.79

31.0

+ 1.69

+ 1-57

The Royal Society, fully apprized of the importance of
adjuding the fixed points of thermometers, appointed a
committee of feven gentlemen to confider of the beft method
for this purpofe ; and their report is pubhlhed in the Phil.
Tranf. vol. Ixvii. part ii. art. 37. From a variety of expe-
riments and obfervations, relating to this fubjetft, the com-
mittee have deduced the following pratftical rules, which
they recommend in adjuding the fixed points of ther-
mometers. The mod accurate way of adjuding the toiling
point is, not to dip the thermometer into the water, but to
expofe it only to the fteam, in a veffel clofed up in the
manner reprefented in Plate XVL Pneumatics, ^g^ 6. where
A B i a is the veffel containing the boiling water, D d the
cover, E a chimney made in the cover intended to carry
off the deam, and M m the thermometer paffed through a
hole in the cover. In the purfuit of this method the fol-
lowing particulars muft be regarded : the boiling point
mud be adjufted when the barometer is at 29.8 inches ;
unlefs the operator correfts the obferved point in the

manner

THERMOMETER.

ttianner direfted in the fequel of this article. The hall of
the thermometer muft be placed at fuch a depth within the
pot, that the boiUng point may rife very little above the
cover ; and the furface of the water in the pot fhould be
at lead one or two inches below the bottom of the ball.
Care muft be taken to ftop up the hole in the cover through
which the tube is inferted, and to make the cover fit pretty
clofe, fo that no air fliall enter into the pot that way, and
that not much iteam may efcape. A piece of thin flat tin-
plate mull alfo be laid on the mouth of the chimney, fo as
to leave no more paflage than what is fufBcient to carry off
the fteam.

If the artift pleafes, he may tie each corner of tliis plate
by a ftring to prongs fixed to the chimney, and Handing on
a level with the plate, as it will be thus always kept in its
place.

Fig. 7. is a perfpcftive view of the chimney and tin-
plate ; A B C D is the plate, E the chimney, F/, G g,
M m, and N n, the prongs fallened to the chimney, to
which the four corners of the plate are to be tied by the
firings A F, B G, CM, and D N ; the ends F, G, M,
and N, of the prongs muft be on a level with the plate,
and the ftrings (hould not be ftretched tight. The cliimney
ought not to be lefs than half a fquare inch in area, and
not lefs than two or three inches in length. The cover
fhould be made to take on and off eafdy, and a ring
(>f woollen cloth may be placed under it, fo as to
lie between it and the top of the pot. The hole in the
cover may be ftopped up by a cork, with a hole bored
thi-ough it, big enough to receive the tube, and then cut
into two, parallel to the length of the hole. Another
method, more convenient in ufe, but not fo eafdy made, is
reprefei'iUd in Jig. 8. which exhibits a pcrfpcftive view of
the apparatus : A a is the cover, H the hole through which
the thermometer is pafled, Bis. flat piece of i.rafs fixed
upon the cover, and D ^/ E f a fliding piece of brafs, made
fo as either to cover the hole H, or to leave it uncovered,
as in the figure, and to be tightened in either pofition by
the fcrew ,1 fliding in the flit Mm; alfo in the edge D (/,
to enclofc . the tube of the thermometer : pieces of
woollen cloth fliould alfo be faftened to the edges B I and
D i/, and alfo to the bottom of the fliding-piece T)dlLe,
unlefs that piece and the cover are made fufficiently flat to
prevent the efcape of the fteam. In order to keep the
thermometer fufpended at the proper height, a clip may
be ufed like that reprefented in Jig. 9. which, by the
fcrew J-, muft be made to embrace the tube tightly, and
may reft on the cover.

Another method, which is rather more convenient, when
the top of the tube of the thermometer is bent into a right
angle, in the manner often praftifed at prefent for the fake
of more conveniently fixing it to the fcale, is reprefented in
fig. 10. : GgT'f is a plate of brafs ftanding perpendicu-
larly on the cover, and L/ N?j a piece of brsls bent at the
bottom into the form of a loop, with a notch in it, fo as to
receive the tube of the thermometer, and to fuffer the bent
part to reft on the bottom of the loop ; this piece muft
flide in a flit Ki, in the plate L /Nn, and be tightened at
any height by the fcrew T.

Moreover, it is beft to make the water boil pretty briflily,
as otherwife the thermometer is apt to be a great while
before it acquires its full heat, efpecially if the veffel is very
deep ; and the obferver fhould wait at leaft one or two
minutes after the thermometer appears to be ftationary,
before he concludes that it has acquired its full height.

Another way of adjufting the boiling point is to try it in
a veflel of the fame kind as the former, only with the water

J2

rifing a little way, viz. from one to three or four inehes
above the ball, taking cai-e that the boihng point fliall rife
very little above the cover. In this method there is no need
to cover the cliimney with the tin-plate, and there is lefs
need to make the cover fit clofe, uuIefs to prevent the
operator from being incommoded with the fteam. The
height of the barometer in this method is 29-0 inches.

It will be convenient to have two or three pots of dif-
ferent depths for adjufting thermometers of different
lengths. A third way of adjufting the boiling point is to
wrap feveral folds of linen rags or flannel round the tube of
the thermometer, and to try it in an open veffel, taking care
to pour boiling water on the rags, in order to keep the
quickfilver in the tube as nearly of the lieat of boihng water
as pofTible. In this method the barometer ftiould be at
29.8 inches ; the water fliould boil faft, and the thermometer
fliould be held upright, with its ball two or three inches
under water, and in that part of the veffel where the current
of water afcends.

Whichever of tliefe methods of adjufting the boiling
point is ufed, it is not neceffary to wait till the barometer is
at the proper height, provided the operator will take care
to correft the obferved height according to the following
table.

Height of the Barome-

Height of the Barorae-

ter when I

Point is at

cording

le Uniliiij;
jufted ac-
to the

Corre£\ioii
in lOOOdths
of the Inter-
val hetween

ler when the Boiling
IVinl is adjufted ac-
cording to ilie

Corroflion in
lOOOdlhs of
liie Interval
between 3*2®

1ft or 3d

2<1 Me-

.32°and21';°

1ft or 3d

2d Me-

and 2 1 2°.

Method.

thod.

Method.

thod.

30.60
53

10"

9

29.69
58

29-39
28

2

30-71

59

48

37

4>

29
18

07

8

7
6

5

0
r ^

47
36
25
14

17

06

28.95

84

3
4

25
14

95

84

4
3

^

03
28.92

73
62

7

8

•"

03

73

2

81

5'

9

29.91

61

I

70

10

80

50

o_

59

1 1 J

In ufing this table, feek the height of the barometer in
the column anfwering to the method of adjufting the boil-
ing point, the correfponding number in the third column
fliews how much the point of 212° muft be placed above or
below the obferved point : e. gr. fuppofe the boiling point
to be adjufted in them when the barometer is at 29 inches,
and that the interval between the boiling and freezing points
is I I inches ; the nearefl number to 29 in the left-hand
column is 29.03, and the correfponding number in the table
is 7 higher, and therefore the mark of 212° muft be placed
higher than the obferved point by ^^g'^^ths of the interval

II X 7
between boiling and freezing, i. e. by , or .077

of an inch. This method of correfting the boiling point is
not ftriftly juft, unlefs the tube is of an equal bore in all its
parts ; but the tube is feldom fo unequal as to caufe any
fenfible error, where the wliole correftiou isfo fmall. The
trouble of making the correftion will be abridged by a
diagonal fcale, fuch as is reprefented in_yfj. 10.

Although it is of no great confequence what kind of
water is ufed in adjufting the boiling point, fo that it is not

fait.

TIIERMOMETEK.

r It, or. iJ" it bf I'.ard, tliat it mould be kept boiling at lead
lA, minutes befurc it is ufed ; yet the committee recom-
mend, for the adjuftment of thcrmoneters mtended for nice
experiments, to employ rain or diftilled water, and to per-
form the operation in (leai.i. , , r

It is obierved, that though the boiling point be placed lo
much higher on fomc of the thcrmomelcrs now made than
on other?, vet this does not produce any confiderable error
in the obfe'rvations of the weather, at leaft in this climate ;
L>T an error of ih" in the pofition of the boiling point, will
make au error oii'ly of iialf a degree in the pofition of 92",
and of not more tiian a quarter of a degree in the point

of 62°. • ,. . f

It is only in nice experiments, or in trying the heat ot
hot liquors, that this error in the boiling point can be of
much fignification.

In adjufting the freezing, as well as the boibng point, the
quickfilver in the tube ought to be kept of the lame heat as
that in the ball. When the freezing point is placed at a
confiderable diftance from the ball, the pounded ice (hould
be piled to fuch a height above the ball, that th» error
which can arife from the quickfilver in the remaining pait of
the tube, not being heated equally with that in the ball,
fhall be very fmall, or the obferved point muft be conefted
on that account, according to the following table.

Heat of the

Air.

Correc\ion.

42'

.OC087

5^

.00174

62

.00261

72

.00348

82

.00435

The correftion in this table is expreffed in 1 000th parts
of the diftance between the freezing point and the furface
of the ice : e. g. if the freezing point ftands feven inches
above the furface of the ice, and the heat of the room is 6z^,
the point of 32° (hould be placed 7 x .00261, or .018 of
an inch lower than the obferved point. A diagonal fcale
will facilitate this correftion.

The committee obferve, that in trying the heat of liquors,
care (hould be taken that the quickfilver in the tube of the
thermometer be heated to the fame degree as that in the
ball ; or if this cannot be done conveniently, the obferved
heat (hould be correfted on that account ; for the manner of
doing which, and a table calculated for this purpofe, wc
muft refer to their excellent report in the Phil. Tranf.
vol. Ixvii. part ii. art. 37.

Several experiments made by governor Hutchins, at
Albany Fort, in Hudfon's Bay, in 1782, in purfuancc of a
method fuggefted by Dr. Black and Mr. Cavendifli, and
for wliich he obtained fir Godfrey Copley's medal from the
Royal Society in 1783, have not only confirmed the ob-
fervations before made, relative to the folid ftate into which
quickfilver can be brought by cold, its metalline fplendour
and polilh when fmooth, its roughnefs and cryftallization
where the furface was unconfined, its malleabihty, foftnefs,
and dull found when ftruck ; but have alfo clearly demon-
(Irated, that its point of congelation is no lower than — 40°,
or rather - 39°, of Fahrenheit's fcale ; that it will bear,
however, to be cooled a few degrees below that point, to
which it jumps up again on beginning to congeal ; and that
its rapid defcent in a thermometer, through many hundred
of degrees, when it has once paffed the above-mentioned

limit, proceeds merely from ite great contraction in the aft
of freezing. See Phil. Tranl. vol. Ixxiii. pari ii. art.
•20, 20, 21.

Tur.RMOMETERS, Obfcrvat'wns en the Conjliiidion of. It
is abfolutely iieceflary that thofe who would derive any ad-
vantage from thefe inftruments, (hould agree in ufing the
fame liquor, and in determining, according to the fame
method, the two fundamental points. If they agree in thefc
fixed points, it is of no great importance whether they di-
vide the interval between them into a greater or lefs number
of equal parts. The fcale of Fahrenheit, in which the fun-
damental interval between 2 1 2'^, the point of boiling water,
and 32°, that of melting ice, is divided into 180 parts,
(houid be retained in the northern countries, where Fahren-
heit's thei-mometer is ul'ed : and the fcale, in which the fun-
damental interval is divided into 80 parts, will ferve for
thofe countries where the thermometer of M. de Reaumur
is adopted. But no inconvenience is to be apprehended
from varying the fcale for particular ufes, provided care be
taken to fignify into what number of parts the fundamental
interval is divided, and the point where o is placed.

With regard to the choice of tubes, it is moft defirable to
have them exaftly cylindric through their whole length. See
Mercurial Thermometer.

The capillary tubei are preferable to others, becaufe they
require lefs bulbs, and they are alfo lefs brittle, and more
fenfible. Thofe of the mod convenient fize for common
experiments are fuch as have their internal diameter about
the fourth of a line : and thofe made of thin glafs are better
than others, as the rife and fall of the mercury may be
more diftinftly perceived. The length of nine inches will
ferve for all common cccafions ; but for particular purpofes,
the length both of the tubes and of the divifions fliould bs
adapted to the ufes for which they are defigned.

In determining the beft fize of the balls or bulbs, it has
been ufual to compare new tubes with fuch thermometer?
as are well proportioned. But M. Durand has propofcd a
formula for finding the proportion which the balls ought to
bear to their refpedtive tubes. With this view he expreffes
the length of the tube, meafured in diameters of itfelf, by a ;
the whole capacity of the ball and tube by c ; the capacity
of the fundamental interval, exprelfed in the iame parts with
the whole capacity, ty d ; the number of degrees of the
fundamental interval by m ; the number of other degrees
which the fcale is to contain, befides thofe of the fundamental
interval both above and below it, by n ; and the diameter of
the ball meafured in diameters of the tube by b : and b =

{/'

a X

d X in + n

For two cylinders having

equal bafes being as their heights, m : n :: d : — , which is

m

the capacity of that part of the tube which exceeds the
fundamental interval, to which adding d, that inter-

val, we have the total capacity of the tube
d n + d

dn

+ d, or

Subtrafting this from c, we (hall have the

m

. , d n -Ii- d m ^ m — dm ^ d n

capacity 01 the ball :::= i- — =■ .

mm

If this quantity be divided by the capacity of the tube,
the quotient will ihew how often the capacity of the
ball contains that of the tube ; and this quotient is =

.• in

THERMOMETER.

-d,

dn

. Confequeiitly the ball is equal to as many
dm + dn

cylinders having a diameters of the tube, for their refpeftive
height, and i diameter for the bafe, as are contained in this
laft quotient ; and, therefore, its cylindric folidity ex-
prefTed in the cyhndric fohdities of the tube will be = a x

r m — dm — d n , , r . • . ., •

r ; . i3ut tlie diameter of this ball is equal to

dm -^ dn ^

thebafeof thecylindor in whicliit maybe iiifcribed,and the fo-
hdity of thiscyhnder is equal to Jds the folidity of the circum-
fcribing fphere. Confequently the folidity of this cyhiider

MI . , cm — dm — dn , , ,• r

wiU be = + a X -r" 1 > "Uid the diameter or

dm -^^ an

its bafe equal to the diameter of the ball, will be =
-77

■) / f I

dm + dn

sj la

d y. m + n

It is evident that, ceteris paribus, the larger the bulb is, in
proportion to the diameter of the cavity of the tube, or
tiie narrower the latter is in proportion to the former, the
greater will the motion of tlic furface of the fluid be in the
tube. But it mull be obferved, that when the bulb is very
large, the thermometer will not eafily arrive at tlie precile
temperature of any place, wherein it may be fituated.
Some perfons, in order to give the bulb a greater furface,
and of courfe to render it more capable of readily attaining a
given temperature, have made it not globular, but cylin-
drical (which ihape was adopted by Fahrenheit), or flat, or
bell-like, &c. ; but thofe fliapes are improper, becaufe they
are liable to be altered by the varying gravity of th^ atmo-
fphere, confequently thofe thermometers cannot be ac-
curate. The bulb fltould be clean and colourlefs ; fince
coloured furfaces are apt to be partially heated by a ftrong
light. If you take two equal thermometers, and paint the
bulb of one of them black, or of any dai'k colour, and ex-
pofe them both to the fun ; the mercury in that whofe bidb
is painted will rife feveral degrees higher than in the other :
even a ftrong day-light, independently of the diretft rays of
the fun, will aflfeft them differently. The ball of the ther-
mometer ftiould not be in contaft with the fubftance of the
fcale, left it (hould be influenced by the temperature of that
fubftance.

When a proper tube and ball are procured, and their pro-
portion afcertained, the next objedl which requires peculiar
attention is that of fiUing the thermometer. For this pur-
pofe the tubes Ihould be clean and dry, and the mercury
very pure. (See Mercury and Barometer.) The mer-
cury may be introduced into the tube by means of a kind of
refervoir fixed at th^.top of it, and pr,oportioned in fize to
the bulk of the ball, oi Sy rolling upon the tube a (lip of
fine paper, about two or thi:* inches broad. In order to
clear the tube of its air and man 'ire, it ftiould be held over
a gentle fire, fo difpofed, as that i. may heat at once the
whole extent of the tube, till its heat^^comes too great for
the operator's hand to bear, who therel>.-e ufes a glove or
nippers for this purpofe ; care being taken "hat the ball is
not heated at the fame time. After the incloied air is thus
rarefied, and the particles that might obftruft the free motion
of the mercury are made to float in vapours within the bore
of the tube, the tube is to be held upright, and the ball fud-
denly heated, by which means the air contained in it will be
dilated, and carry off the impurities of the tube, fo that it
will be rendered clean and free from air. When the ball is
heated to a coniidcrable degree, the mercury may be poured
Vol. XXXV.

into the refervoir fixed at the top of the tube, through a
fmall corner of the paper. When the refervoir is almoft
full, the ball ftiould be withdrawn from the fire, and the air
will then be condenfed, and the fpace left by it will be foon
occupied by the mercury. By alternately heating and cool-
ing the ball, it may thus be filled with mercur\' ; but when
it is nearly full, the mercury contained in it muft be made to
boil, by placing it over burning coals, in order to purge it
of its air. However, as a fmall quantity of air will be left
in the ball after this operation, it will be expedient to re-
move the mercury, which remains in the refervoir, imme-
diately after the thermometer is withdrawn from the fire ;
and thus the whole column, unfupplied with mercury from
the refervoir, will defcend into the ball by the condenfation
of that which is contained in it, and the tube being empty,
the fmall bubble of air will efcape. Let the tube be again
heated fucceffively through its whole length, commencing
from the bottom, and preferving the heat of the ball, that
the mercury may occupy it entirely, and no air be allowed
to enter. During this operation, when the mercury of the
thermometer begins to appear in the refervoir, let the mer-
cury contained in a paper funnel be poured into it in fuch a
quantity as will more than fill the thermometer, which is
then to be removed from the fire. The mercury of the
tube, and that diicharged from the funnel, will unite, and
pafs together into the thermometer, and thus it will be
wholly filled. In this ft ate it may be left for any time at
pleafure, without any apprehenfion of its imbibing either air
or moifture. Nothing now remains but to get rid of the
fuperfluous quickfilver, and to fealthe tube. For this pur-
pofe the thermometer is held in the hand and heated, till a
drop of mercury falls out of it, and is then left to recover
the temperature of the air ; by which means there will re-
main at the top of the tube a fmall empty fpace. Then
with a blow-pipe and the flame of a candle, let the end of
the tube be formed into a fine point, of fuch a length as
will admit of its being properly fealed. When this prepa-
ratory procefs is completed, let the thermometer be gradually
plunged into boiling water, fo that the fuperfluous mercury
may ifl'ue from it flowly ; and when it ceafes to be dif-
charged, withdraw the thermometer from the boiling water ;
wipe it dry, and as foon as poflible, put the ball of it over
a fmall fire, covered with afties, and previoufly prepared for
the purpofe. In this part of the operation, it is neceffary
to be quick, that the mercury may not have time to con-
denfe, and the air enter into the tube. In this ftate the
thermometer may be left to lieat, till it parts with more or
fewer drops of the mercury, according to the proportion
which the length of the tube bears to that of the fcale ap-
plied to it. The thermometer is then fealed, by melting
only the end of the point above mentioned, and at the fame
inftant withdrawing it from the fire.

The method of filling the thermometer with a paper tqbe,
or funnel, is as follows. Let the ball be heated, fo that
the mercury may rife to the top of the tube ; whilft it ap-
proaches it, apply the tube of paper to the end of the tube,
fo that it may ferve for a refervoir. The thermometer be-
ing placed near the fire, fo that it may always preferve the
fame degree of dilatation, take fome well purified mercury
in a paper cornet, and communicate a little more heat to
the ball. When the mercury rifes, and forms a fmall drop
at the end, poQr the mercury of the cornet into the refer-
voir of paper, and withdraw the ball from the fire. Hav-
ing removed the paper refervoir, place the ball again over
the fire, and leal the point of the tube at the moment
when the mercury rifes to it, and withdraw the thermometer
from the fire. This operation will be acquired by ufe.

3 T Thermo-

THERMOMETER.

TJiermonWtfrs that arc dofired for meafuring great de-
jrrrM of hoat. require to bf fillfd with particular precau-
tions, which M. de Luc has minutely dcfcribcd.

When the thermometer is filled and fealcd, nOthmg more
i» neceffary than to mark the two fixed points, graduate
ihf fcale, and attach it to a proper frame. See de Luc's
Recherches, «cc. vol. i. p. 39.^ &c. , • , r

The frame may be made of any fubftance, or kmd of
wood, at pleafure : and the degrees may be marked on
metal or wood, or paper, or ivory, &c. ; but fuch fub-
flanees (hould he preferred for the feales of thermometers
as are not apt to be bent or (hortened, or otherwife altered
by the weather, efpecially if the inftrumcnts are not de-
fended by a glafs cafe, or by a box with a glafs face.
Thermometers for indicating the temperature of the atmo-
fphere need not have feales that are much extended ; if
they go as high as 120° it is fufficient. The lower degrees
may be carried down as low as may be neccffary for the cold
of any particular climate. The mercurial thermometer need
not be graduated lower than 40° below o, becaufe at about
that degree mercury ceafes to be fluid. The fpirit ther-
mometer mav be graduated lower, if necefiary.

Thermometers ufed for obfervation, muft be fituated in
the open air out of the houfi-, and at the diftance of a foot
(at lead) from the wall, and where the light of the fun may
not fall direftly upon them. For chemical purpofes, the
bulbs and part of the tubes of the thermometers fhould
projeA fomo way below the fcaU s, that they may be dipped
in liquids, mixtures, &c. For other purpofes, as for bota-
nical obfervations, hot-houfes, brewing manufaftories, baths,
&c. the thermometers muft be m.ide longer or fhorter, or
narrower ; and particular dircftions may be given with re-
gard to the feales and other appendages.

Great inconvenience has attended the ufe of various kinds
of thermometers with different graduations. Kirwan pro-
pofed to lay all thefe afide, and to conftruft a general one,
beginning at the congelation of mercury, and terminating at
the boiling of water, and divided into 250°. Mr. Murray of
Edinburgh has fmcc fuggefted, that it would be convenient
to form a fcale whofe extreme points fhould be the tem-
peratures of freezing and boiling mercury, both which are
now capable of being accurately afcertained, and to divide
this fcale into 1000^.

Thermometers, Experiments with. We fliall here in-
fer! a table of fome obfervations made with the thermo-
meters of Fahrenheit, Reaumur, fir Ifaac Newton, and
Dr. Hales.

Obferuatioru by Fahrenheit^i Thermometer.

At 600
546
242
240

212

206

Mercur\- boils

Oil of vitriol boils

Spirit of nitre boils

Lixivium tartari boils

Cow's milk boils

Water boils.

Frefh human urine boils.

According to Muf-
chenbroeck, the ba-
rometer being at 29
Rhinland inches.

From

190

174
176
ij6
146
108
107

At

to 103

Brandy boils.
Alcohol boils.

according to Mufchenbrceck.

Serum of blood and v/hite of eggs hardens.
Killing heat for animals, in a few minutes.
A hen hatching eggs, but fcldom fo hot.

}Heat of fl<in in ducks, geefe, hens, pigeons,
partridges and fwallows.

106 Heat of 1km in a common ague and fever,
3

Dcp.
From 1031 Heat of TkIu in dogs, cats, (hcep, oxen, fwine,

to looj and other quadrupeds.
From 99I pj^^^ ^f jjjg ^y^^„ jj^i„ i„ hpj^h.

to 92 J
At 97 Heat of a fwarm of bees.

, f A perch died in three minutes, in water fo
9^ \ heated.

f Heat of the air in the fliade, in very hot wea-
^° \ ther.

74 Butter begins to melt.

, f Heat of the air in the fhade, in warm wea-
^4 1 ther.

48 Temperate air, in England and Holland.
43 Oil of olive begins to ftiflen and grow opaque.
f Water juft freezing, or fnow and ice jull
3 \ thawing.
30 Milk freezes.

28 Urine and common vinegar freezes.
25 Blood out of the body freezes.

fGood Burgundy, ftrong claret, and Madeira
\ freezes.

f One part of fpirit of wine mixed with three
' \ parts water freezes.

fOreateft cold in Pennfylvania in 1731-2,
^ 1 40° l3t.
4 Greateft cold at Utrecht, in 1728-9.

A mixture of fnow and fait, which is able to
freeze oil of tartar per dcUquium, but not
brandy.
— 39 Mercury freezes.

Martine's Effays, p. 284, &c.
Vv'e mull here obferve, that the heat of a hen hatching
chickens is placed, by this table, at 108° of Fahrenheit's
thermometer ; but it appears from M. Reaumur's experi-
ments, that eg-gs will hatch in a heat no greater than that
of the human Ikin. See Hatching.

2. Olfer-uations by Reaumur's Thermometer.

97t Anfwers to the heat of boiling water.

80 Spirit of wine in Reaumur's thermometer boils.

4 *

At

29

, f Greateft height of the air in the (hade, ob-
" 1

loi

ferved at Paris in 1 706, 1707, 1724.
, f Conftant heat of the caves of the obfervatory
*■ I at Paris,
o Artificial congelation of water.

, f Lower than (o) greateft cold at Paris, in
^"^ I 1709.

3. Obfervations byjir Ifaac Netvton's Thermometer.

34 Water boils vehemently.

28 /t- Heat between water boiling and wax melting.

24 Heat of water on which floating wax melts.

f Heat of water on which floating melted wax
20iV-j begins, by cooling, to lofe its fluidity and
(, tranfparency.

f Heat of a bath fupportable to the hand at
I reft.

f Heat of a bath fupportable to the hand in
, J motion.
'''^ » The heat of blood juft let out is almoft the
fame.
Heat of thermometer in contaft with a human

body.
The heat of a bird hatching her eggs much
the fame.

17

1 I'-T , '

12

THERMOMETEK.

Dp2

6

5
4
4
3

2
2
I
O

O

|- Heats o

f the air in lummcr.

eats of the air in fpring and autumn.

eat of the air in the winter.

Water begins to freeze.

Phil. Tranf. Abr. vol

4
146!

100
88

85
64

58

56

Oifervations by Dr

part 11.
Hales's Thermometer.

55
54
50
38

From
to

30 s

20

10

From
to
From
freezing
point
to 10
i8

31
29

26

24
21^-

19
16 1

«4

12

9

o

Anfwers to the heat of boiUiig water.
f Heat of water on which floating wax begins
\ to melt.

Hotteft funfhine in 1727.
f Scorching heat of a hot-bed of horfe-dung,
\ and alio the heat of blood in high fevers.
r Heat of the blood of animals ; whence the
< heat of the blood to that of boihng water
(_ is as 14.27 to 33.

Heat of urine.
r Due healthy heat of a hot-bed of horfe-dung
J in February, that of the open air being 17",
) and nearly the bofom heat, and heat for
(_ hatching of eggs.
Heat of milk from the cow.
External heat of the body.
Common noon heat in the fun in July.
Mean heat of the air in the ftiade in July.
May and June heat ; and the molt genial heat
for moft plants, in which they flourilh and
grow moft.

■ Autumnal and vernal heat.

Winter heat.

Temperate point.

The moft kindly heat for melon-thiftlc.

ananas or pine-apple.

pimento.

euphorbium.

cereus.

aloe.

Indian fig.

ficoides.

oranges.

myrtle.

Frelh water juft freezing.

Hales's Statical EfT. vol. i. p. 58, &c.

For other fimilar obfervations, fee Frebzing Mixture,
and Heat.

See on the general fubje£l of thermometers, Martine's
Effays, Medical and Philofophical, printed at London in
1 740, 8vo. Defaguliers's Exp. Phil. vol. ii. p. 289, &c.
Mufchenbroeck's Int. ad Phil. Nat. vol. ii. p. 625, &c.
ed. 1762. De Luc's Recherches fur les Modifications de
I'Atmofphere, torn. i. part ii. c. 2. NoUet's Legons de
Phyfique, torn. iv. p. 375, &c.

TimRMOMETERS for particular Ufes. In 1757, the right
hon. the earl of Cavendifti prefented to the Royal Society
an account of a curious conftruftion of thermometers, of
two different forms ; one contrived to fhew the greatefl de-

gree of heat, and the other the greateft cold, that may
happen at any time in a perfon's ablence. The firft confifts
of a cylinder of gl.ifs joined to a tube, and differs from the
common fort only in having the top of the ftem drawn
out into a capillary tube, which enters into a glafs ball C
{Plati XVI. Pneumatics, fig. ii.) joined on to the ftem at
the place where it begins to be contraded. The cylinder,
and part of the tube, arc filled with mercury, tlie top of
which fliews the common degrees of heat as ufual. The
upper part of the tube above the mercury is filled with
Ipint of vvme, and fome of the fame liquor is left in the ball
C, fo as to fill it almoft to the top of the capillary tube.

When the thermometer rifcs, the fpirit of wine will be
driveti out of the tube, and will fall into the ball C. When
the thermometer finks again, as the fpirit cannot be returned
back from the ball, the top of the tube will remain empty,
and the length of the empty part will be proportional to the
fall of the thermometer. Confequently, by means of a
proper fcale, the top of the fpirit of wine will fhew how
many degrees it has been higher than when obferved, which
being added to the prefent height, will give the greateft de-
gree of heat it has been at. To fit this thermometer for 3
new obfervation, it is neceflary to fill the upper part of the
tube with fpirits, by inchning the inftrument till the fpirits
in the ball C cover the end of the capillary tube ; for if the
cyUnder is then heated, by applying the hand to it, or by
the flame of a lamp held at fome diftance, till the fpirits riie
to the top of the tube, and run over into the ball C, and is
then fufTered to cool in the fame pofition, the tube will re-
mai.i full of fpirits, and the thermometer will be fitted for a
new experiment.

The fcale of degrees at top, which fliews the defeent of
the thermometer from the higheft point it has arrived at,
ought not, in ftriftnefs, to be the fame at all times of the
year ; for thefe degrees exceed the common degrees of heat
pointed out by the top of the mercury, as much as the co-
lumn of fpirit of wine expands, and therefore are greateft
when that column is fo ; i. e. when the greateft heat to
which the inftrument has been expofed is leaft. A difference
of 30 degrees of Fahrenheit's fcale, in the greateft rife of
the thermometer, v^ould require the fcale to be altered one
fixtieth part ; and the error arifing from making ufe of tlie
fame fcale, will be about one-fixth of a degree, if the ther-
mometer is obferved when it has fallen ten degrees.

In the thermometer here defcribed, the bore of the tube
is about 0.027 inches ; and one inch of it contains two grains
of mercury, and anfwers to about ten degrees, the cylinder
containing about 2280 grains. When the fcale of degrees
is large, the cyhnder muft be of confiderable fize. The
quickfilver in the ball C ferves to fupply the tube, in cafe
any of it fhould be driven into the ball by the thermometer's
being expofed to too great a heat.

If the weight of the mercury be thought inconvenient, it
may be avoided by the conftruftion m fig. 12. where the
bottom of the tube is bent fo as to point upwards, and is
joined to a ball A, which communicates with a cylinder
placed above it. It is in all other refpefts the fame as the
former inftrument. It is filled with fpirits of wine and mer-
cury ; the quantity of the latter being fufficient to fill the
whole tube and the ball A.

The thermometer for ftiewing the greateft degree of cold
that happens in any place during the time the inftrument is
left in it, is reprefented in ^^. 13. The tube is bent into
the fliape of a fiphon, of unequal legs, ftanding parallel to
one another; the top of the fhorter leg is bent to a right
angle, and opens into a ball A, which, by means of a fhort
bent tube on the oppofite fide, communicates with a cylin-
3 T 2 der

THERMOMETER.

Ic

der ftanding pirallcl to the logs of the fiphon, and pointing
downwards. This cylinder contains the greatell part ot the
fluid. *nd is added only to make the thermometer more
fenlible than it xvould be, if the ball A was made ot a fut-
ficient nze to contain the proper quantity of fluid. 1 his
inllrument is filled with fpirit of wine, with the addition of
as much mercury « is fufficient to till both legs of the
Ijphon, and about a fourth or fifth part of the ball A. 1 he
common degrees of heat arc (hewn by the top of the mer-
cmt in tt"- longell leg, or by the top of the ipmt, in caie
any of it is left above the mercury. When the mercury in
the longcft leg finks by cold, that in the fhortcr leg will
rife, ail5 will run over into the ball A ; from whence it can-
not return back when the th.^rmometor rifes again, as the
furface of the mercury in the ball is below the orifice of the
tube n. Therefore the upper part of the Ihorter leg will be
filled with a column of fpirits of a length proportional to
tlie increafe of heat ; the bottom of which, by means of a
jroper fcalc, will (hew how much the tlicrmometer has been
.ower than it is ; which being fubtraftcd from the prefent
height, wnll j2,ive the lowed point that it has been at. In
order to prevent the mercury from falling into the ball A in
large drops, which would affeft the accuracy of the inftru-
ment, the top of the fliorter leg, clofe to the ball, is con-
trafted, by being held in the flame of a lamp, and the paf-
fage farther ftraightened by a folid thread of glafs placed
within the tube, and extending from the bottom of the
(hortcr leg to the part near the ball A, where it is moft con-
trafted. By this means, as foon as any fmall portion of mer-
cury is got beyond the thread of glafs, it breaks off, and
falls into the ball in very fmall drops.

In order to fill the fliortor leg v.'ith mercury, for a new
expAriment, it mull be inclined till the mercury in the ball
covers the orifice of the tube n. The cylinder being then
heated, the mercury will be forced into the fhorter leg, and
will run down the thread of glafs in drops, which will foon
unite. Thus fuch a quantity of mercury mud be got into
the fhorter leg, as, upon the cooling of the inllrument, will
be fufficient to drive all the fpirit of wine into the ball, with
a lefs degree of cold than what the thermometer is likely to
be expofed to. The ball A mud always have fome mercury
in it, but never enough to fill it up to the orifice of the
tube n. It will be bed to leave a little of the fpirit above
the mercury in the longed leg ; in which cafe the top of the
fpirit will fhew the common degrees of heat. The Icale of
degrees on the (liorter leg will, in different feafons, be liable
to an error fimilar to that which was explained in the fird
mentioned thertnometcr ; but it will be lefs confiderable, as
the fpace between the two fcales is filled with mercury,
whofe expanfion is about fix times lefs than that of the fpirit
of wine. In the thermometer now defcfibed, the bore of the
tube is about c.054 inches ; and one inch of it contains
eight grains of mel-cury, and anfwers to feven degrees of
Fahrenheit's fcale. The drops of mercury which fall into
the ball A, anfwer to about one-eighth of a degree.

Inftruments of this kind, with fome alteration in their
condruftion, would ferve for finding the temperature of the
fea at great depths, and alfo for finding that of the air at
confiderable heights. Lord Charles Cavendidi has ftiewn
how to adapt them for fuch purpofes. See Phil. Tranf.
vol. 1. art. 38. p. 300, &c.

Since the publication of Mr. Canton's difcovery of the
compredibility (fee Compression) of fpirits of wine and
other fluids, there are two correftions necedary to be made
in the refult given by lord Charles Cavcndidi'S thermometer.
For in eftimating, e. g. the temperature of the fea at any
depth, the thermometer will appear to have b^n colder than

6

it rcallv was : and befidet, the expanfion of fpirits of wine
1)V any' given number of degrees of Fahrenheit's thermome-
ter is o-reater in the higher degrees than in the lower. For
the metliod of making thefe two corredlions by Mr. Caven-
didi, fee Phipps's Voyage to the North Pole, p. 14^.

Indruments of this kind, for determining the degree of
heat or cold in the abfence of the obferver, have been in-
vented and defcribed by others. Van Swinden (Did. fur la
Comparifondu Therm, p. 253 — 255.) defcribes one, which,
he fays, was the fird of the kind made on a plan communi-
cated by M. Bernouilli to M. Leibnitz. M. Kraft, he
alfo tells us, made one nearly like it. Mr. Six, in 1782,
propofed another condruftion of a thermometer of the fame
kind, which has been well received.

This is properly a fpirit thermometer, though mercury is
employed in it for the purpofe of fupporting a certain in-
dex : a b {fig- 14. ) is a tube of thin glafs, about fixteen
inches long, and rVths of an inch in diameter; cdifgh is
a fmaller tube, with the inner diameter about -^^th, joined
to a larger al the upper end b, and bent down firft on the
left fide, and then, after defcending two inches below a b,
upwards again on the right, in the feveral direftions Ci/ir,
fgh, parallel to, and one inch didant from it. At the end
of the fame tube at /;, the inner diameter is enlarged to half
an inch from h to ?, which is two inches in length. This
glafs is filled with highly reftified fpirit of wine to within
half an inch of the end /', excepting that part of the fmall
tube from d to g, which is filled with mercury. From a
view of the indrument it will be readily conceived, that when
the fpirit in the large tube is expanded by heat, the mercury
in the fmall tube on the left fide will be preffed down, and
caufe that on the right fide to rife : on the contrary, when
the fpirit is condenfed by cold, the reverfe will happen.
Fahrenheit's fcale, which begins with o at the top of the
left fide, has the degrees numbered downwards, while that
at the right fide, beginning with o at the bottom, afcends.
The divifions are afcertained by placing the thermometer
with a good ftandard mercurial one in water, gradually heat-
ing or cooling, and marking the divifions of the new fcale
at every five degrees. The divifions below the freezing point
are taken by means of a mixture of fea-falt and ice, as de-
fcribed by ISIollet, De Luc, and others. In order to (hew
how high the mercury has rifen in the obferver's abfence,
there is placed within the fm.all tube of the thermometer,
above the furface of the mercury on either fide, immerfed in
the fpirit of wine, a fmall index, fo fitted as to pafs up and
down as occafion may require. One of thefe indices is re-
prefented in^^. 15; a is a fmall glafs tube, three-quarters
of an inch long, hermetically fealed at each end, inclofing
a piece of deel wire nearly of the fame length ; at each end
c, d, is fixed a fliort piece of a tube of black glafs, of fuch
a diameter as to pais freely up and down within the fmall
tube of the thermometer. The lower end, floating on the
furface of the mercury', is carried up with it when it rifes,
while the piece at the upper end, being of the fame diame-
ter, keeps the body of the index parallel to the fides of the
thermometrical tube. From the upper end of the body of
the index at c is drawn a fpring of glafs to the finenefs of a
hair, about five-fourths of an inch in length, which being
fet a little oblique, preffes lightly againd the furface of the
tube, and prevents the index from foUowing the mercury
when it defcends, or being moved by the fpirit palling up
and down, or by any fudden motion given to the indru-
ment ; but at the fame time the predure is fo adjulled as to
permit this index to be readily carried up by the furface of
the rifing mercury, and downwards, whenever the inilru-
infent fs testified for obfervation. This index, by not re-

turnincr

THERMOMETER.

turning with the mercury wlicn it defccnds, fliews diftinftly
and accurately how high tlie mercury has rifen, and con-
fequently wliat dec;ree of cold or heat has liappened. To
prevent the fpirit from cvaporatinjr, the tube at the end i is
clofely fealed. The daily rcftificatioii of this inftrument is
performed, by applying a fmall magnet to that part of the
tube againft which the index refts ; by the atlion of which
the included piece of Heel wire, and confequently the index,
is ealily brought down to Uie lurface of the mercury. When
this has been done, the inftrument is rettilied for the next
day's obfervation, witliout heating, cooHng, frparating, or
at all dillurbing the mercury, or moving the inftrument.
With a thermometer of this fort, Mr. Six obferved the
greateft heat and cold that happened every day and night
tliroughout the year 1781. But for the more particular de-
fcription of this inftrument, the illuftration of it by figures,
and an account of its advantages, the limits of this work
require our referring to Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxii. part i.
p. 72, &c.

A fimilar effeft to that produced by Six's thermometer is
obtained in Rutherford's arrangement of a pair of thermo-
meters, one with mercury, the other with fpirit of wine,
placed in a horizontal pofition ; one index being without the
furface of the mercury, the other within that of the fpirit :
the thermometers being in contrary direftions, both indices
may be brought back to their places, by merely raifiug the
end of the inilriuTient. (See Jig. 16.) Sclf-regiftcring ther-
mometers have alfo fometimes been conftrufted for keeping a
ftill more accurate account of all the variations of tempera-
ture that have occurred, by defcribing a line on a revolving
barrel, which ftiews the height for every inftant during the
whole time of their operation.

M. de Luc has defcribed the beft method of conftruft-
ing a thermometer, fit for determining the temperature of
the air, in the menfuration of heights by the barometer.
He has alfo fhewn how to divide the fcale of a thermometer,
fo as to adapt it for aftronomical purpofes in the obferva-
tion of refraftion. See Recherches, &c. torn. ii. p. 35, &c.
p. 265, &c.

Mr. Cavallo, in 1 78 1, propofed the conftruftion of a
thermometrical barometer, which, by means of boihng water,
might indicate the vai'ious gravity of the atmofphere, or the
height of the barometer. This thermometer, he fays, with
its apparatus, might be packed up into a fmall portable box,
and ferve for determining the heights of mountains, &c. with
greater facihty than with the common portable barometer.
The inftrument, in its prefent ftate, confifts of a cyhndrical
tin veffel, about two inches in diameter, and five inches high,
in which veflel the water is contained, which may be made
to boil by the flame of a large wax-candle. The thermo-
meter is faftened to the tin veft^el in fuch a manner, as that
its bulb may be about one inch above the bottom. The
fcale of this thermometer, which is of brals, exhibits on one
fide of the glafs tube a few degrees of Fahrenheit's fcale,
viz. from 200° to 216°. On the other fide of the tube are
marked the various barometrical heights, at which the boil-
ing water ftiews thofc particular degrees of heat which are
fet down in fir G. Shuckburgh's table. With this inftru-
ment the barometrical height is ftiewn within one-tenth of an
inch. The degrees of this thermometer are fomewhat
longer than one-ninth of an inch, and therefore may be
divided into many parts, efpecially by a Nonius. But the
greateft imperfeftion of the inftrument arifes from the fmall-
nefs of the tin veffel, which does not admit a fufficient
quantity of water ; but when the quantity of water is
fufficiently large, e.g. 10 or 12 ounces, and is kept boiling

in a proper veffel, its degree of heat tnder the fame preffure
of the atmofphere is very fettled ; whereas when a thermo-
meter is kept in a fmall quantity of boiling water, the
quickfilver in its ftem does not ftand very fteady, fometimes
rifing or falling even half a degree. Mr. Cavallo propofes
a farther improvement of this inftrument in the Phil. Tranf.
vol. Ixxi. partii. p. 524.

The ingenious Mr. Wedgwood, fo well known for his
various improvements in the different forts of pottery-ware,
has contrived to make a thermometer for meafuring the
higher degrees ot heat, by means of a diftinguilhing property
of argillaceous bodies, viz. the diminution of their bulk by
fire. This diminution commences in a low red heat, and
proceeds regularly, as the heat increafes, till the clay be-
comes vitrified. The total contraction of fome good clays
which he has examined in the ttrougeft of his own fires, is
confiderably more than one-fourth part in every dinieniion.
If, therefore, we can procure at all times a clay /nfficiently
apyrous or unvitrefcible, and always of the fame quality in
regard to contraftion by heat ; and if we can find means of
meafuring this contraftion with eafe and accuracy, we ftiall
be furniftied with a meafure of fire fufficient for every pur-
pofe of experiment or bufinefs. Some of the purelt Cornifti
porcelain clays (which, by the analyfis of Mr. Wedgwood,
appear to contain no calcareous earth nor gypfeous matter,
but to confift of pure argillaceous or alum earth, and
another indiffoluble earth, which he apprehends to be of the
filiceous kind, in the proportion of three parts of the former
to two parts of the latter) feem the beft adapted, both for
fupporting the intenfity, and meafuring the degrees of fire.
This material is prepared for ufe by waftiing it over, and
whilft in a diluted ftate palling it through a fine lawn : it is
then dried and put up in boxes. The dry clay is to be
foftened for ufe with about two-fifths its weight of water ;
and formed into fmall pieces, in little moulds of metal, ^'xrlhs
of an inch broad, with the fides exaftly parallel ; about
T^ths of an inch deep, and an inch long. The moulds are
to be oiled and warmed. Thefe pieces, when perfeftly dry,
are put into another iron mould or gage, confifting only of
a bottom, with two fides, -,*nths of an inch deep, to the
dimenfions of which fides the breadth of the pieces is to be
pared down. For meafuring the diminution which they are
to fuffer from the aftion of fire, another gage is made of two
pieces of brafs, twenty-four inches long, with the fides
exaflly ftraight, divided into inches and tenths, fixed five-
tenths of an inch afunder at one end, and three-tenths at the
other, upon a brafs plate ; fo that one of the thermometric
pieces, when pared down in the iron gage, will juft fit to the
wider end. If this piece be fuppofed to have diminiftied in
the tire one-fifth of its bulk, it will then pafs on to half the
length of the gage ; if diminiftied two-fifths, it will go on
to the narroweft end : and in any intermediate degree of
contraftion, if the piece be flid along till it refts againft; the
converging fides, the degree at which it ftops will be the
meafure of its contraction, and confequently of the degree
of heat it has undergone. The thermometric pieces may
be formed much more expeditioufly than in the fingle mould
by means of an inilrumcnt, confifting of a cylindrical iron
veffel, with holes in the bottom, of the form and dimenfions

required The foft clay, put in the veffel, is forced by a

prefs down through thele apertures, in long rods, which
may be cut while moift, or broken when dry, into pieces of
convenient lengths. After which, recourfe ftiould be had
to the paring gage for afcertaining and adjufting their breadth
when pcrfcftiy dry.

Each divifion of the fcale, though fo large as a tenth of

THERMOMETER.

an inch, anfwers to a,tl. part of ti.e breadth of the httle
piece of chv. When one gage .s accurately adjulted to
the proportional meafures above Hated, two pieces of brals
(hould be made, one fitting exaaiy ii.to one end and the
other into the other; which w.U fcrve as ftandards for the
nidv adjuftmeut of other gages to the dnneniions of the
ongi'nal, and thus we may be affured, that thermometers on
this principle, though made by different perfons, and m
different countries, wiU all be equally affeftcd by equal
degrees of heat, and all fpeak the fame language, ihe
fcale commences at a red heat fully vifible m day hght ;
and the grtratell heat which Mr. Wedgwood has hitherto
obtained in his experiments, is i6o=. Swedifh copper has
been found to melt at 27", fiWer at 28', and gold at 32°,
of this thermometer. Brafs is in fufion at 21°: the
welding heat of iron is from 90" to 95^ and the greateft
heat that could be produced in a common fmith's forge,
1 25''. Caft iron melted at 130° ; and the heat by which
iron is run down among the fuel for carting is 150°. A
Heffian crucible melted ir.to a flag-hke fubftance at about
1 50'. The fonding heat of glafs furnaces, or that by which
the perfeft yitrifications of the materials is produced, was
at one of them 1 14° for flint-glafs, and 124° for plate-glafs.
Delft-ware is fired by a heat of 40° or 41'^ ; Queen's- ware
by 86°; and ftone-ware by 102°, which degree of heat
changes it to a true porcelain texture. The thermometer
pieces begin to acquire a porcebin texture at about 1 10°.
A piece of an Etrufcan vafe melted completely at 33° ;
pieces of other vafe and Roman ware about 36^ ; Worcefter
china vitrified at 94° ; Mr. Sprimont's Chelfea china at
105"; the Derby at 112°; the Bow at 121°; but Briftol
china (hewed no appearance of vitrification at 135°. The
common fort of Chinefe porcelain does not perfeftly vitrify
by any fire which Mr. Wedgwood could produce : but
began to foften about 120°, and at 156° became fo foft as
to fink down and apply itfelf cloie upon an irregular furface
underneath. The true ftone Nankeen does not foften in
the leaft, by this ftrong heat ; nor even acquire a porcelain
texture. The Drefden porcelain is more refraftory than
the common Chinefe, but not equally fo with the ftone
Nankeen. The cream-coloured or Queen's-ware bears the
fame heat as the Drefden. Mr. Pott fays, that to melt a
mixture of chalk and clay in certain proportions, which
appear from his tables to be equal parts, is " among the
mafter-pieces of art." This mixture melts into a perfeft
glafs at 123' of this thermometer. For other curious par-
ticulars, fee Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxii. part ii. p. 305, &c.

This thermometer, fays Dr. Young, (Left, on Nat.
Philof. vol. i. 648.) may be extremely ufeful for identifying
the degree of heat which is required for a particular pur-
pofe ; but for the comparifon of temperatures by an ex-
tcnfion of the numerical fcale, we have not foificient evidence
of its accuracy to allow us to depend on its indications ; and
it is fcarcely credible, that the operation of furnaces of any
kind, can produce a heat of fo many thoufand degrees of a
natural fcale, as Mr. Wedgwood's experiments have led him
to fuppofe ; nor is the fuppofilion confiftent with the ob-
fervations of other philofophcrs.

Thermometee, Differential, a curious fort of thermo-
pneter invented by proteffor Leflie, which exprefles not the
abfolute degree of heat, but the difference, when any exifts,
between the temperatures of the two fpots where its two
bulbs are placed. The method of conftrufting it is as
follows. {^K PlateXVl. Pneumatics, Jig. l-j.) Seleft two
thermometer tubes with bores rather wider than ufual, and
one a Uttle wider than the other. Let the balls be blown

as equal as the eye can judge, and from .4 to .7 of an iiicli
in diameter, and let the open end of the tube alfo be widened
in a flight degree. The tubes muft be of unequal length,
the longeil being nearly twice the length of the other. Then
introduce into the longer tube a little fulphuric acid tinged
with carmine, fufficient to fill about an inch oi its cavity ;
join the two tubes together by the blow-pipe, and when
joined, bend them in the form of the letter U, with the
bulbs about three or four inches afundcr, making one
flexure juft below the junfture of the two tubes, where the
fmall cavity (which is reprefented in the plate) facilitates
the adjuftment of the inftrument, which by a little dexterity
is performed by forcing a few globules of air by the heat
of the hand from one bulb to the other. Attach a gra-
duated fcale to the (horter tube, making the zero about the
middle of it, and adjuft. to it the quantity of air in each bulb,
fo that when the bulbs are at the fame temperature, the
upper furface of the coloured liquor may juft correfpond
with the zero. Sulphuric acid is chofen as the liquor in-
terpofed between the bulb, on account of its bearing any
heat or cold that would be ufed witliout being evaporated
or congealed.

In this inftrument the air inclofed in the bulbs is the fub-
ftance, which, by its expanfion or contraftion, caufes the
motion of the coloured liquor up or down the fcale, and as
gafes are much more expanfible than liquids, the inftrument
is fooner affefted by minute changes of heat. But as the
two bulbs are of equal fize, and both filled with air, and
feparated from each other by the intervening liquor, it is
obvious that when the temperature is the fame in each bulb,
be it high or low, the preffure on each fide of the liquor is
alfo equal, and it muft remain ftationary : fo that it can only
move when one bulb is warmer than the other. Hence the
particular and fole ufe of this inftrument as a differential
thermometer. The lower part of the inftrument (or the
fpace included between the two bends) is cemented to an
upright ftera, by which it is fupported.

This inftrument has been employed by the inventor in a
variety of curious experiments on caloric, or the matter of
heat. The peculiar advantage which this inftrument pof-
feffes is, that, bcfides its extreme fenfibility, in ufing it the
common temperature of the furrounding air may, in gene-
ral, be difregarded ; this being always the zero of the fcale,
whatever be the aftual variation of heat in the furrounding
atmofphere ; and hence a much greater degree of fimplicity
is introduced into the delicate refearcheson this fubjeft. For
the refleftion of heat mirrors were employed, generally of
block-tin, highly polifhed, and hammered to fit a wooden
gage, the fegment of a parabolic curve, by which much of
the difperfion produced by a fimple concave form was
avoided ; fo that when expofed to the direft rays of the
fun, they collefted them into a pretty diftinft focus, of
about half an inch in diameter. The fubftance employed to
generate the radiant heat was a hollow cubic tin canifter,
placed direftly in front of the mirror of its focal point,
and when ufed, filled vrith boiling water, and fitted with a
common thermometer, pafGng through a hole in the cover,
and immerfed in the water. The cubical form of the ca-
nifter allowed of four fides, of perfeftly equal dimenfions,
each of which, when turned to the mirror, afforded a
heated furface for the tranfmifllon of radiant caloric, and'
they were occafioiially coated with various fubftances to
afcertain the effeft of colour, pohih, and the hke, in re-
tarding or promoting the radiation of the heat within.
With this apparatus, and his differential thermometer,
Mr. Leflie performed a variety of interefting experiments.

THERMOMETER.

for the geneial rcfulls of wbich wc refer to the article
Heat ; and for a more minute detail to Leflie's " In-
quiry into the Nature of Heat ;" and for an extonfive
abftraft, to an elaborate article on Caloric in Aikin's Dic-
tionary. See alfo our articles Caloric, Radiant Rays,
&c. &c.

Thermometer, Balance, an inftrument invented by Mr.
James Kewley, of the Ifle of Man, and for which he ob-
tained a patent for Scotland, daLed Nov. ^, 1816; for Eng-
land, dated Nov. 21, 1816 ; and for Ireland, dated Jan. 4,
1817. This inftrument (befides anfvvering the purpofe of
afcertaining the temperature) is ufed as a firft moving power
for putting machinery into motion, for the purpofe of regu-
lating the temperature, by opening or clofing the flues,
windows, or doors of the apartment in which it is placed.
This invention mull therefore be of great importance to the
horticulturift ; as by it the artificial climate of hot-houfes,
confervatories, hot-beds, &c. can be accurately regulated,
without the leaft attention from the gardener, farther
than occafionally to wind up the machine to which it is
attached.

In Plate XVI. Pneumatics, jig. 1 8. is a perfpedlive reprefent-
ation of Kewley's balance tiermometer. A is a glafs tube,
with its bulbs c and d hermetically fealed at e, and having a
very fine aperture sxf, for the admiffion of the prelFure of
the atmofphere upon the furface of the quickfilver con-
tained in the bulb d: g \s ?i milled-headed nut, let into a
mortife in the frame h, having a female fcrew in its centre,
through which the fcrew ;' is made to pafs. This nut ferves to

elevate or deprefs the tube with the two clamping-pieces
(between which it is fcrewed fall) in the frame h, for the
purpofe of adjufting the inftrument to its proper centre o£
gravity : /■ is a milled nut, having a pinion on its arbor, and
ferves the j)urpofc of moving the fcale / to the right or left,
as may be required : m and n are the knife-edged centres, on
which the inltrument fwings in any ornamental frame that the
poircfTor may choofe. When the inftrument is at the mean
temperature of its range, the bulbs c and d ought to be
each about half full, and the fmall tube communicating
with the bulbs quite full of quickfilver ; and the large tube,
and lialf of the bulb c, full of alcohol. Now it is evident,
that when the alcohol in the large tube expands by an in-
creafe of temperature, it muft prefs upon the furface of the
quickfilver in the bulb c, and force a quantity of quick-
filver, equal to its expanfion, into the bulb d : the centre of
gravity of the inftrument will thereby be altered, and it will
turn upon its centres, like the beam of a pair of fcales ;
therefore, when the temperature is defircd to be known, the
fcale is to be moved by turning the nut k, in order to bring
the inftrument to a balance ; when that is done, the degree
is read off" at 0. When this inftrument is ufed as a firft
moving power, to regulate the temperature of hot-houfes,
&c. it has a lever or wheel attached to one of its centres,,
which communicating with machinery, puts it in motion
when the temperature is either higher or lower than the
degree defired, which motion opens or clofes the windows,
flues, &c. as may be necefiary, until the degree of tempe-
rature to which the inftrument is at be produced.

Comparisons of different Thermometers.

Table for Reaumur's Thermometer

lUau.

Ct-nt.

Fal.r.

Reau.

Cent.

F«lir.

Beau,

Crni.

F.l.r.

Reau.

Cent.

Fahr.

80

100.

212.

5'

63-75

146.75

23

28.75

83-75

5

6.25

20.75

79

93.75

209.75

50

62.5

144.5

22

27-5

8.-5

6

7-5

18.5

78

97-5

207.5

49

61.25

142.25

21

26.25

79.25

7

8.75

16.25

77

96.25

205.25

48

60.

140.

20

25.

77-

8

10.

14.

76

95-

203.

17

58-75

'37-75

19

23.75

74-75

9

11.25

11.75

75

93-75

200.75

46

57-5

135-5

i3

22.5

72.5

10

12.5

9-5

74

92.5

198.5

45

56.25

133-25

17

21.25

70.25

11

13-75

7.25

73

91.25

196.25

44

5S-

13'-

16

20.

68.

12

15-

5-

72

90.

194.

43

53-75

128.75

15

18.75

65-75

13

16.25

2-75

7>

88.75

191.75

42

52.5

126.5

14

17-5

63-5

14

17-5

0.5

70

87.5

189.5

41

51.25

124.25

13

16.25

61.25

15

18.75

-1-75

69

86.25

187.25

40

50.

122.

12

15-

59-

16

20.

4-

68

85.

185.

39

48.75

119.75

I I

13-75

5(>1S

17

21.25

6.25

67

83-75

182.75

38

47-5

117.5

10

12.5

54-5

18

22.5

8.5

66

82.5

180.5

37

46.25

115.25

9

1 1.25

52.25

^9

23-75

10.75

6j

81.25

178.25

36

45-

113-

8

10.

50.

20

25-

13-

64

80.

.76.

35

43-75

110.75

7

8-75

47-75

21

26.25

15.25

63

78.75

173-75

34

42.5

1C8.5

6

7-5

45-5

22

27-5

17-5

62

77-5

171.5

33

41.25

106.25

5

6.25

43-25

23

28.75

1975

61

76.25

169.25

32

40.

104.

4

5-

41.

24

3°-

22.

60

75-

167.

3'

38-75

101.75

3

3-75

38-75

25

31-25

24-25

59

73-75

164.75

30

37-5

99-5

2

2-5

365

26

32-5

26.5

58

72.5

162.5

29

36.25

97.25

I

1.25

34-25

27

33-75

28.75

57

71.25

160.25

28

35-

95-

0

0.

32-

28

35-

31-

56

70.

158.

27

33-75

92.75

-'

-1.25

29.75 .

29

36.25

33-25

55

68.75

155-75

x6

32-5

90.5

2

2-5

27-5

30

37-5

35-5

54

67-5

'53-5

25

3J-25

88.25

3

3-75

25.25

31

38.75

37-75

53

66.25

151.25

24

30-

86.

4

5-

23-

32

40.

40.

52

65.

149.

^ ^ ^

THERMOMETER.

TaSi,e for Fahrenheit's Thermometer.

K«hr.
212
21 I

no

IO<)
208
207
206
20J
204
203
202
231
2 00

'99

tO»

197
i<)6

'95
'94
'93
192
191
190
189
188
187
186
.8y
184

'?3
182
181
180
179
.78
177
176

>75
174
173
172
171
170
169
t68
167
166
.65
164
163
162
161
160

'59
158

'57
•56
'55
«54
'53
'51
'5'
150

'49

Kcw.

80-00
79-55
79"
78.66
78.22
77-77
77-33
76.88
76.44
76.00

75-55
75.11

74.66

74.22
73-77
73-33
72.88
72.44
72.00

7'-55
71.11
70.66
70.22
69.77

69-33
68.88
68.44
68.00

67-55
67.11
66.66
66.22
6>-77
65-33
64.88
64.44
64.00

63-55
63.11

62.66
62.22
61.77

61-33
60.88
60.44
6000

59-55
j9.11
58.66
58.22

58.77

57-33
56.88
56.44.
56.00

55-55
55.11
54.66
54.22
53-77
53-33
52.88
52.44
52.00

CVni .
100.00

99-44
98.88

98-33
97-77
97.22
96.66
96.11

95-55
95.00
94.44
93.88

93-33
92.77
92.22
91.66
91.11
90.55
90.00
89.44
88.88
88.33
87-77
87.22
86.66
86.11

85-55
85.00

84-44
83.88

83-33
82.77
82.22
81.66
81.11
80.55
80.00

79-44
78.88

78.33
77-77
77.22
76.66
76.11

75-55
75.00

74-44
73.88

73-33
72.77
72.22
71.66
71. II

70.55
70.00
69.44
68.88

68.33
67.77

67.22
66.66
66.11

65-55

65.00

48

47
46

45
44
43
42
4'
40

39

38
37
36
35
34
33
32
3'
30
29
28

27

26

25

24

23
22
21
20

'9
18

17
16

15
'4
'3
12
II
10
09
08
07
06
05
04

03
02
01
00

99
98

97
96
95
94
93
92
9'
90
89
88

87
86

Rrtu.

5'-55

51.11

50.66
50.22
49-77
49-33
48.88

48-44
48.00

47-55
47.11
46.66
46.22

45-77
45-33
44.88

44-55
44.00

43-55

43-"
42.66

42.22
41-77
4'-33
40.88
40.44
40.00
39-55
39-"
38.66

38.22
37-77
37-33
36.88

36-44
36.00

35-55
35-"
34.66
34.22
33-77
33-33
32.88

32-44
32.00

3'-55
31.11

30.66
30.22
29.77

29-33
28.88
28.44
28.00

27-55
27.11

26.66
26.22
25-77
25-33
24.88
24.44
24.00

Cent.

Fahr.

Reaii.

Cent.

Falir.

Reau.

Cent.

64.44

85

23-55

29.44

22

4-44

5-55

63-88

84

23.11

28.88

21

4.88

6. II

63-33

83

22.66

28-33

20

5-33

6.66

62.77

82

22.22

27-77

19

5-77

7.22

62.22

81

21.77

27.22

18

6.22

7-77

61.66

80

21-33

26.66

'7

6.66

8.33

61. 1 1

79

20.88

26. 1 1

16

7. II

8.88

60.55

78

20.44

25-55

15

7-55

9-44

60.00

77

20.00

25.00

'4

8.00

10.00

59-44

76

'9-55

24.44

13

8.44

10.55

58.88

75

19.1 1

23.88

12

8.88

11.11

58-33

74

18.66

23-33

11

9-33

11.66

57-77

73

18.22

22.77

10

9-77

12.22

57.22

72

'7-77

22.22

9

10.22

12.77

56.66

71

'7-33

21.66

8

10.66

13-33

56.11

70

16.88

21.11

7

11.11

13.88

55-55

69

16.44

20.55

6

11.55

14.44

55.00

68

16.00

20.00

5

12.00

15.00

54-44

67

15-55

19-44

4

12.44

15-55

53.88

66

15.11

18.88

3

12.88

16.11

f3-33

65

14.66

'8-33

2

'3-33

16.66

52-77

64

14.22

'7-77

I

13-77

17.22

52.22

63

'3-77

17.22

0

14.22

-17-77

51.66

62

'3-33

16.66

— 1

14.66

18.33

51.11

61

12.88

16.11

2

15.11

18.88

50-5S

60

12.44

15-55

3

15-55

19.44

50.00

59

12.00

15.00

4

16.00

20.00

49.44

58

11.55

14.44

5

16.44

20.5s

48.88

57

11.11

13.88

6

16.88

21.11

48-33

56

10.66

13-33

7

17-33

21.66

48.77

55

10.22

12.77

8

17.77

22.22

47.22

54

9-77

12.22

9

18.22

22.77

46.66

53

9-33

11.66

10

18.66

23-33

46.11

52

8.88

11.11

1 1

19.11

23.88

45-55

51

8.44

10.55

12

19-55

24.44

45.00

50

8.00

10.00

13

20.00

25.00

44.44

49

7-55

9.44

14

20.44

25.55

43.88

48

7.11

8.88

15

20.88

26iH

43-33

47

6.66

8-33

16

21.33

26.66

42.77

46

6.22

7-77

17

21.77

27.22

42.22

45

5-77

7.22

18

22.22

27.77

41.66

44

5-33

6.66

19

22.66

28.33

41.11

43

4.88

6.11

20

23.11

28.88

40.55

42

4-44

5-55

21

23-55

29.44

40.00

41

4.00

5.00

22

24.00

30.00

39-44

40

3-55

4-44

23

24.44

30-55

38.88

39

3-11

3-88

24

24.88

31.11

38-33

38

2.66

3-33

25

25-33

31.66

37-77

37

2.22

2-77

26

25.77

32.22

37.22

36

1.77

2.22

27

26.22

32-77

36.66

35

'•33

1.66

28

26.66

33-33

36.1 1

34

0.88

i.ii

29

27.11

33-88

35-55

33

0.44

0.55

30

27-55

34-44

35.00

32

0.

0.

31

28.00

35.00

34-44

31

-0.44

-0.55

32

28.44

35-55

33-88

30

0.88

i.i I

33

28.88

36.11

33-33

29

I -.33

1.66

34

29-33

36.66

32.77

28

1.77

2.22

35

29.77

37.22

32.22

27

2.22

2.77

36

30.22

37-77

31.-66

26

2.66

3-33

37

30.66

38-33

31.11

25

3-"

3.88

38

31.11

38.88

30.55

24

3-55

4.44

39

31-55

39-44

30.00

23

4.00

5.00

40

32.00

40.00

THE

THE

Taei.e for tlie Centigrade Thermometer.

Cent.

Reau.

Tdlir.

Ce.u.

K.au.

Fahr.

Cent.

Ueau.

Fdhr.

Cent.

Reau.

Fahr.

lOO

80.

212.

64

51.2

147.2

29

23.2

84.2

6

4.8

21.2

99

79.2

2 10.2

63

50.4

145.4

28

22.4

82.4

7

5.6

19.4

98

78.4

208.4

62

49.6

143.6

27

2 1.6

80.6

8

6.4

17.6

97

77.6

206.6

61

48.8

141.8

26

20.8

78.8

9

7.2

.5.8

96

76.8

204.8

60

48.

140.

25

20.

77-

10

8.

14.

95

76.

203.

59

47.2

138.2

24

19.2

75-2

11

8.8

12.2

94

75.2

201.2

58

46.4

136.4

23

18.4

73-4

12

9.6

10.4

93

74.4

199.4

57

45.6

134.6

22

17.6

71.6

'3

10.4

8.6

92

73-6

197.6

56

44.8

132.8

21

16.8

69.8

14

11.2

6.8

91

72.8

195.8

55'

44-

'3'-

20

16.

68.

15

12.

5-

90

72.

194.

54

43-2

129.2

19

15.2

66.2

16

12.8

3-2

89

-1.2

192.2

53

42.4

127.4

18

14.4

64.4

17

13.6

1-4

88

70.4

190.4

52

41.6

125.6

17

13.6

62.6

18

. 14.4

- 0.4

«7

69.6

188.6

51

40.8

123.8

16

12.8

60.8

>9

15.2

2.8

86

68.8

186.8

50

40.

122.

15

12.

59-

20

16.

4-

85

68.

185.

49

39-2

120.2

14

11.2

57.2

21

16.8

5.8

. 84

67.2

183.2

48

38-4

1 18.4

«3

10.4

55-4

22

17.6

7.6

83

66.4

181.4

47

37-6

116.6

12

9.6

53-6

23

18.4

9.4

82

65.6

179.6

46

36.8

1 14.8

II

8.8

51.8

24

19.2

II. 2

81

64.8

177.8

45

36.

113-

10

8.

50.

25

20.

13-

80

64.

176.

44

35-2

1 11.2

9

7.2

48.2

26

20.8

14.8

79

68-2

174.2

43

34-4

109.4

8

6.4

46.4

27

21.6

16.6

78

62.4

172.4

42

33-6

107.6

7

5-f

44.6

28

22.4

18.4

77

61.6

170.6

41

32.8

105. 8

6

4.8

42.8

29

23.2

20..2

76

60.8

i68.8

40

32-

104.

5

4-

41.

30

24.

22.

75

60,

167.

39

31.2

102.2

4

3-2

39-2

31

24.8

23.8

7+

1 65-. 2

38

30-4

100.4

3

2.4

37-4

32

25.6

25.6

73

V

163.4

37

29.6

98.6

2

1.6

35-6

33

26.4

27.4

72

5 -6

161.6

36

28.8

96.8

I

0.8

33-8

34

27.2

29.2

71

56.8

159.8

35

28.

95-

0

0.

32-

H

28.

3'-

70

56.

,58.

34

27.2

93-2

I

0.8

30.2

36

28.8

32.8

69

■^5.2

156.2

33

26.4

91.4

2

1.6

28.4

37

29.6

34-6

68

54.4

154.4

32

25.6

89.6

3

2.4

26.6

38

30-4

3<5-4

67

53-6

152.6

31

24.8

87.8

4

3-2

24.8

39

31.2

38.2

66

52.8

150.8

30

24.

86.

5

4-

23-

40

32-

40.

65

52.

149-

THERMOPOHUM, formed of difi^o;, hoi, and wi^Xsu,
J fell, a name for a fort of public houfes among tjie ancients,
in which hot liquors were fold, in the manner of our cofFee-
houfes.

THERMOPSIS, in Botany, from fi^^po,-, a Lupine, and
o4-i:, appearance or afpeS, indicating a general refemblance to

that genus of plants Brown in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 3.

lafs and order, Decandrla Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Papil'w-
}iu Linn. Leguminof^, JufT.

Ch. Calyx oblong, fire-cleft half way down, two-
li ; convex behind ; tapering at ihe bale. Corolla pa-

pilionaceous ; petals nearly of equal length ; llandard re-
flcxed at the fides, keel obtufc. Stamens permanent. Le-
gume comprefled, linear, with many feeds. Br.

1. Th. lanceolata. Sharp-leaved Thermopfis. Ait. n. i.
(Podalyria lupinoides ; Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 504. Sophora
lupinoides ; Linn. Sp. PL 534. " Pallas Aftrag. 119.
t. 89.") — Leaflets oblong-ianceolate. Stipulas lanceolate,
twice as long as the footftalks Flowers whorled. — Native
of Siberia ; from whence the late duke of Northumberland
is faid to have received it in 1776. This is a hardy peren-
nial herbaceous plant, flowering in June and July, 'thejiems
.ire fpreading or decumbent, about a foot long, branched in
an alternate manner, round, hairy, leafy. Leaves ternate,
Jight green, hairy, on Ihort ftalks ; their ktificts about an

Vol. XXXV . ./

inch long. Stipulas half as large, or more. Flowers ftalked,
about three in each whorl, yellow, much refembling thofe
of a Lupine. Calyx hairy.

By Mr. Brown's fpccific charatfter, we prefume there are
more fpecies of this genus, though not in our gardens, of
which he wiU one day give an account. For the foundnefs
of the generic diftinftions, we rely on him. The comprefled
legume leems the moft: important difference between Thermop-
Jis and the Baptifia of Ventenat and Brown ; fee Ait. Hort.
Kew. V. 3. 5 ; alfo our articles Sophora and Poda-
lyria.

THERMOPYLiE, in Aneient Geography, a ftrait or
pafs, rendered famous by the valour of Leonidas and his
companions, who defended it againfl; the army of Xerxes
in the year 480 B.C ; and v./hich, long after that celebrated
event, was defended againfl: the Gauls. This pafs is the
only road by which an army can penetrate from Theflaly
into Locris, Phocis, Boeotia, Attica, and the adjacent
countries. The following fuccinA defcription is given of
this ftrait by the abb6 Barthelemy, in his " Anacharfis." On
quitting Phocis to go into Theffaly, having paffed the little
country of the Locrians, we arrive, fays the abbe, at the
town of Alpenus, fituated by the fea. As it ftands at the
entrance of the ftrait, it has been fortified. The road at
iirft is only vnde enough for the pafTage of a waggon ; but
3 y it

THE

it afttnvartis t-iihurges itfclf between mora(rcs formed by the
waters of the lea and almoll inaceeflible rocks, which termi-
nate the chain of mountains known by the name of Oeta.
After leaving Alpenus, a ftone is difcovered on the left,
confecrated to Hercules Melanpygiis, and a path prefents
itfelf that leads to the fumniit of the mountain. Farther
on, the traveller crofils a current of hot water, which gives
this place in name of Thermopylx. Next to this ftream is
the town of Anthela ; and in the plain which furrounds it
arc a finall eminence and a temple of Ceres, in whicli the
Aniphidyonj annually held one of their afTemblies. On
coming out of the plain there is a road, or rather caufcway,
only about feven or eight feel wide. Here the Phocians
had formiTly built a wall, to proteft their country from the
inroads of the Theffahans. After pafling the Phoenix, which
at lail falls into the Afopus, a river that rifes in an adjacent
valley, we come to the laft defile, half a plethrum ( i J or i6
yards) in breadth. The road then widens as far as Trachinia,
which takes its name from the city of Trachis, that was
inhabited by the Malians. This country prefents to the
view of the traveller extcnfive plains watered by the Sper-
chius and other rivers. To the £. of Trachis ftood the city of
Heraclea, wliich did not exifl in the time of Xerxes. The
whole ilrait, from the defile before we arrive at Alpenus to
that which is beyond the Phoenix, may be about 48 ftadia
(about 2 leagues) in length. Its breadth varies almoft at
every Hep ; but through its whole extent it is (hut in on one
fide by fteep mountains, and on the other by the fea, or im-
penetrable moralTes. The road is often deftroyed by the
torrents, or by ftagnant waters. Lconidas polled his little
army near Anthela, rebuilt the wall of the Phocians, and
difpatched a few advanced troops to defend the approaches.
But it was not fufficient to guard the paffage at the foot of
the mountain ; on the mountain itfelf there was a path, which,
beginning at the plain of Trachis, terminated, after various
windings, near the town of Alpenus. Leonidas entrufted
the defence of this path to the thoufand Phocians he had
with liim, and who took poft on the heights of mount Oeta.
As foon as thefe arrangements were completed, the army of
Xerxes was difcovered, fpreading itfelf over Trachinia, and
covering the plain with its innumerable tents. The Greeks
deliberated on the meafures proper to be adopted ; moft of
the generals were for retiring to the ifthmus ; but Leonidas
rejcAed this counfel. A Perfian horfeman was deputed to
reconnoitre the advanced poll of the Greeks, which was
oompofed of Spartans ; and as the reft of the ai-my vpas
concealed from him by the wall, he only gave an account to
Xerxes of the 300 men he had fcen at the entrance of the
defile. After various meflfages from Xerxes to Leonidas,
and the firm and calm replies of the latter, the Perfian" king
was enraged, and gave ordere for an attack. The Medes
ruihed on with fur)-, and one rank fell after another, while
the Greeks, preffing clofe againfl each other, and covered
with large bucklers, prefentcd an impenetrable front of long
pikes, and a phalanx which frcdi troops fucceffively in vain
attempted to break. At length the Medes were feized with
a panic, and fled ; but they were fpeedily relieved by the
chofcn body of the 10,000 immortals, commanded by Hy-
darnes. The adion now became more bloody ; but the
Greeks had the advantage of fituation, and fuperiority of
arms. The Perfians loft many men ; and Xerxes, witneff-
ing their flight, leaped, as it is faid, more than once from
his chanot,and trembled for thcirTate. Next dav the attack
was renewed, but with fo little 'fuccefs, that Xerxes def-
patred of forcing the palFage. At length Epialtes, an in-
habitant of thofe diftrifts, difcovered to him the fatal path
by which he might turn the Grecians ; and ferved as a guide
10

T H E

to Hydarnes and his corps of immortals, under whofe co';-
duct they arrived near the fpot where Leonidas had poited .i
detachment of his army ; and prepared to attack it. When
this dreadful news reached the Greeks, their leaders aflem-
bled. Some were for retreating, and others for remaining ;
but Leonidas declared for himfelf and his companions, that
they werS not permitted to quit a poft which Sparta had
confided to their care. In the middle of the night, the
Greeks, with Leonidas at their head, ilTued out of the de-
file, advanced tlirough the plain, overthrew the advanced pofts,
and penetrated to the tent of Xerxes, who had already taken
flight. They fpread over the camp, and glutted themfelves
with carnage. The Perfians were terrified and confufed, and
many of them perifhed by the hands of one another. At
length, with the dawn of day they difcovered the inconfi-
derable number of their viftors, and rallying, attacked the
Greeks on all fides. Leonidas fell beneath a ftiower of
darts ; and a contcft for the honour of carrying off his
body, occalioned a terrible conflicl between his companions
and the moft expert and hardy warriors of the Perfian army.
The Greeks, however, prevailed, and carried off their ge-
neral ; and having regained the defile, pofted themfelves on
an eminence, and for fome time continued to defend them-
felves. When Xerxes oftered to Leonidas the empire of
Greece, if he fubmitted to his power, he replied, " I
rather choofe to die free than to enflave my country." When
the king commanded him to furrender his anns, he wrote
the laconic anfwer, " come and take them." " The Perfians
are near us," faid one of his foldiers to Leonidas : " rather
fay," he coolly replied, " that we are near the Perfians."
See Leonidas. '

It has been a fubjeft of difpute what was the number of
Grecian troops under the command of Leonidas at Ther-
mopylae. Herodotus ftates them at 5100, Paufanias at
11,200, and Diodorus at 7400. The abbe Barthelemy at-
tempts to reconcile thefe different ftatements, and concludes,
upon the whole, that Leonidas had with him about 7000 men.
If we may credit Diodorus, he had no more than 500 fol-
diers when he determined to attack the Perfian camp.

On the eminence to which the companions of Leonidas
retired after the death of their commander, there were fe-
veral monuments erefted by order of the AmphyiSlionic
council, in honour of the 300 Spartans, and the other Gre-
cian troops engaged in the combat. On one of thefe cippi
is infcribed, " Here four thoufand Greeks of Peloponnefus
fought againft three millions of Periians."

THERMOSCOPE, an inftrument ftewing the changes
happening in the air with refpeft to heat and cold.

The word thermofcope is generally ufed indifferently with
that of thermometer. There is fome difference, however,
in the literal import of the two ; the firft fignifying an in-
ftrument that ftiews or exhibits the changes of heat, &c. to
the eye ; formed from Sicfiv,, heaf, and o-kottei', video, I fee ;
and the latter an inftrument that meafures thofe changes,
from St-pi, ieat, Tind jx-lftiv, to meafure, on which foundatio'n
the thermometer ftiould be a more accurate thermofcope, &c.
This difference the excellent Wolfius taking hold of, defcribes
all the thermometers in ufe as thermofcopes ; fliewing that
none of them properly meafure the changes of heat. Sec.
none of them do more thjn indicate the fame. Though their
different heights yefterday and to-day fliew a difference of
heat ; yet, fince they do not difcover the ratio of yefterday '3
heat to to-day's, they are not ftriftly thermometers.

THERONDELS, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Aveiron ; 3 miles N.E. of Mur.

THEROUANNE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Straits of Calais, on tjje Lys. It was anciently

the

T PI £

tlie capital of the Mbrini, and afterwards an cpifcopal fce,
with feveral churches and convents ; but being taken in the
year 1553 by the emperor Charles V., he demolilhed it.
The diltrift belonging to it, however, was ceded by Spain
to France, at the treaties of the years 1559 and 1659 ; 6
miles S. of St. Oraer.

THERSA, or Thapsa, in Ancient Gfography, a royal
town of Judea, in the half-tribe of ManafTeh, on this fide
of Jordan. Therfa was the feat, capital, and burying-place
of the firll kings of Ifrael.

Thersa, or Thirza, a town of Paleftine, in the tribe of
Ephraim.

THERSARA, a town of Afia, in the interior of Af-
fyria. Ptolemy.

THERSITjE, a people of Spain, in Iberia ; they were
of the number of thofe whom Annibal caufed to pafs into
Africa.

THERUINGI, a people who inhabited a part of Dacia,
on the other fide of the Danube.

THESBON, a town of Paleftine, on the other fide of
Jordan, in the tribe of Gad.

THESEA, or TuESiEA, ©no-Eia, in Antiquity, feafts cele-
brated by the Athenians in honour of Thefeus.

In fpite of the important fervices that hero had done his
country, in dehvering it from a fhameful tribute of fo many
youths, of either fex, fent yearly to be devoured by the Mi-
notaur in Crete (as the fable has it), or fent as fiaves to
Minos, king of Crete, as the hiftories have it, from which he
freed them, by overturning Taurus, Minos's general ; he
was banifhed for fome time, and retired to Scyros, under the
proteftion of Lycomedes, king of that ifland, where he finally
loft his life either by accident, on in confequence of the
jealoufy of the king.

The gods, it is faid, revenged this treatment Thefeus
received from the Athenians, by afflitling them with a fa-
mine, which the oracle allured them (hould not ceafe till they
had avenged his death. Upon this they flew Lycomedes,
brought Tliefeus's bones to Athens, placed them in a temple
erefted to him, and appointed Thefea to be held every eighth
day of each month, in which largeffes were diftributed to the
people, and the day was fpent, by the rich, in feafting and
rejoicing, and with peculiar folemnlty on the eighth day of
the month Pyanepfion.

Plutarch, however, gives a different account of the origin
of this feaft ; he fays that the Athenians, imagining they faw
Thefeus at the battle of Marathon under the form of a tute-
lary deity, confulted the oracle on this prodigy : and being
ordered to colleft his bones in the ifland of Scyros, removed
them with great pomp to Athens ; and depofited them under
a magnificent monument erefted in the middle of the city,
which became afterwards an afylum for flaves, in comme-
moration of the fuccour afforded by this prince to the unfor-
tunate during his life. They alfo eredled a temple where they
offered facrifices, &c. At Rome, Thefeus was held in very
different eftimation, for Virgil [Mn. lib. vi.) places him in
Tartarus, among thofe who were tormented for their crimes.

THESEUS, in Biography, a hero celebrated in the fabu-
lous ages of Greece, and referred by chronologers to the
thirteenth century B.C. was the illegitimate fon of iEgeus,
king of Athens, by ^thra, daughter of Pittheus, king of
Trcezern ; and as he advanced towards maturity difcovered a
vigorous fpirit in an athletic frame. In his journey to
Athens by land he met with many adventures and confliiSts,
and on his arrival found the city agitated by diffeniions.
The fons of Pallas, the brother of ^gous, fufpefting that
the aged and childlefs fovereign would adopt this newly
arrived ftranger for his heir, fomented his jealoufies, fo that

T II E

.^geus prepared poifon for difpatching him ; but before his
plan could be accompliflied, he difcovered by certain tokens
that he was his fon. The confequence of this difcovery was
a revolt of the Pallantides, which Tiiefeus fuppreffed.

For an account of the further exploits of Tliefeus for the
relief of the Athenians, we refer to our article Hifiory of
Athens. Thefeus having, in the manner there related, efta-
bliflied a conftitution for the Athenians, yielded to the im-
pulfe of ambition ; and quitting his throne, and fometiracs in
the company of Hercules and fometlmes of Pirithous, fon of
Ixion, king of Theffaly, whofe fricndfliip he had fecured,
undertook a variety of enterprizes, the account of which is fo
intermixed with the fabulous, that it is impoffible fatisfac-
torily to develope it. He is faid, however, to have con-
quered certain Amazons on the banks of the Thermodon,
in Afia, taking a queen from among them for his wife ; to
have affifted Pirithous in overcoming the Centaurs in Thef-
faly ; and to have ftolen away from Sparta the celebrated
Helen ; and afterwards to have joined the fame friend in a
fimilar atteinpt upon Proferpina, the daughter of Aido-
neus, king of the Moloffians, in which Pirithous loft his
life, and Thefeus underwent an impriionment, from which
Hercules procured his efcape. Upon his return from this
romantic expedition, he found his kingdom and family in
confufion. Caftor and Pollux, the brothers of Helen, ra-
vaged Attica by way of revenge for the infult offered to
their fifter. His queen Phaedra, falling in love with Hip-
polytus, his fon by the Amazon, and being rejefted, calum-
niated him to his father, and occafioned his death, as his
tragedy has recorded. From a variety of circumftances that
occurred, Thefeus finding that he had loft the attachment
of the Athenians, abandoned the city, and intended to repair
to Demetrius, fon of Minos, now reigning in Crete. In his
paffage thither he was driven by a ftorm to the ifle of Scy-
ros, where he was kindly received by the king, Lyco-
medes ; but foon afterwards he loft his life by a fall from a
rock. (See Thesea. ) The refentment of the Athenians
afterwards fubfided, and they regarded him only as a hero
and benefaitor ; and Cimon, fon of Miltiades, having con-
veyed his bones, as they were fuppofed to be, to Athens,
in confequence of the injunftions of an oracle, a magnificent
temple was erefted over them, which was made an afylum for
the unfortunate. Its remains ftill fubfift as one of the nobleft
relics of ancient art in that famous capital. Plut. in Vit.
Thefei. Anc. Univ. Hift. Travels of Anacharfis, vol. i.

THESIN Per A^m and The/in. See Per Jrfm.

THESIS, SiTi;, pofttion, formed from ti6d;l«i, I put or lay
down, in the Schools, a general propofition, which a perfon
advances, and offers to maintain.

In the college it is frequent to have placards, containing
a number of thefe thefes in theology, in medicine, in philo-
fopliy, in law, &c. The maintaining a thefis, is a great part
of the exercife a ftudent is to undergo for a degree.

Thesis, in Logic, 8cc. — Every propofition may be divided
into thefis and hypothefis ; thefis contains the thing af-
firmed or denied, and hypothefis the conditions of the afBrm-
ation or negation.

Thus, in Euclid, if a triangle and parallelogram have
equal bafes and altitudes (is the hypothefis), the firft is half
of the fecond (the thefis).

Aifis and Thefis. See Arsis.

Thesis, 9to-i;, depofitio or remifjlo, the beating down the
hand or foot at the beginning of a bar in raufic. See Ahsis,
tollo, which is the lifting up the hand or foot in the middle
or latter part of a bar.

THESIUM, in Botany, an ancient name, adopted from

the Greeks, enumeroted by Linnzus, Phil. Bot. 174, among

3 U 2 thofe

THESIUM.

tholo whofe derivation is extremely tUfficult, and, after all,
doubtful. Pliny has the Thefium in two plates ; book 21.
chip. 17, and book 22. chap. 22. In the former, it is
mentioned amongft bulbous pl.ints, as having a harfli
talle : in the latter, it ftands next to Picns, as very bitter,
and purgative. This laft account is copied from Theo-
phrallus, who, in his book 7. chap, n, fpeaks of fl«a-.ov in
the fame terms, along with a number of plants of the Sow-
thiftle and Dandelion tribe, or Cichoracc<t. To thefe indeed
fome of the /Irum family are fubjoined, and Thcfium is placed
at the end. All we can hence gather is, that the plant in
quelUon may pofhbly be fome plant of the Syngmtjia Poly-
gamia-^qualii, of the feftion /emifofculofr, whofe root is
tuberous. Of this defcription there arc feveral natives of
Greece; fee Scohzosera, n. 12 and 13. Ambrofini derives
the word from &r:, a/en'nnt, or rather a poor li-aJefmaii, be-
caufe, as he thinks, of its being ferviccable in many refpeits,
both for food and medicine. Poffibly Linnsus, who fre-
quently confultcd this autlior, may hence have been led to
apply the name of Thifium to the prefent genus, totally dif-
ferent indeed from all that is recorded of the Greek fi^s-.o., but
remarkable for its mean Jiabit and hardy texture — Linn.
Gen. 114. Schreb. 160. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 1211. Mart.
Mill. Diet. V. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 269. Prodr. FI. Graec.
Sibth. V. I. 164. Ait. Hoi-t. Kew. v. 2. 63. Purfli 177.
Brown Prodr. Nov. HoU.v. I. 352. Juff. 75. Lamarck
Illuilr. t. 142. Gaertu. t. 86 — Clafs and order, Paitandria
Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Fipnculit, Linn. Eluagiii, JufT. San-
talacett, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, tubular,
in four or five ereft fegments, internally coloured and hairy,
permanent. Cor. none. Slam. Filaments equal in number
to the fegments of the calyx, but not fo long, inferted into
their bafe, awl-fhapcd ; anthers roundifh, of two lobes.
Ptft. Germcn inferior, roundilh, confluent with the bafe of
the calyx ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens ;
lligma tumid, cloven. Perk. none. Seed. Nut oval, an-
gular, coated, crowned with the permanent involute calyx,
of one cell, with a folitary kernel.

Eff. Ch. Calyx fuperior, of one leaf, bearing the fta-
mens. Corolla none. Nut folitary, coated, crowned ^vith
the calyx.

Obf. Our learned friend Mr. Brown propofes to feparate
the Cape fpecies of this genus from the reft, perhaps even
into two diftinft genera ; but as we cannot find fufBcient
grounds for this meafure, we ihall admit the whole here, at
leaft rill we can obtain fuller information. Th. Colpoon, Linn.
Suppl. 161. Willd. n. 18, is of courfe excluded, having a
Drupa, and a very different habit. This is defcribed, by
fome one of our coadjutors, under the article Fusanus. See
alfo Leptomeria — We are enabled to add a few in its
ftead to Willdenow's lift, but cannot adopt fuch as are
merely named by Mr. Brown, unlefs where we happen to
have fpecimens.

The whole genus is of a rigid broom-like habit ; feme-
times roughifh, though fcarcely pubefcent ; v.iih fimple,
ufually ver)- narrow, fcattered leaves ; and inconfpicuous
green, whitifti, or yeMowifhJlo'wei-s, either cluftered, fpiked,
or (ipmewhat capitate.

1. Th. Ilnophyllum. Baftard Toad-flax Thefium. Linn.
Sp. PI. 301. Willd. n. I. Fl. Brit. n. i. Prodr. Fl.
Graec. n. I. Engl. Bot. t. 247. Pollich Palat. v. i. 238.
Roth, in Sims and Konig's Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 18. (Th.
pratenfe ; Ehrh. Herb. n. 12. Th. montanum ; ibid. n. 2.
Th. iiitermedium ; Schrad. Spicil. 27. Anonymos lini
folio ; Cluf. Hift. V. i. 323. Linaria adultcrina ; Ger.
Em. 555.) — Stem ereft, foraewhat branched. Clufter

moftly compound. Bradteas tertiate. Leaves linear-lanceo-
late. Tube of the calyx cup-fhaped, very fliort. — Native of
dry chalky hills throughout moll parts of Europe, though
reckoned amongft our rarer Englifh plants, flowering in July.
The root is woody, perennial, branched, crooked, whitilh,
fending up feveral ereft or reclining, fmooth, leafy, more or
lefs angular, rigid, branched_/7fm/, from four to twelve inches
high. Leaves numerous, alternate, linear, entire, in fome
degree fucculent and glaucous, minutely rough at the edges,
as are fometimes the angles of the item. Clujlcrs, rather
than fpikcs, more or lefs branched, or even panicled, each
brancli bearing one or more Jlo-wers, either folitary at the
extremity, accompanied by three lanceolate, leafy, unequal
bradeas, or without Iracleas, in the fork of the ftalk, whofe
divifions bear other^ow^rj-, with one or more braSeas. The
latter is the more luxuriant ftate of this plant, in which ii
has been called intermedium by Schrader, and montanum b\
Ehrhart ; we cannot fee, by original fpecimens, that thefi.
tv.-o fuppofed fpecies differ at all, not even fo as to merit
Willdenow's diliinftion of them as varieties. Our Englifh
plant is lefs luxuriant, anfwering to PoUich's excellent de-
fcription. The calyx is turbinate, having hardly any tube :
its limb five-cleft, whitifli, fpreading, acutely five-cleft,
fometimes with intermediate teeth ; clofely involute after
flowering. Anthers yellow. Stigma white, of two knobs.
Fruit hard, ftriated, with five angles. The herb is fcarcely
bitter, a little faltifh. It ufually grows among grafs, which
it fo much refembles at a little diflaiice, as not to be readily
difcernible. The pure air of the open hills about Bury,
and fimilar fituations, feems to fuit this plant, though the
foil does not much promote its luxuriance of growth.

2. Th. ramofum. Branched German Thefium. " Hayne
in Schrad. Journ. v. i. 30. t. 7." Roth in Sims and Kon.
Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 18. Marfch. von Bieberft. Caucaf.
v. I. 175. (T. .alpinum ; Pollich Palat. v. i. 239.) — Stem
ereft, branched. Clufter elongated. Brafieas ternate.
Leaves linear -lanceolate. Flowers three or four-cleft, with
a very fhort, cup-fhaped tube. — Native of heaths, and fandy
paftures or woods, in the Palatinate, flowering at the fame
time as the preceding. Not having been able to afcertain
this fpecies amongft our fpecimens, we ftiall copy Pollich's
defcription, having endeavoured to improve our fpecific
charafter by the affiftance of that faithful and inftruftive
writer. " The root," fays he, " is white, fibrous. Stem
ereft, from three inches to a foot high, round, ftriated,
fmooth, branched from the very bafe ; the branches alternate,
very fhort. Leaves alternate or fcattered, linear-lanceolate,
fharpifh, entire, rather flefhy ; convex on one fide, flat on
the other ; feflile, above an inch long, three-quarters of a
line wide. Floiuirs folitary and fefTile at the ends of the
very fhort branches, between three leaves, of which the two
lateral ones are fmaller than the third. There is a white
roundifh bafis, or receptacle, on which each Jloiuer ftand?.
The calyx is two lines in diam.eter, green without, white
within, having but three or four fegments, which fpread
crofswife. Anthers pale yellow. Stigma white, capitate.
Evidently different from the foregoing." Pollich. He mif-
takes however in his reference to Linnaeus, Gerard, and
Haller. As to Jacquin's Enumeratio, 40 and 213, we have
no pofitive means of determining, the tube of the cal-fx not
being there delcribed. MarfchaU von Bieberftein confiders
our Englifh plant, above defcribed, as belonging to this
fpecies, and not to ilnophyllum.

3. Th. alpinum. Alpine Tubular Thefium. Linn. Sp.
PI. 301. WiUd. n. 2. Roth in Sims and Kon. Ann. of
Bot. v. 3. i8. ( Th. floribus fubfeffilibus, pedunculis folio-
fis, foljis linearibus; Gerard GaUopr. 442. t. 17. f. i. Th.

n. 1574;

THESIUM.

h. 15^4; Hall. Hill. V. 2. 265.) — Stems procumbent, un-
braiichcd. Clufters fimple. Brafteas ternatc ; the odd one
very long. Leaves linear. Flowers tln-ee or four-deft ;
their tube prifmatic, as long as the limb. — Native of the
mountains of Germany, Siberia, Switzerland, and Italy.
We received it from Switzerland, and have gathered the
fame on mount Cenis. Haller doubted whether his plant
were really liiftinft from Th. Ilnophyl/um, not adverting to
the oblong angular tube of tlic ca/yx, which indeed we have
not found noticed by any author, except Vahl, nor is it fuf-
ficiently indicated in Gerard'j plate. That charaAer how-
ever clearly difllnguidies the nlpiniim, which may alfo be re-
cognized by its numerous, fliort, fimple, moltly procum-
bent, J}ems ; narrower leaites ; very unequal braHeas, the
middle one being from three to five times the length of tlie
others, and greatly exceeding thc^ower with its llalk. The
yruit is cxa£lly oval, copioully marked with branching ribs,
but not furnilfied with angles. The^oiw/v, ufually four-
cleft, are faid by Haller to have fometimes but three
fegments.

4. Th. ebraBeatum. Naked-flowered Thefium. " Hayne
in Schrad. Journ. v. i. 33. t. 7. Termin. Bot. n. 6. t. 26.
f. 4." Roth in Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. 2. 18.) —
Stem erett, unbranched. Chiller fimple. Flowers without
lateral bratteas ; their tube cup-fliaped, very Ihort. — Found
near Berlin, by Mr. Hayne, author of an elegant German
and Latin work on botanical terminology. We liavc an au-
thentic fpecimen from profetTor Schrader, though we acci-
dentally are deficient in tliat fafciculus of his .Journal, which
contains the deicription of the prefent fpecies. No difpute
can arife as to its difference from all the foregoing. The
wide (hallow form of the calyx is like the two firft, but the
narrow foliage, and the long narrow terminal bracleas, agree
with Tb. nlpinum. The total abfencc of the pair of fmaller
lateral bracleas, efFentially diftinguiihes it from all three.

5. Th. Iiumih. Dwarf Thefium. Vahl Symb. v. 3. 43.
Willd. n. 3. (Alchimilla linarise folio, floribus et vafculis
in foliorum alis feffilibus ; Shaw Afric. n. 14.) — Stemereft,
branched. Flowers axillary, fcffile, five-cleft ; their tube
very fhort. Gathered in cultivated ground near Tunis, by
Vahl, who refers hither the fynonym of Shaw, apphed by
Linnajus, not without fcruple, to his alpinum ; from which
therefore it muft of courfe be crafed. The prefent is faid
to be annual, with an herbaceous Jlcm .hardly three inches
high, branched from the bafe ; branches fmooth, angular,
fomewhat divided, as tall as the main ftem. Leaiies linear,
thick, numerous, acute, an inch and half long. Tube of
the ca/yx fcarcely any ; not elongated as in Th. alpinum.
Fruit globofe, rugofe, the fize of Coriander-feed. Fahl.

6. Th. aujlrale. Aullralian Thefium. Br. n. i.— " Cluf-
ter fimple, elongated, fomewhat fpiked. Partial-llalks
fiiorter than the flower. Calyx four or five -cleft ; its feg-
ments bordered longitudinally, rather longer than the tube."
— Gathered by Mr. Brown, at Port Jackfon, as well as in
Van Diemen's ifland, and on the fouth coafl of New Hol-
land. We have feen no fpecimen 3.

7. Th. linealum. Line.atcd Thefium. Linn. Suppl. 162.
Thunb. Frodr. 45. Willd. n. 4. — " Leaves -linear. Stem
round, fomewhat angular ; leaflefs in the lower part :
branches ftraight, divaricated. Flowers axillary, ftalked."
Linn — Gathered at the Cape of Good Hope, by Thun-
berg, who, in his Prodromus, defines it, " leaves lanceolate,
remote; branches ftriated, ereft." We have not feen the
plant, nor does Mr. Brown mention its name.

8. Th. fquarrofum. Recurve-lcaved Thefium. Linn.
SuppL 162. Thunb. Prodr. 46. Willd. n. 5.-— Leaves

linear-awlrtiapcd, recurved. Stem round. Flowers axillary?
feflile. — From the fame country. Thunbcrg fays iUc Jloivirj
are llalked. The younger Linnxus remarks that the re-
curved, or reflexcd, 'foliage gives this plant a very Iquarrofe
afpeit. It docs not appear that he poffefled any fpecimen.

9. Th. Frifea. Little Trailing Thefinm. Linn. Mant.

213. Willd. n. 6. Thnnb. Prodr. 46. — Stem decumbent.
Leaves awl-fliaped. Flowers Ipiked ; deniely woolly within.
Fruit globofe, wrinkled. — Found at the Cape of Good
Hope by Koenig, who fent fpecimens to his preceptor Lin-
naeus, under the new generic name of Frifea, by which, we
prefnme, he meant to commemorate his own countryman
Chrillian Friis Rottbijll ; but Linnieus reduced the plant to
Thefium. It is one of tliofe fpecies whofe calyx is dcnfely
lined with reflexcd pubefcence, and of which Mr. Brown
has, jullifiably perhaps, made a dillindl genus, on that ac-
count. Yet it has all the habit of an European Thefium.
The little woody knobbed reot fends forth numerous decum-
bent, fimple, leafy, roundilb, fmooth flems, two or three
inches in length. Leaves not an inch long, linear, acutely
pointed ; channelled above. Flowers fefiile, each accom-
panied by two fmall acute braBeas. Calyx in five deep,
lanceolate, acute fegments, with fcarcely any tube ; their
denfe internal white wooUinefs did not efcape IJnnxus.
Fruit nearly globofe, much wrinkled, not fo large as Cori-
ander-feed.

10. Th.funale. Stringy Thefium. Linn. Sp. PI. 302.
Willd. n. 7. Thunb. Prodr. 45. — Stem with numerous
long, nearly naked, branches. Leaves, and lateral brafteis,
awl-fliaped, very Ihort. Flowers fpiked ; their fegmer.ts

lanceolate, denfely woolly within Native of the Cape.

The Ihrubby round fmooth_y?i;m, with its numerous crowded
upright branches, has a very rufliy afpeft. The little leaves
are diftantly fcattered. The fpiies are terminal, folitary,
fcarcely an inch long, compofed of feveral fmall, crowded,
not quite feffile, floiuers, in ftrufture like the lall ; each ac-
companied by one ovate, pointed, keeled hraP.ea, and a pair
of minute, lateral, awl-lliaped ones.

11. Th.fpicatmn. Large-fpiked Thefium. Linn. Mant.

214. Willd. n. 8. — Stem ereft, repeatedly branched.
Leaves awl-fliaped, minute, fcattered. Flowers fpiked ;
their fegments linear, denfely woolly within. Lateral brac-
teas lanceolate. — From the fame country, growing on hills.
Allied to the lall, but thrice as large in almoft every part,
with a ftout, round, ftraight, determinately branched j?<?m.
The leaves however are even more minute than in that fpecies.
The /pihs are thick, of numerous, very deniely crowded,

flrjiaers, which Linnxus defines l(tves, fmooth, apparently
in contradiftinftion to thofe of Th.funale ; but however
fmooth, or even, like that, externally, their fegments, which
are linear, narrow, and parallel, are full as hairy or woolly
within. The outer braHcas are much dilated and rounded
in their lower half ; the lateral ones alfo ai'e broadly lanceo-
late, very different from thofe oi funale.

12. Th. capltatum. Capitate Thefium. Linn. Sp. PI.
302. Willd. n. 9. Thunb. Prodr. 46. — Flowers capitate,
ieffile, terminal. Leaves three-edged, pointed, fmooth.
Brafteas ovate. Segments of the calyx ftrongly pointed ;
denfely woolly within. — Native of the i'ame country. The

flem is hard and ihrubby, with alternate diftant branches ; the
upper ones gradually longer. Leaves alternate, fmall, awl-
fliaped, pointed. Heads oifowers terminal, a f'efli branch
{hooting out from beneath each. Segments of ihe calyx
vei-y much pointed, and internally villous throughout their
whole length. Linnaus. In his herbarium are fpecimens
which anfwcr to this defcription, though left by him with-
out

THESIUM.

out any fpocitic name, he laving originally defcribcd the
pn-l'ent fpecics in Van Roycn's FroJromus. The younger
Linoseus took tliefe fpecimi-ns (or /cairum, with which they
agree only fo far as to confirm their'being the capUatum,
contralK-d therewith in Sp. V\. Their leaves however can
liardly be teniied fmall, meafuring near an incli in length.
The braaeas have dilated membranous »dges ; fringed, as
Thunberg dofcribes tliem. Calyx witli an oblong, five-
angled tube. We cannot fo blindly follow Willdenow, as
to infert any fpecics between this 3.vi<i fcabrum.

17,. Th. /cairum. Rough Thefium. Linn. Sp. PI. 302.
Wilid. n. 13. Thunb. Prodr. 45. — Heads of flowers ftalkcd.
.Leaves t-hrce-edged, pointed ; their edges very rough with

cartilaginous teeth Native likewife of the Cape. Nearly

allied to the laft, though undoubtedly a very diftinft fpecies.
The leaves are but half as large, and remarkable for the
cartilaginous teeth of their three edges. Floiutr-Jlalh fome-
times two or three inches long, naked. Calyx with hardly
any tube ; its fcgments, according to Linuccus, internally
villous at the tips only, but of this we are not perfe6tly
convinced.

14. Th.Jlriaum. Wand-like Thefium. Berg. Cap. 73.
Linn. Mant. 214. Willd. n. 10. Thunb. Prodr. 45 —
Leaves lanceolate, with a decurrcnt keel. Cymes terminal.
Calyx obtufe, fmooth, except at the back of each ftamen.
— Found at the Cape, and firft defcribed by Bergius.
Linnsus originally referred the defcrlption of this author
to his own Th. capUatum, from which fcarcely any fpecies
can be more diftinft. In general dimenfions, and (hrubby
habit, indeed they are not unhke ; but the leaves of the
prefent plant are much fewer, and more diftant, and the in-

Jlorefcenee totally different, being a fort of compound irregu-
lar umbel, or cyme. The calyx being fmooth both within and
without, except a flender tuft of hairs at the back of each

Jlamen, as obferved by Mr. Brown, reduces this fpecies to a
different fcftion, according to that author, along with

fquairofum, n.^, fragile, n. 16, and fome others. A note
at the back of one of the Linnaean fpecimens of Th. JlriHum,
gathered by Sparrmann, fays " the fruit is a drupa, like
that of Prunus Paduj." If fo, this fpecies fhould feem
referrible to fome other genus, as Fufanus ; yet their habits
are too diflimilar.

15. Th. umbellatum. Umbel'd Thefium. Linn. Sp.
PI. 302. Willd. n. II. Ait. n. 2. Purfh n. i. (Cen-
taurium luteum afcyroides virginianum ; Pluk. Mant. 43.
Phyt. t. 342. f. I.) — Flowers umbellate. Leaves elliptic -
oblong — On drj- hills and fields, from New York to Caro-
lina. Perennial, flowering in June and July Flowers

white. Purjh. Mr. Aiton records its liaving firft been in-
troduced into the Britifh gardens in 1782, by the late Dr.
Hope, profefTor of botany at Edinburgh. This is an
herbaceous fpecies, about a foot high, ereft, fcarcely
branched, except at the top, and having more of the afpeft
of fome annual Euphorbia, than of the genus of which we
arc treating. The leaves are fcattered, on fhort ftalks,
ereft, fmooth, nearly oval, about an inch long. Flowers
three or four together in fmall umbels, on flender, folitary

Jlalks, either axillary or terminal. Bradeas three or four
under each umbel, pale, lanceolate, dcflexed. Mr. Brown
fays the character of the/ow.r of this, the only American
fpecies, IS between Fufanus and SaiUalum. Of the/rui/ no-
thmg \t, known.

iir'u: Th./ra^;/,.. Brittle Thefium. Linn. Suppl. 162.
Willd. n. 12. Thunb. Prodr. 45. _ Leaves three-edged,
lomewhat ovale, keeled, decurrent. Stem angular. Flowers
axillary, feffile.— Difcovercd by Thunberg at the Cape of

Good Hope. We have feen bo fpecimen of this fpecies.
It is faid to have the habit of a Salfola, and to be extremely
brittle. The leaves are fo very (hort, that at firft fight
they fccm to be altogether wanting.

17. Th. paniculatum. Panicled Thefium. Linn. Mant.
51. Willd. n. 14. Thunb. Prodr. 4J. — Stem much
branched ; branches diffufe, panicled, angular, many-flowered.
Flowers folitary, ftalked. Leaves avvl-fliaped — From the

Cape of Good Hope The Jlem is round, (hi-ubby, with

feveral round primary branches, fubdivided throughout into
many lateral and terminal, flender, angular ones, repeatedly
and irregularly cloven and forked, bearing innumerable,
fmall, terminal, ftalked, folitary ^oiyerj, each of which is
fubtended by four or five fharp awl-fhaped braSeas, which
Linnxus defcribes as an inferior, but not a proper, calyx.
The real calyx is obtufe and five-cleft. Frmt like Coriander-
feed. Many of the Jloivers are abortive. The leaves are
fcattered, and for the moft part very minute. Mr. Brown
does not mention this fpecies, perhaps from not having been
able to examine the infide of the Jlo'wcrs.

1 8. Th. ericoiiles. Heath-like Thefium. Heii). Banks.
Brown Predr. Nov. HoU. v. I. 353 Stem much branch-
ed, panicled ; branches ereft, many-flowered. Flowers
capitate. Leaves lanceolate, channelled, decurrent, acute.
— Native of the Cape of Good Hope. This has a round
fhrubby Jl^m, with the panicled habit, and innumerable
{ina\l flowers, of many Erice. The younger Linnaeus con-
founded it very negligently with the laft, and it feems to
have pafTed undefcribed, being only mentioned in Mr.
Brown's work, by the apt name it bears in the Bankfian
herbarium. The leaves are pretty numerous, minute, fpread-
ing, concave, broad at the bafe ; decurrent at the margins
and keel. Flowers feflile, two, three, or four, in each
little terminal head, accompanied by feveral imbricated,
ovate, keeled, fheathing braBeas, partly jagged or fringed
at the edges. Thefe braBeas evince the true nature of what
Linnseus terms, in the foregoing, an inferior calyx.

19. Th. amplexkaule. Heart -leaved Thefium. Linn.
Mant 213. WiUd. n. 15. Ait. n. 3 " Cluflers termi-
nal. Leaves heart-fhaped, feflile." — Native of lofty hills at
the Cape of Good Hope. — Stem rather woody, eredi, fome-
what angular, four feet high, fmooth. Leaves alternate,
feflile, clafping the ftem, heart-lhaped, entire, rather acute,
fmooth, thickifh, an inch long. Clujlers terminal, confift-
ing of mimiX.tJlo'wers, intermixed with large ovate braileas.
Linnieus. Neither Mr. Brown nor profefTor Thunberg men-
tion this fpecies. There is no authentic fpecimen of it in
the Linnaean colleftion, and we are ahnoft convinced of its
being the fame plant as the following. Willdenow has made
a fingular miftake in copying the fpecific charafter of Th.
Fr'tfea, fee n. 9, over again, for the amplexkaule, which
ftands above it in the Mantiffa.

20. Th. euphorbioides. Spurge-like Thefium. Berg.
Cap. 74. Linn. Mant. 214. Willd. n. 17. Thunb.
Prodr. 46. (Planta africana frutefcens, portulaese foliis,
Morgfani Syrorum, ex brevi pediculo binis, fimilis ; Pluk.
Amalth. 173.) — Stalks three-flowered, terminal. Leaves
roundifh-ovate, acute, flefhy. Stem fhrubby, witk alter-
nate coryrabofe branches. — Native of the Cape of Good
Hope. This was adopted from Bergius by Linnaeus, with-
out feeing a fpecimen, at leaft from that author. One is
preferved in his own herbarium, on which he had written
Thefium capenfe, which his fou alttred to euphorbioides, con-
fidering it as the fame with the plant of Bergius. A fimilar
fpecimen lies in the Bankfian colleftion for Th. amplexkaule.
Both names are excellent, btit perhaps euphorbioides, as the

original

1 H E

r H K

Original one, oiiglit to be preferred. The plant is of a
flout flirubby luibit, turning black in drying. Leaves about
the fr/.i- of the finger-nail, alternate, feffile, ovate or rather
heart-fhaped, clafping the ftem, acute, entire, Rcihy, fmooth,
without rib or veins. Flowers about the tops of the alter-
nate corymbofe upper branches, enveloped in iradeas, like
thn leaves, but fmaller. Tube of the calyx very (hort, and
ftrongly angular ; limb fmooth within, except perhaps a
few minute hairs behind the JIamens, indicated by Mr.
Brown. Fruil globofe, chiefly angular at the top.

21. Th. triflorum. Three -flowered Thefium. Linn.
Suppl. 162. Willd. n. j6. Tiumb. Prodr. 46. — " Leaves
lanceolate. Stem angular. Flower-ftalks axillary, three-
forked, compound." — Gathered by Thunbcrg at the Cape.
The Jlower-fla/is are three -flowered, fometimes divided, or
three-cleft, greatly divaricated. Linn. We have met with
no fpecimen anfwering to this fpecies, nor does Mr. Brown
advert to it.

22. Th. fpinofum. Spinous Thefium. Linn. Suppl.

161. Willd. n. 19. Thunb. Prodr. 45 Leaves awl-

fliaped, fpiaous-pointed, fpreading, flefhy, decurrent.
Flowers axillary, ftalked, folitary. — Gathered by Thun-
berg at the Cape. A very Angular fpecies, whofe woody
decumbent Jlem is befet with numerous, afcending, fimple
branches, tvco or three inches long, clothed with alternate,
horizontally projefting, pungent leaves, one-third of an
inch in length, giving the plant the afpeft of an Ulex.
Flowtr-Jlalks about as long as the leaves. — Mr. Brown
places this in his feftion of fuch Cape fpecies as have the
calyx internally naked, except a flender tuft of hairs behind
each Jlamen. With it ranges fquarrofum, fragile, Jlridum,
j'phwjum, cr'ico'ides, euphorbioides, and one unknown to us,
called fparteum. The feftion whofe calyx is lined with a
denl'e dcflexed beard, confifts of Frifea, fiinalc, fplcatum,
capiiatmn, 3.nA fcabriim, befides five fpecies unknown to us,
called crajjifolium, terelifolium, del/He, ciliatum, and divari-
catum.

THESMOPHORIA, P>ra-,/o?iop.a, in jiniiquity, a fefti-
val in honour of Ceres, which was celebrated by many
cities of Greece ; but efpecially the Athenians obferved it
with great devotion and pomp. For the ceremonies of this
folemnity, fee Potter, Archsol. Grcec. tom, i. p. 403, feq.
See Cerealia and Eleusinia.

THESMOTHET^, Gs^/^oO^fe, an appellation given
to fix of the nine Athenian archons ; the firft and chief of
the nine was called, by way of eminence, archon ; the
fecond in dignity was called bafdeus ; the thhrA, poLmarchus ;
and the other fix, thefmothets : for an account of whofe
power and jurifdidtion, iee Potter, Archaeol. Groec. torn. i.

P- 77-

THESPANIS, m Ancient Geography, a river of Afiatic
Sarmatia ; the mouth ot which, according to Ptolemy, lay
between that of Rhembitus and the town of Azara.

THESPHATA, ©sr^zla, in Antiquity, an appellation
given to oracles. See Oracle.

THESPIA, or Thespi.t,, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Boeotia, fituated at the foot of mount Helicon, about
50 ftadia from the city of Thebes. The Thebans, who
deftroycd this city, fpared nothing but the faered monu-
ments, among which were the temple of Hercules, which
was ferved by a prieftefs reftrifted to celibacy during her
whole life, and the ftatue of that Cupid (orCupidon),
fometimes confounded with the god of love, which was
only a (hapelefs ftone as it was dug in the quarry, for thus
the objefts of public worlliip were reprefented in ancient
times. Praxiteles is faid to have formed a ftatue of Cupidon
of Penthelic marble ; and Lyfippus made one of bronze.

The Thefpians reported, that the ftatue of Praxiteles was
taken away by Caius, the Roman emperor ; but others
fay, that it was returned by Claudius, and that Nero re-
moved it to Rome, where it was confumcd by fire. This
ftatue was fo beautiful, that, according to Cicero, Thefpia
was vifited merely for the fake of feeing it. The Cupidon
that exifted in the time of Paufanias was an imitation of
that of Praxiteles by Menodorus, the Athenian ; but here
were a Venus and Plirync in marble, executed by Praxiteles
himfelf. In one quarter of the city was a temple confe-
crated to Venus Melenis. The theatre was a beautiful
ftrufture, ornamented with a ftatue of Hcfiod m bronze.
Near it was a Viftory in bronze, and a chapel confecrated
to the Mufes, each of wliich had a fmall ftatue in marble.
At Thefpia there was a ftatute of Venus in marble, made
by Praxiteles.

THESPIADES, in Mythology, an appellation given
to the Mufes from the city of Tliefpia, where they were
honoured.

THESPIjE, in Ancient Geography, a town of ThefTaly,
in Magnefia.

THESPIANA, the name of an antidote intended for
internal abfcefles.

THESPIS, in Biography, an ancient poet, and the fup-
pofed inventor of tragedy, was born in a fmall borough of
Attica, named Icaria, and he, as well as Sufarion, a native of the
fame place, appeared each at the head of a company of adlors,
one on a kind of ftage and the other in a cart, Sufarion at-
tacked the vices and abfurdities of his time, and reprefented
his firft pieces towards the year 580 B.C. Thefpis treated
nobler fubjefts, which he drew from hiftory : he appeared
fome years after SufiU'ion, made his firft attempts in tragedy,
and adled his Alcoftis in the year 536 B.C. He was
followed in this fpecies of drama by jElchylus, Sopho-
cles, and Euripides. Thefpis having obfei-ved at the fefti-
vals, in which before his time hymns only were fung, one
of the fingers, mounted on a table, forming a kind of dia-
logue with the chorus, took the hint of introducing into his
tra-gedies an aftor, who by fimple recitals, introduced at
intervals, (hould relieve the chorus, divide the aftion, and
render it more interefting. This innovation, together with
fome other liberties in which he indulged himfelf, alarmed
Solon, the legidator of Athens, who condemned a fpecies
of compofition, in which the ancient traditions were dif-
guifed by fiftion. " If we applaud falfehood in our public
exhibitions," faid he to Thefpis, " we fliall foon find that
it will infinuate itfelf into our moft faered engagement*."

The exceffive approbation and delight with which both
the city and country received the pieces of Theipis and
Sufarion, at once juftified and rendered ufelefs the fufpicious
forefight of Solon ; the poets, who till that time had only
exerciled their genius in dithyrambics and licentious fatire, '
ftruck with the elegant forms which theie fpecies of com-
pofition began to affume, dedicated their talents to tragedy
and comedy. See Tragedy.

Thefpis, according to the defcription of Horace, ex-
tended his plan farther than the introduction of a fingle
aftor in the intervals between the fongs of the chorus, to
the reprefentation of fome fable by aiSors on a kind of
moveable ftage, who alternately fung and played, with their
faces ftained by the lees of wine.

" Ignotum tragica; genus invenifle Camoenx
Dicitur, et plauftris vcxifle poemata Thefpis,
Quas canerent agerentque perundli fascibus ora."

Art. Poet.
Some writers have mentioned three pieces of Thefpis,

viz.

T H E

■vU. " The Contefl of Pclias or Phorbas ;" " The Sacred
Youths •/••and " Pcntheus." Socrates lays that he repre-
leutcd tragedies in the 6 ift Olympiad, long after Solon's
death. TravL-lb of Anacharfifi, vol. vi. 8vo.

THESPIUS, in ylncUrU Geography, a river of Greece,

in Bocotia. • , . ■ j

THESPROTI, a people of Epirus, who inhabited
Thcfprotia, in the vicinity of the Ambraciatcs ; and formed
one nation with the Chaonians. They derived their name
from Thefprotus the fon of Pelafgus, who was the fon of
Lyc.ion, and who was the firft that condufted the Pclafgi
into Epirus.

THESPROTI A, or Thesprotis, a fraall country ot
Epirus, S. of Chaonia, having to tiie E. the lake Am-
braciiis and Amlrracia, and to the S. the fea. This coun-
try was watered by tliree rivers, which ran from \V. to E,
%'it.. Thiamis, Cocytus, and Acheron.

THESSALIA, Thessalv, a celebrated country of
Greece. This country, comprifing Magnefia and other
fmall diftr^s which have particular denominations, is
bounded to the E. by the fea, to the N. by mount Olym-
pus, to the W. by mount Pindus, and to the S. by mount
Oeta. From thefe permanent boundaries branch out other
chains of mountains and hills, that wind through the
country, occafionally embracing fertile plains, which, from
their form, and the manner in which they are inclofed, re-
femble vaft amphitheatres. Opulent cities are feated on
the heights that encircle thefe plains ; and the whole coun-
try is watered by rivers faUing in general into the Peneus,
which, before it lofes itfelf in the fea, flows tlu-ough the
famous valley of Tempc. The Aphidanus, or Apidanus,
proceeded from the S. where was Dolopia, afcended north-
ward (fee Peneus), traverfed the plains of Pharfalia in
the Theflaliotide, and difcharged itfelf into the Alpheus,
W. of LarifTa. (See Ajidano.) The Oncheftus, or
Onfchones, took its rife S. of Larifla, pafTed by the Palus
Bocbeis, and after having received the Naurus, difcharged
itfelf into the Pelafgic gulf, between Demetrius on the
left and Pagafa; on the right. The Sperchius commenced
S.W. in an angle which was formed by the chains of Pin-
dus with thofe of mount Oeta, afcended N.E., watered
Sperchium, turned to the E., and having pafTed Hypata, re-
ceived the Achelous of Theffaly, which proceeded from
mount Othrys, and being joined by the Lamina, difcharged
itfelf into the Mahac or Lamiac gulf. The country was
marfhy, and abounded with a variety of plants, fome of which
were medicinal and fanative, and others venomous and per-
nicious. The knowledge of their different properties
caufed the Thetfalians to be regarded as a clafs of for-
cerers, who poflcfled the art of producing fupernatural
cffeAs. The principal people of Theffaly were the
yEthices, fituated towards the N.W., whofe chief town was
Oxinia, near a lake that lay between fmall chains of moun-
tains : — the Pelagoni Tripohti, in a kind of hollow terri-
tory, feparated from Macedonia by a chain of mountains,
called Cambrunii montes ; denominated Tripolitans on ac-
count of their three towns, Dolicha, Pythium, and Azo-
rus : in the eaftem part of this territory was the Afcuris
palus, or mar(h Afcuri : — the Perrhsbi, lying S. of the
mountains which formed this territory, and extending from
W. to E., the N. of the Peneus :—S. of the Peneus, to-
wards the W., was the Eftisotis, watered by the rivers Ion
and Thoeus, and bounded W. and S. by mount Pmdus :
lis moft confiderable towns being Gomphi, Trica, Pel-
J-nsrum, and Pharcadon :— the Pelafgiotis, towards the E.,
having the Peneus to the N. and commencing W. from the
Apidaput, which received the Enipeus, that paffed to Phar,

THE

fiila : the principal towns of this part of Theffaly wero>
Larifla, reckoned the capital of Theflaly ; Pharfala, one of
the largefl; and molt opulent towns, now Pliarfalia, Scotufla,
Crauou, &c. : — the Theflaliotis being to the S. and watered
by the Enipeus in the lower part of its courfe, and having
to the S. mount Othrys, and to the S.W. Dolopia ; its
principal town was MeUtaea upon the Enipeus: — the
Phthiolis, towards the S.E., terminating in a peninfula,
and watered by the Sperchius and Achelous ; its princi-
pal towns were Pherae, to the N. ; Thaumaci, to the W.,
commanding one of the fineft profpefts in Greece ; Alos
and Lamia, towards the middle ; Phalara, at the bottom
of the Amaliac gulf ; in the peninfula, Thebse, Larifl"a,
Cremafl:a and Ecliinus : at the extremity the port of Aphe-
tae, and S.E. Hcraclea Trachina, the road from which
led to the ftraits of ThermopyU ; which fee. Magnefia was
feparated from the fea by mount Pelion : here were the
towns of Demetrias and lolcos, and S.E., on the eaftern
coaft, the town of Magnefia, and at the extremity of the
peninfula to the 8.W. the town of Antium. At the bot-
tom of the Pelafgiotic gulf were the'two fmall iflands of Deu-
calion and Pyrrha. Dolopia lay towards ^tolia, and con-
tained no confiderable towns. The extremity of the S.E. of
Magnefia was terminated by the promontory Sepias, where
the fleet of Xerxes was battered by a tempefl:. The town
of Gonnus, at the enti-ance of the valley of Tempe, was
the key of Theffaly on the fide of Macedonia, as the poft of
Thermopylae was on the fide of Phocis. See Thessalt.

The feveral nations which we have recounted, as pro-
perly Theffalian, were formerly governed by kings, but
after various revolutions became for the moft part fubjeft
to an ohgarchy. The ftates and the towns were independent
of each other. The confederacy of the Theffalians, pro-
perly fo called, was the moft powerful of all, both from the
number of towns pertaining to it, and from the accefOon of
the Magnefians and Perrhaebians which were brought almoft
under complete fubjeftion. There were fome free cities,
unconnefted with any of the ftates. The Theffalians
could bring into the field an army of 6000 horfe and 10,000
infantry, exclufively of their archers, who were excellent,
and who from their infancy were accuftomed to draw the
bow. The Theffalians are faid to have been the firft who
managed horfes with the bit, and ufed them in battle ; and
hence, it is faid, originated tiie tradition that a race of crea-
tiu-es, called centaurs, half horfe and half man, formerly
exifted in Theffaly. This country produced wine, oil, and
fruit of different kinds. The land has been reprefented to
be fo rich, that the corn grew too faft, if it were not cut,
or flieep turned in to graze upon it. They carried on a con-
fiderable commerce in corn. The Theffalians, though they
boafted of their liberty, were the firft to reduce Greeks to
flavery. Amongft them they had a prodigious number of
flaves, known by the name of Peneftae. Thefe people are
very hofpitable to ftrangers, and treat them magnificently.
In their drefs and houfes luxury is confpicuous ; and at
their entertainments they hire dancing girls to amufe them.
They are reckoned paffionate and turbulent, and very dif-
ficult to be governed ; and they are reproached with infin-
cerity and falfehood. They have cultivated poetry from
their moft early ages, and pretend that Theffaly gave birth
to Thamyris, Orpheus, Linus, and many others who lived
in the heroic age ; but fince that period, they have produced
no writer nor any celebrated artift. They were much ad-
ditled to dancing ; and in fome places generals or magif-
trates were called chiefs of the dance. Their mufic ob-
ferves a medium between the Doric and Ionic, and accord-
ingly hannonizefi with the charafter and manners of the
5 country.

THE

country. They liave never on any occafion killed ftorks,
and the fame punifiiment was inflifted on a perlon who
killed one of thcfc birds as if lie had taken away the life of
a man. This R\v, it is faid, was founded on the circum-
ftance, tliat ftorks had freed Theffaly from the enormous
ferpents which formerly infefted it.

THESSALICUMSedilk, the ThefTaliancliair.fo called
from Theffaly, where chairs of this fignre were moft in ufe :
it is recommended by Hippocrates, Lib. de Art. in place of
a machine for reducing a recent luxation of the fhouldcr-
bone. The back of this chair is perpendicular to the feat,
as Galen tells us, by which conllruftion it is diftinguiflied,
and accommodated to the operation.

THESSALIOTIS. See Thessalia.

THESSALON, in Geography, a river of Canada, which
runs into lake Huron, N. lat. 49" 6'. W. long. 82° 8'.

THESSALONIANS, Epijlles to, m Scripture Hijlory.
See Episti-e.

THESSALONICA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Macedonia, fituated on the Thermaic gulf; and built on
the declivity of a mountain in the form of an amphitheatre,
the fummit of which was defended by a caftle of great ex-
tent. Strabo fays that it was named " Therma," and that
it was only a village ; that CafTander augmented it confider-
ably, and tranfported hither the inhabitants of fome neigh-
bouring cities, and gave it the name of Theffalonica, that
of his wife, the lifter of Alexander the Great. In the year
168 B.C., Macedonia was divided into four parts, and
Theffalonica was the capital of the fecond part. Its go-
vernment was regulated by magiftrates, called " Political."
Under the Greek empire it continued to be governed by a
fenate. Cicero, during his exile, paffed fome time at Thef-
falonica. This city had feveral divinities, and alfo empe-
rors, who were objefts of pubhc worftiip. Jupiter was the
principal ; Apollo was alfo reprefented on its monuments ;
and the Cabiri had a temple in Theffalonica. The Cabirian
and Pyrrhic games were exhibited in this city in honour of
the Cabiri, and the Olympic games were celebrated in ho-
nour of Jupiter. That rich and powerful city had, for its
fpeftacles and the amufement of the citizens, an amphithea-
tre for the combats of gladiators, and a circus for the pub-
lic games. The emperors Valerian and GaUienus gave it
the title of a colony. It had alfo the title of Neocorus,
The modern name of Theffalonica is Salonica or Salonihi.
(which fee.) Although there are different rou-tes by which
goods are tranfported from Macedonia into the Auftrian
dominions, the beft, fays Dr. Holland in his Travels into
Albania, &c. is through Bulgaria, by Widin and Offovo,
where it enters the Auftrian territory, and is thence conti-
nued through the Bannat by Temefwar, Peft, Raab to
Vienna. The goods landed at Salonica are made up in
packages of i^ hundred weight, and two of thefe are the
load of a horfe. The cavalcades for this inland journey
confift often of 200 or 300, and fometimes of 1000 horfes.
The property fo tranfported, at a moderate eftimate,
might be worth 30,000/. on its arrival in Germany. The
time occupied between Salonica and Vienna was in general
thirty -five days, excluiive of the quarantine at Offovo, which
fometimes took place. The cavalcades ufually travel eight
hours in the twenty-four.

THESSALY, or Janna, in Geography, a province of
European Turkey, bounded on the N. by Macedonia, on
the E. by the Archipelago, on the S. by Livadia, and on
the W. by Livadia and Epire, anciently called TheJJ'alia,
Pelafgia, and Pyrrhdia, (fee Thessalia,) and now by the
Turks Janna. It was fometimes annexed to Macedonia,
a;nd fometimes feparated from it. The celebrated mount

Vol. XXXV.

THE

Piiulus, now Meffova, or Meffo Novo, feparated it froni
Epirus, or a part of the prefent Albania. Amongft its
once celebrated twenty-four mountains, the moft remark-
able are Olympus, Pelion, and Offa. Here are alfo fitn-
ated the plains of Pharfalia, and the delightful valley of
Tempc. The country is extremely fertile, and retains its
ancient charaftcr m this refpeft. It produces oranges, ci-
trons, lemons, pomegranates, very fweet grapes, excellent
figs and melons, almonds, olives, cotton, and chofnnts,
which take their name from Caltanea in Magncfia. The
modern Theflalians are a well-made fpirited people. The
moft remarkable places in the country are Lariffa and
Janna. See Tkes-salia.

THESTIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Epirus, in
Acarnania — Alfo, a river of the Peloponnefus, in La-
coma.

THESTIDION, a town of Greece, in Theffaly.

THESTIS, a town which belonged to the Arabs.

Alfo, a town of Africa, in Libya — ,Alfo, a fountain of
Africa, in the Cyrenaica, near Irafa.

THETA, e, among the Ancients, one of the Greek
letters. It was ufed as a mark on the ballots of judges,
by which they condemned the perfon to death, it being
the firft letter of the word 0a;vxTo?, death. Whence it had
the epithet of niger aud infelix, thus :

" O raultum ante alias infelix litera theta."

THETES, 0>iT!f, in Antiquity, the loweft clafs of peo-
ple at Athens. Ariftides repealed Solon's law by which
the thetes were made incapable of bearing any olBce in the
government.

THETFORD, in Geography, an ancient borough and
market-town, partly in the hundred of Shropham, and
county of Norfolk, and partly in the hundred of Lackford,
in the connty of Suffolk, England, is fituated at the diftance
of 28 miles S.W. from Norwich, and 80 miles N.N.E.
from London. It was a place of confiderable confequenee
at an early period.

Thetford, called in the Saxon Chronicle Theodford, has
an acknowledged claim of having been once the feat of the
Eaft Anglian kings. Being the metropoUs of that portion
of the heptarchy, it became fubjeft to the ravages of the
Danes, by whom it was repeatedly laid in afhes. From
numerous coins, it is evident that there was a mint at
Thetford from the time of Athelftan to the reign of king
John. At the eaftern extremity of the town are fome ex-
tenfive remains of fortifications, confifting of a large artifi-
cial mount, or keep, with lofty banks and deep ditches.
Thefe fortifications were probably firft formed by the early
kings of Eaft Angha, and the keep an addition, made fub-
fequent to the Norman conqueft. Eaft of the mount is a
large area, or place of arms, three hundred feet fqiiarc.
The mount is about one hundred feet in height, and nin^
hundred and eighty-four feet in circumference, at the bafe.
The (lope is extremely fteep ; and yet no traces remain of
any path or fteps for the purpofe of carrying up machines
or weighty ammunition.

In the Conqueror's time, Herfaft having removed the
epifcopal fee from North Elmham to Thetford, the latter
became the head of the Eaft Anglian diocefe ; but in the
fucceeding reign, the fee was transferred to Norwich. The
ruins of ecclefiaftical and other buildings ftrongly point out
the ancient fplendour of this town. At one period it is
faid to have had twenty churches, anfwerable to the number
of parifties, and eight monafteries, befides other rehgioni?
and charitable foundations. But of thefe, the names only of
fome remain ; and of others, a few dilapidated walls ferre
3X to

T H K

to mark tlifir fcitcs. Of tlu- twenty churches, three only arc
prefervcd ; St. Peter's, and St. Ciithberl's, on the Norfolk
fide of the river; and St. M.iry the Lefs on the Suffolk
fide. St. Peter's, commonly called the Black church, from
its bein^ conftruftcd chiefly of flint, conlills of a chancel,
nave, two aides, and a tower. Tiic latter was rebuilt in
17S9, when a great part of the church was alfo re-edified.
The battlements on the fouth fide, and the buttrcffes, are
decorated with allufive ornaments and large letters inlaid in
the flint work.

The Nunnin was founded by Uvius, the firll abbot of
St. Edmund's Bury, in the reign of king Canute ; in com-
memoration of the number of pcrfons who fell at Snaref-
hill, near this town, in the fang\iinary confliA between king
Edmund's army and the forces under the Danifh leaders
Ingwar and Ubba. A few monks were placed in this
monallery, which was then confidered as a cell to Bury
Abbey. In the year 1 176, the monks, being reduced to
two, religned, by the requeil of tlie abbot of Bur)', who
placed in their Head a convent of nuns, who had previoufly
rcfided at Lynn. At the diflolution, the revenues and fcite
were granted to fir Richard Fulmerilon, who made this
houfe nis rcfidcnce. It was afterwards let to a farmer, and
fomc years fmce the greater part was taken down : a new
farm-houfe was built of the materials, and the conventual
church converted into a barn. Some of the walls, with
buttreffes, windows, &c. ftill remain.

The Priory or Abbey was founded by Roger Bigod, in the
year 1 104, for monks of the Cluniac order. This was a
pecuharly privileged houfe ; for other Cluniac monafteries
wcre^bjeft to have their res'enues feized, on a war break-
ing out between England and France, becaufe being de-
pendant on the abbey of Clugny, in Burgundy, the monks
were confidered as foreigners ; but the religious perfons of
this monaftery were naturalized, and treated as other fub-
jefts of the realm. At the fuppreffion the revenues were
granted to the duke of Norfolk, and are now the property
of lord Petre. The ancient gateway, conllrufted with
frecftone and black flint, with parts of the church, &c. iUll
remain. This monaftery had been the burial-place of the
feveral noble families who had fuccefiively borne the title of
earls of Norfolk.

St. Aujl'm^s Friary was founded by John of Gaunt, duke
of Lancaller, in the year 1387, for friars mendicant of the
Augurtine order. The fcite, granted to fir Richard Ful-
merflon, is ftill called the Friar's Clofe.

The Monajlery of St. Sepulchre was founded in 1 109, by
William, earl of Warren and Surrey, for canons of the
Auguftine order, and additionally endowed by king
Henry II. The fcite is ftill called Canons : part of the con-
ventual church, yet ftanding, has long fince been ufed as a
barn. The gate of the porter's lodge, and fome other parts
of the buildings, remain. Of the other four religious Iioufes,
no veftiges are now left. In the Suffolk part of the town,
near St. Mary's church, is a free grammar-fchool. In the
year 1566, fir Riciiard Fulmerfton bequeathed property for
the ereftion of a free-fchool, with dwelhng-lioufes and fala-
ries for a mafter and uflier ; and alfo habitations andv^-eekly
penfions for two poor men and two poor women. The
benevolent defign of the donor, however, was not carried
into effea till the time of James I., when it was enaftcd by
authority of parliament, that there fhould be for ever a free
grammar-fchool and hofpital ; and that the mafter, ulher, and
the four poor people, ftiould be a body politic, under the
title of "The mafter and fellows of the fchool and hofpital
at Thetford, founded by king James the Firft, accoj-ding to
the will of fir Rachard Fulmerfton, kat."

THE

Thetford, though a very ancient burgh, is comparatively
a modern corporation. In the time of the Conqueror, the
town was governed by a conful and other inferior officers.
Not being a free burgh, it fuffercd greatly at times by the
oppreffion of the officers nominated by the crown. But in
the year 1573, queen Ehzabeth granted a charter, by which
a mayor, ten aldermen, twenty common-councilmen, a re-
corder, town-clerk, fword-bearer, and two ferjeants at mace,
conftitute the corporation. The mayor for the time being
is clerk of the market, and in the year after his mayoralty
officiates as coroner. The corporation had alfo permilfion
to fend two burgefles to parliament, " provided they were
difcreet and honeft men, and were elefted at the expcnce of
the borough." This charter was furrendered to the
crown in the thirty-fourth year of Charles II., and a very
imperfeft one obtained in its ftead. But in 1692 an order
was procured from the court of chancery for cancelling tlic
furrender, and procuring a tranfcript of the charter granted
by Elizabeth, under which the town is at prefcnt governed,
Thetford has been honoured with the prefence of many of
our fovereigns, particularly Henry I. and II. Several
charters, granted by the former, bear date from this
town. When the manor fell with the duchy of Lancafter,
of which it formed a parcel, to the crown, the ancient feat
of the earls Warren became the royal palace. This was
rebuilt in the time of queen EHzabeth, who occafionally re-
fided here. King James I. made it one of his hunting
feats ; but being difgufted with the abrupt remonftrance of
a farmer, over whofe lands he had been hunting, he gave the
palace to fir Philip Wodehoufe : it has been rebuilt, and is
now the property of a private gentleman ; but ftill bears
the appellation of the " King's Houfe." The old guildhall
or council-houfe being in a dilapidated condition, fir Jofepli
Williamfon, fecretary of ftate to king Charles II., eretied
at his own expence the prefent council-chamber, and the
apartment for tlie juries. Thetford has been much im-
proved within the laft twenty years. A new bridge has
been built, the principal ftreet paved, and feveral handfome
houfes have been erecled. The navigation of the river has
been attended to, and by this communication fome mer-
cantile bufinefs is tranfaCled in the corn and coal trade.
Five fairs are held annually, and a market weekly on
Saturdays ; but, compared with its former greatnefs, it is
now a very inconfiderable place. The population in the
return of the year 181 1, was ftated to be 2450, occupying
530 houfes.

Near to Thetford is a mineral fpring, the waters of which
poflefs confiderable virtues, though their celebrity has by
no means been commenfurate with their acknowledged ef-
ficacy. Thomas Paine, well known for his political and
theological trafts, was a native of this town, and received

his education in the grammar-fchool Blomefield's Eftay

towards a Topographical Hiftory of Norfolk, vol. ii.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xi. bv John Britton,
F.S.A. Hiftory, &c. of Thetford, by Thomas Martin,
4to.

Thetford, a town of the United States, in the county
of Orange, Vermont ; 10 miles N. of Hanover; containing
1735 inhabitants.

THETIS, in Mythology, the name of the moft beautiful
of the Nereids.

THEVACOURCHY, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in the Carnatic ; 20 miles W.S.W. of Tiagar.

THEUDORIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Achaia, from which the Macedonians were driven by the
Romans.

THEUDURUM, a towry of Lower Germany, on the

route

THE

THE

route fi-om Colonia Trajana to Colonia Agrippina, between
Mederiacum and Coriovallum. Anton. Itin.

THEVEN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Lariftan ; 40 miles E. of Lar.

THEVENARD, Gabriel Vincent, of Paris, in Bio-
graphy, born in 1669, became in the operas of Liilli the firll
iinger and aftor of his time. He had a tenor voice, whicli
made the public forget that of Beaumavielle ; it was fono-
rous, mellow, and extenfive in compafs. He fung a little
through the throat, but by dint of art, he found the means
of rendering this little deteft even agreeable. His appear-
ance on the ftage was dignified, and his performance won-
derful ! It was to him that the prefent manner ( 1780) of
fpeaking recitative is due. He excelled above all in fmging
at table ; nor has he ever been furpafled in that talent, ex-
cept by De Chaffe and JeUote, who fo many years delighted
their friends.

He fung more than forty years at the Opera, and only
retired in the year 1730. He was more than fixty years
old, when, feeing a beautiful female flipper in a rtioemaker's
fliop, he fell violently in love, unfight, unfeen, with the
perfon for whom it was made ; and having difcovered the
lady, married her, after obtaining the confent of an uncle on
whom the was dependent, with the affiftance of many bot-
tles of wine which they cracked together with tlie utmoft
cordiality, and whicli Thevenard meliorated with the charms
of his voice.

He died at Paris in 1741, at the age of 72. Thevenard
was the caufe of the duke d'Antin quitting the manage-
ment of the opera. This finger having a penfion offered
him for his fervices, found it fo inconfiderable, that he re-
fufed to accept of it, faying it was only fit for his footman.
The duke, piqued at tliis infolence, would have fent him to
prifon ; but it having been reprefented to him that the
public would fuffer by his abfence, he facrificed to this con-
fideration his refentment ; but determining to have nothing
more to do with fuch people, he quitted the fuperintend-
ance of the opera. Laborde.

THEVENOT, John, a traveller in the Levant, was
born in Lorraine, and after repeated journies, died in Perfia
in 1667. He is faid to have introduced the ufe of coffee
into France. His "Voyage in Afia" was pubhfhedin 1664,
which is a work confiderably elleemed, and has been often
re-edited. The Amflerdam edition in 1 2mo., 1 727, is com-
prifed in 5 vols. Nouv. Dift. Hiflor.

Thevenot, NrcHOLAS Melchisedec, a writer of travels,
was born in 1621, probably at Paris, and having finifhed his
fludics, indulged his propenfity for vifiting foreign countries,
confining himfelf chiefly to various parts of Europe. Some
perfons have given him the credit of being a great linguift,
but this is difputed by Huet, who was perfonally ac-
quainted with him. The refult of his obfcrvations and in-
quiries was publiflied in a " Colleftion of Voyages and
Travels," eomprifed in 4 vols. fol. from 1663 to 1672.
Thevenot was a great colleftor of books, confifling of more
than 2000 volumes, in which the royal library, of which
he was keeper, was deficient. Nointel, on returning from
his embafTy to Conflantinople, enriched this coUeftion by a
prefent of his marbles, infcriptions, and bas-rehefs. He
died in 1692. From various MSS. in the royal library, he
had compiled "The Works of Ancient Mathematicians,"
an edition of which was publifhed after his death. Moreri,
Huet.

THEVET, Andrew, a traveller and writer, was born
at Angouleme in 1502 ; and being defirou's of vifiting
foreign countries, he obtained, by the interefl of the cardinal
■sf Lorraine, an opportunity of going to Jerufalem. His

travels in the Levant occupied him from 1549 to 1 JJ4 ; and
after his return to France, he accompanied the fieur de
Villegaignon, in 1555, to found a colony in Brazil. In
1 556 he took the habit of an ccclefiaflic, and was appointed
almoner to queen Catharine de Medicis. He alfo obtained
the titles of hiiloriographer and cofmographer royal, and
died at Paris in 1590, at the advanced age of 88 years.
Befides other works, he publifhed " Cofmographie du
Levant," 1554, 4to. ; " Les Singularites de la France An-
tarftique," 1588, 410. ; and "Cofmographie Univerfelle,"
2 vols. fol. 1575; but unfortunately his veracity is quef-
tionable. Moreri.

THEVESTE, Tiffeste, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Africa, fituated on a delightful plain in the interior
of the country, on the banks of a river, E. of Sigus, and
E.S.E. of Cirta. In Anton. Itin. this town has the title of
a Roman colony, and is placed on the route from Carthage
to Csfarea, between Ammcdara Colonia and Attaba.
THEVET. See Teuet.

THEVETIA, in Botany, a name given by Linnxus, iit
his Hortus Cliffort'ianus 75, to a genus diftinguifhed by Plu-
mier, and other authors, under the American appellation of
Ahouai. The perfon commemorated by the above name was
Andre Thevet, a French monk, who travelled to Brafil, of
which he publiflied an account in 1554, under the title of
Les Smgidarite% de la France AntarB'ique, autrcmcnt nommee
Amerique, Sec. Of this book there are feveral editions, with
rude wooden cuts, and fomc accounts of plants, amongft
which the Ahouai is, for the firft time, defcribed. The
author, according to De Theis, died in 1590, about the age
of eighty-eight. Haller fays he has injudicioufly applied
pafTages in the writings of the ancients to the productions of
the new world ; and that he has defcribed many countries
which he never yifited. Linnaeus himfelf appears not to
have been fatisfied with the honour he was conferring, for he
fays he fliould not be difplcafed with any perfon who might
change this name for another. He fubfequently retained it
as a fpecific name only, when the genus in queflion was funk
in his owH Cekbera. See that article.

THEU-PROSOPON, in Ancient Geography, a promon-
tory of Phoenicia, between Tripolis and Botrys. Mela calls
it Euprofopon.

THEURGY, SfoDf/iK, a name which the ancients gave to
that facred part of magic which we fometimes call white
magic, or the nuhite art.

The word is formed from ©sor, God, and ffyov, work ;
q. d, the art of doing divine things, or things which God
alone can do : or the power of working extraordinary and
fupernatural things, by invoking the names of God, faints,
angels, &c.

Accordingly, thofe who have written of magic in the ge-
neral, divide it into three parts : the firfl of which is called
theurgy, as operating by divine or celeftial means ; the fe-
cond, natural magic, performed by the powers of nature ;
and the third, necromancy, which proceeds by invoking
daemons.

This theurgy, or pretended art of fo purging and refining
that faculty of the mind, which receives the images of things,
as to render it capable of perceiving the daemons, and of
performing many marvellous things by their aiTiftancc, was
adopted by the difciples of Ammonius towards the clofe of
the fecond century. Ammonius, the founder of the feft-of
modern Platonics (fee Platonism), with a view of recon-
ciling the popular rehgions of different countries, and parti-
cularly the Chriflian, v\ith his own fyftem, turned into mere
allegory the whole hiflory of the gods, and maintained that
thofe beings, whom the priefls and people dignified with this
3X3 title,

T H I

i.iif, were no more Uiaii tdellial miiilllors, to whom a cer-
tain kind of inferior worllilp was due. He acknowledged
Chritl to be a moll excellent man, tlie triend of God, and
the admirable theurge ; but denied that it was his intention
entirely to abolilh the worlhip of dxmons, and of the other
miuiilers of divine providence ; affirming, on the contrary,
that he merely purified the ancient religion, and that his fol-
lowers had manifedlv corrupted the doanne of their divme
mailer. Molh. EccJ. Hill. vol. i. 8vo.

THEUTIS, in /Incimt Geography, a fmall town ot Ar-
cadia, S. of the river Lodon, and near that of Tuthoa.

THEL'X, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
p.-irtment of the Ourtlie ; 5 miles N.W. of Spa.

THEXIS, a word ufed by the old medical writers,
Sometimes for wounds made by punfture with fmall inftru-
ments, and fomctimes for the operation of the future, or the
fewing together the lips of a wound, to make it heal with a
Icfs fear.

THEYA, m Geography. See Teya.
THEYE-CHEEKE Lake, a lake of North America.
N. lat. 65 \ W. long. 109^.

THEYE-NOYE-KYED Lake, a lake of North Ame-
rica. N. lat. 64° 10'. W. long. 108°.

THEYHOLEKYED Lake, a lake of North Ame-
rica. N. lat. 62°. W. long. 102° 5'.

THEYSSE, a river which rifes in the E. part of Hun-
gary, on the borders of Poland, and runs into the Danube ;
19 miles N.W. of Belgrade.

THEZE, a town of France, in the department of the
Lov<er Pyrenees ; 1 2 miles N. of Pau.

THIA, or Divine, in Ancient Geography, an ifland
which, A.D. 46, was under the empire of Claudius.
It was one of the Cyclades, fituated between Thera and
Therafia. It either difappearcd, or was reunited to that of
Hiera towards the year 726, on occafion of a violent erup-
tion which took place at that time.

TiiiA, a town of Cappadocian Pontus, upon the route
from Trapezunte to Satala, between Zigana and SedilTca-
pifonti. Anton. Itin.

THIACAR, in Geography, -d town of Thibet ; 75 miles
S.E. of LalTa.

THIAGOLA, in Ancient Geography, a name given to
the mod northerly mouth of the Danube, and to the marlh
which it forms before it runs into the Euxine fea.

THIAN, in Geography, a town of the county of Tyrol ;
1 3 miles W. of Bolzano.

THIAR, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, upon
the route from Tarragona to Caftula, between IDicis and
Carthage. Anton. Itin.

THIAUCOURT, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Meurthe ; 7 miles W. of Pont-a-
Mouffon.

THIAUMA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Albania,
between the rivers Csefius and Gerrus.

THIBAULT VI., in Biography, count of Champagne
and king of Navarre, deferves to be recorded as one of the
earlieft French fong-writers. In 1234 he fucceeded to the
crown of Navarre on the death of his maternal uncle.
Upon his return from the Eaft, whither he went as one of
the crufaders, he cultivated literature, and particularly
poetry. He died at Pampelona in 1253, having acquired
the fomewhat inconfiftent titles of the Great and the Song-
maker. Under the latter charadter he obtained permanent
reputation, degraded, however, by the occafional licen-
tioufnefs of his imagery. He was the firft, it is faid, who
blended mafculinc with feminine rhymes : — a capital inven-
tion in French verfification. Moreri. Nouv. Did. Hift.

T H I

The fongs of this prince are placed by ferae at the head of
thofe that have been prefcrved in the French language, a-^
thofe by Guillaume IX., duke of Aquitaine, are in that
of Provence. There were indeed fongs written in both
languages before thefe princes had done poetry the honour
to make it their favourite amufement ; but the chief part of
thofe of higher .mtiquity than the time of thefe patriarch?
of Provemjal and French verfification are either loft, er
thought of little value.

This prince was contemporary with Philip Auguftus, and
I^ewis VIII. and IX., which lafl; prince he accompanied to
the Holy War. It has been faid by feveral hiftorians that he
was much captivated by the charms of queen Blanche of Caf-
tile, mother of St. Lewis, to whom many of his fongs wers
addrelTed ; but this point of hillory has been difputed with
great zealby M.l'Evequede laRavalliere.editorof Tliibault's
poems, which he publifhed in 1742, with notes, in 2 vols.
l2mo. and a hillory of the revolutions, in the French lan-
guage, from the time of Charlemagne to that of St. Lewis, to-
gether with an Effay on the Antiquity of French Songs. This
learned prelate has defended the honour of queen Blanche
with his pen, five hundred years after her deceafe, with as
much prowefs and true chivalry, as the moft valiant cham-
pion of injured innocence could have done with his fword
and lance, had he been animated by the prefence of that
princefs, and the heroifm of the times in which flie lived.

" Les Grandes Chroniques de France" tell us that Thi-
bault, at the age of thirty-five, having conceived a violent
and hopelefs paflion for queen Blanche, was advifed by wife
and prudent counfellors to apply himfelf to mufic and poetry,
which he did with fuch fuccefs, that he produced " the moft
beautiful fongs and melodies that have ever been heard."
Fauchet Des Anciens Poetes Frangois.

Two airs by Thibault may be feen in Burney's General
Hiftory of Mufic, from the Vatican colleftion of Provencal
fongs in Gregorian notes, without bars or bafe ; and given
afterwards in modern notation, with a bafe, and an Englilh
verfion of the words.

THIBERVILLE, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Eure ; 9 miles E. of Lifieux.

THIBET, or Tibet, pronounced Tibbet and Tibt in
Bengal, and called by its own inhabitants Pu'e, or Pue-
koachim, ptie fignifying northern, and koachim, fnoiv, that is,
the fnowy region of the North, is a country of Afia, of
which our knowledge, principally obtained at a very recent
period, is ftill very imperfeft. We have no evidence that
the ancients ever penetrated the fnowy mountains of Tibet.
It feems to have been in fome meafure difclofed to the Por-
tuguefe, in their commercial intercourfe with the Eaft In-
dies ; and the name of it was known to Marco Paolo and
other travellers of the 12th and 13th centuries. Accord-
ingly, Tibet feems to have been the fouthern part of their
Tangut. Paolo indeed defcribes the province of " Tebeth,"
as containing eight kingdoms, with many cities and villages,
and as being a mountainous country, which produced fome
gold and fpices, a large breed of dogs, and excellent falcons.
But we have no geographical nor ftatiftical account of this
country upon which we can depend previoufly to the laft cen-
tury ; and even now our knowledge of it is very partial and
defeftive. About the year 1 7 15, the emperor of China, as
we learn from Du Halde, being defirous of obtaining a map
of Tibet, fent two lamas, who had ftudied geometry, for
this purpofe. Thefe lamas drew a map, from Sining, in the
province of Shen-fi, to the fources of the Ganges, which
was afterwards examined by the Jefuits, and improved. This
map is publifhed in the Atlas of Du Halde, and has been
followed, with few Tariations, by our modem geographers.

Its

THIBET.

Its authority is doubtful, its accuracy very fufpicious, and
the information it affords concerning kingdoms, dates, and
provinces, as well as particular places, very limited and unfa-
tisfaClory. Accordnig to our moft recent maps, Tibet ex-
tends from about the 75th to the loift degree of longitude,
which, in the latitude of 30°, maybe about 1350 geogra-
phical miles. The breadth may be regarded as extending
from the 27tli to the 35th degree of latitude, or about 480
geographical miles. It appears, however, from the teili-
monies of two intelhgent travellers, Mr. Foriler and Tief-
fenthaler, that the northern boundary of Tibet may be
fafely extended two degrees farther than it appears in our
bed maps, in which there is no portion of Great Tibet to
the N.E. of Cafhmir. Major Rennell moved it one degree
farther to the north than D'Anville's boundary in lat. 34°,
and Pinkerton thinks that he might fafely have extended it
at leaft 3°. The northern boundary of Tibet, according to
the Ruffians, is Mus Tag, and they place that range in 38°.
By adding 2° to 35°, we obtain an addition of 120 geograr
phical miles to the number of 480 above ilated.

Thibet, according to Mr. Bogle's account (Phil. Tranf. )
begins properly from the top of the great ridge of the Cau-
calus, and extends from thence in breadth to the confines of
Great Tartary, and perhaps to the dominions of the Ruf-
fian empire. He fays, that having once attained the fummit
of the Bootan mountains, you do not defcend in an equal
proportion on the fide of Thibet ; but continuing ftill on a
vSry elevated bafe, you traverfe vallies which are wider and
not fo deep as the former, and mountains that are neither fo
fteep, nor apparently fo high. On the other hand, he repre-
fents it as the moil bare and defolate country he ever faw ; and
the climate as extremely fevere. According to Mr. Turner,
the boundaries of Tibet and Bootan are feparated by the lofty
range of mountains called Soomoonang, and are marked by
a long row of little infcribed flags, fixed in rude heaps of
ilones, and fluttering in the wind. Thefe, at the fame time,
are fuppofed to operate as a charm over the Dewtas, or
" genii loci," who are pai-amount here. No mountain is
thought to be wliolly exempt from their influence ; and they
range chiefly in the moft elevated regions, where, drenched
with dews, and worried with tempeiluous weather, they are
fuppofed to deal around them, in ill humour, their moft
baneful fpells, to harafs and annoy the traveller.

Tibet is fometimes divided into three parts, -viz. Upper,
Middle, and Lower. Upper Tibet comprifes chiefly the
province of Nagari, abounding with tremendous rocks and
mountains, always covered with fnow. The countries of
Lata or Ladak (Latac)and Breguiong or Bramafcion (per-
haps Sirinagur) probably conftitute a portion of Upper
Tibet, as well as Nagari. Middle Tibet contains the pro-
vinces of Shang, Ou, and Kiang ; and thofe of Lower
Tibet are Takbo, Congbo, and Kahang. Many of thefe
provinces are again fubdivided : e. g. Nagari, which is con-
fidered as a kingdom confifting of three departments, Sang-
har, Pourang, and Tamo (Dam or Daum). Shang is on the
W. bounded by Nipal. The province of Ou contains La-
hafla or Lafla, the capital of Tibet. Kiang lies to the N.
(or N.E.) of Ou, and is inhabited by a mixture of Tibetians
and Monguls in tents. Kahang is on the S.E. bordering on
the Birmans, and is divided into twelve departments. To
thefe we muft add the wide region of Amdoa, if it be not
the fame with Kahang, the natives of which fpeak the Chi-
nefe language. The country of Hor lies between Tartary
and the provinces of Nagari and Kiang, and feems to be the
Hohonor of our maps. Onr Bootan (which fee) is called
by the natives Decpo or Takbo ; and the countries W. of
it, viz. Moringa or Morung, Mocaropour, Nipal, Gorca,

and Kamaoon, are not confidered as parts of Tibet. On the
weilern fide, liigh mountains, covered with perpetual fnow,
and terrible avalanches, have prevented the accefs and inva-
fions of the Perfians and the conquerors of Bucharia ; while
the dcferts on the N.E. have proved incfl'eftual barriers
againft the Monguls and Eluts. Travellers have alfo been
prevented from exploring this quarter by the weftem moun-
tains, fo that it is even now little known.

According to the topography, compiled from the papers
of Pinnabilla, a Capuchin friar, who died in 1747, and was
buried at Patan, by father Giorgi, in a work publilhed at
Rome in 1762, Tibet is bounded on the E. by China and
Tai'centon, a province abounding with tea, and, fince the year
1720, incorporated with the Chinefe empire ; on the S. by
Bengal, Lotenke, Altibary, Mon, Brukpa, Lhoba, Lho-
khaptra, Sciapado, and Bha ; on the W. by Cafhirar,
Nekpal, and Moronga ; and on the N. by Great Tartary,
the Ufljeks, Cafliur, and Jonkar, as far as Jerkend and
Cokonor or Kokonor. The kingdoms and provinces in this
topography are enumerated by Pinkerton, u/>i infra.

The government of Tibet has been confidered as eccle-
fiaftical or fpiritual ; though the lamas were accuftomed to
appoint a " tipa," or fecular regent, a right which has been
probably transferred to the Chinefe emperor. This officer .
refides at Lafla tlie capital, and he is invefted with the go-
vernment and fupreme controul over the whole country.
Mr. Turner, however, is of opinion, that the temporal au-
thority of the lamas may again recover its former dignity
and fplendour. Bootan, which is generally confidered as a
feudatory province of Tibet, has a raja or prince called
Daab, of no very permanent or extenfivc authority. The
laws muft, like the religion, bear fome affinity to thofe of
the Hindoos.

The lama of Tibet was the Preftcr John of the middle
ages, if he were not fome Neftorian khan ; and the appella-
tion was unaccountably transferred byJPortuguefe ignorance
to the emperor of Abyflinia. (See Prester John.) In
the time of Marco Paolo, Tibet, having been ravaged by
the Monguls, was almoft defolate. For fome time this coun-
try had been fubjeft to fecular kings, called Tfan Pa ; and
the lama refided at Laffa, with a power refembling that of the
fpiritual prince of Japan. According to Giorgi, the fuc-
ceffion of kings and lamas commences about i 340 years B.C.
but about 1 1 00 years after Chrift the Chinefe emperor gave
to a celebrated lama the regal power. Thofe Monguls, called
Eluts, conquered the fecular prince, and transferred the
whole power to the lama. (See Du Kalde, iv. ^o.) In
1792, the Nipalefe, having committed great ravages in Tibet,
the Chinefe emperor fent an army to proteft the lama ; in
confequence of which the Chinefe eftabliflied military pofts
on the frontiers, fo that tlie intercourfe between their country
and Bengal is now precluded. The revenues of the lama and
of the fecular princes are trifling ; nor is it likely that Tibet
can ever afpire to any political importance.

Some have faid, that the religion of Tibet is a corrupted
Chriftianity ; and even father Difiderii, a Jefuit, who vifited
the country about the beginning of the laft century, thinks
he can refolve all their myfteries into our^ ; and he afferts that
they have a good notion of the Trinity, fince, in their ad-
drefs to the Deity, they fay as often koneiok-oik in the plu-
ral, as koneiok in the fingular, and with their rofaries pro-
nounce thefe words, Om, Ha, Hum. Of thefe whimfical
conjeftures we fliall fay no more, but pafs on to obferve, that
the religion of the Tibetians feems to have derived its origin,
fays Turner, ( ubi infra, ) from a difciple of Budh, who firft
broached the doftrine which now pre^'ails over the wide ex-
tent of Tartary. It is reported to have received its earliefl:

adniifTion

THIBET.

admifTion in that piri of Tibet bordering upon India, (which
from hence became the feat of the fovereign lamas,) to have
traverfed over Mantchcw Tartarj-, and to liave been ulti-
mately dilTeminated over China and Japan. Though it dif-
fers from the Hmdoo in many of its outward forms, yet it
ftill bears a very clofc affinity with the rehgion of Brahma in
many important particulars. The principal idol in the temples
of Tibet is Mahamoonie, the Budha of Bengal, who is
worlhipped under thcfe and various other epithets through-
out the great extent of Tartary, and among all the nations
to the cattward of the Berhampooter. In the wide extended
fpace OVV.T which this faith prevails, the fame objeft of vene-
ration is acknowledged under numerous titles ; among others,
he is ftylcd Godamaor Gowtama, in Affam and Ava ; Sa-
mana, in Siam ; Amida Bulh, in Japan ; Fohi, in China ;
Budha and Shakamuna, in Bengal and Hindooftan ; Dherma
Raja and Mahamoonie, in Bootan and Tibet. Durga and
Kali ; Ganeifh, the emblem of wifdom ; and Cartikeah, with
his numerous heads and arms, as well as many other deities of
the Hindoo mythology, have alio a place in their affemblage
of gods.

The fame places of popular efleem or religious refort,
arc equally rcfpcfted in Tibet and in Bengal ; Praag, Ca(hi,
Durgeedin, Saugor, and Jagarnaut, are objedls of devout pil-
grimage ; and load* of the facred water taken from the Ganges,
have been feen travelling over thefe mountains, (which, by the
bye, contribute largely to its increafe,) upon the rtioulders of
men, whom enthufialls have deemed it worth their while to
hire at a confiderable expence for fo pious a purpofe.

As far as can be judged refpefting their ritual or ce-
remonial worfhip, it differs materially from the Hindoo.
The Tibetians alFemble in chapels, and unite together in
prodigious numbers, to perform their religious fervice, which
they chant in alternate recitative and chorus, accompanied by
an extenfive band of loud and powerful inftruments. So that,
whaiever thefe congregations were heard, they forcibly re-
called to remembrance, both the folemnity and found of the
Roman Catholic mafs.

The inftruments made ufe of were all of an enormous fize.
Trumpets above fix feet long ; drums ftretched over a cop-
per cauldron, fuch as are termed nowbut in Hindooftan ; the
gong, a circular Chinefe inftrument of thin hammered bell-
metal, capable of producing a furprifing found ; cymbals,
hautboys ; and a double drum, (hallow, but of great circum-
ference, mounted upon a tall, flender pedeilal, which the
performer turns with great facility, ftriking either fide with
along curved iron, as the piece requires a higher or a lower
tone : thefe, together with the human tibia, and fea-conch, a
large fpecies of the buccinum, compofe, for the moll part,
their religious band. Harlh as thefe inftruments, individually
taken, might found to a mufical ear, yet when joined toge-
ther in unifon with the voices of two or three hundred boys
and men, managed with varying modulation, from the Icweft
and fofteft cadence to the loudeft: fwelj, they produce to the
car an effeft extremely grand.

Other mufical inftruments are in the hands of the people
of Tibet.

Among the Tibetians, fays Mr. Turner, all is fyftem and
order. The mind readily obeys the fuperiority it has been
accullomed to acknowledge. A fovereign lama, immaculate,
inimortal, omniprefent, and omnifcient, is placed at the fum-
mit of thsir fabric. He is efteemed the vicegerent of the
only God, the mediator between mortals and the fupreme.
They view him only in the moft amiable light, as perpe-
tually abforbed in religious duty ; and, when called to be-
ftow attention on mortal beings, as employed only in the be-
nign office of diftributing comfort and confolation by his

bleffing, and in exercifing the firft of all attributes, forgive,
nefs and mercy. He is alfo the centre of all civil govern •
ment, which derives from his authority all its influence and
power. At the fame time that he is the foul which animates
their whole fyftem, a regular gradation, from the moft vene-
rated lama, through the whole order of Gylongs to the
young noviciate, is obferved with rigid ieverity.

The inferior gradations from the prefidentof a monaftery,
who is always ftyled lama, in addition to the name of the
ftation to which he belongs, are Gylong, Tohba, and
Tnppa. See Gylong, Teshoo-Loomboo, Tohba, and
TirppA.

The nation is divided into two diftinft and feparate clafles,
thofe who carry on the bufincis of the world, and thofe who
hold intercourfe with heaven. No interference of the laity
ever interrupts the regulated duties of the clergy. The
latter, by mutual compaft, take charge of all their fpiritual
concerns ; and the former, by their labours enrich and po-
pulate the ftate.

In Tibet there are two fefts, diftinguilhed by the appella-
tions of Gyllookpa and Shammar, but the external appear-
ance, or drefs of both, is fimilar, except the diftinftion
in the colour of the cap ; the Gylloopka having adopt-
ed yellow, the Shammar red ; a circumftance which is
ftriftly sttended to, on all occafions of ceremony. Three
lamas are placed at the head of each fedl ; Dalai lama,
Tefhoo lama, and Taranaut lama, prefide over the Gyl-
lookpa, who have their refidence at Pootalah, Tefhoo-
Loomboo, and Kharka. This feft prevails over the greateft
part of Tibet, and a divifion of the fame is faid to be eila-
bliftied in a province of the Decan, called Seurra or Serrora.
In like manner, three lamas alfo, lam' Rimbochay, lam'
Sobroo Nawangnamghi, and lam'Ghaflatoo, prefide over the
Shammar ; thefe have their refidence in Bootan, in feparate
monafteries, but, from the limited extent of that country,
at no great diftance from each other. The principal of the
Shammar feft in Tibet is ftyled Gongfo Rimbochay, and
has his refidence at Sakia.

The Tibetians are aftuated by an ardent fpirit of devo-
tion ; and they attribute the merit of every thing great,
or fingularly beneficial, to the agency of fome fupernatural
being. It is the cuftom in Tibet to preferve entire the
mortal remains of their fovereign Lama only ; every other
corpfe is either confumed by fire, or given to be the promif-
cuous food of beafts and birds of prey. As foon as life has
left the body of the Lama, it is placed upright, fitting in
an attitude of devotion, the legs being folded before him,
with the inftep reaching upon each thigh, and the foles of
the feet turned upwards. It is the praftice here to cover
the bodies of men, found dead in the fields, with clods of
earth, which the rains gradually diflblvc and incorporate,
forming the loofe mafs into a compaft hillock. This
always attracts the fame refpeft, and paflengers continue to
add to the heap, long after all trac-es of the body are
loft, and its exiftence forgotten. Thus alfo the piety of
the Tibetians offers a fimilar rite to the bodies of thofe
whom chance may have led to the fpot, where the fragment
lay at the inftant of its fall, though the fatal effefts of it
may not have been certainly known.

A tribute of refped is paid, in this region, to the manes
of the dead in various ways. The fovereign lamas are depo-
fited entire, in ftirines prepared for their remains, whjch
ever after are looked upon as facred, and vifited with reli-
gious awe. The bodies of inferior lamas are ufually burnt,
and their afhes preferved with great care in little metallic
idols, which have places afTigned them in their facred
cabinets. Common fubjefts are treated vnxh. lefs cere-
mony ;

THIBET.

mony ; fome of them are cirried to lofty eminenoes, where,
after having been disjointed, and the hmbs divided, they
are left a prey for ravens, kites, and other carnivorous
birds. Others, with lefs refpeft, are committed to the
ufiial receptacle of the dead. The laft, but lefs frequent,
mode of difpofnig of the dead, is committing them to the
waters of the river. Burial, that is, inhuming the corpfe
entire in the earth, is altogether unpraftifed.

On one fide of the monallery of Teflioo-Loomboo is the
place to which they convey their dead. It is a fpacious
area, inclofed on one part by a perpendicular rock, and
on the others by lofty walls, raifed probably with a view to
feclude from public obfervation, the difgufting objefts
contained within them. At the top it was totally un-
covered, lo as to be perfectly open to the birds ; and at the
bottom a narrow paflage was left through the walls, near
their foundation, for the fole purpofe of admitting dogs, or
other beads of prey. On the rock above, a platform
overhung the inclofure, which had been conftrufted for the
conveniency of precipitating the dead bodies with greater
cafe over the walls, into the area. And here, the only
rites performed, in honour of the dead. Were merely fuch as
tended to facilitate the deftruftion of the body by dogs
or birds of prey. But though this was the general recep-
tacle, yet there were fome who declined the ufe of it, and
conveyed their friends to the fummit of fome neighbouring
hill, where they disjointed and mangled the dead body, that
it might become a more eafy prey to carnivorous birds.
Hence it was concluded that there was a ftrong prejudice
in their minds of fome idea of pollution attached to " being
given to the dogs," which was fufficient to create a pre-
ference of the contrary praftice. In Tibet, as well as in
Bengal, an annual feftival is kept in honour of the dead.

The Tibetians are much addifted to fuperftition ; and
accordingly they lay great ftrefs on lucky and unlucky
days. Tliey alfo pay great refpeft to the profeflbrs of
aftrology. Hence we find no prudent traveller ever at-
tempting to undertake a journey, without previoufly ap-
pealing to this authority, and endeavouring to obtain an
aufpicious prefage. The fame fignal of favour is deemed
indifpenfably requifite in every important enterprife, and
the fame wary circumfpeftion enters equally into all the
more minute concerns of domeftic life. The union of the
fexes, and the giving names to infants, are neither of them
events to be accomplifhed without a regular appeal to the
fame decifive oracle. Tliis fcience is alfo regarded in the
conftruftion of their almanacs. Their year, which is lunar,
confifts of 12 months, each month having 29 days ; and tlie
days are reckoned from the appearance of the new moon,
in regular fucceffion, till it fliews itfelf again. The parts
of the days are, evening, night, morning, and noon : and
their computation of time is conformable to the general
praftice of the Eaft, by a cycle of 12 years. The art of
printing is faid to have been very anciently praftifed in
Tibet ; but it has hitherto been principally appropriated
to facred works, and to the fervice of learning and reli-
gion. Their books are pnnted with blocks of wood, on
narrow flips of tliin paper, fabricated from the fibrous root of
a fmall fhrub. The printed and written letters appropriated
to works of learning and religion, are called " uchen ;" and
thofe of bufmefs and correspondence are called " umin."
The Gylongs, or priefls, pafs through a regular education.
As for the language of Tibet, its origin is not fatisfaftorily
afcertained. Du Halde reports, that it is the fame with
that fpoken by the people of Sifan, on the frontiers of
China ; but as this province is fometimes included in Tibet,
this intormation is vague and indeterminate. Their chu-
I

rafters, fays fir William Jones, are apparently Indian, but
their language has now the difadvantage of being written
with more letters than are ever pronounced ; for, although
it was anciently Sanfcrit and polyfyliabic, it feems at pre-
fent, from tlie influence of Chinefe manners, to confift of
monofyllables, to form which, with fome regard to gram-
matical derivation, it has become neceflary to fupprefs, in
common difcourfe, many letters which we fee in their books ;
and thus we are enabled to trace in their writings a number
of Sanfcrit words and phrafes, which, in their fpoken
dialeft, are quite undiilinguifhable.

A fingular cuftom prevails in this country, which may
be called polyandry. One female afTociates her fate and
fortune with all the brethren of a family, without any re-
ilriftion of age or of numbers. The choice of a wife is the
privilege of the elder brother ; and it is faid, that a
Tibetian wife is as jealous of her connubial rites, though
thus joined to a numerous party of hufbands, as the defpot
of an Indian zennana is of the favours of his imprifoned
fair. The bufinefs of propagating the fpecies is abandoned
to mere plebeians ; and marriage feems to be confidered
rather as an odium and a burden. The influence of this
cuftom on the manners of the people is not found to be
unfavourable. Humanity and gentlenefs of difpofition are
the conftant inheritance of a Tibetian. Mr. Turner fays
that he never faw thefe qualities pofleffed by any people in
a more eminent degree. Without being fervilely officious,
they are always obliging ; the higher ranks are unaffuming ;
the inferior, refpe<£lful in their behaviour ; nor are they at
all deficient in attention to the female fex ; but, as we find
them moderate in all their paffions in this refpeft, alfo their
conduft is equally remote from rudenefs and adulation.
Comparatively with their fouthern neighbours, the women
of Tibet enjoy an elevated ftation in fociety. To the pri-
vileges of unbounded liberty, the wife here adds the charafter
of miftrefs of the family, and companion of her hulbands.
The company of all, indeed, flie is not at all times entitled
to expeft. Different purfuits, either agricultural employ-
ments or mercantile fpeculations, may occafionally caufe
the temporary abfence of each ; yet whatever be the refult,
the profit of the labourer flows into the common itore ; and
when he returns, whatever may have been his fortune, he
is fecure of a grateful welcome to a focial home. The men
are generally ftout, having in a degree the Tataric features,
and the women are of a ruddy brown complexion, heightened
bke the fruits by the proximity of the fun, while the moun-
tain breezes beftow health and vigour.

The ceremonies of marriage are neither tedious nor intri-
cate in Tibet. Their courtlhips are carried on with little
art, and quickly brought to a conclufion. The elder bro-
ther of a family, to whom the choice belongs, when ena-
moured of a damfel, makes his propofal to the parents.
If his fuit is approved, and the ofFor accepted, the parents,
with their daughter, repair to the fuitor's houfe, where the
male and female acquaintance of both parties meet and
caroufe for the fpace of three days, with mufic, dancing,
and every kind of feftivity. At the expiration of this time
the marriage is complete.

Tibet is thinly fcattered with inhabitants, on account 6{
its mountainous furface and the feverity of its climate ; nor
can any accurate cftimate be made of its population. From
fome circumftances it has been conjeftured, that upon the
whole it cannot be lefs than half a million. Giorgi, in-
deed, or rather PinnabiUa, from whom he deduces his ftate-
mcnt, computes the number of inhabitants in 1730 at 33
millions, and the foldiers at 690,000 ; but both thefe num-
bers are moft extravagantly exaggerated ; for Tibet has

been

THIBET.

b«en often conquered by tlic Cliinele with armies not ex-
ceeding 40,000 men. The fingular cuUom of polyandry,
already mentioned, feems .-.dapted to check the progrefs of
populatioii, the fupcrabundance of which, in an infertile
country like Tibet, would be one of the greatcft calamities,
a» it mull produce eternal warfare or internal want.

Bootan and Tibet exhibit a very remarkable contrail in
llieirexternal appearance. Bootan prefentstotheview nothinjj
but the moll mis-fhapen irregularities ; mountains covered
with eternal verdure, and rich with abundant forefts of large
.-uid lofty trees. Almod every favourable afpeift of them,
coated with the fmallcll quantity of foil, is cleared and
adapted to cultivation, by being flielved into liorizontal
beds : not a flopc or narrow flip "of land between the ridges
lies unimproved. There is fcarcely a mountain, whofe
bafe is not wafhed by fome rapid torrent, and many of the
loftieft bear populous villages, amidft orchards and other
plantations, on tiieir fummits and on tlieir fides. It com-
bines in its extent the moft extravagant traits of rude natare
and laborious art.

Tibet, on the other hand, ftriJces a traveller, at firft fight,
as one of the leall favoured countries under heaven, and
appears to be in a great meafure incapable of culture. It
exhibits only low rocky hills, without any vifible vege-
tation, or extcnfive arid plains, both of the moft ftern and
ftubborn afpcft, promifing full as little as they produce.
Its climate is cold and bleak in the extreme, from the fevere
effefts of which the inhabitants are obliged to feek refuge
in Sheltered valleys and hollows, or amidft the warmeft
afpefts of the rocks. Yet perhaps Providence, in its im-
partial dillribution of blefllngs, has beftowed on each coun-
try a tolerably equal fhare. The advantages that one pof-
fefles in fertihty, and in the richnefs of its forefts and its
fruits, are amply counterbalanced in the other by its multi-
tudinous flocks and invaluable mines. As one feems to
polTefs the pabulum of vegetable, in the other we find a
fupcrabundance of animal, life. The variety and quantity
of wild fowl, game, and beafts of prey, flocks, droves, and
herds in Tibet, arc aftoniftiing. In Bootan, except domeftic
creatures, nothing of the fort is feen. It has been afterted
that Tibet was, in remote times, almoft totally inundated ;
and the removal of the waters that tovered its furface is
afcribed to the miraculous interpofition of fome objeft of
the'r worfhip, whofe chief temple is reported to be at
Dungeedin, Gya. In this traditionary belief we may
podibly difcover fome traces of the unrverfal deluge ;
though the tradition be obfcured by fable and disfigured
by a mixture of abfurdity. In the temperature of the
feafons in Tibet, a remarkable uniformity prevails, as well
as in their periodical duration and return. The fame divi-
fion of them takes place here, as in the more fouthern
region of Bengal. The fpring is marked from March to
May, by a variable atmofphere ; heat, thunder-ftorms, and
occafionally with refrefhing fhowers. From June to Sep-
tember is the feafon of humidity, when heavy and continued
rains fill the rivers to their brim, which run off from
hence with rapidity, to aflift in inundating Bengal. From
OAober to March, a clear and uniform fl<y fucceeds, feldom
obfcured either by fogs or clouds. For three months of
this feafon, a degree of cold is felt, far greater perhap^s than
is known to prevail in Europe. Its extreme feverity is
more particularly confined to the fouthern boundary of
Tibet, near that elevated range of mountains which divides
It from AfTam, Bootan, and Nipal. The fummits of thefe
are covered all the year with fnow, and their vicinity is
remarkable, at all feafons, for the drynefs of the winds.
The range is confined between the twenty-fixth and

4

twenty-feventh degrees of northern latitude. During th?
winter, a praftice is adopted in the neighbourhood of thefe
mountains, fimilar to tliat in ufe in the coldeft parts of
North America, but in fome refpefts more complete. It
is that of preparing meat and fifh for carriage, by the
adlion of extreme cold. This praftice, however, feems to
be confined to the prefcrvation of mutton alone, which is. a
very fimple procefs, and requiring no ufe of fait. The
Tibetians generally ufe that which is recently killed in a
TZ\K' ftate, without any previous cookery.

Among the valuable and ufeful animals of Tibet, which
are mufic-deer, horfes of a fmall fize, goats yielding the
hair that is manufaftured into fliawls, and cattle that are
diminutive, to which we may refer the yak of the Tartars,
their breed of Iheep claims a diftinguiftied rank. Of thefe
the flocks are numerous, and upon them they chiefly de-
pend for their winter food. A peculiar fpecies, thought
to be indigenous to this climate, is marked almoft inva-
riably by black heads and legs. Their fize is fraall, their
wool is foft, and their flefti, fays Mr. Turner, is the fineft
mutton in the world. The wool affords material for one
of their principal manufaftures. (See Ijhansa-jeung.)
Their fldns and thofe of the lambs are cured with the wool
on, and conftitute a valuable article for winter garments, and
for foreign traffic.

The foil and climate of Tibet are very unfavourable to any
kind of exertion and activity that have for their objetl the
cultivation of the land, but from time immemorial it has been
the refort of merchants. Commerce, however, has been very
languidly encouraged. The form of government, which is
arbitrary, is inimical to induftry and enterprife. In Tibet,
and alfo in Bootan, the firft member of the ftate is the chief
merchant ; and his ftation and power of controul give him
great advantages over the common adventurer ; and of courfe
by this monopoly of the fovereign, emulation is reftrained
and fupprefled.

Although, as we have faid, the nature of the foil pro-
hibits agriculture ; yet the vales on the approach of winter
being laid under water, they are ploughed and fown in
fpring, and the crops are matured by frequent fhowers and
a powerful fun. The autumn being clear and tranquil,the
harveil is long left to dry on the ground ; and when fuffi-
ciently hardened is trod out by cattle. The courfe of cul-
tivation is wheat, peas, and barley ; rice being confined to
a more fouthern foil. Neverthelefs, the country abounds
with commodities, which in diff^erent circumftances would
give fpirit and extent to commercial tranfaftions, whilft
they are languifhing in floth, or exhibiting every indication
of poverty. The trade with Bengal was formerly not in-
confiderable ; but this has been interrupted and diminiflied
by the commotions which have long djftratled the kingdom
of Nipal, which was the only known channel of commu-
nication. Bengal tranfmitted to Tibet, broad cloth, chiefly
of inferior quality, and of yellow and fcarlet colours ; fome
few trinkets, fuch as fnuff-boxes, fmelling-bottles, knives,
fciflars, and optic-glaffes ; and fpices, paj-ticularly cloves
and nutmegs ; fandal wood, pearls, emeralds, fapphires,
lapis lazuli, coral, jet, amber, fliells, cloths, leather, tobacco,
indigo, and otter-lkins ; and it received from Tibet, gold-
duft, muflc, and tincal. The articles of trade next in im-
portance, amongft the natural produftions of Tibet, are
goats' hair and rock-falt. Bootan, Nipal, Bengal, and
Hindooftan, are fupplied with tincal from Tibet. The hair
of the goats is carried to Cafhmire, where it is manufadlured
into (hawls. The demand for fait is in the confumption of
Nipal and Bootan.
The trade from Tibet to Bootan confifts of gold-duft,

tea.

THIBET.

tea, woollen cloths, and fait ; from Bootan to Tibet, the
articles are Enghfli broad cloth, Rungpore leather, tobacco,
coarfe cotton cloths, &c. paper, rice, fandal wood, indigo.
Tibet fends to Luddauk, the mart between Cafiiniire and
Teflioo-Loomboo, the fine hair of goats, and receives in re-
turn gamboge, (hawls, dried fruits, as apricots, raifins,
currants, dates, almonds, and fafFron. Khumbauk fends to
Tibet, horfcs, dromedaries, and Balgar hides. In Tibet
there arc feveral mines of lead ; and as lead-ore contains
fdver, it might be feparated from it to great advantage, if the
method of doing it were known. Here are alfo mines of
cinnabar, which contains a great proportion of mercury, if
the Tibetians knew how to ejctradl it. The copper-mines
furnifli materials for the manufafture of idols, and all the
ornaments difpofed about monafteries, on wiiich gilding
is bellowed, for which there is a great demand in Tibet.

A very fmall quantity of fpecie is current in Tibet, and
that is of a bafe ftandard. It is the filver coin of Nipal,
here denominated indcrmilkc, and worth about one-third of
a ficca rupee ; and it is cut into halves, third parts, and
quarters. In all mercantile tranfaftions, however, the equi-
valent is made in bullion, ;'. e. talents of gold and filver, valued
an proportion to the purity and fpecific gravity of the
metal.

The commerce between Tibet and China is carried on
principally at a garrifon town, on the weftern frontier of
China, named Sinning, or Silling : thither merchants refort
from Tibet with their manufa£ture; w'z. a thin cloth re-
fembling frieze, but rather of a more open texture, gold-
d»ft, and fome other commodities procured from Bengal ;
Avhich they exchange for tea, filver bullion, brocades, and
fruit. In thefe ai'ticles an extenfive trade is carried on ; and
Mr. Turner has been affured that, on the territory of Telhoo-
Loomboo alone, tea, to the amount of five or fix lacs of
rupees, is annually confumed. From hence, too, Bootan is
fupplied with tea, which is in the fame general ufe there.

Tibet exports to China, gold-dull, diamonds, pearls,
coral, muflc, woollen cloths of its own manufafture, lamb-
ikins and otter-lkins, called ood, brought from Bengal ; and
China returns to Tibet, gold and filver brocades, plain filks,
fatins, black teas of four or five different forts, tobacco,
filver bullion, quickfilver, cinnabar, china ware, trumpets,
cymbals, and other mufical inflruments; furs, viz. fable,
ermine, black fox ; and dried fruits of various forts.

The regulations for carrying the commerce of the Englifh
llafl India Company through the dominions of Bootan, by
means of the agency of native merchants, were fettled by
the treaty entered into by Mr. Bogle, in the year 1775.

The cities and towns of Tibet are little known : the
capital is Laja ; which fee. Among the edifices, the mo-
nafteries occupy the firft clafs. (Sec Teshoo-Loomboo.)
The chief river of Tibet is Berhampooter ; which fee. The
Hoan-ho and Kian-ku of the Chinefe alfo derive their origin
from the eaftern boundaries of Tibet. The great Japanefe
river of Cambodia, or Maykaung of Laos, that of Nou Kia,
fuppofed to pafs near Martaban, into the gulf of Pegu, and
the Irawaddy of the eaft country, are fuppofed to have
their fources from the mountains of Tibet, which may be
ftyled the Alps of Afia. Another large river, called the
Sardjoo or Gagra, which, after a courfe of about 600 miles,
nearly parallel on tlie E. with that of the Ganges, joins it
iiear Chupra, and derives its fpring from the lofty weftern
mountains of Tibet. In thefe Alpine regions are many
lakes, fuch as Teriiri, and Jamdro or Pelte ; which fee.
The ranges of Tibetian mountains in the W. and S. feem
to bend in the form of a crefcent, from the fources of the
Ganges to the frontiers of Afam, in a N. W. and S.E. direc-

VoL. XXXV.

tion. To the N. of Sampoo a pai"dlel and higher ridge
feems to extend, the northern extremities abounding with
large frozen lakes. The chief elevation of mountains ap-
pears to be central, S. of the lake Terkiri, and is called
Koiran, the weftern part being denominated Kantel. The
fouthern range prcfciits many names of diilindl mountains,
comprehended under the Hindoo name of Himmela. From
thefe ranges many branches extend N. and S. This country
poffefTes many mineral waters, the falutary ufe of which is
not unknown to the natives. Among its natural curiofities
we may reckon a fingular rock, N. of TafTifudon, defcribcd
by Mr. Saunders in tlic Appendix to Turner's Travels, ami
forming in front fix or feven angular femi-pillars of large
circumference, and fome one hundred feet in height. This
natural curiofity is partly detached from the mountains,
and projefts over a confiderable fall of water, which
heightens the pidlurefque appearance of the whole. The
rocK is laminated, and might be formed into flate ; and as
iron-ftones ai'e found in the vicinity, thefe pilaftcrs probably,
like thofe of bafalt, arife from the influence of that metal.
Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixvii. Sir W. Jones's Works, vol. iii.
Turner's Travels. Pinkerton's Geography.

Thibet or Tibet, Link, a diftriiSt N.W. of Cafiimire,
which is fuppofed to contain the chief fource of the
Indus. The fituation of this country is doubtful ; it pro-
bably lies on the N. and N.W. of Cafhmire, and is divided
from Great Tibet by a high mountainous ridge, and by a
higher chain, that of Belur, from Great Bucharia. It is
defcribed as a very mountainous and poor country, pervaded
by the Indus, and towards the N. full of forefts. The
capital is Afcardu, and further to the N. is Schekar.
Temir-kand, or the fortrefs of iron, feems to command the
pafs between Great and Little Tibet ; and the two Ganges
of the Chinefe maps (fuppofed fources of the Ganges)
are probably rivers which join the Indus from the E^ft.
Pinkerton.

The delineation of the country of the Sacas, by Ptolemy
and Strabo, (fee SaCjE,) will be found to correfpond, fays
Hugh Murray, efq. in his " Ancient Geography of Central
and Eaftern Afia," in every refpeft, with that given by
Mr. Elphinftone of the Plain of Pamera and Little Tliibet.
It was bounded on the S. by Hindooftan, from which it
was feparated by the ridge of Imaus. On the N. it was
bounded by the next parallel chain, " Mons Afcataneas,"
which cannot poffibly be any other than the Mooz-Taugh,
to whofe name, indeed, it bears a rude refemblance. It
extended E. from the Montes Comedorun, (the Beloor or
Belur, ) to fomewhat beyond the head of the Ganges j pre-
cifely the dimenfions of Little Thibet. Great and Little
Thibet form a table land of extraordinary elevation, border-
ing on Hindooflan to the S. : and two parallel chains,
running from E. to W., prop this mighty bulwark of Afia.
The northern barrier is formed by an immenfe chain,
known under the name of Hindoo Coofh, and Himmela
or Himalaya, which forms the northern limit of India.
The whole extent of it is covered, to a great depth, with
perpetual fnow ; and every meafurement yet made, from
Pefliaur to Nepaul, has made it exceed 20,000 feet above
the level of the plain, being higher than the higheft peaks of
the Andes. The whole is recognized by Ptolemy under the
name of Imaus. The northern range, known by the un-
couth appellation of Mooz-Taugh, taugh being merely the
generic name of mountain, or Karrakorum, Mr. H. Mur-
ray apprehends to be defcribed by him under the nanne
of Mons Afcataneas. Its abfolute elevation feems to ex-
ceed that of Himalaya, and yet from tJie high level of its
bafe, it does not prefent fo formidable an afpaft. At right
3 Y angles

T II I

aneks to both, conncaing them, and (hutting In the wcflrrn
i\di- of the tMc land, is aiu.thc-r chain, call«l the Beloor-
Taueh ; forming the callern Hmit of Shognaun the anc.ent
SoRdiana, and tlms coinciding with the Montrs Comedorun.
AecordinK to the writer now cited, the " Scyth.a extra
Imaum" of Ptolemv muft be Great Thibet, w.th an extent
of Tartary ftretching indefinitely northwards. Atter
Scvthia, he fays, comes the famous Serica ; and if Great
Thibet be Scythia extra Imaum, the next great country
muft be China, which he concludes from a variety of cir-
cumftances to be Serica. This writer thinks Piakerton's
hvpothefis, mentioned under Serica, of its being Little
Bucharia, altogether inadmiflible. See Murray's Ancient
Geography of Central and E:il!ern Afia.

THICKET, a clofe knot or tuft of trees ; a clofe wood,
&c. in any field or inclofure of any kind.

Thickets, i.n Gardening, a fort of clofe plantations
of trees and (hrubs, in pleafurc-grounds, parks, &c. They
are defigned for different pnrpoles, as fometimes to repel the
force of tempeftuous and cold cutting winds, either from the
habitation, or fome particular part of the garden ; or to form
places of fliade and retirement in fummer, having fpaces for
walks, receffes, &c. under the umbrage of the trees, and
occafionally to conceal from view any unfightly or difagree-
able obicft, and alfo fometimes to form a fcreen or blind
arranged towards fome outward boundary.

They are fometimes planted wlioUy of the large tree
kinds, five or fix to eight or ten feet afiinder, fome in regular
lines, like a clofe grove, or more generally in a fort of pro-
mifcuous planting, but with fome degree of order in the
dillances : they are alfo often compofed of various trees and
fhrubs together, to effeifl a more full, clofe growth below and
above, and to difplay a greater diverfity in the plantation, by
difpofing the various (lirubs properly between the larger trees,
in*fome order of gradation, the lowed towards the front, and
the taller growths backward, fo as to form a fort of clofe
underwood thicket below, while the trees run up and form
a thicketty growth above ; and fometimes they are formed
wholly of (lirubs of different forts and degrees of growth,
from the lowed placed forward, to the tallell behind.

They are fometimes, too, formed wholly of particular
forts of trees difpofed feparalely in diftinft plantations, as of
elm, a(h, beech, poplar, alder, willow, &c.

The planting of thicket plantations ffiould be effefted
with young trees of from four, five, or fix, to eight or ten
feet growth, and the Ihrub kinds proportionally ; in all of
which the planting may be performed in the common feafons
of autumn, winter, and fpring.

In the culture of thicket plantations, little is required but
that of keeping them clear from large overbearing weeds,

while the trees and (hrubs are in young fmall growth.

Thickets arc now much lefs in ufe than was formerly the

cafe in ornamental gardening, and pleafure-ground planting;

they maj-, however, on fome occafions, be introduced with

good effeft.

THICKON, in Geography, a river of Pennfylvania, which

runs into the Delaware, N. lat. 40° 25'. W. long. 75° 8'.
THICKSTUFF, a name for fided timber exceeding

four inches in thicknefs, but not being more than twelve

inches in thicknefs.

THIEBLEMONT, in Geography, a town of France, in

the department of the Marne ; 8 miles E.S.E. of Vitry le

Eranciis.

THIEL, or TiF.L, a city or town of Holland, in the

department of Guelderland, fituatcd on the north fide of the

Wahal, in a fmall ifland called Tuler-IVeert. In one of its

fauxbourgs, called Sanlivych; which is well fortified, is a

T H I

ftrong citadel : the fortifications were deffroycd in the ye.-ir
1674, by the French, who had made tliemfelvcs mailers of
the place about two years before, and have been fince re-
paired. In the year 1528, it was befieged by the Spaniards,
when Charles V. was at wai- with the duke of Gueldres ;
but they were compelled to raife the fiege, through the
brave refiftance of the citizens. The country about it is
mar(hy, and the air reckoned unwholefome. The fortifi-
cations are deftroyed ; 18 miles N.N.E. of Bois-le-Duc.

THIELLE, a town of the county of Neufchatel, be-
tween the lake of Bienne and the lake of Neufchatel ; y
miles N.E. of Neufchatel. — Alfo, a river of Switzerland,
which rifes in the Vaudois, paffes through the lakes of
Neufchatel and Bienne, and runs into the Aar, 3 miles below
Buren.

THIELLEN, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Uri ; 2 miles N.W. of Altorff.

THIELT, a town of France, in the department of the
Lys ; 10 miles N. of Courtray.

THIENE, a town of Italy, in the Vicentin ; 9 miles
N.W. of Vicenza.

THIERS, John Baptist, in Biogmphy, a divine, was
born at Ch^rtres about the year 1636, and became a batche-
lor of the Sorbonne, profeffor in the college of Du Pleflis
at Paris, and cure of Chauprend, in the diocefe of Chartres.
Being arrefted in confequence of a difpute with the clergy
of Chartres, and a fatire againft one of ihem, he efcaped by
a ftratagem, and found refuge with the bifhop of Mans, who
rrave him the cure of Vibraie, where he died in February,
1703. His works are numerous, freely written, and on
fingular fubjefts ; but we refer for an account of them to
Moreri, the Nouv. Dift. Hiftor. and Gen. Biog.

THIERS, in Geography, a town of France, and principal
place of a diftriiS, in the department of the Puy-de-D6me ;
here are manufaftures of cutlery, playing-card», paper,
thread, &c. ; 21 miles S.E. of Gannat. N. lat. 45° 52'.
E. long. 3° 38'.

THIERSHEIM, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Culmbach ; 6 miles N.E. of Wonfiedel.

THIER STEIN, a towii of Germany, in the principality
of Culmbach, on the Eger; 5 miles N.E. of Wonfiedel.

THIE-WEY-ARA-YETH Lake, a lake of North
America. N. lat. 61° 20'. W. long. 106° 30'.

THIGH, Femur, a part of the body of men, quad-
rupeds, and birds, between the leg and the trunk. See
Extremities.

We have an account in the Philofophical Tranfaftions of
a large piece of a young man's thigh-bone being taken out,
and the place fo well fupplied by a callus, that he walked
ftraight. See N° 461. feft. 2.

TniGH-Bone, Fradund. See Fracture.
Thigh, Luxation of. See Luxation.
Thigh, in the Manege. The effeft of the horfeman's
thigh is one of the aids that ferves to make a horfe work
vigoroufiy. See Aid.

Fore-thigh, or arm of a horfe, is that part of the fore-leg
that runs between the (houlder and the knee : though the
fore-thigh do=s not bend or bow, yet we commonly fay, a
horfe goes fine, that bends well the fore-thigh, importing
by it, that he bends well his leg.

Horfes (hould always be full and well made in the thick
parts of the thigh, efpecially in horfes o£ the working kinds.
THIGHT, in Agriculture, a term provincially apphed to
turnip, or other crops which are thick or clofely fet. It
alio fignifies impervious, when applied to roofs or veffels in
fome diftrifts.

THILACHIUM, in Botany, fo named by Loureiro,

from

T H I

T H I

frcm SuXaxiov, a Ultli bag, alluding to the form of tlic calyx.
It ought rather therefore to have been Thylachinm. — Loureir.
Cochinch. 342. — Clafs and order, Polyandria Monogynla.
Nat. Ord. Cappar'tdes, JulT.

Gen. Cli. Cal. Perianth inferior, oblong-turbinate,
ribbed, pointed, undivided, clofe, at length burlliiig all
round. Cor. none. Stain. Filaments numerous, about
feventy, awl-fhaped, long, eretl:, inferted into the recep-
tacle ; anthers oblong, upright. PiJ}. Germcn fuperior,
on a (lalk the length of the filaments, oblong, llriated ;
ttyle none ; iligma roundifti. Perk. Berry oblong, with
ten fides, of one cell. Seeds numerous, kidney -fliaped, im-
bedded in pulp.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of one leaf, oblong, burfling all round.
Corolla none. Berry ftalked, vi'ith ten angles, one cell, and
many feeds.

I. Th. afrlcanum. African Pouch-flower. — Obferved by
Loureiro on the eaftern coaft of Africa, near Mozambique,
where it ie calle-d by the Portuguefe Mangue'tro. The tree is
fmall, with fpreading branches. Leaves alternate, ftalked,
ovate, entire, fmooth. Stalls terminal, bearing feveral
fioiveis, whofe long Jlamens are of a faff^ron colour. The
author obferves that this genus approaches Capparls, in its
Jlamens and the ftalk of its berry, but differs widely in the
unufual form of the calyx, as well as the want of a corolla,
and the figure of \hsfeed-vejfel. De Theis thinks it allied
to Marcc.ravia, fee that article. As far as it is related
to Cnpparis, he is right ; but between the corolla of Marc-
gravia, and the calyx of ThUachlum, which he fcems to have
had in view, there can be no affinity ; any more than be-
tween the latter and the pouch in the outer calyx of
RuYSCHiA, which article the reader may likewife coiifult.
We mufl; be content to leave the matter as we find it, there
being great probability, confidering how little we know of
the botany of its native country, that the plant, and even
its genus, are entirely new to Europeans.

THILAY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ardennes; 7 miles N.N.E. of 'Charleville.
THILCHATEL, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Cote d'Or ; 14 miles N. of Dijon.

THILCO, or rather T'hilco, in Botany. See FusCJllA,
n. 9.

THILL, in Rural Economy, the name of the framed
fhafts of carts and waggons, between which the horfe draws
and moves. The thills of thele kinds of carriages (liould
always, as much as poffible, be made of tough a(h-wood,
and light in proportion to the nature and ufes of them.

THU.L-Norfe, the lall horfe in a team, or the horfe that
goes between the thills or fhafts ; which often fuftains much
undue weight and prefTure on the back, in confequence of
the load which is drawn. This is capable of being re-
lieved in various ways and by different contrivances, but the
two which are noticed below would feem to be the moft
fimple and eafy. It is well known to be almofl univer-
fally the praftice to hook or attach the lecond horfes, in
c.-irt or waggon teams, on at the end of the fhafts. The
confequence of which is obvioufly this : whenever the cart
or carriage afcends a hill, and the fore part of the team
comes to level ground, which not unfrequently happens,
while the thill-horfe or horfes are ftill on the declivity, from
their force being exerted in a right line to the ends of the
fhafts, all the powers of the whole of the leading horfes
muft, in fuch cafes, inevitably load and opprefs the thill-
horfe or horfes, when fo direfted, as they tend to deprefs
the fhafts, in their exertion to draw at the proper point of
draught ; th^it is, in the line with the axle. The thill-horfe
or horfes axe often feen, in fuch inllances, nearly borne

down, where the afceiits are fleep, and the levels rather
fuddenly regained. The back, or backs, of fuch horfeS
become a fort of fulcrum, on which the ftrength of all the
preceding horfes afts as a kind of lever ; which, if fufiiciently
forcible, and the thill-horfe or horfes' backs were ftrong
enough to bear the prefTure, mult lift the carriage off the
ground, until it fliould come to a level with the line of their
pull.

In order to remedy this great prefTure and inconvenience,
it is advifed that a looped iron, of about a foot in depth, in
the whole, be fafteiicd to the end of the fhaft ; nailing and
rivetting it firmly, by means of expanded flats. The looped
part will then reach about eight or nine inches under or be-
low the fliafts. Each trace is to be carried through thefe
loops inllead of hooking on there, and be failened at the
bottom of the Ihaft, near to where it hitches onto the frame
of tlie carriage. This will give play to the traces, and
wholly relieve the thill-horfe or horfes froir. the undue pref-
fure to which they are expofed.

The principle here laid down is neceflary, whatever other
method may be had recourfe to in removing the incon-
venience.

At Hinton-Houfe, in Berkfhire, S. NicoUs, efq. is faid
to effeft this in a fomewhat different manner, the aim of
which is the prevention of the draught of the trace-horfes
pulling down the thill-horfe or thiller, which is always found
to be the cafe, when they draw from a drail, as it is termed,
in the fore part of the fhaft, if the thill-horfe be taller than
the trace-horfes, or if the latter are going down a declivity,
before the former has pafTcd its fummit, as feen above.

The preventive praftice or mode in this cafe is by infert-
ing a chain to the hinder part of the fhafts, which is alfo
attached, and confined in fome meafure, to the fore part of
the fhaft (where the drail is generally placed) by a piece of
chain, which allows it to move freely to a certain diftance
from the fhaft, in order that the draught may be conftantly
kept in a horizontal direftion.

THILYPTERIS, in Botany, a term ufed by Dillenius
to exprefs the common female fern or brakes.
THIMA, in Geography. See TlMA.
THIMBLE, a cover for the finger, made of brafs,
fleel, or filver, and ufed by all people who few, as taylors,
milhners, &c.

TlUMBLE, in Sea Language, an iron ring with a groove
round the outfide, to receive the rope it is fpliced into.
Thimbles are fpliced into the rigging and fails for blocks
to be hooked to, or ropes to reeve through where blocks
would appear too heavy.

Thimble I/lands, in Geography, frhall iflands near the
coaft of Connefticut. N. lat. 41° il'. W. long. 72° 42'.
THIMBRIC-KEUY, a village of Aliatic Turkey, in
the province of Natolia, on the fcite of an ancient town
called " Thymbra," built by Dardanus, king of Phrygia.
Here are fome confiderable ruins, fuppofed of a temple of
Apollo.

THIMDA, a town of Tunis ; 8 miles S.W. of Bizerta.
THIMIO, in the Materia Medica, a name ufed by fome
authors for a peculiar fort of lignum aloes, which is blackilh
and very heavy, and extremely fweet.

THIN, a name given by the Arabian writers to earth of
any kind.

Thus the bole armenic of Galen is called by Avicenna
thin Armeni ; and hence the word muthin, an adje-ftive figni-
fying earthy, or approaching to the nature of earth ; a term
applied to many medicines of this kind.

THINA, in Botany, a name by which fome authors have
called the larix, or larch-tree.

3 Y 2 THINGAU,

T H I

THINGAU, ill C.'3^ni/-/>. Sl-cTingau.

THINGVALLA, a place of Iceland, about 26 miles
didant from Rcikiavik, and 24 miles from Skalholt ; m
which ii a fniall, mean, and dirty church. The fcenery
about it is romantic : but the want of wood, and the cflcas
of fubtcrraneous heat, combine to give it a dreary afpca.
TiiL- adjoining lake of the fame name is a fine fliect of water,
reckoned to be about ten miks long and from thi-ee to feven
ill breadth. In I>he lakes are two pretty large idamls, called
Sanday and Nefey, comuofed entirely of volcanic matter.
The depth of the lake is faid to be very great ; a line of
100 fathoms having been funk without reaching the bottom.
It receives the waters of the furrounding bogs, and near it
in different places vapours are feen to afccnd from hot
fpriiigs. It abounds with trout. At the S. end the moun-
tains arc very pifturcfque, and the afcending vapours contri-
bute to tlie folemnity of the wl-.ole fcene, as they arife from
fpiings that have been produced by the moft dreadful com-
jiiotions, and the deftruCtion of a country that may once have
been beautiful and fertile. Near Thingvalla is a building,
where the courts of jufticc were formerly held ; but as
Rcikiavik is now the feat of government, the courts are held
there. It docs not appear why this place was originally fe-
IcAed for the feat of jullice ; but a town being once efta-
bliflied, and trade carried on freely, and to a greater extent
than in former times, ready recourfe to the law became ne-
ceffary. Although not more than rifteen years have elapfed
(1817) fince the judicial courts were transferred to Rcikia-
vik, few remains are left to mark a fpot fo famous in the
liiftory of Iceland. The only building is a fmall wooden
houfe, in which the confultations were held and fentence pro-
nounced by the lliftantment or governor. The magiilrates
and people affembled on the occafion lived in tents. The
culprits who were condemned to die were beheaded on a
fmaU idand in the river Oxeran, which here flows into the
lake. The females wei-e drowned in a deep pool below the
lava, a little farther up the valley. An ecclefiaftical court
ufed to be held at Thingvalla by the biiliop of Skalholt, at-
tended by the provofts and two miniftcrs from each Syflel.
It is fuggefted, that Tingwall in Shetland, and Dingwall in
Rofsfliire, are evidently the fame names as Thingvalla ; and
were probably, in ancient times, places where juilice was ad-
miniHered. Towards the N. arc feveral ranges of moun-
tains, which, from the account received, and the appearances
obferved, are volcanic. Among thefe, the principal feems to
be Skalbreidc, a lofty Jokul, of which defcription of moun-
tains others were feen at a diftance. Although the trans-
ference of the fuperior court from Thingvalla to Reikiavik
has, probably, been attended with advantage, the Icelanders,
as a people, have fome reafons for regarding this change
with regret. The annual meeting at Thingvalla was not
merely that of a tribunal of juftice, but an afle.nibly of the
nation ; and though the importance of this affembly was di-
miniflied, and its dignity degraded, by the fubjeAion of the
iDand to a foreign power, yet on the fpot where the greatell
among his ancellors fo often Hood, the mind of the Icelander
lauft ever have been awake to enthi;fiafm and patriotic pride.
" Hie facra, hie genus, hie majorum multa veiligia !" Mac-
kenzie's Iceland.

THINKING, Cogitation, a general name for any a&.
or operation of the mind.

Chauvin, with the Cartefians, will have thinking to con-
fift in a certain native, inherent motion or agitation of the

human mind, of which itfelf is confcious Nailve and in-

lunnt, fince he conceives it no other than the very effence of
the mind itfelf, or, at leaft, its principal .ind fundamental
property : an agitation, fincc there is a new modification or

T H I

change made in the mind, which we fcarcely know how to
conceive without motion ; add, that the origin and etymo-
logy of the word cogitation, according to Varro and Feitus,
implies as much ; cogito being ufed for coagito.

When the mind turns its view inwards, upon itfelf, the
firft idea that offers, fays Mr. Locke, is thinking ; in whiclb
it obferves a great variety of modifications, and of them,
frames to itfelf dillinfl ideas : thus the perception annexed
to any impreflion on the body, made by an external objeft,
is called y^n/a/io?;.

When an idea recurs without the prefence of the objeft,
it is called remembrance.

When fought after by the mind, and brought again into
view, it is called recolhlfion.

When held there long under attentive confideration, it is
called contemplation.

When ideas float in the mind without regard or reflexion,
it is called a re-very ; when tliey are taken exprefs notice of,
and, as it were, regiftered in the memory, it is attention;
and when the mind fixes its view on any one idea, and con-
fiders it on aU fides, it isjludy and attention.

Thefe are the mofl obvious modes of thinking ; but there
are feveral others which we know of ; and, doubtlefs, the
mind is capable of infinite others, of which we have no
notion at. all.

The fchool-philofophers ufuaUy divide thinking, with re-
gard to the objeft it is employed about, into underftanding,
intelledio ; and willing, volitio.

And hence, thofe are faid to be the two powers or facul-
ties of the human mind.

IntdltHual thinking is farther fnbdivided into divers kinds ;
the firfl, when the mind merely apprehends or takes notice
of a thing, called perception ; the fecond, when it affirms or
denies a thing, caned juclgmcnt ; the third, when it gathers
or infers a thing from others given, called reafoning ; the
fourth, when the mind difpoles its own thoughts or ideas in
order, called method.

VoUlive thinking, or volition, admits of infinite different
modifications, or new determinations.

Some authors extend the idea of thinking farther ; and
confider it in God, angels, brutes, &c. whence refults a
new diviiion of thinking, into divine, angelical, human, and
animal or fenfitive.

But the two firfl we know little or nothing of: the third
is that of which we have already been treating. — As to the
laft, ii/'z. animal or fenfitive thought, it is defined to be, an
action of the foul attending to an external objeft, afFcfted
by means of the animal fpirits duly agitated in the brain, to
excite an idea.

The C;u-tefians maintain, that thinking is efiential to the
human foul ; and, confequently, that there is no time when
the foul does not think : but this doftrine has been very vi-
gorouily attacked by Mr. Locke ; wlio labours to fhew,
that in fleep, without dreaming, there is an entire cefTation
of the modes of thinking.

/ think, cogito, according to Des Cartes, is the firfl, and
mofl certain, of all truths ; from which, alone, we draw
this coniequence, therefore I am, or exiit, firm. — One might
alfo fay, cogito, ergo Deits cjl ; I think, therefore there is a God.
— Logic is defined, the art of thinking methodically.

THINNING of Plantations and Woods, m Agriculture.
The practice of thinning plantations of trees and woods, fo
as to let the plants of them have more room as they advance
in growth, is moftly an operation of confiderable importance ;
as upon it, perhaps, more than upon any other point of the
after-management in fuch cafes, depends the nature, quan-
tity,

T H 1

T H r

tity, and moditication of tho timber which is railed and
produced.

Woods of the natural kinds, tlie feeds of which are fown
by birds or the winds on foils and furfacos of very dif-
ferent defcriptions and forts, rife and fpring up at different
times, and of very different degrees of thicknefs, ftrength,
and vigour in themfclves and their different parts ; confe-
quently it is eafy to fuppofe, that thofe which are placed
in favourable lltuations and circumftances, will quickly
overtop the others ; and if they do not wholly dcllroy, will
at leaft weaken tlu-m in fuch a way as not to be affefted or
inconvenienced by them, until the itrongell trees ultimately
find ample and fufficient room for their growth. In this
way, although nature may be flow in her operations, ihe
cffecls her purpole in a veiy complete manner. Befides
thefe obfervations, Mr. Loudon has noticed that artificial
thinning is only affifting nature ; and that hence even leav-
ing natural woods to be thinned by time, would not be
economical.

It is fuggefted with regard to artificial plantations, that in
thefe the foil is equally cultivated, and the plants are put
into the ground much about the fame fize, and at the fame
time, and that hence they of courfe rufli up together
all nearly of the fame height, producing neither ornament nor
timber ; and none being pix)duced fo llrong as to take the
lead and deftroy the reft, they grow in this manner until
they are fo crowded as to exclude air and moifture. At
which period, unlefs affiftance has been previoufly given
by thinning, the whole of the plantation dies together, and
is deftroyed.

Where thinning is neceffary in old natural woods, or fuch
as have been planted, it fhould conftantly be performed by
degrees in a regular manner, well confidering the ftate,
qualities, and habits of the trees, as well as the nature of the
foil on which they grow, the fituation and expofure in
which they are placed, and other fimilar matters. The
outfides of them ftiould commonly be lefs thinned than the
other parts, and the trees on the richer parts of the land be
more thinned than thofe on the other defcriptions of it.
The thinning of the fide fhoots and branches of the trees
fhould likewife, in fome meafure, accompany the other thin-
nings, and be performed in a fuitable manner to their
natiu-es, ftates, and purpofes for which they are intended.

It is, however, moftly the cuftom to begin to thin them
out at about feven years from the time of planting them, or
that of their firft growing up, and to repeat it every feven
years afterwards. When the planting has been performed
in the proportion of from fix to eight hundred trees to the
acre, they may be made to Hand, in the firfl thinning, at about
one tree to each rod of ground, or nine trees to eight rods.
But in the fccond thinning, a rather larger proportion of
trees ftiould be taken out, as rather more than one to each
rod ; and in the third thinning, the proportion maybe made
ilill in a larger ratio, fo as to leave the trees about a rod
fquare each. Much mnft, however, always depend upon
the nature, fituation, and circumftances of the particular
plantations and woods.

In all thefe thinnings the worft trees fliould be removed,
fo as to leave the ftraighteft and beft plants to ftand for
timber or other ptirpofes.

It is fuggefted, that as in moft plantations the fir tribe of
trees has been introduced either for the purpofe of orna-
ment or fheltcr ; where thinning is praftifed, in fuch cafes,
too large a proportion of thefe firs are moftly left. Hence,
from their comparatively quick growth, it is concluded
tliat fuch plantations have a difagreeable famenefs through-

12

out ; an.d that, as moft of them arc made in the fame manner,
this appearance extends itfelf over the whole country.

The plantations in which thinnings in the way of orna-
ment is moft particularly required, are thofe which arc de-
fignedfor groves. In many woods and copies no plants re-
quire to be taken out but the nurfe ones, where any fuch
have been planted. Plqntatious of the fir kind, Mr.
Loudon advifes to be thinned fomewhat gradually, begin-
ning the work after they have been five or iix years planted,
and continuing it for ten or twelve years : after which time,
thinning, he thinks, becomes pernicious. And that the
trees whicii are to be liiinned out lliould conftaiitly be
grubbed up by the roots ; for that when thefe ai-e fuftcied
to remain, they check tlic progrefs of the trees which are
left. But thele forts of plantations are fometimcs, and very
properly, left altogether witiiout thinning, being cut down
wholly as a crop when fifteen or twenty years old, or of
about that Handing. This is conceived to be in general the
moft profitable mode of planting and after-management on
thin, bare foils in the vicinity of mines and pits, where
wood of this fort is greatly in demand by the proprietors
for the fupport of the upper ftrata. Where fome of the fir
tribe have been planted as nurfes, they are recommended to
be thinned out in a gradual manner, by being grubbed up
as they begin to injure and inconvenience the principal trees.
And groves, where the trees are of the deciduous kinds,
fhould be thinned out after the fame manner ; oulj', the
work in thele cafes may proceed until the trees have ai^rived
at nearly their full growtiis.

Woods, where luider-growth is always the objedl intended
when they are properly planted, require, as has been fe^n
above, no fort of thinning, unlefs in cafes where nurfes have
been planted, or when the timber -trees are too much
crowded by the low growths ; the whole (hould be fuffered
to grow for twelve, fourteen, or more years, or until the
under-growth is in a fuitable ftate to be cut over ; when at
that period the ftrongeft trees ftiould be fixed upon, and left
as ftandards in a properly tliin ftate. As copfe-woods ufually
grow a certain length of time in proportion to their natures
and kinds, and are then wholly cut over by the furface of the
ground ; they, of courfe, demand lefs thinning than others,
or none at all, except when nurfes have been planted among
them ; and in the cafe ot both woods and copfes, thefe, as
they arc thinned out, fiiould conftantly be replaced by the
principal trees at fuitable diftances.

In all cafes where ornam.ent is in any way confidered, the
above writer thinks the trees or copfe left in thinning ftiould
not be equidiftant from each other, but in' groups of irregular
thicknefs ; and it is fuppofed that the fame may be had re-
courfe to even in woods where utility is the chief confider-
ation ; as it will make no material difference in the produce
of timber, and is fo much more natural. See Plantation
and Planting. See alfo Timber and Wood.

Thinning out Crops, the practice of thinning out fuch
plants among them as are too thickly or clofely placed to-
gether, as in the cafe of turnips or other limilar crops. In
the different forts of turnips, the thinnings may be made in
fuch a manner as that the plants may ftand ultimately at the
diftance of from feven or eight to nine or ten inches every
way from each other, in proportion as the land is more
poor or rich in its quality. But in caiTOt crops, the thin-
ning them out to the diftance of about eight or twelve
inches, according to the richnefs of the foil, may probably
be the moft proper praftice. And the fame will moftly be
the cafe for thofe of the parfnip and beet kinds.

Where cabbage, borecole, or other limilar crops, are

fown>

T H I

Town, they (hould always bo thinned out to tJ.e diltance of
. foot and a half, two Ll or n.ore, us the fo.l may be of a
lefs or more rich quality. And lettuces, when put u. by
fowine. fhould be thinned to the d.ftance of from eight to
twelve inches, according to the nature of the foil.

The thinning out of any other fortB of held-crops of theR-
kinds muH alfo be p.-rformed accordmg to their natures and
particular habits of growth. , „ , ■ ,

Some of tliefe forts of crops are beft thinned out in a
irradual manner, as the turnip, carrot, beet, &c. • while in
others it may be done all at once, as for the cabbage, and
fome othi-r kijids. „ ,- ,

There .ire feveral different methods praftifcd in accom-
plilhinff this bufinefs, as by means of the hand fimply, the
ufe of the hand-hoe of different fuitable fi/.es, accordmg to
the dates and circumllanccs of the crops, and lately in the
row kinds, bv an implement invented for the purpoie. 1 his
lail is bv much the cheapell and moft expeditious manner
of performing the work ; if it fliould be found, on further
trial, to be equally accur.ite and effectual in the execution ot
the bufuufs. This fort of tool or machinery was invented
and conftrucled on the fann of Charles Gibfon, efq. at
Quarmer Park, near Lancafter, and a reprefentation of it is
given in the Corrcftcd Agricultural Survey of that county,
lately pubhHied. See Thinning and Hoeing Machine for
Turnips, tffc. , • , ■ J

The other modes of effeding and completing this kind
of work, are a great deal more troublefome, laborious, and
cxpenfive than the above, efpecially the firll of them, as
many hands and much time are required for doing it in the
moil proper .ind effeftual manner by fuch means. Where
the hand-hoe is employed, two or three different fized hoes
are moftiy made ufe of for the purpofe in the different fuc-
ceffive thinning Ivoeings, which, when in the hands of expe-
rienced workmen, do the bufinefs in a pretty quick, eafy,
and complete manner, as the fupernumerary plants are
flruckand cut out with much exaftnefs and regularity. It
is conftantly neceffary in fuch cafes to keep the hoes in a
pretty (harp (late, in order to perform the work well, and
with neatnefs. The principal obicftions to doing this fort
«f labour bv the hand, are its tedioufnefs, and the treading
wliich takes place during the operation.

TitiNNlNG out Plants, in Gariitfning, the pulling or drawing
out fuch as are too clofe and thick in fome crops of the
t;eneral and other kinds, as well as in fome other cafes, fo as
that the remaining ones may (land at proper and fuitable
diftanccs for producing the moll favourable crops, plants, or
other productions. 'Fhis is mollly praftifed in the cafes of
the main crops of onion, carrots, parfnips, beets, fpinach,
and feveral other fiiiiilar kinds, which are fowu in the broad-
call manner ; in different fmall feed crops, for rai(ing plants
to be afterwards fet out, fuch, for inftance, as the cauli-
flower, brocoli, cabbage, borecole, lettuce, endive, and many
others ; and in the producing and bringing forward young
tree plants of moll forts in nurfery grounds and other
places.

Onion crops are, far the mod part, thinned out at dif-
ferent times, as the demands of the markets, or in other
ways may be, fo as to leave the rem.aining plants at the dif-
tances of four or five inches or more from each other, ac-
cording to their nature, kinds, and other circumllances ;
always, however, allowing fufficient room for their full and
complete growths. Much advantage is often made in this
way by the young onions which are thinned out, which
would otherwife be loll and thrown away.

The carrot, parfnip, and beet crops are commonly thinned

T H I

out at one or two thinnings, the (landing plants being left
at the didances of about (ix or eight inches apart, as the
nature of the foil and crops may be. The young plants of
the carrot kind, thus drawn, are in fome cafes bunched and
made ufe of, efpecially when the crops are late in being
thinned out, which (hould always be avoided as much as
poffible.

Lettuce aiid fpinach crops may be thinned out at once to
the didances of fix, eight, or more inches between the
plants, in the different kinds, as the nature of them may be,
when put in upon the broad-cad plan. The thinnings are
of little ufe or value, except for wade purpofes, fuch as
being thrown to the hogs, &c. in thefe indances. Moil
other fimilar forts of crops may be thinned out in the fame
manner.

The fmall feed crops of the different kinds (liould con-
dantly be kept fo thinned out as to prevent the plants of
them from being drawn up in a weak manner, and unfit for
being fet out ; as where the contrary i-s the cafe, there is
always great wade, and the plants feldom fucceed fo well.
They lliould be gradually thinned out by planting, as well
as in other ways.

Young tree plants, in mod cafes, require frequently thin-
ning out in their early growths, in order to raife and bring
them forward in the bed and mod perfedl manner. They
ftiould therefore, in general, be fo kept thinned out as never
to want fufficient room for rifing in the manner which is the
mod natural and proper for them, and for preventing the in-
jury they may fudain by danding too clofe in the rows or
otherways.

Due, early, and proper thinning out of crops and plants,
is of courfe a matter of confiderable importance and utility
in the garden culture of different forts of vegetables, trees,
and other produftions of the fame kinds.

Thinning and Hoeing Machine for Turnips, that fort of
implement or machine which is contrived for the purpofe of
thinning or fetting out this as well as other limilar kinds of
crops that dand in rows. It is made light, and condruded
fomewhat in the form of the plough, having a fuitable ap-
paratus fo attached to it behind as to be put in motion, and
drike out the fupernumerary plants as the horfe proceeds
regularly along the intervals of the ridges. The horfe is
driven by the perfon who holds and direfts the tool while
at work. It is capable of going over a very confiderable
fpace of ground in a (hort time, and if found, on the refult
of further trials, to perform the work with due accuracy
and correftnefs, will be a very great acquifition to the drill
turnip hulbandry, and for different other purpofes of tjie
fame nature.

THIONVILLE, in Geography, a town of France, and
principal place of a didrift, in the department of the Mo-
felle. The place contains 5014, and the canton 13,988 inha-
bitants, on a territory of 175 kiliometres, in 27 communes ;
formerly belonging to the duchy of Luxemburgh, and ceded
to France by the treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. N. lat.
49^21'. E. long. 6° 1 5'.

THIORSAA, a large turbid river of Iceland, on the
road from Skalholt to mount Hetla, the courfe of which is
nearly from N.E. to S.W. In its paffage over rugged
maffes of lava rifing abruptly from its bed, this river dalhes
among the rocks, and forms impetuous rapids and falls.

THIR, in Chronology, the name of the fifth month of the
Ethiopians, which correfponds, according to Ludolf, to the
month of J.inuary.

THIRD, Tertil's. See Number and Numeration.

TiiiuD, in Mufic. The 3d is the mod agreeable and

neceffary

T H I

T II I

ncccITsry concord in counterpoint, tlu-oughout the whole
fyftem of praiilical harmony.

There are two kinds of thirds ; the major or fliarp 3d, which
is four femitones or half notes above the bafe ; and the mi-
nor or flat 3d, which is three.

Very agreeable nuific in two parts may be compofod, and
often is compofed, of thirds only. The 3d is wanted with
every other concord, and even dilcord, except the 4th, when
it is ufed as fuch with the 2d inftead of the 9th.

Dr. Pepufch, in his " Treatife on Harmony," has given
curious and ample inftrudyons for the ufe of thirds in com-
polltion.

It would be a curious inquiry, why a 3d was regarded
by the ancients as a tlifcord ; aiid why it is called by the
moderns an imperfci} concord. We cannot afford ipace for
long difquifitions on every fubjecl of vain and frivolous curi-
ofity, among which this would probably be numbered. But it
feems as if the ancients ellimatcd the perfection of confo-
nances by the fimplicity of ratios in the divifion of the mono-
chord ; regarding the odave as the moft perfeft concord next
to the unilon, as it was produced by a fimple divilion of
a llring into halves, exprelTed by - - - -^

Tiie next in perfection was the 5th, produced by al 3

third part of a firing - - " "j '

After this, the 4th, which was reckoned by the an-l

cients not only a concord, but a perfed concord, ex- > ?

preifed by the ratio of - - . . j

A fourth part of a firing gives tlie 15th, or doubled ,

oftave - - - - "J

The fifth pan of a ftring produces the major 3d to'

the tjth, which, though in the organ the

called the tierce, it is a major 1 7th to the diapafon

its ratio is exprefTed by
The minor 3d is expreffed by - - - -'-

The major 6th, compofed of four tones and a fenii-'

E . . . . 5^ ^

tone major, as p : Us ratio is

Tl»e minor 6th, compofed of three tones and two'

major femitones, as p : its ratio is

The extreme (harp, or, as the French call it, the fu- -^
perfluous 6th, compofed of four tones, a femitone |

major, and a femitone minor, as p'^L : the ratio of J

this 6th is - - - - -"^

We beUeve that the triple progreffion of a feries of perfeft
5lhs made the major 3ds fo extremely harth, that no natural
good ear could admit them among the concords. And in the
(irft attempts at counterpoint, it was a long time before a 3d
was admitted in dtfcant, in which d'latejfaronare and quintonr,
or a diatonic feries of 4ths and Jths, now prohibited, was
preferred to 3ds and 6ths in fucceefTion.

Third Borough, in our Ancient Law-Boohs, denotes a
conftable.

Third Earing, in Hujhandry, the tilling or ploughing of
the ground a third time.

Third RJlate. See Estate, Commons, &.c.

Third Niglit-awn-hynd. By the laws of Edward the
Confeffor, a gucft, who had lain three nights in an inn, was
reputed a domeftic, and his hoft was anfwerable for what
offence he fliould commit.

For one night he was accounted uncuth ; for two nights,
guej} ; and the thh'd, awji-hynd, or hogen-hyne. " Prima
node incognitus, fecunda hofpes, tertia domeflicus ccn-
fetur."

Third Order, a fort of religious order, that obferves the
7

jd toT

ftopf ,
ifon : f 5

:}

fame rule, and the fame manner of life, in proportion as
fome other two orders inftituted before.

The third orders are not originally religious orders, but
afTociations of fccular, and even married pcrfons, who c<(n-
form, a» far as I'v ir condition will allow thtrn, to the dellgn,
intention, and rul.-s of a rehgious order, wiiich affociates and
direifls tliem.

The Pi-a?mon(lrantes, Carmelites, Auguflines, and Fran-
cifcans, diipute among themfelves the honour of having firft
introduced third orders ; but the prrtenfions of the lail ap-
pear to be the bell founded.

The firfl contend, that the third order of Prxmonflrantes
began in the life-time of their founder'St.Norbert, who died
in 1 134.

F. Diego dc Coria Maldonado, a Spanifli Carmelite, who
has a particular treatife on the third order of Carmelites, de-
rives them immediately, as well as the Carmelites tlicmfelves,
from the prophet Elijah.

Tlie third order of Auguflines, if we credit F. Bruno, was
inftituted by St. Auguftine himfelf ; but the arguments he
produces are fo frivolous, that F. Helyot obferves, they are
not worth refuting.

The third order of Franeifeans was inftituted by St.
Francis in 1221, in favour of people of both fexes ; who
being fmitten with the preachings of that faint, demanded
of him an eafy manner of living a Chriftian life ; upon which
he gave them a rule, the conftitutions of which are not
now extant, as written by himfelf, but only as reduced
and confirmed by pope Nicholas IV. fjxty-eight years
afterwards.

Thofe of the firft order of this faint are the monks called
Minor Friars, comprehending the Cordeliers, Capuchins, and
Recolleds ; the feeond comprehends the nuns of St. Clare ;
and the third, feveral perfons of both fexes, who live at
liberty : and thefe are what we call the third srder. See
Franciscan's, &c.

Of this order, which was only cftabHflied for fecular per-
fons, feveral of both fexes, to attain the greater perfection,
have afterwards commenced religious, and formed various
congregations, under various names ; as " Religious Penitents
of the Third Order," &c.

Third Point, or Tierce-point, in Archite&ure, the point of
feftion in the vertex of an equilateral triangle.

Arches or vaults of the third point, called by the Italians
diterzo acuta, are thofe confifting of two arcs of a circle
meeting in an angle at top. See Arch.

Third Point, in Per/pellive. See PoInt.

Third Rate. See Rate.

Third Subftdy Duty. See Duty.

Third Sound, in Mu/ic. See Terzo Suono, Tartini,
and Stillingfleet.

Third Tear, Tithe of the. See Tithe.

THIRDENDALE, a liquid meafureufed at Saliftjury,
containing three pints.

THIRDINGS, the third year of the corn or grain grow-
ing on the ground at the tenant's death, due to the lord for
an heriot, within the manor of Turfat, in Herefordfhire.

THIRLAGE, or Thirlage to Mills, in Rural Economy,
a contraft or power authorized by law, to prevent the te-
nants of certain diflridls from carrying their corn to be
ground any where elfe than at a particular mill. It was a
praftice which formerly prevailed much ; and it was too
often ufed as an engine of oppreffion, that proved extremely
galhng to thofe who were obliged to fubmit to it, but
which at prefent is nearly, if not wholly done away, except
in certain places.

The account of the origin and nature of this opprcflive

practice.

THIRLAGE.

praaice. wKicl. t.a» oeon g'ven by the author of the ongina^
A.rncultural Si.r»fy of Eaft Lothian, n the latter diftr.ft
of%untn', may not be umnt.-rofting to ..-,n curious .nquirer.
It is concoircd'thatther.-, in former times, corn was reduced
into meal, as in ancient Rome, by a hand '.m\\, which was
called a gufn, ; and which was ufed in the nmote parts ot
the Highlands of Scotland long after the yoar 1745.

It is certain, however, that the water machme called the
miU, for the grindin-ofcats into meal, is of high antiquity in
the fame country ; a'^nd as it was introduced before the period
of record, it may he fairly faid "caput inter nubiliacondit.
Hut from the ancient name of one of tlie duties, bwvrjbp,
which will be afterwards explained, the mill would feem to
be of Saxon original. „• n- ,

It feems alfo natural, that a perfon who ponefied a itrcam
of water upon his cilate, (hould be invited by his neigh-
bours to be at the expence of ercfting a mill upon this
ftream ; and that they, on the other hand, (liould th:rle, that
is, aftrici and bind their lands, in all time coming, to ule ai.d
frequent this mill with their corns, and to pay a certain pro-
portion of the meal according to the univerfal mode then
pradifed of paying in kind for the grinding of it.

Ancientiv, it is contended, there is reafon to beheve, the
iniUs were at firfl erefted upon ecclefiaftical lands, and be-
longed to the clergy.

It is Hated, that there are three different fpecies of this
fort of fervitude known and acknowledged in the law of the
above country ; but of thefe, two only belong properly to
rural economy ; however, in order more thoroughly to under-
Aand the fubjedl, tlic whole may be fliortly explained.

It is noticed, that the firft and the Ughteft fpecies of
thirlage, is called the thirlage of grhuialle grain, and it means
tliat the tenants and poflefTors of the aftricled lands (in the
law of the above country the fcrvient tenement) fhall be
obliged to refort to the mill (the dominant tenement) to
which thefe lands have been aftrifted, with all the oats and
barley they (hall ufe for food, and there pay certain dues
for the grinding of them.

Th'; fecond, and the oppreflive thirlage, is, it is faid, called
the thirlage of growing corn. By this covenant of thirlage, it
is ftated, that every ounce of corn produced upon the fervient
lands, let the quantity be ever fo great, mull be brought to
the dominant mill, and there manufaftured into meal, and
the covenanted or accuftomed duties paid.

It is fuggefted, that the only limitation that this fevere
thirlage admitted of, was in favour of feed and of horfe
com.

Sometimes a fpecial covenant was made, by which the
poffenors of the fervient lands paid what was called dry
multure ; that is, they paid a quantity of corn to purchafe
tlie freedom of going to market with the remainder in the
fame ftate ; and where conftant immemorial ufage has fanc-
tioned this cuilom, the courts of law generally, it is faid,
have fo far mitigated the feverity of this fpecies of thirlage,
as to find, that the proprietor of the dominant mill can de-
mand no more than that quantity of dry multure, which the
immemorial ufage has eftabliftied. Such decifions are aflerted
to be grounded upon the principle of a prefumed contradl,
of which the record or memory has been loft betwixt thefe
parties, whereby the one agreed to pay, and the other to
receive, the commutation fixed by the ufage.

The third and laft fpecies of thirlage h, it is obfei-ved,
called the thirlage of in-vraa et illata, and belongs properly
to urban tenements : the meaning of it is, that corn, wher-
ever produced, if brought for confumption within the bound-
aries of the dominant mill, mull be carried to the mill and
manufaftured there, and pay the accullomcd duties.

It is ftated that this fpecies of thirlage exifted in mod
of the boroughs of the above country ; and that the mill
generally belongs to the incorporation, wliere the borough
holds direftly of the crown, or what are called royal
boroughs. But where a borough holds of a fubjeft fuperior
(the lord of the manor), the mill generally belongs to the
fuperior, and the accuftomed duties are paid to hii.i, or to his
tenant in the mill.

It is to be obfcrved, the writer fays, that in all thefe
tliirlages, it was the land of the fervient tenement that was
bound ; and that although it fliould pafs by purchafe
through twenty different hands, every purchafer, and all
his people upon thefe lands, were equally bound to fre-
quent tiie dominant mill.

It is further noticed, that there were alfo three different
fpecies of duties paid at the dominant mill ; as, firft, the
multure [tmdtura, grinding) ; fecondly, the beinnock (loaf) ;
and, thirdly, the kna-ucjlnp.

It is remarked, that the firft of thefe duties belonged to
the heritor and proprietor of the mill ; and feems evidently
to have been the iine or premium, originally fettled, as the
inducement for his being at the expence of ere&ing the
mill, and for fupporting the machinery of it in future. The
bannock v.-as the duty paid to the miller ; and the hnavejhip
the duty paid to the under fervants in the mill.

It is ftated, that the quantity of meal paid under the
name of multure, varied confidcrably in different counties,
and even at different mills. It has been known as Wgh as
the eleventh boll, and fometimes as low as the twenty-
fecond boll ; and in one particular inftance fo fmall as the
thirty-fecond : but it may be taken, on the average, at
nearly the feventeenth boll.

The other duties were alfo various ; but they may, it is
fuppofed, be taken jointly as equal to the half, or from that
to three -fourths of the multure.

But wholly independent of thefe feveral duties, the pof-
feffors of the fervient tenement were, ■ix is faid, bound to
perform certain perfonal fervices to the mill and its append-
ages : for inftance, when the dam-dyke, or the rampart
that direfts the ftream of water from the river to the mill
wanted repair, or when the aquedufts to and from the mill
required to be fcoured, the people of the fervient tenement
muft turn out and perform thefe works. When the roof
of the houfe in which the mill ftood decayed, they muft
find thatch for making that repair, and they muft put it on.
When grind-ftones were wanted, or an axle, or any other
part of the machinery that required a heavy carriage, they
muft go with their horfes and carriage to the neareft place
(whatever might be the diftance) to bring thefe articles to
the mill.

But this fpecies of thirlage, it is believed, never was
known in the above county ; or that at leaft, if it was, it
has long fince been forgot. Befides, it is noticed, that
there was another circumftance peculiarly fortunate, which
put it in the power of moft of the landed proprietors of
that county, without difficulty, to emancipate their tenants
from the thirlage even of grindable grain, namely, that the
landlord almoft univcrfally was proprietor both of the domi-
nant and fervient tenement ; and that as he aftrifted his
tenants to his own mill by a covenant in the leafe, progref-
fively as the leafes of the mills expired, the landlords in
general emancipated their tenants from every Tpecies of
thirlage, at a converfion of twenty fhillings per plough,
which was paid by the tenant?; and he and his fervants were
left at perfeft freedom to refort to any mill, where they
could get their work beft done, and at the loweft rate.
The cafe, however, it is remarked, was widely different

T H I

T H I

in many parts of the north of the above coHntry ; and it is
known, from what has already been mentioi.vd, that there
were many eltatcs, or fer-vient ieneituti's, belonging to one
proprietor, which were allridled to mills, or the dominant
tenements, belonging to another proprietor, and that not
a few of thcfe thirlages were the fevere one of groiuing
corns.

The writer does not think it here neceflary to inquire whe-
ther thefe mills were originally erected by the clergy, and
fince the reformation in religion, have pafTed into the hands of
laymen ; or whether, perhaps, if mills are truly of Saxoii
origin, they were generally, and at once introduced into
the above country, when under the Saxons, wlio certainly
•were, it is thought, a more enlightened people than the
Scottifli and Piftidi inhabitants of the North, whole igno-
rance, of courfe, may have led them more generally to fub-
jeft thcmlelves in the fervitude of thirlage, to invite their
clergy, or a few of the more wealthy among them, to
undertake the arduous talk of erefting mills.

From the near analogy betwixt tithes and thirlage, it has
appeared to the writer a matter of juft furprife, that the
parliament of the above country, which, in the courfe of
a preceding century, firft authorifed the valuing of tithes
for the purpofe of fixing a modus of payment, and after-
wards compelled the lay titulars (proprietors) to f?ll their
tithes at nine, and in fome cafes at fix years' purchafe, to
the proprietors of the lands, did not introduce a fixed
modus for thirlage, which certainly operated like tithes, as
a tax upon induftry, to bar, or at leaft to retard agricul-
tural improvement in its progrefs. Sec Tithe.

THIRLBY, Styan, LL.D. in Biography, a learned
critic, was born about the year 1692 at Leicefter, and
iir.iflied his education at Jefus college, Cambridge, blending
promifing talents with felf-conceit, litigioufnefs of temper,
and a habit of intemperance. He appeared at an early age
as a writer of controverfial pamphlets, and thus acquiring
fome degree of reputation, obtained the fellowfhip of his
college at the age of about 2 1 years. In maturer Ufe he
probably applied to Itudy with greater dihgence, for his
edition of Juftin Martyr, to which he was indebted for
literary reputation, was publifhed in 1722. Verfatile in his
difpofition, he diverted his attention at this time from divi-
nity to phyfic, and accepted the port of librarian to the
duke of Chandos. In this ftation he continued for a fhort
time, and being under a neceffity of quitting it, he became
firft a ftudent in civil law, and afterwards in common law.
Weary of thefe purfuits, he refided in the houfe of his former
pupil, fir Edward Walpole, by whofe intereft he obtained a
finecure place in the port of London, of the value of about
100/. a-year. Upon leaving this afylum, he took private
lodgings ; but continued to indulge his habit of fotting and
intoxication. He is faid to have contributed fome notes to
Theobald's edition of Shakfpeare ; but his felf-indulgence
and indolence rendered him unfit for mental exertion, and
he doled his career in December 1753. His edition of
Juftin Martyr, cenfured by fome, but regarded upon the
whole as a valuable performance, contains Juftin's two apo-
logies, and his dialogue with Tryphon the Jew, Greek and
Latin, with notes and emendations by the editor, and feledl
notes by former editors. Nichols's Lit. Anecd. Gen.
Bio^.

THIRLWAL Castle, in Geography, a boundary
fortrefs between England and Scotland, on the PiAs' Wall ;
3 miles N.W. of Haltwefel.

THIRON de Gardais, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Euve and Loire, 21 miles S.W. of
Chartros.

Vol. XXXV.

THIRSK, or Tmrusk, a borough and market -town in
the wapentake of Birdforth, North Riding of the county of
York, England ; is 23 miles N.W. by N. from the city of
York, and 223 miles N.N.W. from London. It is fituated
in a plain, nearly furrounded by hills, on the banks of a
rivulet c?lled Cod-beck, which divides the town into two
parts, refpeftively named the Old Town and the New,
which are connedled by two fmall ftone bridges. The two
towns are diftindl, as far as relates to the eleftion of mem-
bers ; but in all other refpcfts are confidered as one. The
civil government is vefted in a bailiff, annually chofen by
the burgage holders. The New Town ftands within the
precinfts of the ancient caftle of the Mowbrays. In the
centre of the town is the market-place ; which would be
one of the fiueft in the county, were it not for the tolbooth
and Ihamblcs, now in a ruinous condition. The market is
held on Mondays, and is well fupplied with all kinds of
provifions. Five fairs are held annually for liorned cattle,
fheep, leather, and woollen cloth. Thefe fairs attraft a
confidcrable number of dealers, and, with the advantage of
the great North road from York, are very beneficial to the
town, and in fome degree fupply the want of maimfaftures,
of which here are only a fmall quantity of coarfe linens and
facking, and a few bridles and faddles. The population,
as returned to parhament in the year 181 1, confifted of
2155 perfons, occupying 549 houfes. The parifh church
ftands on a rifing ground at the northern extremity of the
town. The roof, which is elliptical, and of oak, orna-
mented with carving, is fupported by a double row of
pillars and pointed arches. In the fouth wall of the chancel,
near the altar, are three ornamented ftone feats. The church is
generally fuppofed to have been built out of the ruins of the
ancient caftle, which was demoliftied in the reign of Henry II.
A moat and rampart are ftill to be feen, but no veftige of
the building remains ; and in Camden's time, it was nearly
in the fame ftate. It had once, however, been a place of
great ftrength, when held by the potent Mowbray family.
It was here that Roger de Mowbray began his rebellion
againft Henry II. and joined the king of Scotland againft
his own fovereign. The revolt was fupprefled, and the
caftle of Thirdv, as well as feveral others belonging to the
rebellious lords, were by the king's order deftroyed. Be-
fides the pai-ifh church, the Calvinifts, the Quakers, and
the Methodifts, have their refpeftive meeting-houfes. Here
is alfo a School of Induftry for poor girls, who are clothed
and taught reading, writing, and arithmetic, plain work,
knitting, &c.

That divifion of the town called Old Thirjk, is a borough
by prefcription, and returns two members to parliament.
The right of aleftion is in the occupiers of burgage tene-
ments, now only fifty in number, of which forty-nine are
the property of fir Thomas Frankland, bart. Old Thirflc
confifts of a range of cottages on each fide of the turnpike
road leading from York to Stockton, and of two fquares
furrounded by the fame kind of buildings. In one of thefe
fquares, called St. James's Green, the cattle fairs are held ;
the other is the fcite of an ancient church, of which, time
has long fince fwept away every veftige. In the latter of
thefe fquares is an elm-tree of venerable antiquity, from
which the place takes its name, Hawm (that is Elm)
Green ; and under the fliade of whofe branches the mem-
beis of parliament are elefted. One of the cliief incon-
veniences of Thirflc and the adjacent country, is the fcareity
and high price of coal, which is brought from, the county of
Dui'ham in fmall carts, containing from eighteen to twenty-
two bufhels, varying in price according to the feafon.

In the vicinity of the town is Byland abbey, which was
3 Z founded

T 11 1

Uiib4lr«l m the year 1177, by Roger ik Mowbray, when a
ftiltly monaftcry and church wire ercftcd, aiiJ drilicatcd
to ihe Virpjiii Mary. This abbey continued to flourilh till
the general dilTolution in 1540, when the fcitc and mod of
the demefnes were granted to fir William Pickering. At
prefent, the ruins and fcite belong to the honourable family
of Stapylton.

Near the bafe of the H.-imbleton hill,;, within four
miles of Thirft, is Thirkleby-Hall, the feat of fir Tliomas
Frankland, bart. The walks and pleafiire-grounds are cx-
tenfive and well laid out ; and the houfo is an elegant mo-
dem ftruAure. — Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xvi.
Yorkftiire ; by J. Bigland.

THIRST, a painful fenfation, occafioned by a vellica-
tion of the nerves of the throat or fauces, and producing a
defire of drinking. See Dioestion.

Third may be fometimcs eluded by rolling a clean bullet
or a pebble in the mouth, which occafions an extraordinary
iffue of faliva to moiften the ttu'oat, &c.

Mr. Boyle mentions a man who could eafily abftain fi-om
drinking for nine days, and yet have his diet nothing more
liquid than ufual ; the fecretions of urine, fweat, &c. being
performed all the while regularly, and in the fame quantity
as ufual.

In dropfical cafes, where there is not a right fecretion of
the urine by the renal glands, and tlie vcffels and parts of
tJie body are loaded with too great a quantity of ferous
humours, a great moderation in drink might be attended
with good fuccefs, provided fomc liquor could be found
out to allay that uneafy fenfation. Probably this would be
beft performed by mucilages acidulated with fpirit of vitriol
or fulphur, or jellies with juice of lemon, &c. and that a
fmall quantity of fuch a compofition, now and then ufcd,
might be of as much real fervice, in quenching third, as
draughts cf liquors, which increafe the fymptoms.

In feverifh diforders, the patient is frequently tormented
with a violent third, which is moderated by acidulating the
barley-water, or fage-tea, with fpirit of vitriol, or with
lemon-juice : but by nothing fo much, as allowing the
patient fome dices of an orange. Pringle, Obferv. on Dif-
cafes of the Army, p. 135.

THIRSTY Sound, in Geography, an inlet or bay on the
N.E. coad of New Holland, fo called by Cook in 1770,
becaufe it afforded no fre(h water. It lies in S. lat. 22° 10',
and W. long. 210' 18'; and may be known by a group
of fmall iflands lying under the (hore, from two to five
leagues didant, in the dircftion of N.W., and by another
group of iflands that lie right before it, between three and
Four leagues out at fea. In this inlet is good anchorage in
7, 6, 5, and 4 fathom ; and here are places very convenient
for laying a fliip down, where, at fpring-tides, the water
does not rife lefs than 16 or 18 feet. The N.W. point of
Thirdy Sound was called " Pier-Head."

THIRTEEN Islands, a cluder of iflands in the
Pacific ocean, among the New Carolinas, fo named by
Capt. Wilfon. N. lat. of the mod foutherlv 7° 16'.
E. long. 144° 30'.

THISATON, a river of Canada, which runs into lake
Huron, N. lat. 46^ W. long. 84°.

THISMA, a name ufed by fome for any fubterranean
vein, or bed of a mineral.
• .J^^S'^'LE, in Agriculture, a well-known prickly trou-
bleiome weed, common in corn and other fields. It has
been obferved, that wherever thidles grow naturally, it is a
iure fign that the land is ftrong, and of a tolerable good
quality ; but that they ai'e at the fame time a great annoy-
aace to every plant intended to be cultivated. And it has

T H I

alfo been well remarked, that there are no weed-plants over
which the economical farmer ought to keep a more watchful
eye than the thidlc tribe, as they are not only wholly ufe-
lefs, but occupy much ground, and being furniflied with
downy feeds, are capable of being multiplied and car-
ried almod to any didance. Befides, they do much mif-
chief by impeding the work both in handUng hay and corn
crops. It is of courfe a matter of much confequence to be
well acquainted with the qualities of each kind, in order
to enable the farmer to judge with certainty how far and by
what means their dedrudlion may be effefted in the moil
certain and ready manner.

There are a great many forts of thidles ; and thofe which
chiefly dcfcrve the attention of the farmer, are the annual,
biennial, and^crennja/ kiuds.

There are four of thefe plants belonging to the fird divi-
fion or fort, namely, the mujk-thijlle, which grows to the
height of two or three feet ; the heads hang down, and the
flowers fmell fomewhat like muflc. It is frequently found
occupying whole fields, particularly where the lands are of
a chalky or barren quality ; and fending forth flowers in
July and the following month in great abundance. The
milk-thijlle, which is found plentiful in mod wade places,
and upon old banks, being well known by its beautiful
large leaves, which are variegated with white fpots and
veins, as if they had been fprinkled with milk. The flow-
ering feafon of this plant is in Augud, or thereabouts. The
ivelted or curled thidle, which is frequently met with on
banks, and by- road-fides, but feldom intruding itfelf into
fields or paftures. Its time of flowering is June and the
following month. See Carduuj.

And the common foiu-thiflle, which is a very troublefome
weed in fields and gardens ; it is found in fome fituations
that the plant is fmooth, but in others that it is rough, being
prickly on the margins and mid-ribs of the leaves, and alfo
on the peduncles and calyces of the flowers, and the dems
or dalks abound with a laftefcent or milky juice. See

SONCHUS.

But in the fecond divifion, or biennial kind, there are not
more than three, as the /fear or bull-thifih, which rifes about
three or four feet in height, the extremity of each leaf
running out into a long fliarp point, remarkably prickly :
hence, in fome places it is called by the name of the buU-
thidle. It has large heads of flowers, and commonly grows
by the fides of roads, near dunghills, and not unfrequently
in fields and padures, flowering in June and the following
month : the marjh-thijlle, which grows very tall and prickly,
having numerous heads of flowers, fmall and of a red co-
lour, growing abundantly in wet meadows and in woods,
flowering in July and the month which fucceeds it. See
Carduus.

And the cotton-thijlle, which is found plentifully in uncul-
tivated places in many parts. The roots are long and
fibrous, and fend forth (everal oblong ftiarp-pointed whitifti-
green finuated leaves, covered with a cottony down, and
fet with fpines on tlieir edges. In the middle of thefe
ftioots up a ftalk, to the height of five or fix feet, divided
towards the top into diverfe branches, fet with leaves at
their joints, and having jagged, leafy borders running along
them, edged with fpires, as has the main dalk alfo. Each
branch terminates with a fcaly head of reddifh purple flo-
rets, having narrow tubes, and cut at their brim into five
teeth. They contain flowers, which are fucceeded by
fmall oblong feeds crowned with down. The time of its
flowering is about July, for the mod part. See Onopor-

DUM.

And in the third divifion or fort there are only two ; as

the

THISTLE.

the corn fotu-thi/lle, wliicli is a very troublefome weed in
arable land, flowering in July and the fucceeding month.
See SoNCHUs.

And the common or fcU-thi/lle, which has many provincial
names in different places, as the horfe-thijlle, the cltrfed
thyile, &c. This is a tliiftle which is more general in its
growth than any of the others, being found not only by the
fides of roads, bnt alfo in arable and pafture lands, and it is
remarkably prickly, growing from two to three feet in
heiglit, but the heads of the flowers are fmall, and of a
purplifli colour, though fometimcs white ; it flowers in
July, or about that period. See Carduus and Seura-

TULA.

It is obvious, from what has been faid, that the annual
and biennial forts of thiftles may be readily removed, by
preventing their rumiing to feed and difleminating them-
felves over the land ; wliich is bed effefted probably by
carefully eradicating them, or frequently mowing them over
clofely by the furface, and rolling. But in the perennial
forts, from their roots continuing in the earth, increafing
and throwing out new flioots or Items every year, there is
mTich more difSculty in extirpating them, and they, perhaps,
can be no other way completely deftroyed than by rooting
them out on arable land by trench or deep ploughing and
frequent harrowings, or by fallowing or laying the land
down to pafture ; for the firft of thefe forts feldom appears
in pafture lands. But for deftroying the common thiftles,
the beft method is perhaps by cutting them over in the
bleeding feafon frequently by proper implements. The
writer of the Berkfhire Agricultural Report, who thinks
tliem particularly noxious, troublefome, and inconvenient
among the corn and grafs crops, propofes drawing them up
by an implement of the forceps kind, fomewhat fimilar to
that defcribed under the head noticed below, efpecially the
fort which is termed ferratula arvcnfis ; or if they be cut
over about an inch above the furface of the ground, it is
believed they will be liable to rot, on account of the ftem
being filled with water. They alfo frequently bleed to
death when cut over in this way about the month of Au-
guft, as hinted at above. See TmsTl.^-Dra'wer.

Others fuggeft that thiftles might probably be deftroyed
in arable land by continued fallowing for one or two fum-
mers ; with fuch repeated ploughing and hoeing as wholly
to prevent their vegetating : but as fuch a progrefs would
be tedious and expenfive, an eafy, expeditious, and effectual
mode of eradicating them in this cafe, feems equally want-
ing and defirable, as in that of grafs lands. Thiftles are
likewife very troublefome in hedges, efpecially thofe of the
fow and the large rough kinds, and ftiould conftantly be
rooted out and removed as foon as pofFible, as no hedge
can go on well that is much infefted with them. See This-
TLZ-Cutter, Weed, and AVeeding.

It may be noticed, that by an excellent regulation in
France, a farmer may fue his neighbour who neglefts to
tliiftle his land at the proper feafons, or may employ people
to do it at the other's expence. And it were to be wiftied
that a fimilar law was enafted here, to prevent the wide-
fpreading mifchief occalioiied by the feeding of this per-
uicious weed ; among which may be reckoned, befides its
choaking the young corn, that if wheat in particular be not
well thiftled, the reapers take up the grips fo tenderly,
left they fhould prick themfelves, that by their loofe hand-
ling of them, they fometimes leave upon the ground
corn enough to fow the whole field. There is much in-
convenience often experienced too in working hay from
them.

Something in the fame way as above has alfo lately been

done here, efpecially in reg^d to the removal of them from
the fides of highways and roads.

Though the fow-thiftle has commonly been confidered as
a troublefome and injurious weed in tillage lands, it has
lately been conceived by fome to poflefs no fmall degree of
nutrient power ; and on this ground it has been fuggeftcd
by the writer of the " Experienced Farmer," that it may be
a plant of confiderable fattening properties when properly
raifcd and cultivated. When taken young, and cut or
broken, it produces fomething, it is faid, like cream ; and he
has noticed that many animals eat it in preference to every
other plant now in vogue. Sheep, when in clover, &c.
v^-jU feed upon it fo greedily as to cat the very roots. P'gs
likewife prefer it to almoft any other green food. Rab-
bits will breed more fpeedily when fed with fow-thiftles,
than with any other food he knows of, except dandelion ;
which is of the fame nature : and is now fold in Covent
Garden market to the breeders of tame rabbits, to make
the does take buck more readily. A man of his acquaint-
ance, who was allowed better flcill with ftallions than the
generality of people, ufed to fearch for fow-thiftles,
and give them to his horfes to make them fer«re mares more
readily and effeftually. When he could not get fow-thiftles,
he fed them, it is faid, with new laid eggs and milk, or cream,
if he could get it ; but he preferred fow-thiftles or dande-
lion to any thing.

And there is, he contends, a well-known and remarkable
proof of the nourifhing and feeding quality of the Cow-thiftle,
in the fat wether fheep fed to fuch an amazing fize by
Mr. Trimnel, of Bicker-fen, near Bofton, upon fen-land.
This ftieep, it is faid, was bred by Mr. Hutchinfon, in Hail-
fen, from a ram bred by Mr. Robinfon of Kirby, near
Sleaford. He never ate any corn, oil-cake, or other fimi-
lar dry food, but fed wholly on grafs and herbage. Being
turned with many other ftieep into a field of clover, he was
obferved firft to fearch for the fow-thiftles, and would eat
no other food while any of thefe could be found in the
parts of the field that were hurdled off" fucceflively, a little
at a time. None of the other ftieep that fed with him, how-
ever, ftiewed any extraordinary liking for the fow-thiftle.
A fmall hut was built for him in the field to repofe under
in hot weather : and when the part that was hurdled off" be-
came bare of food, his attendants, on account of his liking
for fow-thiftles, gathered a quantity of them for him, which
they gave him at particular hours, three times a day, from
two to five pounds at a meal.

It is added, that when ftanding on his feet, he meafured
only two feet fix inches high : he was weighed once a
month, and weighed ahve twenty-fix ftone, at fourteen
pounds to the ftone. He gained only one pound the laft;
month : and as it was judged, therefore, that he was quite
ripe, and would not increafe any more, but might polfibly
lofe weight the next month, he was killed on the 13th of
Oftober 1 79 1, by Mr. Ifaac Lumby, of Bicker, being
then a four-lTiear, or four-year-old ftieep.

The writer further ftates, that the flfin, hung up by the nofe
part, meafured ten feet two inches from the point of the
nofe to the tip of the tail, and was fold for 7^. 6J. in the
common courfe of bufinefs. And that the carcafe mea-
fured five feet from the nofe to the tail ; the rump or
cufliion eight inches and a half in depth ; plate or fore-flank
the fame thicknefs ; breaft end feven inches ; and was one
yard five inches and a half round the coUar. That the
legs were reckoned at 4olbs. each ; but if cut haunch of
venifon faftiion, they would, it is faid, have weighed ^olbs.
each. Mr. Lumby was offered 2s. a pound for them ; fo
that he oc^ild have fold the two legs alone for 10/. when fo cut.

3Z 2

This

T H I

Th'i-i i^ ccrtairly a remarkable inftance of fatnefs, but it
might probably depend more on tlie difpofition of the ani-
mJ to take on fat, than the fattening quahty of the thiftlc
or food on ^ellich tlie (hcep was fed. Many further trials
are nocefl;u-v to fully afcertain the point.

Tms PLR, Bl'fftit, carjuui btnediaus, vel cnicus. See Cr.x-

TAfllEA.

As an article of the Malcria Medica, the bleiled thiltle,
which is tlie hair)' \rAi cnicus of Miller, and the centaurea
ifwHifla of Linnxus, was formerly much ufod in infufion,
as a gentle emetic, in fevers and certain naufeas.

Dr. Lewis has often obfervcd excellent efFefts from a
light infufion of caiduus, in weaknefs of appetite and in-
digeftion, where the ftomach was injured by irregularities,
or opprclTed by vifcid phlegm ; nor has he found any one
medicine of the bitter kind to fit fo eafily on weak ftomachs,
or to heat fo little. Thefe infufions, taken freely, promote
the natural fecrctions. Drank warm in bed, they com-
monly increafe perfpiiation or excite fweat ; and as they
aft with great mildnefs, not heating or irritating confider-
ably, they have been ufed, in this intention, in acute as well
as chronical cafes. The feeds, which, as well as the leaves,
have a confiderably bitter tafte, have fometimes been ufed
as fudorifics or diaphoretics, in the form of an emulfion.
Cold water poured on the leaves, extrafts, in an hour or
two, a light grateful bitternefs ; by Handing long upon the
plant, the liquor becomes dlfagreeable : a ftrong decoftion
is very naufeous and.offenfive to tlie ftomach. The ex-
traSs, obtained by infpiffating both the cold infufion and
decoftion, have the fame differences as the liquors them-
felves. Redtified fpirit extrafts, in a (hort time, the light
bitter part of this plant, but does not take up the naufeous
near fo eafily as water. On keeping the watery extracts
for fome months, a confiderable quantity of fallne matter
was formed on the furface, in fmall cryftals, refembling in
Ihape thofe of nitre, in the tafte bitteri(h, with an imprcffion
of coolnefs. Lewis's Mat. Med. See Centaurea Bene-
diSa.

Some diftil a water from it, which they ufe in cordial and
fudorific potions.

Thistle, Carline. See Carlina.

The root of the carl'ma acmilis of Linnaeus, is fuppofed
to be diaphoretic, antihyftcric, and anthelmintic. It has
been greatly cfteemed by fomc foreign phyCcians, in acute
malignant as well as in chronical difeafes, and given in fub-
ttance from a fcruple to a drachm, and in infufion from one
to two drachms and more. It is rarely to be met with in our
(liops. See Carlina Caulefcens.

Thistle, Bijlaff. See Atractylis.

The roots of the atra^ylis gummifcra of Linnaeus, or pine-
thiftle, which is a native of Italy and the ifland of Candy,
yield, if wounded when frefh, a vifcous milky juice, which
concretes into tenacious maffes, at firft whitifh and refembling
wax, but when much handled growing black ; fuppofed to
be the ixion, and acanthina majliche of the ancients. The
juice is faid to have been formerly chewed for the fame pur-
pofes as maftich, and the root itfelf of the fame virtue with
that of the carline thiftlc. Lewis.

Thistle, Fijh, a fpecies of C<zr</aa.r ,- which fee.

Thlstle, Fuller's. See Dipsacus and Teasel.

Thistle, Gentle, a fpecies of Carduus ; which fee.

Thistle, G/oie. SeeEcniNops.

Thistle, Golden. See Sooly.mus.

Thistle, Hedge-hog, a fpecies of Cadus ; which fee.

Thistle, LadUs, or Milk, z fyecies of Carduus ; which
fee.

Thistjle, Alelon. See Cactus.

T H L

Thistle, Sow. Sec Sonchus.

Thistle, Doivny Sow. See Andryala.

Thistle, Star. See Centaurea.

Thistle, Torch. See Cactus.

Thistle, Woolly. See Onopordum.

TiilsTLE-C«!'^f/-, in uigrkulture, a tool of the fward-'
drefiing kind, for cutting up thiftlcs and other coarfe weeds
and plants.

An elfeftive implement of this fort has lately been in-
vented, delineated, and defcribed by Mr, Amos, in his work
on " Agriculture and Planting."

The plan of the whole machine, when complete, is that of
a fort of fquare, in which the leading fhare is made of caft-
fteel, in the form of an ifofceles triangle, whofe equal fides
are fourteen inches long, and its bafe twelve inches, being
about one-eighth of an inch thick in the middle, tapering
to a very fine edge on the outfides. There are four pieces
of a(h-wood, three inches fquare, and two feet four inches
long, to which the fcythes are fixed, and which are called th-;
fcythe-handles. There are alfo four fcythes, three feet lonr-
from point to point, four inches broad at the wideft part,
made of caft-fteel, and which, the inventor fays, are manu-
faflured by Meffi's. Hunt and Company, at their caft-fteel
manufaftory, Brades, Bdrmiiigham. There are likewife four
other pieces of afli-wood, three inches fquare and two feet
five inches long, for throwing the two hindmoft fcvthes to
their proper diftance, and which are braced two and two
together by four bars, which are one by two inches fquare,
and eighteen inches and one-fourth long. And there is a
main piece of afti-wood, three by four inches fquare, and
five and a half feet long, to which all the other pieces are
fixed by hooks, and eye-bolts, by means of which the fcythe-
handles aft as it were upon hinges, and the fcythes are
thereby made to form the fame parallel line with the furface
of the land, whether it be concave, convex, or level. For
this purpofc, it is fuggcfted that it might be ufeful to make
a joint in the middle of this piece, where the land is uneven.
And in the fore part of this piece a fawgate is to be made,
three-fourths of an inch from the under fide, at the hind
part of the (hare, and one inch from the under fide at the
front of the wood, which gives an elevation to the point of
the ftiare, to receive the {hare where it is fixed.

There are four iron braces, one of the ends of which are
fixed in the fcythe-handles, and the other ends to the under
fides of the fcythes by a fcrevv. There is a ftaple, to which
the chain and fwinging-tree is fixed, and by which the ma-
chine is drawn. There are two mortife-holes on the fides,
which receive the tenons of two upright iluds, to which
pulhes are fixed for hfting the fcythes off' the ground, where
there is any thing to obttruft them or retard their progrefs.
Each of thefe ftuds is one and a half by four inches fquare,
and three feet long. Two fmall pullies are fixed on each
fide of thefe upright ftuds. Through the pullies of the
foremoft ftud, a fmall rope pafles (one end of which is fixed
to the outfides of the iron braces), and likewife through
the pullies of the hindmoft ftud, and then the two ropes
unite at about two or three feet behind the whole machine ;
and through the pullies of the hindmoft ftud pafs two other
fmall ropes (one end of each being fixed to the outfide of
the hindmoft iron braces), and then the fouri-opes unite to-
gether, where the manager holds them as a coachman does
the reins of four horfes. By means of thefe ropes the
fcythes may be hfted to any degree of elevation, by which
contrivance any unevcnnefs of the ground, or other obftruc-
tions on its furface, fuch as ftones, roots, ant-hills, &c. &c.
may be eafily avoided and pafted by.

The fwinging-tree is thirty-three inches long, and the

chain

T H I

cliaiii which hooks into the ftaple for drawing the machine
by, is thirty inches long.

Thcwhole of the fcythes, when pi .perly fixed, projefts be-
yond the wood, and cut the thifllcc> three-quarters of an inch
above the furfacc of the ground.

In cafes whi.'re the fcythes waat fhaviiening, it is obferved
that they may be i-'ared perpendiciUily up, or taken off
entirely ; and that, at the fame time, the horfes ftiould be
ungeared and taken away.

In ufing the machine, it is advifed by the ingenious in-
ventor, tliat as foon as the thiftles are in full flower it fliould
be fet to work, the length way of the ridges ; and that if
the fcythes are kept very fharp, it will make excellent work.
And when the thiftles have been cut, they fliould lie a day
or two, it is faid, to perifli by the lofs of their fap-juice :
the ground muft then be cleared, and the clofe or field
rolled, the crofs way of the ridges, with a very heavy roller,
which fo crufties the hollow ftumps, and renders them fo per-
vious to water, that their roots foon rot and are defl;royed.
But to expedite the operation of the implement, and the dc-
ftruftion of the weeds and plants, the land fliould be cleaned
of all kinds of rubbifli, the latter end of March or begin-
ning of April, being drefled with the fward-drefl^er, and
then rolled the crofs way of the land, or ridges, v>'ith a
weighty roller, as juft mentioned. See S\v arv-D rcffer.

THISTLE-Draiver, an ufeful implement of the forceps
kind, which is extremely beneficial in drawing up the com-
mon field-thift;le and fonie other ftrong forts of weeds. It
may be conftrufted either of wood or iron, in the latter
cafe having fockets for receiving wooden handles. When
made of wood, it fliould be of the hard and lefs brittle kind,
as good tough afli. It is ufually formed from two to three
feet in length, having fix notches or blunt teeth cut in each
blade, at the bottom part, where it bites or feizes the plants,
and each arm well fitted to the other, turning upon a ftrong
pivot or pill. In its operation the thiftle is feized clofe to
the ground and firmly held, fo as to be drawn out with
confiderable length of root. It has been long in ufe in the
northern parts of Lancafliire ; and is faid to be lately intro-
duced from Wiltshire into the county of Gloucefterfhire, in
the agriculture report of that diftrift. It is an ufeful and
efFedtive tool for the above purpofe, and only cofts about
two {hillings when made of wood, and three or four when
of iron. It has long been known in the firft of the above
counties by the provincial name of Gripes.

TmarLE-Fly, in Natural Hijlory, a fmall fly produced
from a fly-worm hatching in the protuberances of the car-
duus hsEmorrhoidalis. In the protuberances of this thiftle,
while they are clofed in all parts, the worm of this fly,
from whofe injuring it, at the time of depofiting the egg
from which it was hatched, the protuberances arofe, under-
goes its lail transformation. It here makes of its own fliin
a fliell in form of an egg, within which it puts on the nymph
ftate. When this nymph becomes a living fly, the leaft
pai'l of its diiBculty is the finding its way out of this ftiell ;
it has a ftronger prifon than that, and before it can obtain
its liberty, muft force its way through the much more clofely
compadled fibres of the protuberance of the vegetable. It
has, however, no other means of doing this difficult work,
but that of inflating its head, and throwing out the bladder
or muzzle with which all thefe creatures are provided in this
ftate. See TH1STLE-Ga&.

This is a difficult operation, and many of the creatures
pcrifli in the attempt ; but v.hat much forwards the fuccefs
of it, in many calcs is, that the ftalk of the thiftle often
becomes naturally half rotten before the time of the fly's
egrefs. Reaumur, Hift. Inf. vol. iv. p. 338.

T M I

Thistle-Go///, a name given by the more ac<.ii*atc au-
thors to the protuberances on the ftalk of a fpecies of
tliiftle, called by authors carduus hiimorrhoidcilis , from thofc
tubercles, which are fuppofcd to refemble thofc of the lis-
morrhoidal veins in perfoiis fubjedl to the piles. Thefe
have been fuppofed a natural produftion of the plant ; but
they are far othcrwife. The whole hiftory of them is, that
a certain fpecies of fly always dcpofits its eggs on the
ftalks ; and the young ones, when hatched, gnaw their way
into the fubftancc of the ftalks, and the copious derivation
of the juice, oecaGoned by their fucking, produces the tu-
bercles which are found on it.

Thefe tubercles are of a roundifli or oblong figure, and
are of various fizes, from that of a pea to the Ligncfs of a
nutmeg ; they are much harder than the reft of tlie ftalk,
approaching to a woody ftrufture ; when cut open, they
are found to contain each feveral oblong and narrow cells ;
thefe have no communication with one another, and are
eacli inhabited by a fmall white worm, which has two hooks
at the head ; with thefe it breaks tlie fibres of the plant, in
order to get at its juices. When it has arrived at the time
of its change into the nymph llatc, it ceafes to eat, and
drawing up its body much fliorter than ufual, its flcin
hai-dens, and forms a fhell, under which it changes into a
very beautiful two-winged fly ; the wings are whitifli and
tranfparent in the middle ; and at the edges furrounded with
black in the form of a chain of figures Uke the letter Z ;
the body and breaft of this fly are of a beautiful black, with
fome flight variations of yellow, with which the flioulders
are ftreaked ; the anterior part of the head is white, aud
its back-part edged with a yellow down ; the antennas are
reddifli, and the legs are partly black, and partly of a fine
clear brown.

In obferving the changes of the worms of thefe galls,
there are often obferved fome which go through them in a
different manner from the reft, and finally produce a very
different fpecies of fly. Thefe are the progeny of the eggs
of fome other fpecies of fly, whofe worm being carnivorous,
is lodged by the art of its parents, while it is yet in the egg
ftate, in the fubitance of this gall, there to prey upon the
defencelefs inhabitants.

There are many fpecies of galls the inhabitants of which
are expofed to enemies. In thofe it is common to find the
proper inhabitant and the devourer in the fame cell ; the
one feeding on the juices of the plant, the other on its
juices ; but this is not the cafe here, thefe worms imme-
diately deftroying the proper inhabitants, and being found
always alone in their cells. Reaumur, Hift. Inf. vol. vi.
p. 221.

Thistle, Order of. See Andrew.

Tm.STLE, our Lady of the, was alfo a military order, in-
flituted in 3370, by Louis II. duke of Bourbon. It con-
fiftcd of twenty-fix knights, of which that prince and his
fuccelfors were the chiefs. Their badge was a fl<y.blue
girdle ; and, on folemii occafions, a mantle of the fame
colour, with a gold collar, interwoven with flower-de-luces ;
among which was the word efpcrance, hope, in capitals.

THISTLE-TAKE, a cuftom in tlie hundred of Hal-
ton, in the county of Chefter, whereby, if in driving beafts
over the common, the driver permits them to graze, or take
but a thiftle, he fhall pay a halfpenny a bcaft to the lord of
the fee.

AtvFifkerton, in Nottinghamfhire, by ancient cuftom, if
a nati e, or cottager, killed a fwine above a year old, he
paid the lord one penny, which was alfo called thiftle-
take.

THIVA, or Stibes, in Geography, a town of European

Turkey,

T H L

Turkey, in the province of Livadia, anciently called
••'Tiicbcs," and the capital of Bocotia, fituated on a rifing
around between two Inull rivers, fuppofod to be the If-
menus and Dirce of the ancients. (See 1 iiEBiE.) The
town is of an oval form, about three miles in circumference,
and the lioufes are higher and better built than is ufual in
mod parts of Ga-ece. It contains four or five thoufand in-
habitants, about half Turks and lialf Chnftians, which lat-
ter have feveral churches, not remarkable for any thing ex-
cept fome few infcriptions to be fcen upon the pavement of
the cathedral. The air of the country about Thebes is thick
and foggy, whence the ancient inhabitants of Bceotia were
accounted dull and phlegmatic, and were neither famous for
their wit nor valour. ( See Bceotia. ) Epaminondas raifed
Thebes to its higheft pitch of grandeur ; after whofe death
it was not remarkable for its virtues, but misfortunes, till it
funk into its original obfcurity ; fo that its glory took birth
with this great man, and with him expired ; 28 miles
W.N.W. of Athens. N. lat. 38' 25'. E. long. 23° 34'.

THIVIERS, a town of France, in the department of
the Dordogne ; 7 miles N.W. of Exideuil.

THIULETIS-TSKALI, a river of Georgia, which
runs into the Kur.

THIZY, a town of France, in the department of the
Rhone and Loire ; 27 miles N.W. of Lyons.

THLASIAS, a term ufed by the ancients to exprefs an
eunuch made by a compreflion or contufion of the tefticles,
not by the cutting them out.

THLASIS, a word ufed by the ancients to exprefs either
a contufion without a wound, or a wound made by fome
blunt inilrument, which contufed the parts.

THLASMA, a word fometimes ufed hke thlafis, to ex-
prefs a contufion either with or without a wound ; fome-
times applied particularly to a recefs of the cranium inward
without a fratiure, an accident principally att'eitling children.
THLASPEOS Semen, in the Materia Medico, the name
of a feed produced by the common thlafpi arvenfe Jiliqiiis
lalis, or common treacle-muftard. It ufed to be an ingre-
dient in feveral of our (hop compofitions, and was efteemed
attenuating, deterfive, and aperient, and is faid to promote
urine and the menfes, and to expel the after-birth.

THLASPI, \a Botany, Gxao-xi, an ancient name, which
Diofcorides tells us, in his book 2. chap. 186, originated in
the broken, or ponnded, appearance of the feed, alluding,
we fuppofe, to its fmalluefs. The word therefore is derived
from &A51U, to hruife, or bsat. He compares this feed to
that of hia it.^^%y.'.i, our Lepidium fativum, or Garden Crefs,
adding that the feed-veffel is moderately dilated upwards,
the flower white, and the plant found about paths, walls,
and banks. Every other part of his defcription, refpefting
the leaves and ftems, is fo appofite, that no doubt can re-
main of his dx-xTrn being our Shepherd's Purfe, which Dr.
Sibthorp found common in Greece and the Archipelago, in
the early fpring. Linnxus might furely have fpared his
mark of uncertainty concerning the etymology of the above
name, in Phil. Bot. 183. But as he tranflates fiXaii by the
Latin word comprimo, to comprefs, he, moft likely, had in
view the Th. ar-uenfe, which feveral old writers have taken
for the plant of Diofcorides, and whofe feed-veffel is very
remarkably compreffed. — Linn. Gen. 334. Schreb. 437.
WiUd. Sp. PI. V. 3. 442. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Sm.
Fl. Bnt. 683. Compend. cd. 2. 98. Prodr. Fl. Grsc.
Sibth. V. 2. 7. Brown in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 80. Juff.
241. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 557. Gaertn. t. 141.— Clafs and
order, Tetradynamia Siliculofa. Nat. Ord. Siliguofe, Linn.
Cruci/ertt, .Tuff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of four ovate, concave,

T H L

fomewhat fpreading, deciduous leaves. Cor. cruciform,
equal, of four obovate petals, twice the length of the calyx,
with narrow claws. Stam. Filaments fix, but half the length
of the corolla, the two oppofitc ones ftill fiiorter ; anthers
pointed. Pijl. Germen fuperior, roundifh, compreffed,
emarginate ; ftyle fimple, the length of the ftamens ; ftigma
obtufe. Peric. Pouch compreffed, inverfely heart-fhaped,
emarginate, the ftyle being mollly the length of the notch
in which it ftands, of two cells, the partition lanceolate, and
the valves boat-like, with more or lefs of a dilated keel.
Seeds /everal in each cell, pendulous, inferted into the fu-
tures, roundifii, compreffed.

Eff. Ch. Pouch compreffed, emarginate, inverfely heart-
(haped ; its valves boat -like, keeled. Seeds feveral.

Obf. Mr. Brown has very happily feparated fVom this
genus the Linnsean Th. campejire. That fpecies, on account
of its folitary feeds, properly belongs to Lepidium, to which
genus it, as well as Th. hirtum, is removed in the new edition
of our Compendium FL Brit. The fame ingenious botanift,
of whofe elucidation and reformation of the cruciform
genera we have fpoken under the article Tetradynamia,
has founded a new genus, called Aethionema, upon Th. faxa-
ti/e, with another fpecies, whofe pouch has no valves, and
only a Cngle feed. With this latter, a Spanilh plant, we
are unacquainted ; but as the faxatile has two cells, and
.many feeds, we can hardly either disjoin it from Thlafpi, 6r
unite it with this, though, it feems, they agree in having aii
unequal infertion of tlieir calyx-leaves, which in Thlafpi is
equal ; and their longer filaments are either combined, or
elfe toothed near the top. As there are but two fpecies,
we prefume one of thefe laft charafters belongs to each.
The queftion feems at leaft doubtful, and therefore, without
prefuming to form an opinion refpefting Mr. Brown's
Aethionema monofpermum, we prefer keeping his faxatile where
it is.

The plants of this genus are herbaceous, and moft of
them annual, with fimple leaves, and numerous corymbofe
flowers ; their furface more frequently fmooth, and fome-
what glaucous, than pubefcent ; Jlem leafy and branched.

1. Th. peregrinu7n. Red Penny-Crefs. Linn. Sp. PI. 901.
Willd. n. I. Scop. Carn. v. 2. 17. (Th. capfula cordata,
peregrinum ; Bauh. Hift. v. 2. 927, badly copied in Morif.
feft. 3.t. 18. f. 30.) — Pouches roundifti-heartftiaped. Leaves
lanceolate, entire. — Native of dry hills, above Heidenfchaft
in Carniola. Scopoli. Of this very rare plant we have never
feen a certain fpecimen. Scopoli fays the flems are a fpan
high, hard, branched, turning reddifii, as well as the leaves,
as they advance in age. The leaves grow on fhort ftalks.
Flonvers fmall, red, with entire ovate petals, and reddifh

Jlamens. Anthers yellow, as well as the Vtxoxtflyle, and the
Jiigma, vi'hich laft is flat at the top. Seeds two in each cell,

ovate, yellowifh, flightly rugged, fliining, attached to the

fale-ate partition.

2. Th. arabicum. Purple Arabfan Penny-Crefs. Vahl
Symb. V. 2. 76. Willd. n. 2. (Th. humile, fpica pmpu-
rea ; Buxb. Cent. 1.2. t. 2. f. I. Iberis arabica; Linn.
Sp. PI. 906. Am. Acad. v. 4. Subularia purpurea ; Forlk.
iEgypt.-Arab. 117. ) — Pouch nearly orbicular, compreffed,
with a notch at each extremity. Lower leaves wedge-
fhaped ; upper oblong-heartfhaped, entire, clafping the

ftem — Native of Arabia and Cappadocia The root is

tapering, fibrous, annual. Stem more or lefs branched,
round, fmooth, from three to fix inches high, leafy, corym-
bofe. Lea-ues an inch long, acute, entire, fmooth, rather
fucculent, flightly ftalked. Flotuers fmall, purple or red-
difti. Pouch hght green, with a very broad ftriated border,
much exceeding \hsjlyle, and notched at the bafe as well as

fummit.

THLASPP.

fummit. S fells two in each cell. This fpecies appears
nearly related to the foregoing, nor fliould we be greatly
furprifed if they proved one and the fame. If Bauhin's
delineation of the pouch of the former be correft, they mud
be diftii.a.

3. Th. arvenfc. Common Penny-Crefs, or Smootli Mith-
ridate Muftard. Linn. Sp. PI. 901. Willd. n. 3. Fl.
Brit. n. I. Prodr. Fl. Grsc. n. I. Engl. Bot. t. 1659.
Curt. Lond. fafc. 6. t. 43. Fl. Dan. t. 793. (Tii. Diof-
coridis ; Gcr. Em. 262. Th. fecundum ; Matth. Valgr.
V. I. 519. Camer. Epit. 337.) — Pouch orbicular, com-
preffed, entire at the bafe. Leaves oblong, toothed,
fmooth. — Native of cultivated fields, in mofl parts of
Europe, but not frequent in England. It is annual, flow-
ering in June and July. Dr. Sibthorp met with it in the
countries north of Greece. The root is fmall, and tapering.
Whole plant fmooth, about a foot high, branched ; the

jiem leaty, angular upwards. Leaves two or three inches
long, clafping the ftem with their arrow -(haped bafe ; their
edges wavy and toothed. Floivcrs numerous, fmall, white.
Pouch large, ereft, almoft perfeftly orbicular. Style much
Ihorter than the notch in which it Itauds. Seeds numerous.
The warm pungent tafte of this plant is combined with a
difagreeable garlick flavour. The feeds, as obferved in
Engl. Bot. " make an ingredient in that naufeous oppro-
brium of pharmacy, the Mithridate Confeftion, the receipt
for which may be found, with many excellent critical re-
marks, in Lewis's Difpenfatory." See Mithkidate.

4. Th. all'iaceum. Gailick Baflard-Crefs. Linn. Sp.
PI. 901. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 2. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 121.
(Th. allium redolens ; Morif. feft. 3. t, 18. f. 28.) — Pouch
nearly obovate, tumid, with a narrow border. Leaves ob-
long, obtufe, fmooth, fomewhat toothed. — Native of the
fouth of Eur'ope. An annual herb, much refembling the
laft, but the leaves are blunter, and lefs toothed. The
pouches are very different, having but a flight border at their
upper part only, their bafe being wedge-fhaped.

5. Th. Pfychme. Long-ftyled Baftard-Crefs. Willd. n. 5.
(Pfychine itylofa ; Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 69. t. 148.
Burfa pattoris hirfuta, erncae flore, ftilo prominente ; Shaw
Afric. n. 91. f. 91.) — Pouch abrupt. Style prominent.
Leaves heartfhaped-oblong, toothed, downy, clafping the
ftem. — Native of the borders of fields in Barbary. Root
annual. Herb larger than the foregoing, and clothed with
hoary hairs. Leaves rounded, not acute, at the bafe.
Floivers pale yellow, as large as the Common Muftard.
Pouch wedge-fhaped, or triangular, being quite abrupt at
the end ; the Jlyle, which is as long as the whole pouch,
ftanding prominent at the fummit. Willdenow is certainly
correft as to the genus.

6. Th./axatik. Rock Baftard-Crefs. Linn. Sp. PI. 901.
Willd. n. 6. Jacq. Auftr. t. 236. ( Lithothlafpi quartum,
carnofo rotundo foHo ; Column. Ecphr. 279. t. 277. f. 2.

- Aethionema faxatile ; Br. in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 80.) —
Pouch nearly orbicular ; concave above ; convex below.
Stems moftly fmiple. Leaves linear-lanceolate, flefliy, ob-
tufe.— Native of dry hills, and the clefts of rocks, in Italy,
Auftria, Switzerland, Greece, and the fouth of France,
flowering in April and May. The root is perennial, and in
fome degree woody, though generally marked as annual.
Stems annual, afcending, fix or eight inches higii, round,
leafy, rarely lubdivided. Leaves numerous, fcattered, on
fhort ftalks, glaucous, fmooth, entire, three quarters of an
inch long ; the lower ones rather elliptical. Flowers
fmall, pink, numerous, in denfe terminal corymbs, foon elon-
gated into lax chijlers of glaucous ^ouiriw, tinged with pink,
each on a flender, fpreading, partial ftalk ; their border

broad, ftrtated, fomewhat crenate, emarginalc at -the top
only, where the minute Jlyle is fituated. The fhrubby
habit, glaucous hue, and very pretty little red Jlotvers wrth
a pale-green calyx, render this one of the mofl elegant plants
of its natural order. Iberis fnxalilis, Linn. Sp. PI. 905,
dillinguifhed from this by the accurate Fabius Columna, and
figured in the fame plate of his work, is fo like it, that they
are hardly to be known afunder, except by the unequal
petals, proper to Iberis, and the downinefs of this latter plant.
On a clofe comparifon, the fhapes and furfaccs of their
feed-vejtis will be found cllentialiy different.

7. Th. montanu-m. Mountain Ballard-Crefs. Linn. Sp.
PI. 902. Willd. n. 9. Ait. n. 7. Jacq. Auftr. t. 237.
(Th. montanum, burfx paftoris fruftu ; Column. Ecphr.
275. t. 276. f. I. Th. precox ; Wulf in Jacq. Coll.
v. 2. 124. t. 9. Lepidium n. 518 ; Hall. Hift. v. I. 223.
/3. Th. alpinum ; Jacq. Auftr. t. 238. Willd. n. 10.
Crantz Auftr. fafc. I. 25. t. 3. f. i. (Th. minimum;
Arduin. Spec. 2. 33. t. 15. f. 2.)

Pouch inverfely hearl-iliaped. Leaves fmooth, nearly
entire ; radical ones obovate, ftalked ; the reft fefiil?, clafp-
ing the ftem. Petals thrice as long as the calyx. Stems

fimple Native of ftony places, on the lofty mountains

of Switzerland, Auftria, Dauphiny, and Italy, flowering in
April or May. The roots are perennial, long, fubdivided
at the fummit, each trailing fhoot crowned with a tuft of
obovate leaves, rarely a little ferrated, their fize, and the
length of their footjlalis, varying according to luxuriance
of foil, or a jnore or lefs elevated place of growth. From
the centre of each tuft arifes a folitary, fimple, afcending
or upright _/?««, from three inches to a fpan long, round,
fmooth, clothed with numerous, alternate, feflile, cordate
or arrow-fhaped, very rarely toothed, leaves, whofe bafe is
more or lefs elongated and acute ; their length three
quarters of an inch. Floivers in folitary terminal corymbs,
numerous, lai-ge, white and handfome ; their broad, obo-
vate, fpreading petals at leail thrice as long as the fmooth,
often purplifh, calyx. Pouch tapering at the bafe ; more
or lefs deeply lobed at the end, with a Jlyle almoft as long
as itfelf, projefting far beyond the lobes. Seeds naturally
two in each cell, as Jacquin defcribes them. Haller found
one only. This may be accounted for from their bemg
often abortive, as indeed are generally mofl of the pouches
themfelves, the plant increafing much by root. Having
had occafion to ftudy this and the neighbouring fpecies
very minutely, in our invcftigation of Swifs and Britifti
plants, we can with confidence maintain the corrednefs of
our fynonyms, on the authority of original fpecimens.
Our g alone is entitled to be diftinguiflied as a vai-iety, and
that an infignificant one, being merely rendered fmall in
fize by its very elevated or expofcd fituation. The faith-
ful Jacquin himfelf evidently miftrufted tliis fuppofed
fpecies, though he fays it retained the fame habit when
cultivated.

8. Th. alpcp-e. Alpine Shepherd's Purfe. Linn. Sp.
PI. 903. Willd. n. 12. Fl. Brit. n. 5. Engl. Bot. t. 81.
Ait. n. 6. (Th. follis globularia; ; Raii Syn. ed. 2. 175-.
ed. 3. 301;. Bauh. Hift. v. 2. 926. Th. montanum fe-
cundum badenfe ; Cluf. Hift. v. 2. 131. Th. albi fupini
varietas; Ger. Em. 268. f. 2. Lepidium n. 519 ; Hall.
Hift. V. I. 223, on the authority of fpecimens from Davall
and DuCros.) — Pouch obovate, abrupt, fomewhat heart-
fljaped, with many feeds. Stem-leaves arrow-fhaped. Stems
fimple. Style prominent. — Native of mountainous paftures
in Switzerland and England, flowering in June and July.
It abounds on limeftone rocks, :ind about lead-mines, in
Yorkftiire and Derbyftiire. Many authors have confounded

this

T H L

llus witli the luft, from which it differs in haviag a tufted
rH>t, not Uirowing out foyons, or runners; ufually taller
and more numerous ftcnu ; more glaucous herbage ; much
fmallrr/i)w«v, whofe jxlals arc eredl, and though variable
ill dimci.fions, never a quarter fo large as in monijmim; but
above all, in having at leaft three or four fceJs in each cell.
The pouiks moreover are always i.umerous, and all perfeft.
Their terminal lobes are variable in length or dilatation,
but conflantly much Ihorter than the. Jy!e. (See the fol-
lowing.) We have often been inclined to remove from
this fijecifs to the foregoing the fynonyms of Bauhin,
Clufius, and Gerarde, cited in Fl. Brii. on account of
the large fprcading petals of their figures. But this ap-
pears to be an inaccuracy on their part. The habit of
their plant ; {evcTslJlems from the fimpl" crown of the root ;
;uid the copious pouches in long continued clujlers, all pro-
perly belong to our alpejlre, by no means to montanum.
We have fome fufpicion that the alpejlre is rather biennial
than perennial. It never remains long in gardens, but that
is no proof, nor have we had an opportunity of watch-
ing the plant through a feafon, on its own native hills.
Hudfon miftook the perfoUatuin, next defcribed, for alpejlre.

9. Th. pcrjoliatum. Perfoliate Shepherd's Purfe. Linn.
Sp. PI. 902. Willd. n. II. Fl. Brit. n. 4. Engl. Bot.
t. 2354. Jacq. Aultr. t. 337 ; not. 237, as in Willdenow.
(Th. alteram mitius rotundifolium, burfae paftoris fruftu ;
Column. Ecphr. 278. t. 276. f. 2. Th. rotundifolium ;
Ger. Em. 266. Th. cordatum minus, flore albo, infipidum ;
Barrel. Ic. t. 815. Th. tertium pumilum ; Cluf. Hift.
V. 2. 131. Th. minus Clufii ; Ger. Em. 268. Naflurtium
n. 510; Hall. Hift. V. I. 220. Pilofella filiquata ; Thai.
Harcyn. t. 7. f. C, at the end of Camer. Hort.) — Pouch
exaftly inverfely heart-diaped. Stem-leaves heart-lhaped,
ftiarpith at the bafe, clafping the branched ftem. Style very
Ihort. — -Native of calcareous paftures or rocks, walls, and
dry places, in Switzerland, Germany, France, Italy, Greece,
and England, flowering in the fpring. In the laft-men-
tioned country it is hardly known any where but in the
limeftone part of Oxfordfliire, about Witney and Burford.
We have gathered it at Caferta, near Naples. The root is
fibrous and annual. Stem branched from the bottom, ex-
cept on poor ground, ufually from four to fix inches high,
round, fmooth, leafy. Leaves glaucous, fmooth, various
in fize, entire, or now and then {lightly toothed ; the radical
ones ftalked, ovate, obtufe ; the reft feffile, alternate.
Flowers white, fmall, with narrow, ereft petals. Style fo
fhort as to be fcarcely difcernible between the rounded
lobes of the pouch. Seeds three or four, at leaft, in each
cell. The fmall annual root, ufually branched Jlem, and
minute _^y.-, are quite fufficient to diftiuguifh this fpecies
from the laft, with which it has been confounded ; nor is
it difficult, with a moderate degree of obfervation, to avoid
the error of thofe old botanifts, who defcribed its ftarved
and luxuriant ftates for diftinft fpecies. Ray fufpedled
this, and has adverted to it in his own fecond edition of the
Synopjts, by far the moft exaft, p. 176.

10. Th, luteum. Yellow Sicilian Shepherd's Purfe. Bi-
von. Cent. i. 78. (" Th. montanum, glafti foho, parvum,
perfoliatum, norinjhil ferratum, filicula cordata ; Cupan.
Panphyt. v. 2. t. 256. Th. montanum luteum, glafti folio,
parvum, perfohatum, nonnihil ferratum, filicula cordiformi ;
Cupan. Hort. Cathol. 212.")— Pouch inverfely heart-
/haped, nearly orbicular. Leaves toothed, the lowf-rmoft
ftalked ; the reft clafping the Item. Style almoft equal to
the lobes of the feed-veffel — Native of dry mountainous
places near Palermo, flowering in April and May, and fent
US by the baron Bivona. This is a fmall, fmooth, glaucous,

T H L

annual plant, from one to three inches high. Stem erect,
either Ample, or branched from the bafe. Leaves half an
inch, more or lefs, in lengtii ; the lo-^er ones fpatulate ; the
others ovatc-oblong, bluntifti, with a hcart-ftiapcd bafe ; all
having one or two large teeth at each fide. Floivers re-
markable for being yellow. They are fmall, not many
together, in ftiort terminal corymbs, becoming elongated
clujlers of rather large, rounded, reticulated pouches, with a
few feeels in each cell. The petals are emarginate, eredt,
longer than the calyx. Stigma 'urge, on a level with the
lobes of the pouch.

11. Th. Burja Pajloris. Common Shepherd's Purfe.
Linn. Sp. PI. 903. Willd. n. 13. Fl. E.it. n. 6. Prodr.
Fl. Grsc. n. 1499. Engl. Bot. t. 1485. Curt. Lond.
fafc. I. t. 50. (Burfa Paftoris ; Ger. Em. 276. Mattlu
Valgr. V. I. 521.) — Hairy. Pouch inverfely heart-fliaped,
foniewhat triangular, fcarcely bordered. Radical leaves
pinnatifid. — A very common weed i'» cultivated and wafte
ground, tliroughout Europe, as -veil as in Nortli America,
and in moft countries where European m^rchasidife or cul-
tivation has reached. We have alrL>ady mentioned that this
fpecies is indubitably the 6?.acrr> of Diufcorides. It flowers
at all times, from the beginning of fpring to the end of
autumn. The white tapering annual root is diftinguiftied
by a very peculiar naufeous fmoke-like icent, when pulled
out of the ground. Whole herb rough with ftarry as well
as prominent hairs. Stem various in height, ereft, round,
with alternate fpreading branches, though fometimes fo
ftarved as to be quite fimple and flender, with all the leaves
of the plant undivided ; in which ftate the fpecies is difficult
to be recognized. The radical leaves are numerous, clofe
to the ground, varioufly pinnatifid, moftly toothed, fome-
what lyrate, about two or three inches long ; the reft:
linear -oblong, acute, feffile, entire or toothed, embracing the
ftem with their elongated heart-ftiaped bafe. Flowers fmall,
white, in denfe corymbs, often tinged with purplifh-brown.
Pouches fmooth, fatchel-ftiaped, whence the modern name,
difpofed in very long, lax, upright clujlers. Style rather
prominent. Seeds numerous, fmall, oval, a favourite food of
fmall birds, as well as the flower-buds. The flavour of
both is warm and pungent.

1 2. Th. ceratocarpon. Horned Shepherd's Purfe. Mur-
ray in Comm. Goett. v. 5. 21. t. i. Linn. Suppl. 295.
Willd. n. 14. Ait. n. 3. Scop. Infub. v. I. 10. t. 4.) —
Very fmooth. Pouch obovate, tumid, with a terminal,
double horn-like, comprefled border. Leaves lanceolate,

fomewhat toothed ; arrow-ftiaped at the bafe -Native of

Siberia, from whence Pallas brought the feeds. The root
is annual, tapering. Stem folitary, ereft, twelve or eighteen
inches high, leafy, moftly quite fimple. Leaves all fmooth,
flightly toothed, or wavy ; the radical ones obovate, on long
ftalks ; the reft feffile. Floivers numerous, white, very
fmall. Pouches compofing a long clujler, very confpicuous
for their two (harp prominent horns, between which ftands
the very ^ortjlyle. Seeds large, about two in each cell.

THLASPIDIUM, 9^xc77^.J.ol. of Cratevas, according to
Tragus ; a name whofe etymology has been millaken, like
TiiLASPl, (fee that article,) from whence it is manifeftly
derived. Tournefort, who in his Lijlitutwnes 214, adopts
this name, for vi'hat Lmnasus more aptly termed Bijcutella,
explains it as meaning that the plants which bore it were
allied to Thlajp'i ; and this, no doubt, is correft. But
Ambrofini, who confiders Thiajpi itfelf as applying to the
beaten or flattened form of the feed-velfel, deduces the pre-
fent word from ^\x.jj, to bruije or beat, and ao-irioiov, a little
faield, which is evidently applicable to the flat (hield-hke
fruit of Thlafpi arvenje, and is fo plaufible an explanation,

that

T H O

T H O

that it Ceems to have chiefly led the modern expounders of
uuciept writers to take this fpecies for Cxxt^ti of Diofcorides.
We have ab-eady, in its proper place, (hewn our Shepherd's
Purfe to be what he defcribes ; and we can iinderftaiid the
name, as derived from i\aw, in no other light, than alluding
to the minute feeds, which feem as if beaten to powder.
This is by no means the iirft inllance, in which the moll
apparently jufl; etymology, proves not to be the real one.

THLIBI.^, in Antiquity, a kind of eunuchs. See
TuLASiAS and Castration.

THLIPSIS, SxiTTo-ir, is ufed, by anatomifts, for the
compreffion of any veflel or aperture, by which its cavity is
leflened.

THNETOPSYCHITES, compofed of 9»*.-, mortal,
and X-xix'^, foul, in Ecdeftajlical Hijiory ; a fedl in the ancier.t
church, who believed the foul of man perfeftly like that of
brutes ; and taught that it died with the body. See Soul.

We meet with no account of thefe heretics any where but
in J. Damafcenus Hscref. 90, unlefs they be the fame with
thofe Eufebius fpeaks of. Hilt. Eccief. lib. ix. c. 38, who
relates, that in Origen's time, there were heretics in Arabia,
who taught, that the foul of man died with the body ; but
that it (hould rife again with it at the end of the world.
Ke adds, that Origen refuted them in a numerous council,
and reclaimed them from their errors. St. Auguftine and
Ifidore call thera the Arabian heretics.

Marfliall, in his tables, ufes the word Thenopfychites inftead
of Thnctopfychites .

THOA, in Botany, a Guiana name adopted by Aublet,
and retained by Juffieu, and even Schreber ; iee our article
Gnetum, to which genus this plant is there, for the firfl
time, referred, as a fecond fpecies.

THOALABIAN, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in
the province of Nedsjed ; 260 miles E.N.E. of Hajar.

THOANHOA, a town of Cochinchina, at the bottom
of a large bay. N. lat. 16^45'. E. long. 106° 27'.

THOARD, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Alps ; 9 miles E.S.E. of Sifleron.

THOCO, an ifland in the Grecian Archipelago, near the
coaft of Greece, about eight miles in circumference. N. lat.
37° 20'. E. long. 23° 2!'.

THOCOS, 9i.)xo-, in Antiquity, the izme\\\\h.Thacas.

THOGRAI, in Biography, a Perfian of Ifpahan, who
was grand vizier to the fultan Mahch Mailiud, is celebrated
for his poetical talents, a fpecimen of which is given by
Pococke ; and for a commentary upon the republic of
Plato, to whom the Saracens paid little attention. After a
ftrange reverfe of fortune, Thograi was put to death by
order of the fultan in the year ] I2I.

THOIRY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ain ; 6 miles S.S.W. of Gex.

THOKES, in our Old Writers, fifn with broken beUies,
forbid by ftatute to be mixed or packed with tale-fifh.
22 Ed. IV. cap. 2.

THOLEN, in Geography. See Tolen.

THOLES, in Sea Language, denote fmall pins driven
perpendiculai'ly into the upper edge of a boat. In rowing,
the oar paffes between the two tholes, in the fpace called the
row-lock. Sometimes there is only one pin to each oar, as in
the boats navigated on the Mediterranean fea : in that cafe
the oar is hung upon the pin by means of a ftrop.

THOM/EANS, Thomeans, Thomites, or Chrijlians
of St. Thomas, a people of the Eaft Indies, in Cochin, and
upon the coaft of Malabar and Coromandel, who, according
to tradition, received the Gofpel from the apoftle St.
Thomas.

It appears by the tcftimony of Cofmas, who wrote about
Vol. XXXV.

A.D. 547, and whofc work is tranflated by F. Montfaucon,
that Chrilliajiity was eftablifhed in India in the fixth cen-
tury. We alfo find in the fubfcriptions of the council of
Nice, that of a prelate, who calls himfelf bifliop of Perfia.
Moreover, an ancient author, cited by Suidas, fays, that
the inhabitants of Interior India, (a name which Cofmas
gives to thecoall of Malabar,) the Iberians and Armenians,
were baptized under the reign of Conftantine.

The princes of the country, and particularly Serant Pe-
roumal, emperor of Malabar, the founder of the city of
Calicut, A.D. 825, granted extraordinary privileges to
thefe Chriftians.

When Vafco de Gama, the Portuguefe admiral, arrived
at Cochin with a fleet, in the year 1502, thefe Chriftians
fent deputies to him, imploring his protcftion, and that of
the king his niafter. The admiral treated them kindly, but
was in no condition to afford them any effeftual affiilance, in
relieving them from the yoke of the Pagan kings, to which
they were then fubjeft. The language they ufe infacris, is
the Syriac, or, as fome fay, the Chaldee ; but their ordinary-
language is the fame with that of their neighbours. The
firft miffionaries, who attempted to profelyte them to the
church of Rome, were Cordeliers, but their endeavours
proved inefFeftual. The diftinguifhing opinions and reli-
gious rites of thefe Chriftians are as follow.

They are charged with an invincible attachment to the
do<Srine of Neftorius, and with an obftinate refufal to ac-
knowledge, that the Virgin is the mother of God : they
have no images in their churches : they believe that the
fouls of the blefled are not admitted into the prefencc of
God till after the day of univerfal judgment : they allow
only of three facraments, to'z. baptifm, orders, and the
eucharift : they defer the baptifm of infants for ibme time,
as for a month, or even for feven, eight, or ten years, after
they are born : they make no ufe of holy oil, neither in
baptifm, nor in the adminiftration of the other facraments ;
but atttr baptizing their infants, they fprinkle the oil of a
fpecies of Indian faffron all over their bodies : they allow of
no auricular confeilion, treat purgatory as a fable, and their
priefts are permitted to marry : they entertain an extraor-
dinary affeftion for the Neftorian patriarch of Babylon, but
will not fuffer any mention of the pope, or of the Romi/h
churches in their alFemblies. Their days of abftinence are
Wednefday and Friday, and their faft is very fevere in Lent,
during which time they go to church three times a day-
They alfo faft in the fame manner during the time of
Advent. Befides thefe two greater fafts, which are enjoined
on pain of excommunication, they have feveral others of a
religious nature. Their women do not enter a church for
forty days after their delivery of a male child, nor for
eighty days after the birth of a daughter.

Thefe Chriftians are in general poorly inftrucled, knowing
only the Lord's prayer and the angelical falutation. Their
churches arc mean and unadorned buildings, and conftruAed
after the manner of the pagodas. They appear to maintain
many of the rehgious opinions and practices received among
Proteftants, and rejeft cither wholly, or in a very great mea-
fure, thofe of the church of Rome. They deny the fu-
premacy of the pope, and tranfubftantiation, and exclude
from the number of facraments, confirmation, extreme unc-
tion, and marriage. Such are the errors profcribed by the
fynod of Diamper, held in 1599, by Aleixo de Menefes,
archbifhop of Goa, in order to unite the Thomasans to the
Romifh church. However, notwithftanding the temporary
{uccefs that attended the vigorous exertions of the arch-
bifhop, for which he was reccimpenfed after his return to
Europe, with the archbilhopric of Brags, the viceroy/hip
4 A of

T H t)

of Portugal, and thf prffiilciicy of the council of flate at
Madrid, tlu-fc Chriftians, opprcfll'd and abiifed by the
Jcfuils, rclapfcd from the church of Rome loon after the
death of the archbilhop ; and notwithftaiiding the en-
deavours of Alexander VII. to conciliate them by the
mifiion of four bare-footed Carmelites, tliey could no more
be reduced to fubmillion. At length, when the Dutch
took Cochin, in 1663, the Chrillians of St. Thomas re-
covered the liberty which they had formerly enjoyed ; but
they derived little advantage belidcs from their new mailers.
Encyclopedic, and Geddes's Hillory of the Church of
M.-Uab.ir and Synod of Diamper, in his Trafts, vol. v. For
a further account of tliis feift, fee Christians of St. Thomas.
THOMAR, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in
Eilremadura, containing two churches, an hofpital, four con-
vents, and about 3600 inhabitants ; 63 miles N.E. of
Lifcon. N. ht. 39° 34'. W. long. 8"= 8'.

THOMAS, furnamedZ)/V/)mMj-, or the T'U)in,m Scripture
Biography, one of our Lord's twelve apoftles, of whom the
tvangelilt John has given a Ih'^rt account in the 20th chapter
of his Gofpel. John Chryfoftoni informs us, that Thomas
preached the gofpti to the Ethiopians, Parthians, Perfians,
and Medes, and even, recording to tradition, toth .■ Indians,
and in the ifland of Taprobana ; and the Chriftians called
after his name in the Eall, regard him as the founder of their
church. See CiiKISTIans of St. Thomas, and Thom.12ANs.

For an accouut of the fpurious gofpel attributed to St.
Thomas, we refer to the article Gosi'el.

Thomas, An'TONT Leonard, in Biography, a diftinguiihed
French writer, was born in the diocefe of Clermont, in Au-
vergne,iii the year 1732, and defigned for the profeffion of the
law ; bi;t his attachment to literature induced him to prefer a
profeflo: ihip in the college of Beauvais. His reputation as a
man of btters recommended him to the office of confidential
fecretary to the duke De Prallin, in which he condufted
iiimfclf with integrity and honour. When he was advifed by
the duke to become a candidate for a feat in the French
Academy, after having five times gained the prize for his
compofitions, and difcovered that he was put forward as a
competitor to Marmontel, who was out of favour with perr
Ions in power, he refufed to be the initrument of fuch a
defign. In confequence of this circumftance, the duke dif-
mifTcd him his office, but procured for him the place of
fecretary -interpreter for the Swifs Cantons, to which a very
inconfiderable falary was annexed ; and yet this was the
whole benefit which he obtained from court-favour. His
career as a writer commenced in 1756, by " Refleftions
hiftorical and literary on Voltaire's Poem on Natural Reli-
gion ;" and on all fubfequent occafious he proved himfelf
the friend of virtue, and a lover of mankind. His eulogies,
particularly ihofe on Des Cartes and Marcus Aurelius, were
highly commended. His "Eifai fur les Charafteres, les
Moeurs, et I'Efprit des Femmes," 1772, is a fprightly per-
formance, m which fine writing and philofophical obferv-
ation are combined. His " Effai fur les Eloges," in 2 vols.
1775, exhibits ftriking portraits with juft ideas. As a poet,
he appears to advantage in his " Epitre au Peuple," his
" Ode fur les Temps," and his " Poeme de Jumonville."
His epic poem, entitled " Le Petrcide," the hero of which
v;as czar Peter, was left unfinifhed. He was diftinguiihed
by his fingularities, and alfo by his fympathy with perfons
m diftrefs, for whofe relief he fubmitted to pcrfonal incon-
venience and privation. His death took place at the feat of
the archbilhop of Lyons, in September 1785, at the age
of 53. His works, in profe and verfe, were publilhed at
Paris, in 7 vols. 8vo. Gen. Biog.
Thomas, Christiak, an Eckaic philofopher of the
5

T H O

German fchools, who defcrves notice on account of tfi«"
boldncfs with which he threw off the yoke of human autho-
rity, and the perfeverance with wliicli, again ft much oppofi-
tion, and in many viciffitndes of fortune, he maintained and
exercifed the right of free inquiry. He was born at
Leipfic in the year 1655, and tinifhed his courfe of edu-
cation in the univerfity of his native city. Upon a perufal
of PufTendorf's Apology for rejecting the fcholaftic prin-
ciples of morals and law, he renounced implicit deference to
all ancient dogmas ; and engaged in reading leftures on the
fubjeCl of natural law, firft from the text of Grotius, and
afterwards from that of Puffendorf, in the full exercife of
his own judgment, with prudent caution while his father
lived, but after his death, with a boldnefs which incurred
the violent refentment of theologians and profcfibrs. In
1687 he publifhed an " Introduftion to Puffendorf," in
which he deduced the obligation of morality from natural
principles, and thus gave great offence. In the following-
year he became ftill more unpopular, by commencing a.
monthly literary journal, entitled " Free Thoughts ; or.
Monthly Dialogues on various Books, chiefly new," con-
taining a fevere attack upon many of his contemporaries.
Complaints of the raillery of this fatirical work were lodged
before the ecclefiaftical court of Drefden ; and Thomas with
difficulty efcaped punifhment. Some other farcaftical
pieces inflamed the refentment of his enemies, and he was
charged before the fame court by the clergy of Leipfic
with a contempt of religion. Soon after he publilh«l
another fatirical work " On the Divine Right of Kings,"
" A Defence of the Seft of the Pidlifts," and fome other
eccentric works of the fame general charafter, for which he
was threatened with imprifonment ; but obtaining permif-
fion from the eleftor of Brandenburgh to retire, he became a
voluntaiy exile from Leipfic : and foon after was appointed
public profefTor of jurifprudence, firft in BerHn, and after-
wards at Halle. In thefe fituations he indulged his fatiri-
cal humour, and his inclination for controverfy, as long as he
lived ; perfevering in his endeavours to correS and fubdue
the prejudices of mankind, and to improve the ftate of phi-
lofophy. He died at Halle, in the year 1728. Thomas
was the author of feveral treatifes on logic, morals, and
jurifprudence, in which he deviates from opinions generally
received ; and his latter publications are, in many refpefis,
inconfiftent with the former. His principal philofophica'
works are, " An Introdudlion to Aulic Philofophy ; <•
Outlines of the Art of Thinking and Reafoning," I^eipf.
1688 ; " Introduftion to Rational Philofophy ;" " A Lo-
gical Praxis," Hal. 1691; " Introduftion to Moral Phi-
lofophy," 1692; "A Cure for irregular Paffions, and
the Doftrine of Self-knowledge," 1696 ; " The new Art
of difcovering the fecret Thoughts of Men ;" " Divine
Jurifprudence ;" " Foundations of the Law of Nature and
Nations ;" " DilTertation on the Crime of Magic ;" ♦' Effay
on the Nature and EfTence of Spirit, or Principles of
Natural and Moral Science," 1659; and " Hiftory of
Wifdom and Folly."

As a fpecimen of the peculiar tenets and maxims of this
eccentric philofophei-, we fhall fubjoin the following.

" Thought arifes from images imprefTed upon the brain ;
and the adtion of thinking is performed in the whole brain.
Brutes are deftitute of fenfation. Man is a corporeal fub-
ftance, capable of thinking and moving, or endued with in-
tellect and wiU. Man does not always think. Truth is
the agreement of thought with the nature of things. The
fenfes are not deceitful, but all fallacy is the effeft of pre-
cipitation and prejudice. From perceptions arife ideas, and
their relations ; and from thefe, rcafonings. It is impoffible

to

T H O

to (lifcover truth by the fyllogiftic art. No otlier rule is
neceffaj-y in reafoning, than that <if following ih.- natural
order of invcftigation ; beginning Irom thole things which
are beft known, and proceeding, by eafy fteps, to thofe
which arc more difficult.

" Perception is a pailive afFeftion, produced by fomo ex-
ternal obj''(ft, cither in tlic intelleftual fcnfc, or in the in-
clination of the will. EfTcnce is that without which a thing
cannot be perceived. God is not perceived by the intel-
leSual feiife, but by the inchnation of the will : for creatures
aftect the brain ; but God, the heart. All creatures are in
God : nothing is exterior to him. Creation i^ extenfion
produced from nothing by the divine power. Creatures are
of two kinds, pafTive and aftive ; the former is matter ; the
latter, fpirit. Matter is dark and cold, and capable of
being atlvd upon by fpirit, which is light, warm, and aftive.
Spirit may fubfift: without matter, but defires a union with
it. All bodies confift of matter and fpirit, and have there-
fore fome kind of life. Spirit attrafts fpirit, and thus fen-
ilbly operates upon matter united to fpirit. This attrac-
tion in man is called love ; in other bodies, fympathy. A
tiiu'te fpirit may be confidered as a limited fphere in which
i3ys, luminous, wai-ra, and aftive, flow from a centre,
opirit is the region of the body to which it is united. The
region of finite fpirits is God. The human foul is a ray
from the divine nature ; whence it defires union with God,
who is love. Since the eflence of fpirit confifts in aftion,
and of body iji paffion, fpirit may exifl without thought :
of this kind are light, ether, and other adtive principles in
nature.

" Good confifts in the harmony of other things with man
and his feveral powers. The higheft felicity of man con-
fills in tranquil delight. The fountain of this delight is
t!ie rational love of man and of God. Internal love and
reverence are all the homage which nature teaches us to pay
to God. With refpeft to God, the two capital errors are
atheifm and fuperftition. Superftition is worfe than atheifm.
The love of God is a fupernatural afFeftion, which prepares
the foul for future felicity. The rational love of man com-
prehends all focial virtues. Rational felf-love includes felf-
prefervation, temperance, purity, induftry, fortitude. To
wife men, virtue is its own reward. Laws are appointed
for the fake of fools, to couduft them to internal tran-
quillity, and external peace. Of fools, there are three
claffes ; thofe who difturb external peace ; thofe who do
nothing to promote it ; and thofe who do not enjoy internal
peace. The firft have need of authority ; the fecond of
authority and counfel ; the third of counfel alone. The
obligation of authority and law extends only to external
adions, which are juft: when they are conformable to law :
juftice is therefore to be diftinguifhed from virtue, which
rcfpeils the internal man, and requires a conformity to the
law of nature." Brucker by Enfield, vol. ii.

Thomas. Chrijlians of St. Thomas. See TllOM^ANS.
Thomas'^ Hofphal. See Hospital.
Thomas, St., in Geography, an ifland of the Atlantic, near
the coaft of Guinea, fituated on the equinoftial line, of a cir-
cular form, about ten leagues in circumference, difcovered by
the Portuguefe in the year 1 640. The chmate is infalubrious,
and at fome fcafons of the year the Iky is even darkened by
thick fogs, vvhich are difperfed by the winds that blow in the
months of July and Auguft. In this ifland the inhabitants
have two winters, like thofe of other places that are under
the fame parallel, but without the cold that diftinguiflies that
feafon in Europe. The rains continue from December to
icebruary ; and fpring begins with our fummer, in the month
of May. During the hrll three months of this period, the

T H O

beat is infupportable, and the firft fettlers gradually inured
themfelves to the climate. The foil on this ifland is vifcous
and clayey, and mixed with chalk ; but it is rendered fertile
by the lieavy night dews. The plants and (hrubs, which it
rapidly produces, are burnt to aflies, and applied as the moit
beneficial manure to fugar-canea ; which were firft planted
here by the Portuguefe : in their endeavours to cultivate
which they have been difappointed. Rice and millet fuccccd,
and vines of the richeft kind, as well as melons, cucumbers,
figs, ginger, and all forts of roots, pulfe, and pot-herbs, are
cheaply reared, and they arrive at the utmoft perfeftion.
Yams are in this ifland a ver^' wholefome and delicious diet.
Tlie land of this ifland is well watered, and much fertihzed
by its rivers and ftreams. In the centre is a high mountain,
covered with wood and fruit-trees, whofe fummit is never-
thelefs always covered with fnow. Its quadrupeds, birds,
and fiflies, are very various, and abundant ; and St. Thomas
would be equal to any fpot in the globe, if its temperature
correfponded to its other qualities. The inhabitants are
the defccndants of the Portuguefe firft fettlers and the ne-
groes, who are retained in the fervice of Europeans, and fuch
as prefer a refidence here to Angola. They are for the
moft part Roman Catholics, and extremely ignorant, fuper-
ftitious, and bigotted. The ecclefiaftical government is under
the direftion of the bifliop, who is a fuffragan of the arch-

bifliop of Liftjon. E. long. 8° 6' Alfo, a town of Hin-

dooftan, on the coaft of Coromandel. Here was formerly
a powerful city, called »' Meliapour," or '« Meilabour,"
the capital of the kingdom of Coromandel ; but on the
ruins of this city the Portuguefe erefted the ftately city of
St. Thomas. This is inhabited chiefly by weavers and dyers,
who manufafture the beft coloured Ruff's in India. The
Portuguefe, who rebuilt this place in 1 545, have raifed it from
a ftate oi defolation to a flourifhing ftate, both with regard
to its buildings and inhabitants. Whilft the Portuguefe
retained it, it was a biftiopric under the archbifliop of Goa ;
and they had feveral churches, befides monafteries, and a
college for the inftruftion of the Portuguefe and Malabar
children. Here is alfo the famous church of St. Thomas
the Apoftle, where it is pretended that he was buried. ( See
Thom^ans, and Christians oJ St. Thomas. ) The city had
feven gates, and was, on account of its fituation, guarded by
the fea on one fide, and a chain of mountains on the other,
very ftrong : neverthelefs it was taken by the Moors after a
long fiege, and retained in their pofFefiion. — Alfo, a town of
Germany, in the archduchy of "Auftria ; 6 miles N.W. of

Grein Alfo, a town of Savoy, in the county of Maurienne ;

3 miles N. of Monftier.^-Alfo, the principal of the Virgin
Iflands, in the Weft Indies, about fix leagues in circum-
ference, belonging to the Danes. It abounds with potatoes,
millet, manioc, and moft forts of fruits and herbage, and
efpecially fugar and tobacco, but is much expofed to the
attacks of mofquitos and other vermin. The Enghfti had
formerly a fpacious fettlement in this ifland ; and here is a
fafe and commodious harbour, with two natural mounds upon
it, fitted for the reception of two batteries to guard its en-
trance. Nearly in the centre of the harbour is a fmall fort ;
and about 50 or 60 paces W. of it is the town, confifting
chiefly of one long ftreet, at the end of which is the Danilh
failory, with convenient warehoufes. On the right fide of
this factory is the Brandcnburgh quarter, contaming two
fmall ftreets, full of French refugees from Europe and the
iflands. Moft of the houfes are built of brick, and one ftory
high. The trade of this fmall ifland is confiderable, par-
ticularly in time of peace ; as it is the ftapje for fuch articles
of traffic as the French, Englifli, Dutch, and Spaniards are
not allowed to deal in publicly in their own iflands ; and
4 A 2 in

T H O

iu war, their priv«teeri bring tbt-ir prizes liither tor lale.
N. kit. i8°r2'. W. long. 64° 50'.— Alio, the capital of
Spanifh Guiana, called " S:iii Toinc," which is fituatcd at
tiie tool of a fmall mountain on the right bank of the Oro-
Doko. For its defence, a fort is placed oppolitc to the city
and on the loft bank of the river ; it is furrounded by a num-
ber of houfes, dependent, like the fort, on the province of
Guiana. Tliey call this place Port Raphael ; and it is here the
communication between Guiana and the provinces of Vene-
zuela and Comana is found. Between Port Raphael and the
city is feen the ifland called " Del Medio," or the Middle,
becaufe it is in the middle of the river. It is a rock, which,
in its fouthcm part, difcovers itfelf in fummcr, and is under
water in floods. Tiie principal channel is between the city
and this ifland : when the water is low it has 200 feet, and
on the increale of the river 50 or 60 more — Alfo, a town
of the United States of America, in Soutli Carolina ; 2 i miles

N. of Charleftown Alfo, a town of the ifland of Cuba ;

130 miles W.S.W. of Havannah.

Thomas dt CaJliU, St., a town of Nortli America, in the
goveniment of Mexico, and province of Guatimala.

TuOM.-vs'j Bay, a bay on the W. coall of Antigua.

Thom/VsV Crat, a river of South Carolina, which runs
into the Great Pedee.

TdOMAb'/ Gulf, St., abayof the Atlantic, on the W.coaft
of Africa. S. lat. 24° 50'.

Tll0*l;VsV Head, St., a cape of England, on the N.W.
coaft of the county of Somerfet, at the mouth of the Severn.
N. lat. 51" 20'. W. long. 73° 35'.

Thomas'^ Ho/pita!. See Hospital.

THOMASBRUCK, in Geography. See Thams-

BRL'CK.

THOMASIUS, Jacobus, in Biography, a writer in
hiftory and philofophy, profeffor of eloquence in the univer-
fity of Leiplic, and chiefly diftinguifhed as the preceptor of
the illuftrious Leibnitz, was bora at Leipfic in the year 1 622.
Having obtained diftinftion by his leftures and public thefes
in his native city, he was advanced to the office of co-reftor,
firft of the college of St. Nicholas, and afterwards of that
of St. Thomas. His erudition was extenfive, nor was he
lefs diflinguithed by his modefty and by his difmclination to
controverfy. Among his numerous works, the pri?i.cipal are
" Antiquities of Philofophical and Ecclefiaftical Hiftory :"
" DifTenations on the Stoical Philofophy, and on other Sub-
j'fts relating to the Hiftory of Philofophy ;" and "ADiffer-
tation on Literary Plaffiarifm, with a Lift of 100 Plagi-
aries," all in Latin, He died in the year 1684. Brucker.
Morcri.

Thomasius, Christian, fon of the precedino-, an emi-
nent jurift, was born at Leipflc in 1655. Having ftudied
the law at Francfort on the Oder, he was made a doftor in
that faculty in 1679 ; and returning to his native city, he
attended the bar, and wrote fome treatifes on the law. He
was the friend of Puffendorf. By oppofmg the fcholaftic
philofophy in a German journal, commenced in 1688, he
excited oppofition, and raifed againft himfelf many enemies.
Many circumftances occurred which increafed the number
of his adverfaries, and at length he was denounced to the
court of Drefden as a heretic and Calvinift. The dread of
perfecution induced him to withdraw to Berlin, and the king
of Pruffia offered him an afylum at Halle, where he intended
to found an univerfity. In this inftitution he occupied the
fecond chair of law, and on the death of Stryckius, in 17 10,
he was advanced to the firft chair. In 1 7 1 3 he defended con-
cubmage, and being denounced for this opinion by the theo-
logical faculty of Halle, orders were ilTued for proceeding
againft him cnmmally. But upon the esamination of his

T H O

theles, by commiflloners, the proceedings againft him wero
ftopped. The difpv.te, however, continued ; neverthelefs he
rofe to the poll of privy-counfellor to the king, and dircftor
of the univerfity of Halle, and died in 1728. Moftieim has
given this charafter of Thomafius. " His views were vaft ;
he aimed at the reformation of philofophy in general, and of
the Peripatetic fyftem in particular ; and he affiduoufly em-
ployed both the power of exhortation and the influence of
example, in order to perfuade the Saxons to rejeft the Arif-
totehan fyftem, which he had never read, and which moft
certainly he did not underftand. The fcheme of philofophy
which he fubftituted in its place was received with little ap-
plaufe, and foon funk into oblivion ; but his attempt to
overturn the fyftem of the Peripatetics, and to reftore the
freedom of philofophical inquiry, was attended with remark-
able fuccefs, made in a little time the moil rapid progrefs,
and produced fuch admirable effe<fts, that Thomafius is
looked upon, to this day, as the chief of thofe bold fpirits
who pulled dov/n philofophical tyranny from its throne in
Germany, and gave a mortal blow to what was called the
Sectarian philofophy in that country." Molheim's Eccl.
Hift. Moreri.

THOMASSIN, LouiB, an ecclefiaftical writer, was
born at Aix, in Provence, in 1619, and was admitted into
the congregation of the Oratory in the fourteenth year of his
age. Ke afterwards became profeflbr of theology at Sau-
mur, and laying afide fcholaftic fubtleties, adopted the me-
thod of teaching by the fcriptures, fathers, and councils :
and in 1654 he was called to the feminary of St. Magloire zx
Paris. His " Latin Differtations on the Councils," were
published by the defire of the archbiftiop of Paris, of which
the firft and only volume appeared in 1667, 410. In the
following year he pubhftied " Memoires fur la Grace,"
3 vols, 8vo., in which work he attempts to concihate the
Greek fathers with St. Auguftine. This was reprinted in
1682, with the addition of two memoirs. In 1678 he pub-
liftied the firft volume of a work, entitled " Dela Difcipline
Ecclefiaftiquc," which was followed by a fecond volume in
1679, and a third in 1681. This work was tranflated into
Latin, in 3 vols. fol. from refpeft to pope Innocent XI.
and for the advantage of more unlimited circulation. His
other works, which we can merely enumerate, were " Dog-
mata Theologies," 3 vols. 1680-89 ! " The Difcipline of
the Church and Chriilian Morality ;" " On the Divine Ser-
vice ;" " On Feftivals ;" " On Fafts ;" " On Truth and
Falfehood ;" " On the Unity of the Church ;" " On Alms,
Trade, and Ufury ;" " Methode d'enfeigner chretienne-
ment la Grammaire, ou les Langues par rapport a I'Ecri-
ture Sainte," 2 vols. 8vo. ; and " Gloflaire univerfelle He-
braique," which latter appeared after his death in 1697,
folio.

Thomaffin died in the year 1 695, having for fome time
enjoyed a penfion of 1000 livres granted to him by the
French clergy, and of which he gave one half to the poor.
One of his biographers charafteriles him as " humble, mo-
deft, and mild, fond of ftudy and retirement, and fliunning
difputes." — Although his reading was extenfive, his eru-
dition was not of the higheft clafs, and it is faid that his
work on Difcipline contains many miftakes where Greek
authors are cited. Moreri. Gen. Biog.

THOMASTOWN, in Geography, a poft-town of the
county of Kilkenny, Ireland, fituate on the river Nore, over
which it has a fine bridge. The caftle was built about 1 1 80,
by Thomas Fitzanthony, from whom the town takes its Irifti
name of Bally-mac-Andan ; i. e. town of Anthony. It was
a borough, and fent two members to parliament, but loft that
privilege by the Union. The Nore is navigable to this town

for

T H O

T H O

for ftnall veffels. It is 59 milce S.S.W. from Dublin, and
I5i N. from Watcrford.

Thomastown, a poft-town of the United States, in the
diftrift of Maine, and couuty of Lincoln, containing 2100
inhabitants.

THOMISM, or Thomaism, thedoftrineof St. Thomas
Aquinas, and his followers theThomills, chiefly with regard
to predeftinatioii and grace. See his biographical article.

There is fome doubt what the true, genuine Thomifm is ;
the Dominicans pretend to hold pure Thomifm ; but there
are other autliors who dillinguifli the Thomifm of St. Thomas
from that of the Dominicans.

Others, again, make Thomifm no other than a kind of
Janfenifm difguifed ; but Janfenifm, we know, has been
condemned by the popes, which pure Thomifm never was.

In effeft, the writings of Alvarez and Lemos, who were
appointed, by their order, to lay down and defend before the
ho^y fee, the dogmata of their fchool, have fince been reputed
the rule of pure Thomifm.

Thofe two authors diftinguirti four claffes of Thomifts :
the firft, which they rejeft, deftroys or takes away liberty ;
the fecond and third do not differ from MoUna. The laft,
which Alvarez embraces, admits a phyfical premotion, or
predetermination, wliich is a complement of the aftive power,
by which it pafles from the firft aft to the fecond ; that is,
from complete and next power to aftion.

This premotion, they hold, is offered in fufiicient grace :
fufficient grace is given to aE men ; and that they have a com-
plete, independent, next power not to aft, and even to rejeft
the moft efficacious grace.

THOMISTS, a feft of fchool divines, who maintain
Thomifm.

The avowed antagonifts of the Thomiils are the Scotifts.
THOMITES. See Thom.eans.

THOMMDAMM, in Geography, a town of the duchy
of Saxe Lauenburg, on the Elbe ; 25 miles S.E.of Lauen-
burg.

THOMPSON, Sir Benjamin, Count of Rumford, in
Biography, diftinguiihed by his afTiduity and zeal in the pro-
motion of fcience, and in devifing and executing fchemes of
public utility, was born at the village of Rumford, in New
England, in the year 1752 ; and with the afliftance afforded
him by a profefTor of natural philofophy in the American
univerfity of Cambridge, acquired in eai'ly life fuch a degree
of knowledge as enabled him to give inftruftion to others.
By an advantageous marriage, while he was young, his ad-
vancement was accelerated, fo that he obtained the rank of
a major in the militia of his native dillrift. When the war
broke out between the mother-country and her colonies, he
took part with the former, and by means of his local know-
ledge, he rendered himfelf ufeful to the Britifh generals in
America. In procefs of time he repaired to England, and
recommending himfelf to lord George Germaine, the chief
minifter in the American department, he obtained a place in
his office. Towards the clofe of the war, the fame noble-
man, with a view of fecuring for him a permanent provifion,
fent him to New York, where he raifed a regiment of dra-
goons, and by being appointed heutenant-colonel, became
entitled to half-pay. Upon his return to England, his ma-
jefly, in 1784, conferred upon him the honour of knight-
Hood ; and for fome time he occupied the poll of one of the
under-fecretaries of flate. Soon after he made a tour to the
continent, and being warmly recommended by the prince of
Deux-Ponts, afterward king of Bavaria, to his relation the
reigning eleftor-palatine, and duke of Bavaria, he was ad-
mitted into his fervicc, and occupied an eminent Ration. He
had thus an opportunity of efFefting many important and

ufeful reforms in the departments of the flate, both civil
and mihtary. His attention was at tliis time particularly di-
refted to the fupijreffion of mendicity, whicli prevailed not
only at Munich, the capital, but through the whole coun.
try, to an extent that rendered the rcllraint and abolition of
it a very difficult and hazardous undertaking. With this
view he formed a plan for employing all mendicants ; and
having provided a building for their reception, and materials
for their labour, he fallied forth into the flrcets of the city
on the ift of .lanuary 1790 (New-year's day being fet apart
for giving alms in Bavaria), accompanied by the field-officers
of the garrifon and the magiflrates of the city ; and arrefting
with his own hand the firft beggar that came in his way, his
attendants followed his example, fo that before night not a
fingle beggar was to be feen in the whole metropolis. Thofe
that were arrefted were condufted to the town-hall, where
their names were infcribed, and then ordered to repair to the
work-houfe, where they would find employment, and a fuffi-
ciency of wholefome food. In confequence of thefe prompt
and vigorous meafures, the evil was redreffed, and the men-
dicants were led by habit to prefer induftry to idlenefs, and
decency to the filth, rags, and fquahd wretchednefs attendant
on beggary. He alfo introduced into Bavaria the culture
and ufe of potatoes. For all thefe fervices fir Benjamin was
decorated by the Bavarian fovereign with feveral orders, pro-
moted to the rank of lieutenant-general, and created a count
by the title of his native place, Rumford. During his
abode at Munich, he commenced his experiments upon the
improvement of fire-places, with refpeft to the economy of
fuel, and the convenience of cooking ; and alfo his plans for
a cheaper and more nutritive mode of feeding the poor, which
gave him peculiar celebrity. Having quitted Bavaria in
1799, he refided for fome time in this country, purfuing a
variety of experiments on the nature and application of
heat, and the conltruftion of chimneys, grates, and fire-
places. He alfo promoted fcience both by his own refearches
and experiments, and by hberally exciting emulation in others,
upon a more enlarged plan. For the latter purpole, he trans-
ferred, on an occafional vifit to this country in 1796, to the
Royal Society of London, of which he was a member, 1 000/.
3 per cent, flock, the intereft of which was to be applied every
fecond year as a premium to the author of the moil important
difcovery on the fubjefts of heat and hght in any part of
Europe during the two preceding years ; the preference to be
always given to fuch difcoveries as, in the opinion of the pre-
fident and council, tend mofl to the benefit of mankind ;
which indeed was the leading objeft of all his refearches.
He alfo fuggeiled the plan, and affifted in the formation of
the Royal Inititution, which has produced feveral other efta-
bllhments of a fimilar nature.

In the year 1802 he left England for Paris, which be-
came his fixed refidence, and where he married the widow
of the celebrated chemifl, Lavoifier; but this conneftion
proving unhappy, it was foon terminated by a feparation.
The count afterwards retired to a country-houfe at Au-
teuil, about four miles from Paris, which he rendered a de-
lightful habitation. Befides the improvement of his grounds,
in wliich he took great pleafure, he purfued a variety of
pliilofophical and mechanical ref.arches. With his fuperior
talents he combined certain peculiarities, and a tenacioufnefs,
not to call it obftinacy, of temper, which prevented his en-
joying the pleafures of focial intercourfe. Although he dif-
approved both the charafter and politics of the French,
he preferred their climate to every other ; and he obtained
permiffion from the king of Bavaria to continue in France,
and to enjoy his penfion of iiocl. a-year. He lived in a
flate of retirement, and alfo in a courfe of .ibflcmioufnefs,
4 which

T H O

wLich dcbUiutcJ his conllitution, and rendered it incapable
of relilting an attack of low fever, by which he was earned
off in Augnft 1B14, in his 63d year. By his firft wife he
had one daujjhtcr, now relident at Bolton.

Although count Rumford was not a learned man, he ac-
quired by his kninvledge of the French and German lan-
guages, and by his extentive acquaintance, and frequent con-
verfation with htcrary nu-n, a large itock of literature and
fcicnce. His peculiar talent was that of contrivnig niftru-
ments, and deviling experiments for facilitating his refearches
ill ihofe branches of economics and fcicntific philofophy to
which his attention was dircded. He was alfo diilinguilhed
by a lleadinefs and perfeverance of purfuit, wliich were fa-
vourable to his attainment of the objeCls which he had in
view. As to his pcrfon, his llature was above the mid-
dle iize, his countenance was dignified and pleafing, and his
manner and tone of voice mild and gentle. He was, never-
thclefs, ambitious of diftinftion, and too prone to diftate in
Uanfadtions with regard to which other perfons were jointly
concerned with himfelf. The papers which he communi-
cated both to the Royal Society and French Inftitute, and
vfhich are publi/lied in their Tranfadlions and Memoirs, are
numerous. The only feparate publication of count Rum-
ford was a fcries of " Eflays, Experimental, Political, Eco-
nomical, and Philofophical," commencing with the year
1796, and continued to 18 in number, and occapying 4 vols.
8*0. Gent. Mag. for Oftober 1814.

TuoMPSON, in Geography, a town of America, in the. ftate
of New York, the capital of Sullivan county ; bounded N.
by Wawerfing and Neverlink, E. by Mamakating, S. by
Deerpark in Orange county, and W. by the Mongaup, which
feparates it from Lumberland, Bethel, and Liberty. Its
length N. and S. is about 34 miles, and breadth 1 2. The
principal fettlements are Thompfon, Monticello, Bridgeville,
ar.d Concord. The whole area of Thompfon is 139,500
acres ; and the population by the cenfus of 1810, confided
of 1 290 perfons. The principal ftreams are the Neverfink,
Mongaup, and Sheldrake — Alfo, a townlhip of Connefticut,
in the county of Windham ; 20 miles N.N.E. of Windham :
the place contains 2467 inhabitants.

Thompson'^ Creek, a river of South Carolina, wliich runs

into the Atlantic, N. lat. 34° 44'. W. long. 79° 46'

Alfo, a river of Weft Florida, which runs into the MifTiffippi,
N. lat. 30° 59'. W. long. gi° 30'.

Thompsos'j Harbour, a harbour in Hudfon's Bay. N.
lat. 60' 20'. W. long. 78'.

Thompson'^ IJland, a fmallifland of Upper Canada, at
the entrance of the river St. Claire.

THOMPSONSBOROUGH, a town of America, in
the diftrift of Maine ; 30 miles N.E. of Portland.
^ THOMSI, a town of Hungary ; 1 1 miles S.W. of
Cinifcha.

THOMSON, James, in Biography, a popular English
poet, was born at Ednam, near Kelfo, in Scotland, in the
year 1700, being one of the nine children of the minifter
of that place. Whilft he was at fchool at Jedburgh, he
manifefted no powers fuperior to thofe of other boys, ex-
"P>'n.atafte for poetry, which he betimes indulged, and
which introduced him, during his vacations, to the fociety
of fome neighbouring gentlemen. Of his produdions, how-
ever, he thought fo humbly, that on New-yeai's day he
';°^°""<'d to the flames thofe of each preceding year. From
Jedburgh he was removrd to the univerfity of Edinburgh,
where he perfevcred in the cultivation and exercife of his
poetical talents ; but upon the death of his father, he com-
plied with the wifhes of his friends by entering on a courfe
01 divinity. His probationary exercife was the explanation

T H O

of a pfalm, which was written in a ftyle fo fplendid, as to
incur reproof from the theological profefFor, as being alto-
gether unfuitable to the audience w hich might probably attend
his future minillry. Having no great inclination for the
office, tliis admonition induced him to devote himfelf en-
tirely to poetry : and after fpending fome time as private
tutor 111 the family of lord Binning, he determined, at the
fuggeftion of a lady, who was his mother's friend, to try
his fortune in London. In 1725 he came to London, and
meeting with his college acquaintance Mallet, he fhewed him
his poem of " Winter," in an impcrfe£l ftate ; who advifcd
him to finifti and publifh it. Mr. Millai-, a well-known
London bookfeller, bought it for a fmall fum, and pub-
liihed it in 1726. At firft it attracted little attention ; but
Mr. Whateley, a gentleman of acknowledged tafte, giving a
favourable account of it, brought the poem and its author
into notice. The author was introduced to Pope, and re-
commended by bifhop Rundle to lord chancellor Talbot.
In 1727 he pubhfhedhis " Summer," and in the fame year
" A Poem facred to the Memory of Sir Ifaac Newton,"
juft deceafed, and alfo his " Britannia." His " Spring" was
publiflied in 1728 ; and in 1730 the Seafons were completed
by " Autumn," and publiflied collectively. In 1728 Thom-
fon, aipiring to the popularity and emolument of dramatic
compofition, fucceedcd in introducing upon the ftage of
Drury-lane his tragedy of " Sophonifba." Its reception,
however, was not very flattering. Soon after he was ap-
pointed, by the recommendation of Dr. Rundle, travelling
companion to the Hon. Mr. Talbot, the eldeft fon of the
chancellor, and had an opportunity of vifiting moft of the
courts and countries of the European continent. During
this tour, the idea of his poem on " Liberty" was fuggefted
to him, and he employed two years in completing it. In
confequence of this excurfion, he obtained, by the intereft of
Mr. Talbot, the place of fecretaiy of the briefs, which,
being almoft a finecure, afforded him leifure for his private
literary purfuits. His poem on " Liberty" was more coolly
received than the natui-e of the fubjeft led him to expeft.
When lord Hardwick fucceeded the lord chancellor Talbot,
Thomfon loft his place ; but upon being queftioned by the
prince of W.-Jes, to whom he was introduced, by Mr. (after-
wards lord ) Lyttelton, as to his circumftances, a penfion of
100/. a year was granted to him.

Upon the introduftion of his fecond tragedy, " Agamem-
non," to Drury-lane, in 1738, he was fo anxious concerning
its fuccefs, that he is faid to have been thrown into a copious
perfpiration. His " Edward and Elconora" was prevented
from appearing by the interference of the lord chamberlain.
The " Mafque of Alfred," performed before the prince at
Chefden-houfe, in 1 740, was the joint produftion of himfelf
and Mallet ; and in this piece was introduced the famous
fong of " Rule Britannia," the produftion of one or other
of thefe two perfons. The moft fuccefsful of Thomfon's
dramatic pieces was his "Tancred aad Sigifmunda," which
appeared at Drury-lane in 1 745 ; but hia " crowning perform-
ance," as one of his biographers calls it, was " The Caftle
of Indolence," publifhed in 1746. Our poet was now ren-
dered independent by the intereft of Mr. Lyttelton, who
obtained for him the ofpice of fmveyor-general of the Lee-
ward iflands, which, after payment of a deputy, yielded
him about 300/. a year. Death, however, in confequence
of a fever occafioned by a cold, deprived him, in Augufl
1748, of the comparative affluence derived from this ap-
pointment. His remains were interred in Richmond church,
without any memorial ; but in 1762 amonument was ereSed
in Weftminfter Abbey, the expence of which was defrayed
out of the profits of an edition of his works, publifhed by

Mr

T H O

T H O

Mr. Millar. His " Coriolanus" was brought on tlie ftage
by his executors, in 1 749, for the benefit of the furviving
branches of his family. The prologue, compofed by Lyt-
teltoii, was very feelingly dehvered by Quin, the intimate
friend of Thomfon.

Thonifon's pcrfon was large and awkward, and his coun-
tenance luianiinated ; nor did iiis appearance or manners indi-
cate genius or refinement. With feleft friends, however, he
was eafy and cheerful, and univcrfally beloved for the
kindnefs of his heart, and freedom from thofe paffions that
fometimes difgrace men of literary charaAer. He was in-
dolent and ft-lf-indulgent in his habits; although " no poet,"
as his biographer fays, " has deferred more praife for tiie
moral tenor of his writings. Unbounded philanthropy, en-
larged ideas of the dignity of man, and of his riglits, love
of virtue, public and private, and a devotional fpirit, nar-
rowed by no view5^ of feft or party, give foul to his verle
when not merely defcrlptive ; but no one can rife from the
perufal of his pages without mehoration of his principles or
feelings." His poetical merit is moil confpicuous in his
" Seafons," and though Dr. Johnfon charges it with adefetl
of method, yet as a hiftory of the year through its changes,
depending upon the vicilFitude of the feafons, it adheres
fufficicntly to its general plan for preferring a continuity of
fubjeft, with due allowances for the moral and philofophical
digreflions by which it is vai-ied. Its diftion, though fome-
ivhat laboured, is energetic and expreflive. Its verfification,
though it does not indicate a nice ear, is feldom unpleafantly
harfii. Upon the whole, continues the biographer now
cited, "fcarcely any poem has been more, andmore defervedly,
popular ; and it has exerted a powerful influence upon pviblic
talle, not only in this country, but throughout Europe.
Thonifon's other pieces in blank verfe difplay a vivid imagina-
tion, a comprehenfive underftanding, and exalted fentiments,
but are not marked with any peculiar character. The addi-
tion to his fame as a poet has principally arifen from his
" Caftle of Indolence," an allegorical compofitiou in the
manner of Spenfer." Of his tragedies, the beft that can
be faid is that they maintain a reipeftable rank among the
produftions of the modern fchool of the drama, which,
when they difappear from the ftage, are feldom taken up
in the clofet. Murdoch's Life of Thomfon. Johnfon's
Lives of the Poets. Gen. Biog.

THONE, in Geography. See Tone.

Thone, in Agncuhiire, a term fignifying fomewhat damp
-and cold, not thoroughly dry. Alfo flaxid or limber, as
undried hav, corn, or llraw in a moift ftate.

THONGTONG, in Geography, a town of the Birraan
empire ; 10 miles N.W. of Raynangong.

THONNA, a town of Saxony, in the principality of
Gotha ; I 2 miles from Gotha.

THONNAUSTAUFF, a town of Bavaria, near the
Danube ; 3 miles from Ratifbon.

THONNES, or Thonnex, a town of France, in the
department of the Leman ; 9 miles S.E. of Annecy.

THONON, or ToN'os", a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Leman, late capital of the duchy of Chablais,
on the lake of Geneva, fituated on a plain a little elevated.
It is not environed with walls, but was formerly defended
by a ftrong caftle, furrounded with lofty towers, where
Amadeus VIII. and IX. and Louis, dukes of Savoy, re-
lided for fome time. The caftle was burned and demolifhed,
in the i6th century, by the Bernois. It has one parifh
church and fcvcral convents ; i8 miles N.E. of Geneva.
N. lat. 46' 18'. E. long. 6= 32'.

THOPH. See Machul and Sistrum.

THOPHAIL, Abu Giaiar, in Biography, a cele-

brated Peripatetic philofophcr and phyfician, was a aativc
of Seville in Spain, and preceptor to Maimonides and Avcr-
roes. This philofoplier employed the Ariftotelian doftriue
to the purpofes of enthufiafm, in the elegant tale ftill extant
of " Hai Ebr Yockdan ;" a youth who, havuig been ex-
pofed when an infant on the fea-coaft, was nouridied by a
hind, and grew up in the woods, without any intcrcourfe
with human beings ; and who, by the unaided exertions of
his own powers, attained to the knowledge of things na-
tural and fupernatural, and arrived at the felicity of an in-
tuitive intercourfe with the divine mind. This piece is
written with fnch elegance of language and vigour of imagi-
nation, that, nolwithftanding the improbability of the ftory,
it has been univcrfally admired. It exhibits a favourable fpe-
cimen of Peripatetic phllofophy, as it was taught among the
Saracens ; and, at the fame time, affords a memorable ex-
ample of the unnatural alliance, which was now fo generally
ellabliflied between philofophy and fanaticifm. This work
was tranflated by Edward Pococke, jun. from the Arabic
into Latin, under the title of " Philofophus Autodidaftus,"
and printed in 4to. at Oxford, in 1 700. It was alfo tranflated
into Englifli by S. Hoadley, profeffor of Arabic in Cam-
bridge, ed. Lond. 171 1, 8vo., and alfo into Dutch. Tho-
phail is faid to have written feveral other works, and died at
Seville in 1175. Bruckcr by Enfield. Gen. Biog.

THOR, in Mythology, a deity worfliipped by the ancient
inhabitants of the northern nations ; p;irticularly by the
ancient Scandinavians and Celts. JuHus Cxfar (Com.
lib. vi. c. 17.) fpeaks of a god of the Gauls, who was
charged with the conduft of the atmofphere, and prefided
over the winds and tempefts, under the name of Jupiter :
but Lucan gives him a name, which bears a greater refem-
blance to that of Thor, w'z. Taranis, a word which, to this
day, in the Welfh language, fignifies thunder. The autho-
rity of this deity extended over the winds and feafons, and
particularly over thunder and lightning. In the fyftem of
the primitive religion, the god Thor was probably one of
thofe genii, or fubaltern deities, fprung from the union of
Odin, or the Supreme Being, and the Earth. The Edda
calls him the moft valiant of the fons of Odin ; and in the
Icelandic mythology, he is confidered as the defender and
avenger of the gods. He always carried a mace, or club,
which as often as he difcharged it returned to his hand
of itfelf ; he grafped it with gauntlets of iron, and was
potFeffed of a girdle which had the virtue to renew his
ftrength as often as was needful. With thefe formidable
arms he overthrew the raonflers and giants, when the gods
fent him to oppofe their enemies. Thor, Friga, or Freya,
and Odin, compofed the court or fupreme council of the
gods, and were the principal objefts of the worfliip and
veneration of all the Scandinavians. The Danes feem to
have paid the higheft honour to Odin. The inhabitants of
Norway and Iceland appear to have been under the imme-
diate proteftion of Thor : and the Swedes chofe for their
tutelar deity Freya, or Frey, an inferior divinity, who, ac-
cording to the Edda, prefided over the feafons of the year,
and beftowed peace, fertility, and riches.

There was a day confecrated to Thor, which ftill retains
his name in the Danifh, Swedifh, Englifh, and Low Dutch
languages, -ulz. Thurfday. This word has been rendered
into Latin by dies Jovis, or Jupiter's day ; for this deity,
according to the ideas of the Romans, was the god of
thunder. Mallet's North. Ant. vol. i. p. 95.

Thor, Le, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Mouths of the Rhone ; 9 miles E. of Avignon.

THORA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Ran-
tampour ; 45 miles S. of Rantampour.

Thoka,

T H O

TiioRA, in Botany. See Aconitum.

'I'HOR ACIC, in Anatomy, an epithet applied to various
parts ill an.i about the ch..-ft, as to the aorta above the dia,
plu-agra, and to fomc branches of the axillary artery ^lee
Akteky): to fomc branches of the axillary plexus ot
mrves (fee Nerve) ; to the trunk of the abforbing
fyftcm of veflcls. Sec Absorbents.

THORACICI, in the Linnaan Syftem of Ichthyology, the
name of the third order of bony fifhcs, rcfpiring by means
of gills only : the charader of which is, that the bronchia
are ofliculated, and the ventral fins are placed underneath the
thorax. This order in Gmelin's edition of the Linnxan
fyftem, includes nineteen genera, and a good number of
fpecies. The genera are, the cepola, echends, coryphana,
gobius, cottus, fcorpana, %eut, pleuroneHes, chstodon, fparus,
fcarus, labrus, Jc'itna, perca, gafterojleus, fcomber, centrogajler,
muHus, and trigla.

THORiii Radix, in the Materia Medica, the name of a
root which keeps its place in the catalogues of officinal
fimples, but is feldom ufed. See Aconitum and An-

THORA.

The plant which produces it is the thora valdcnfis of
Gerarde. It is kept in the gardens of the curious, but
jrrows wild in the mountainous parts of Germany. The
root is compofcd of a number of granules or fmall lumps,
hke that of the common ranunculus ; the leaves are roimdifh,
and ftand on fmall pedicles, and the ftalks are about fix
inches high, and the flowers yellow, and like thofe of our
common wild ranunculufes.

The root is acrid and corrofive, and the juice of the
leaves is faid to poifon animals, and to have been ufed by
the ancients for that purpofe.

THORAME, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Lower Alps; 13 miles E. of Digne.

THORAX, in Anatomy, that divifion of the Ikeleton
which contains the bones forming the cavity of the cheft ;
or it is ufed to denote the cavity of the cheft. See Lung,
where the bones and their articulations are defcribed, as well
as the cavity they form, and its coatents.

Thorax. For an account of the operation of tapping,
refer, to Empyema, Paracentesis, and Wouni>s of the
Thorax.

The fubjeft of wounds of the cheft will be found in the
article Wounds.

THORDO, DiACONUS or LegifeR, in Biography, de-
fcended from an ancient family, was provincial judge in North
Jutland, and flourifhed in the timeof WaldemarIII.,or about
the year 1350. He was the author of the following work ;
" Conftitutio Voldemari Regis, per Thordonem Legiferum,
&c." Ripis, 1504,61 Havn. 1508, 4to.;tranflated into Latin
together with Waldemar's Jutland Laws, and afterwards pub-
li(hed in Ludewig's " Rehquise MSS." torn. xii. and alfo in
German by Eric Krabbe, in " Weftphal's Monuments."
Gen. Biog.

THORDSEN, or Theodori Sturla, called alfo Frode
or Polyhljlor, was born in Iceland, about the beginning of
the 13th century. His father was Thordur Sturlefon, bro-
ther to the celebrated Snorro. (See Sturleson.) He is
reprefentcd to be one of the greateft Icelandic poets of his
time, as well as an eminent lawyer and hiftorian. His talents
excited enemies, fo that he wa3 forcibly carried away from
the ifland in 1263, and conveyed to Norway, where he was
favourably received by the king Magnus Lagebseter, ad-
mitted into liis council, and appointed his hiftorian and da-
pifer, one of the higheft offices at the Norwegian court.
Afterwards, however, he returned to Iceland, and having
been chief juftice of the country for many years, died' in

T H O

1 284. Hie works are " Landnama Saga," or " Liber Ori-
ginum Iflandiae," publi(h(;d entire by bilhop Thordur Thor-
fakfen, Skalholt, 1688, 4to., and by J. Finnzus, Havn.
1774, 4to.: — A continuation of " Sturlimga Saga," orthe
hiftory of the Sturla family, and alraoft the whole of Ice-
land, during his time, which was begun by the learned
bifliop Brand : — " The Hiftory of King Haager Haagen-
fen," publilhed at the expence of the crown-prince Frede-
ric : — " The Hiftory of King Magnus Lagebseter," com-
piled from the public records of the kingdom, the greater
part of which has been loft. Gen. Biog.

THORESBY, Ralph, an eminent antiquary, the fon
of a coniiderable merchant of an ancient family at Leeds,
where he was born in the year 1658. His father belonged
to the body of Prefbyterians, and being addifted to anti-
quarian ftudics, founded tlie collcftion entitled " Mufeum
Thorclbianum." The fubjeft of this article was intended
for a mercantile profeffion, and in order to complete his edu-
cation, begun at Leeds, and profecuted in London, he was
fent, in his twentieth year, to Rotterdam, to acquire the
Dutch and French languages. But his father dying in 1679,
he fucceeded him in bufinefs, married, and fettled in his na-
tive town. To antiquarian refearches, for which his father's
example had given him an early tafte, he devoted much time
and attention. In the earlier period of his life he had been
an occafional conformift, in common with many of thofe who
were called Diftenters, and difgufted by the indifcreet zeal
of his paftor in maturer life, as well as probably influenced
by his diocefan, archbiftiop Sharp, he joined in full commu-
nion with the eftablifhed church. His conneftion and cor-
refpondence with perfons engaged in fimilar purfuits with
his own were gradually enlarged : and upon communicating,
by Dr. Mai-tin Lifter, an account of feme Roman antiqui-
ties difcovered in Yorkfhire, to the Royal Society, he was
admitted a member of that learned body in 1697. In 17 14
he publifticd a work in which he had been long engaged,
containing a hiftory of his native town, and entitled " Duca-
tus Leodenfis ; or the Topography of Leedes, and Parts ad-
jacent," together with a catalogue of the antiquities, &;c.
contained in the Mufeum Thorelbianum. An hiftorical part,
to which he often refers, and comprehending a view of the
ftate of the northern diftrifts of this kingdom in remote
ages, was left in MS. continued to the fixth century ; which
MS. being communicated to the editors of the Biographia
Britannica, was by them printed entire in the article " Tho-
refijy." He publiftied alfo " Vicaria Leodenfis, or the
Hiftory of the Church of Leedes," Lond. 1724, com-
prehending obfervations on the origin of parochial churches,
and the ancient manner of building them, together with
biographical memoirs of feveral clergymen. In the follow-
ing year he was feized with a paralytic affeftion, which ter-
minated his life at the age of fixty-eight years. Poffeffing
an extenfive acquaintance with the hiftory of his country,
genealogy and heraldry, and ancient coins and medals, he
always manifefted a diipofition to affift thofe who were en-
gaged in works of the antiquarian and biographical defcrip-
tion. The fentiments of Mr. Thoreftjy were liberal and
CathoUc ; his manners regular, and his difcharge of focial
and religious duties exemplary. Biog. Brit.

THORIGNY, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Channel; 6 miles S.S.E. of St. Lo. —
Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Yonne ;
18 miles S.S.E. of Provins.

THORLASKEN Gudbrand, in Biography, an Ice-
landic writer and prelate, was born at Stadarbakke, in the
diftrift of Holum, in 1542. In 1561 he was fent to the
univerfity of Copenhagen ; in 1564 he became reftor of the

fchool

T H O

T II O

fcliool of Holum ; and in 1570 he was appointed bifliop'of
that diocefe. With a view of diffufing knowledge, he efta-
bhflied a printing-prefs, firft at Riipurel, and afterwards at
liolum, which he perfonally fuperintended. He was one of
the moll learned of the Icelandic hifhops, but too arbitrary
in the cxercifc of his cpifcopal funftions. He died in 1629,
in the 851!! year of his age. Many coniiderable works,
partly his own, and partly thofe of otliers, iflned from his
prefs. He alio conftrufted a map of Iceland, which was
engraved by Orteliiis. Gen. Biog.

THORN, in Geography, a city of PrulTia, lituated on the
Viftula, formerly the cliicf city of Polilh Pruflia. It was
founded by Herman Baick, firft grand-mafterof the Teutonic
order, who built the callle of Thorn in 1 23 1. In the follow-
ing year, the foundation of the town was laid ; but the build-
ing was difcontinued in 1235, on account of the inconvenient
fituation, and Thorn was built about a German mile farther
up the river, on the fpot where it now Hands. It is fup-
pofed to have been called Tlvorn, becaufe the knights of
the Teutonic order, by building this city, opened themfelves
a thor or door into Pruflia. When the knights of the
Teutonic order enormoufly abufed their power throughout
all Pruflia, Thorn was the firll city which formed the noble
fcheme of fliaking off their oppreflive yoke. The inhabit-
ants then put themfelves under the proteftion of Cafimir the
Great, king of Poland, upon advantageous conditions, as a
free city. Thorn has ten gates, and is divided into the Old
and the New Town, each of which had formerly its re-
fpeftive council, magiftracy, and police. But, in 1454,
they were incorporated into one city. They are, however,
feparated from each other by a wall and moat within the
town ; and without, they are defended in common by a fine
double wall and moats. Thorn was formerly ftrongly for-
tified; and it gradually improved its advantageous fituation,
lb as to become a place of very confiderable trade, and one
of the principal of the Hanfe towns. It likewife carried
on an extenfive commerce in the Baltic, independently of
the other cities of that confederacy ; for before the river
widened lo much, and confequently became Ihallower, fhips
of burden could come up to the very city. From various
caufes, in little more than half a century, Thorn greatly
declined from its flouriihing cowdition ; for it furrendered
by capitulation, in 1655, to Charles Guftavus, king of
Sweden ; and, in 1658, after a vigorous fiege, it was taken
by the Poles and Brandenburghers. In 1703, it was bom-
barded and taken by Charles XII. king of Sweden, who
not only exhaufted it by the heavieft contribution, but alfo
demolilhed all the fortifications, contrary to the articles of
capitulation. Between the years 1708 and 1 7 10, great
numbers of its inhabitants were fwept away by the plague.
In the following years, the revenues of the city fuffered con-
fiderably by the confederations in Poland, and no lefs by
the commotions occafioned by the competitors for the crown
of that kingdom. In 1793, fo"ie Prufiian troops entered
this town, and from that time it has formed part of the
dominions of that king ; the king of Pruflia taking poflef-
fion of Thorn and Dantzic, together with the palatinates of
Pofnania, Kaiifh, &c. agreeably to a proclamation, pub-
Llhed on the 25th of March. The foap, ginger -bread, &c.
of Thorn, are every where in great requeft ; and, accord-
ingly, great quantities of them are exported. The afpa-
ragus that grows wild on fome of the city lands, is not
inferior to that which is cultivated with fo much care in
other countries; 70 miles S. of Dantzic. N. lat. 52° 55'.
E. long. iS'^ 30'.

Thorn, or Thoren, a tovyn of France, in the department
iff the Lower Meufe. It had a noble abbey, whofc fuperior
Vol, XXXV.

was a princcfs. This abbey was alfefled in the matricula at
one horfc or twelve florins ; 7 miles S.W. of Rurcmond.

Thorn, in Botany, a name generally given to ail trees, or
the larger kinds of fhrubs, which are armed with fpines or
prickles, but more particularly applied to the Linnsan
genus Ckat.'EGU.s, now funk in Mks.''1Lus. (See thofe
articles. ) Otherwife this name is almoft as vaguely applied
as its Greek and Latin fynonyms, axKvjy. and fpina, neither
of which is ftnftly appropriated to any one plant, or family
of plants. Av.KvOa, in Diofcorides, is the name of tiiat well-
known herb, whofe leaves compofe the ornamental part of a
Corinthian capital, and which is the Brank-urfine, or Acan-
thus of modern botanifts, as well as of the generality of
writers. But he applies the fame likewife to a kind of
thilUe. The Acanthus of Virgil can fcarcely be any thing
elfe than the Common Holly, Ilex Aquifolium, though we
do not find that this idea has occurred to his critics or
iiiuftrators. This flirub, fo abundant in Italy, cannot be
traced, under any other name or allufion, in the poet ; while
the brigiit afpeft, the faffron or fcarlet colour, the pliant
twigs of his Acanthus ; but, above all, its being evergreen
and bearing berries, Georg. 2. 119, and fubjefted in winter
to the fliearsof the gardener, ibid. 4. 137, are circumftances
ftrikingly appropriate to the Holly, not to the Bqank-
urfine ; though the name may allude to the prickly foliage
of either.

TnoKs-AppU. See Datura, and Datura Stramonium.
TliOKN, Black, or Sloe-tree, a fpecies of the ^runuj-, called
prunus fylvejlris. See Prunus and Slok.
Thorn, Box. See Lycium.

Thorn, Buck. See Rhamnus, and Rhawnus Cu-
tharticus.

Thorn, Chri/l's. See Paliurus and Rhamnus.
Thorn, Cock/pur. See CRAxyEcus, Mespilus, and
Pyrus.

Thorn, Egyptian, a name fometimes applied to a plant
which is armed with llrong thorns or prickles, and which
is faid to have been lately found to make a good hedge-
plant when kept low by being well cut in. It is alfo a
very ornamental ftirubby tree-plant for pleafure-grounds.
See Acacia.

ThOrn, Evergreen. See Mespilus and Pyrus.
Thorn, Glajlonbury, a variety of the hawthorn. See
Crat^gus and Mespilus.

Thorn, Goat's, a fpecies of AJlragalus ; which fee. See
alfo Tragacantha.

Thorn, Nam. The fruit of this thorn has been found
ufeful by farmers in feeding team and other horfes. See
Crataegus and Mespilus.

Thorn, Lily. See Catesb^a.
Thork, Purging. See Rhamnus.
Thorn, Scorpion's, a fpecies of Ulex ; which fee.
THORif» Spanijh Hedge-hog, a fpecies of Antbyllis ; which
fee.

TllORN, White, a fpecies of Crataegus ; which fee. See
alfo Mespilus.

Thorn, in Vegetable Phyfwlogy. See Spina and Fulcra.

TuoRti-Hedges, in Agriculture, a term often applied to

fuch as are made of that plant, whether of the white or blatk

kind. They in moll cafes form the befi fences. See

Fence, Quickset, Qvickszt -Hedge, &c,

THORNBACK, in Ichthyology, the Enghfli name of a
fpecies of ray-fi(h, the raia clavata of Linnxus, priekly on
the back, and with tuberculofe teeth, and a tranfvcrfe carti-
lage in the belly : the young filh have very few fpines on
them, and their backs are often fpotted with white, and each
fpot encircled with black. (See Raia.) This fpecies
4 B frequents

T H O

frri|.ieiil« our faiidy Ihores, is very voracious, and feeds on
ill lorts of flat fifh, and is particularly fond of herrings and
faad-eels, and fometimes cats crullaceous animals, lueli as
crabs. The thornbacks begin to generate in June, and
bring forth their young in July and Auguft, which (as
well as ihofe of the (kate) before they are old enough to
breed, are called maids. They begin to be in feafon in
November, and continue fo later than fl<ate ; but the young
of both are good at all times of the year. Pennant.

TH0R>5'BURGH, in Geography, a town of Virgmia ;
74 miles S. of Wafliington.

THORNBURY, an ancient market-town in the lower
divifion of the hundred of the fame name, in the county of
Gloucefler, England ; is fituated 24 miles S.W. from the
city of Glouceller, and 122 miles W. by N. from London.
The town confifts principally of three itreets, in the form of
the Roman Y, "having firil," fays Leland, "one longe
llrete, and two horncs goyne owt of it." The corporation
is compofed of a mayor, twelve aldermen, and a town-clerk ;
but the power of thefe officers is become much limited by
difufe. A weekly market is held on Saturdays, but is not
much frequented : here are three annual fairs. The church
is fpacious and handfomc : the tower is lofty, and orna-
mented with rich open-worked battlements, and eight pin-
nacles. The population, as returned under the aft of the
year 181 1, amounted to 1083 ; the number of houfes to
2 16. At the north end of the town are the remains of an
unfinilhed callle, which was commenced by Edward Stafford,
duke of Buckingham, but (lopped when he was beheaded
in 1522. This caftle may be confidered as particularly de-
ferring notice, from its affording fome interefting fperimens
of the laft gradation of caftellated architefture. The former
fplendour of Richmond and Nonfuch, which were con-
temporary with it, are known only by defcription and en-
granngs ; and Hampton Court, though it rofe under the
hands of Wolfey at the fame period, is certainly lefs rich in
the minute and capricious ornaments peculiar to the build-
ings of Henry VII. and his fucceffor. A fniall part raoft
relembling Thornbury, is feen at Windfor Caftle, in an ad-
dition made by the firft-mentioned fovereign. It is evident,
from a furvey made in the year 1582, that the whole
fouthem fide was habitable, and that it confifted of feveral
chambers, of magnificent dimenfions. The tower, the walls
of which are perfeft, was divided into four rooms, the duke's
own apartments : this ftands at the fouth-weft angle of the
caftle. The duke was meditating the completion of the
quadrangle which would have inclofed an area of two acres
and a half, when his fatal attainder clofed his views for
ever. Within the circuit walls twelve acres were inclofed :
annexed to them are fmall rooms, intended as barracks for
foldiers. In the reign of Elizabeth, the principal timbers
were taken away ; and time has forwarded the dilapidation.
A fingular coincidence has been remarked between the front
of Thornbury caftle and that of Chriftchurch, Oxford ;
and it appears as if the rivalry of tlie duke and cardinal

Wolfey was exerted even in their ai-chitcfture Beauties

of England and Wales, vol. v. Gloucefterfhire ; by J. Britton
and E. W. Brayley. Lyfons's " Gloucefterftiire Anti-
quities," foho.

THORNE, a market-town in the lower divifion of the
wapentake of Strafford and Tickhill, in the Weft Riding of
the county of York, England ; is fituated near the fouth
bank of the river Don, at the diftance of 10 miles N.E.
from Doncafter, 29 miles S. by E. from York, and 167
N. by W. from London. The town appears to be in a
progreflive ftate of improvement : it carries on a confider-
able commerce by the Don ; and veffels trade regularly to
10

T H O

London. Ships of a fize fufficiently large for the ooaiting
trade, are biiilt at the fuburb called Hangman Hill, on the
banks of the river, which is alfo the landing-place for all
the merchandize. A canal cut from the Don to the Trent
paffes within a furlong on the weft fide of the town. A
weekly market is held on Wednefdays ; and two fairs an-
nually, each of three days continuance, for horned cattle,
woollen cloth, &c. According to the population returns
of the year 181 1, Thorne contained 637 houies, the number
of inhabitants being 2713. The country about Thorne is
for the moft part fertile ; but low, flat, and totally un-
pifturefque. On the eaft fide of the town is a field of rich
fandy loam, and more elevated than the other lauds in the
vicinity. Beyond this are vaft moors, which however are
moftly drained and inclofed.

At the diftance of about three miles weftward from
Thorne, and on the Doncafter road, is Hatfield, a Iju-ge vil-
lage, famous in the annals of hiftory for the battle fought
there A.D. 633, by Edwin, the firft Chriftian king of
Northunibria, againft Cadwallo, king of Wales, and Peiida,
the Pagan king of Mercia. This conflift, which was ex-
tremely fanguinary, terminated fatally for the Northum-
brians : their monarch, and his eldeft fon Offrid, were flain,
their kingdom fubdued, and their country laid wafte. This
village was the birth-place of William de Hatfield, the
fecond fon of king Edward III. The extenfive level of
Hatfield Chace is faid to contain within its limits 180,000
acres, of which nearly one-half was formerly a great part of
the year under water. It was fold by Charles I. to Cor-
nelius Vermuiden, a naturalized Dutchman, without the
confent of the commiffioners and tenants, to drain and cul-
tivate ; which he effeftcd at the expence of about 4.00,000/.,
but the affair involved him in ruinous law-fuits. In the
year 1811, an aft was obtained for inclofing between eight
and nine thoufand acres of rich common in this neighbour-
hood, which muft be ultimately produftive of great public
and private advantage. — Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. xvi. Yorkftiire ; byj. Bigland.

Thorne, a fmall ifland of Denmark, in the Little Belt,
near the ifland of Funen. N. lat. 59^ 15'. E. long.

9° 53'-

THORNESS Bav, a bay on the N.W. coaft of the Ifle
of Wight, between Newtown and Cowes.

THORNE Y, a market-town in the north part of the
hundred of Witchford, and county of Cambridge, England ;
is fituated in the north-weft fide of the county bordering on
Northamptonfiiire, 10 miles W. from March, 5 miles S.E.
from Crowland, and 84 miles N. from London. It is fur-
rounded by low and fertile grounds, which are now in a very
complete ftate of drainage, the expence of which is defrayed
by an annual tax of about a ftiilling per acre. Its ancient
appellation was Ankeridge, which it obtained from the an-
chorites who dwelt in a monaftery, or rather an aflemblage
of hermitages, founded here about the year 662, by Saxul-
phus, the firft abbot of Peterborough. The Danes de-
ftroyed thefe hermitages in 870, and the place lay wafte till
972, when Ethelwold, bifhop of Winchefter, founded on
the fcite an abbey for Benediftine monks, which became an
opulent eftabliftiment, and ranked among the mitred abbeys.
In the year 1085, the ancient church was taken down, and a
new one commenced by the abbot Gunter, but it was not
completed till 1128. This ftrufture poftefted confiderable
magnificence, and was, according to Brown Willis, " at
leaft five times as large as at prefent." When the abbey
was diffolved by Henry VIII. great part of the church
was deftroyed ; but the remainder efcaped by being made
parochial. The weft front, which is the entrance to the

church,

T H O

T H O

cliurcli, is tlie mod perfeft part of the ancient builJiiig.
The revenues of the abbey were ellimated, at the diflblu-
tion, at 411/. I2J-. 11^. clear yearly value. Great part of
its poflcfTions, with the fcite, was granted in 1549 to John,
lord RufTell, anccftor to the duke of Bedford, who is lord
of the manor, and owner, not only of the town, but alfo of
19,000 acresof the furrounding lands. This extenlive pi-o-
perty is divided into farms from 25/. to 400/. per annum,
generally in a very improved llate of cultivation. A market
is held on Thurfdays, and two annual fairs were granted for
Thorney to Francis, earl of Bedford, in the 1 3th year of
Charles I. by the charter of incorporation for the govern-
ment of the Bedford Level. The inhabitants of the pari(h,
who are chiefly the defcendants of French Proteftants, are
ftated in the population return of the year 1 8 1 1 , to amount to

1675 : the number of houfes being 251 Lyfons's Magna

Britannia, vol. ii. part I. Cambridgelhire. Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. ii. Cambridgelhire ; by .1. Britton
and E. W. Brayley.

Thornev IJland, a fmall ifland, in a bay of the Englifli
Channel, near the coall of Suflex, about four miles in cir-
cumference, with a village of the fame name, at the mouth of
the Lavant ; 7 miles S.W. of Chichefter.

THORNHILL, 5/V James, in Biography, may be called
the father of hiftoric painting in England. He was the fon of
a gentleman of an ancient family in Dorfetfliire, and was born
at Weymouth in 1676. His family having fallen in fortune,
he was obliged to refort to fome profeffion for fupport, and
guided by an early tafte for painting, fixed upon that art as
a bafe on which to raife a fortune and a name. He came
to London, and was affifted by the celebrated phyfician
Sydenham, who placed him under the tuition of an artift of
little note, whofe name is not known, and to whom, from
the ftate of the art at the time, he muft have been far lefs
indebted for the progrefs he made, than to his own inge-
nuity and induftry. After having praftifed for a while
■with fome celebrity, he travelled to Holland and to
Flanders ; and thence vifited France, but did not proceed
to Italy. Moft probably his objeft in this journey was
only to acquire a knowledge of colouring ; and he might
have fatisfied his mind on compofition and form, by having
fpent three years in copying the cartoons of Raphael, which
he was permitted to do by the favour of the earl of Halifax.
Thefe copies are ia oil, and were bought after his death by
the then duke of Bedford ; and by his grace's fucceflbr,
the late duke, were prefented to the Royal Academy.
They are wrought with care, but lack the delicacy of cha-
racter and feehng obfervable in the originals. On his re-
turn to England, his reputation was increafed, and honour
and employment accompanied it. Queen Anne com-
miffioned him to paint the interior of the cupola of St.
Paul's, which he did in eight compartments. The fubjeft
afiigned him was the hiftory of St. Paul ; and he treated it
with confiderable grandeur of fl.yle,both as to compofition and
execution ; but his defign wanted chaftity and fimplicity,
and the heads of his figures have not fufficient refinement of
expreffion. It was, however, the firft attempt by an Eng-
lifhman of the kind, and fully juilified the preference given
to him over La Guerre and t^a Foffe, who were then paint-
ing the halls and ftaircafes of our nobility. He was after-
wards employed to decorate an apartment at Hampton
Court, with emblematlfcal allufions to the hiftory of the
queen, and her union with her confort, George, prince of
Denmark. But his grand work is the great hall at Green-
wich Hofpital, where he has painted naval trophies and
allegorical figures in great profufion ; and if much praife
cannot be given to the purity of the defign, it ought not to

be withheld from thi- brilliancy and vigour of the execu-
tion. Altogether, it is a work unrivalled in its kind here,
and well entitled him to the honour of knighthood, which
George I. foon after conferred upon him. This was fome
compenfation to him for the mortification of having liis
demand for thefe paintings contefted, and being in the end
paid only at the labourer's rate of fo much per fquare
yard, (40J).

He had the honour of fo far re-eftablifliing his family in-
fluence as could be cffefted by being chofen to reprefent his
native town in parliament ; but he did not enjoy his honours
long, as he died at the early age of 57, leaving a fon, named
alfo James, for whom he had procured the appointment of
ferjcant-painter to the king, and a daughter married to
Hogarth.

THORNY Trefoil, in Botany. See Fagonia.

Thorny Rejl-Harroiu, in Agriculture, a frequent weed in
poor barren pailure land, which is not removed without
difficulty, in confequence of its perennial nature.

THOROE, in Geography, a fmall ifland of Denmark,
in the Little Belt, near the ifland of Funen. N. lat. 55'-' i c'.
E. long. 9° 53'.

THOROLD, a townlhip of Upper Canada.

THOROUGH, the common name of an inter-furrow
between two ridges. They (hould always be clean and
well-drawn.

Tno'B.ovon-Bafe, or accompaniment to a continued bafe
by figures.

Thorough-bafe is but an aukward tranflation of the
Italian terms bajfo cont'tnuo, by which accompaniment by figures,
without any other guide for the right-hand on keyed inilru-
ments, was at firft called.

The French term accompagnement is the (horteft and moft
comprehenfive title for the harmony expreffed by figures
over the bafe ; if, as Rameau has done in his " Code de
Mufique," we add " for the harpfichord or organ," as
there are feveral other kinds of accompaniment befides _that
on keyed-inftruments.

Rameau defines accompaniment or thorough-bafe in the
following manner. " Accompaniment on the harpfichord
or organ, confifts in the execution of a complete and regu-
lar harmony, by feeing only the notes of one part of that
harmony ; and this part is called the bafe, being in reality
the bafis or foimdation of the whole compofition. This
bafe is played with the left-hand, and its harmony with the
right."

We (hall endeavour to affift our mufical reader, who has
every thing to learn in the art of accompaniment, more by
example than precept, and fhall give him a feries of pro-
greffive leffbna in- the mufical plates, which will explain
the whole myftery of mufical combinations from the com-
mon chord, to the moft extraneous harmony.

We take it for granted that he is perfeftly acquainted
with the mufical fcale or gammut, in the bafe and treble
clefs at leaft, as well as with the time-table ; and that the
accidents of flat, (harp, and natural, are familiar to him.

The firft thing, therefore, that we ftiall recommend to
his ftudy, is a table of intervals, both in notes and figures.
See Plate II.

N° I. prefents a fcale in half notes, in which all the flats
occur, from the unifon to the 9th ; another fcale expreffed
by ftiarps.

2. Number of femitones above the bafe in each interval.

3. Common chords, major and minor, to all the twelve
femitones, modulating by jths.

4. Modulation in common chords, major and minor alter-
nately, the bafe falling a 3d at each chang*. And in

463 order

T H O

order to familiarize the lludent to thefe cliords in every part
u( the inftrumcnt, he is advUoJ to make three voyages
round the harmonical world : beginning with the 8th upper-
moft, then the 5th, and iailly the 3d i and .t no millake 13
made, the laft chord in each of thefe circumnavigations will
be an oclavc above the firft. But all difficulty in thefe
exereifes will be removed, if it be remembered that, m
going from chord to chord, only one note is to be changed
by tile right-hand, which note is always the oftave of the
new bafe.

5. Exercife of common chords in accompanying the
hexachords in all the keys, major and minor, to their fun-
damental bafes : in the praftice of which, dots are placed
on the notes in the treble, which are to be played with the
little finger. And though only the firft hexachord, or fix
notes, is written backwards, each of them is intended to be
played backwards as well as forwards.

Many years ago, we tried to reduce all the rules of
thorough-bafe to the compafs of a mejfage-card, and almoft
all the combinations exprefTed by figures to common chords.
And now, if the preceding exereifes of the hand in common
chords have done their duty, the ftudcnt will perceive, from
an enn-raving of the two fides of this thcrough-bafe card, that
what has been explained in words and figures on one fide,
is illullratcd witii notes on the other.

The fecond card goes fomewhat deeper into harmonical
myfteries, by what the French call la regie de I'oSave, or
rule for accompanying with a fpccific chord every note of
the key, afcending and defcending ; which, if pradlifed
well in all the 24 keys, and impreffed on the memory, will
enable the ftudent to figure a bafe himfelf, or to play with-
out figures ; and by a lecming divination, without a treble
part, to know the harmony that belongs to each bafe of a
regular compofition, in a diatonic afcent and defcent.

After thefe chords are literally at the pagers' -ends of the
ftudent, the following eight rules and exceptions in playing
without figures muft be obferved.

1. An accidental^ar/> note in the bafe is generally ac-
companied with a °, and changes the key to the half note
above fuch fharp.

2. An accidental ^at note in the bafe is generally ac-
companied with a J, and changes the key to the 4th below
fuch flat.

3. To the Jth of a key, if repeated at a clofe, two chords
arc generally played in modern mufic ; the I and I : in
old raufic, the J 7, and fometimes the 7th with the common
chord.

4. When the bafe moves per faltum, a 3d, 4th, 5th, or
6th, common chords will do.

5. When the bafe rifes a 4th, and falls a 5th alternately,
and the contrary, each note may be accompanied by a 7th.

6. In fyncopated or binding notes the " are played to
the laft part of the ligature, by anticipation.

7. Slow notes in the bafe, in old mufic, are generally
accompanied, as on the plate, by a * and I alternately.

8. Sufptnjwns of a whole ghord, or part of a chord, are
cxpreffed by a dafti ( — ) preceding the refolution.

The reverfc of the fecond card contains explanations of
thefe eight rules in notation.

It muft be remembered, that whoever is ambitious of
playing thorough-bafe luithout figures, muft previoufly pof-
fcfs the art of accompany!. ig readily with figures. See
Composition and Counteki'oint, to which thorough-bafe
is the beft introduftion : as what is good in playing, would
be good, as far as harmony is concerned, in writing. In-

6

T H O

vention, fancy, and good tafte, are necelTary to break thefe
chords into melody.

'TnoKOVdH-lVax, in Botany. See Bupleurum.

THORP Arch, in Geography, a village of England, in
the county of York, where is a medicinal fpring, impreg-
nated with fulphur and fteel ; 3 miles S.E. of Wetherby.

Thorp, B'ljfhop's, a village of England, in the county of
York, where the archbilhop has a palace, built by arch-
bifhop Gray in 1241 ; 3 miles S. of York.

THORPNESS, a cape on the eaft coaft of England, in
the county of Suffolk, forming the fouthern part of
Solebay.

THORSAKER, a town of Sweden, in Geftricia ; 21
miles S.W. of Gefle.

THORSBERG, a mountain of Norway, in the province
of Aggerhuus ; 18 miles W. of Tonfberg.

THORSHAVEN, a fea-port town of the ifland of
Stromoe, and capital of ah the Faroer iflands, as well as the
common market, and refidence of the landvogt, and king's
counfel.

THORSTORP, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland;
28 miles S.E. of Gotheborg.

THOS, Thous, Bv:, in Zoology, a name given to an
animal of the wolf-kind, but larger than the common wolf,
common in Surinam. It is a fpecies of the canis, with a
light bent tail, and white belly. It never touches men or
cattle, and rather provides its food by cunning than open
force ; preying chiefly on poultry and water-fowl.

THOTCHI, or Thatchi Hotun, in Geography, a town
of ChinefeTai-tary ; 36S miles W. Tourfan. N.lat. 42^52'.
E. long. 83° 24'.

THOTRA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Ran-
tampour ; ' 40 miles S.S.W. of Rantampour.

THOU, James Augustus de, (Thuanus,) in Bio-
graphy, an eminent magiftrate and hiilorian, was the fon of
Chrillopher de Thou, prefident of the parliament of Paris,
diftinguifhed for integrity and patriotifm, and born at Paris
in the year 1553. In the college of Burgundy, where, he
was placed at the age of ten years, his education was inter-
rupted by a fever, which feemed for fome time to have
proved fatal to him ; but upon his recovery he ftudied the
civil law, firft at Orleans, and afterwards at Valence, under
the celebrated Cujacius, in which latter place he com-
menced an intimate acquaintance with Jofeph Scaliger,
which was continued through life. Upon his return to
Paris in 1572, he witneffed the horrors of the maffacre of
St. Bartholomew, and this fceiie impreffed him with an
eternal deteftation of bigotry and intolerance. He was
originally deftined for the church, with the profpeft of
valuable preferments, which his uncle, the bifhop of Chartres,
intended to refign to him. In the mean while he travelled
to Italy, the Low Countries, and Germany ; but upon the
death of his brother, his views were changed, and the law
became his deftined profeffioii. After the death of his
father, whofe memory he held in high veneration, he was
made mafter of requefts in 1584 ; and in 1587, he married
Marie Barbanfon, a lady of a noble family. Upon the re-
volt of Paris, on occafion of the league, in 1586, he repaired
to Henry III. at Chartres, and was deputed by him to
confirm the province of Normandy in its allegiance. On
the aftaffination of the duke of Guife, his family at Paris re-
ceived public infults, which made it neceftai-y for his wife
to make her efcape in difguife, and he went to the king at
Blois, who was almoft deferted, and induced him to form
a coalition with Henry, king of Navarre. Being at Venice,
he was informed of the alfaffination of Henry III., after
which he immediately joined the legitimate fucceffor to the

crown.

T H O

T H O

Brown, Henry IV., at Clinteaudun. The king, fully ap-
prized of his excellent (jualities, repofed confidence in him,
and employed him in many intrrefting negociations. On
the death of Aniyot, the king's principal librarian, De
Thou was nominated his fuccefTor ; and in 1594 he fuc-
ceeded his uncle as " prefident a mortier." He officiated
as one of the Catholic commiffioners at the theological con-
ference of Foiitainebleau between Du Perron and Du Pleflis
Mornai ; an<l in the regency of Mary de Mcdicis, he was
one of the direftors-general of the finances. At the con-
ference of Loudun, he acquired diftinguiflied reputation by
his virtue and abiHty ; and he was joined with cardinal Du
Perron in a commiflion for the reform of the univerfity of
Paris, and the conllruftion of the college-royal, the edifice
of which was begun under his fnperintendance. Although
De Thou was occupied in a variety of public tranfaftions,
he referved time for the cultivation of literature, and par-
ticularly for that of Latin verfe, in whicii latter department
he publifhed, in 1584, a didaftic and defcriptive poem,
" De Re Accipitraria," (on Hawking,) which was well
received by the learned. He alfo gave to the public other
pieces of Latin poetry, fome of which were on fcriptnral
fubjeAs. But his " Opus majus," as we may call it,
which has eftablifhed his permanent fame, was " The Hif-
tory of his own Times," the firll part of which appeared
in 1604. The condemnation of this interelling work re-
flefts indelible difcredit on Henry IV. and his court :
the ground of their enmity feems to have been the freedom
with which he fpoke of the popes, clergy, and the houfe of
Guife, and the difpofition he manifefted to extenuate the
offences charged upon the Huguenots, and to extol the virtues
and abilities of that fe<Sl. Our author's Hiftory, when
completed, confifted of 138 books, comprehending the
events from 1545 to 1607. No pcrfon could be better qua-
lified for undertaking fuch a work ; and when we confider
his native candour and love of truth, no one was more
likely to execute it with impartiality. Mr. Hayley, in his
" Effay on Hiftory," has with equal juftice and eloquence
charafterized this illuftrious writer in the following lines :

'• There, in the dignity of virtuous pride.
Thro' painful fcenes of public fervice try'd.
And keenly confcious of his country's woes,
The liberal fpirit of Thuanus rofe :
O'er earth's wide ftage a curious eye he caft.
And caught the living pageant as it paft :
With patriot care moft eager to advance
The rights of nature, and the weal of France !
His language noble, and his temper clear

■ From faftion's rage, and fuperftitious fear !
In wealth laborious ! amid wrongs fedate !
His virtue lovely, as his genius great !
Ting'd with fome marks that from his climate fpring.
He priz'd his country, but ador'd his king ;
Yet with a zeal from flavifh awe refin'd.
Shone the clear model of a Gallic mind."

To this work De Thou has annexed " Commentaries or
Memoirs of his own Life."

Having loil his firft wife in 160 1, whofe virtues he cele-
brated ill a Latin poem ; and having no iffue, he married,
in 1603, a fecond wife, of a noble family, by whom he had
three fons and three daughters, and Ihe died in 1616. This
lofs, and the calamities that befcl his country on the murder
of Henry IV., are fuppofed to have haftened his own death,
which happened in 161 7, at the age of 64 years.' His library,
which was very valuable, and which by his will was to have
been kept undivided in his family, was neverthelefs fold

after the death of one of his fons. The moft complete edition
of De Thou's Hiftory is that publilhed at London in 17J3,
by Buckley, in 7 vols fol. with memoirs of his life, and
other pieces not before publifticd. Dr. Mead, always dif-
tinguiflied as the munificent patron of letters, contributed
to render this edition peculiarly valuable, by the purchafc
of Carte's papers, which he had collofted during his refi-
dence in France. — Mem. of De Thou, by himfelf. Moreri.
Nouv. Dia. Hift. Gen. Biog.

The cldeft ion of De Thou, viz. Francis Augujus de
Thou, born in 1607, inherited the virtue and talents of his
father, and became a mafti r of requefts, and afterwards
grand-mafter of the royal library, and acquired, by the
gentlenefs of his manners and profound learning, general
efteem. But falling under the dii'pleafure of cardinal Riche-
lieu, he was kept out of all confidential employments ; and
by this flight he was induced to join the party of the
favourite Cinqmars, who entered into a fecret negociation
with Spain. De Thou was implicated in the confpiracy,
and capitally condemned. He was beheaded at Lyons, in
1642, at the age of 35, dying with great refolution, and
univerfally lamented ; a viftim to the vindiftive feeling of
Richelieu, becaufe his father, in his Hiftory, had fpoken in
opprobrious terms of one of his family.

THOUARCE', in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Mayne and Loire ; 1 2 miles S. of
Angers.

THOUARE', a town of France, in the department of
the Lower Loire; 5 miles N.E. of Nantes.

THOUARS, a town of France, and principal place of
a diftrift, in the department of the Two Sevres, near tlje
river Thoue. The place contains 2035, ^"<^ '^^ canton
13,950 inhabitants, on a territory of 3i7i kiliometres, in
24 communes ; 31 miles W. of Poitiers. N. lat. 46° 58'.
E. long, o'-" 8'.

THOUE, a river of France, which runs into the Loire,
a little below St. Florent.

THOUGHT, Sextiment, a general name for all the
ideas confequent on the operations of the mind, and even
for the operations themfelves.

A.S, in the idea of thought, there is nothing included of
what we include in the idea of an extended fubftance ; and
that whatever belongs to body, may be denied to belong
to thought ; we may conclude, that thought is not a mode
of extended fubftance, it being the nature of a mode not to
be conceived, if the thing, of which it is the mode, be
denied. Hence we infer, that thought, not being a mode
of extended fubftance, muft be the attribute of fome other
fubftance very different.

F. Malebranche, with the fpirit of a Cartefian, denies
that a man who thinks ferioufly on the matter, can doubt
but that the eftence of the mind confifts altogether in
thought, as that of matter does in extenfion ; and that,
according to the various modifications of thought, the mind
fometimes wills, fometimes imagines, &c. ; as, according to
the various modifications of extenfion, matter is fometimes
water, fometimes wood, fire, &c. By the way, by thought
he does not mean the particular modifications of the foul,
;. c. fuch or fuch a thought, but thought, or thinking in the
general, confidered as capable of all kinds of modifications,
or ideas ; as by extenfion he does not mean fuch or fuch an
extenfion, as a fquare, oval^ or the like, but extenfion in the
abftraft, confidered as fufceptible of all kinds of modifi-
cations or figures.

He adds, that he takes it to be impoflible to conceive a
mind which does not think, though it be eafy to conceive
one which docs not feel, or imagine, or will ; in like manner

as

T H O

IS it i» impombleto conceive a matter which is not extended,
tliouirS it be lafy to conceive one that I3 neither earth nor
netaC nor Iquaro, nor round, nor that is even in motion.

Hence it may be concluded, that as it is poflible there
may be matter which is neither earth nor metal ; nor fquarc,
nor round, nor even in motion; it is alio poffible, that a
mind may neither perceive heat nor cold, nor joy nor gnef,
nor imagine any thing, nor will any thing ; fo that thele
modifications are not effential to it. Thinkmg alone, there-
fore, according to this author, is the effence of the mind, as
Mtcnfion alone is the eflcnce of matter.

But this doftriiie is not now generally received. The
followers of fir Ifaac Newton, and the new philofophy,
deny extenfion to be the cffence of matter ; and the fol-
lowers of Mr. Locke deny thought to be the eflence of the
mind.

Thoughts, or Thoughts, in a Boat, a name given by
feamen to the benches on which the men fit down to row.

THOUINIA, in Botany, a noble genus, though con-
fiding of only one known fpecies, fo named by the writer
of this, in grateful remembrance of his diftinguifhed friend
M. Andre Thouin, member of the Inftitute, and at prefent
ProfefTor of Agriculture at Paris. This gentleman is one
of the original foreign members of the Linnjean Society,
and ranks among the beft and moll philofophical cultivators,
as well as botaniils, of this or any age. The prefent plant
was felefted out of the large and fine coUeftion of new and
rare fpecimens, given by himfelf to the younger Linnxus,
chiefly from the herbarium of Commerfon. We were not
aware of its having been named Humberlla by its difcoverer,
or Endkachium by Lamarck (fee the latter article) ;
where we have remarked that the name is barbarous ; we
ftiould therefore not have adopted it, if known. Humbertia
is not accounted for, there being no botanift on record of
the name of Humbert, nor has any body explained or
defended this appellation. The younger Linnasus had in-
deed eftablifhed a Thouinia, Suppl. 9, after Thunberg ;
neither of them fufpefting their plant to be a real Chionan-
thuj, the xeylanica of Linn. Sp. PI. 11. Swartz moreover,
in his Prodr. 14, added a fecond fpecies to this fuppofed
genus, which he afterwards diftinguifhed from it, by the
name of Linociera, under which head our doubts refpeft-
ing even that matter are recorded. Confidering therefore
our original name no more juftly fuperfeded than our genus,
we cannot allow it to give place to M. Poiteau's Thouinia,
Ann. du Mujiee fafc. 13, though De Theis has decided
otherwife. — Sm. Plant. Ic. 7. Schreb. 793. Willd. Sp.
PI. V. I. 935. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. (Endrachium;
JulT. 133. Humbertia; Lamarck Dift. v. i. 356. II-
luftr. t. 103.) — Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Con-volvuli, Juff.

Gren. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, permanent, of five
roundifli, coriaceous, concave leaves ; the three outer ones
moft thick and rugged, naked ; two inner membranous at
the margin, filky at the back. Cor. of one petal, twice
the length of the calyx, bell-fhaped, plaited, externally
briftly ; its margin in five triangular blunt fegments. Stam.
Filaments five, awl-(haped, fmooth, declining, twice the
length of the corolla, and inferted into its bafe ; anthers
incumbent, hcarl-(haped, of two lobes. Pi/l. Germen fu-
perior, ovate, very hairy ; ftyle of the length, figure, and
fituation of the ftamens, a little fwelling upward; ftigma
obtufe, notched. Peric. Berry globofe, coriaceous, ftand-
ing on the permanent calyx, of two cells. Seeds two in
each cell, triangular, fomewhat ovate.

Eff. Ch. Calyx inferior, of five unequal leaves, per-
manent, Corolla of one petal, bell-fhaped; externally

T H R

briftly. Style fimplc. Berry coriaceous, of two cells.
Seeds two in each cell.

Obf. We fee no reafon to adopt Juffieu's or Lamarck's
idea of this fruit. They call it a coriaceous, or woody,
capfule, which does not burft. Commerfon, who alone has
examined it frefh, denominates it a drupa, which term we
would reftrain to pulpy fruits with a fingle nut, and there-
fore we judge the prefent to be a bacca, however tough or
dry its fubftance may appear when dry.

I. T.fpeaabilis. Beautiful Thouinia. Sm. PI. Ic. t. 7.
Willd. n. I. (Humbertia madagafcarienfis; Lamarck n.i.
" H. asviternia ; Commerf. MSS. et Ic. Endrach-En-
drach ; Flac. Hift. Madagafc. 137. f. 100. Arbre im-
mortel.") — Native of Madagafcar ; unknown in the gardens
of Europe. A tall and large tree, whofe wood is yellowifh,
compaft, heavy, as hard as iron, and almoft incorruptible
even under ground. Lamarck. The branches are round,
fcarred, filky towards the ends, where they bear tufts of
leaves, intermixed with axillary Jlo'vuers. The leaves are
fcattered, two or three inches long, obovato-lanceolate,
obtufe, entire, fmooth and Ihining, with a ftrong mid-rib,
on channelled filky footjlalks, vt\\.\\o\Hjlipulas. Flowers on
folitary, axillary, fimple^a/ij-, rather fhorter than the leaves,
each with a pair of fmall braHeas about the middle. Of
the colour of the corolla we have no account ; its length is
about an inch ; and the filky hairs on the outfide, in a dry
ftate, are of a fhining brown. Fruit the fize of a fm^
plum.

THOUN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the province
of Khoraftan ; 75 miles W. of Herat.

THOURY, a town of France, in the department of the
Eure and Loire ; 3 miles E. of Janville.
THOUSAND. See Numeration.
Thousand Tears^ Reign. See Millennium.
Thousand IJlands, in Geography, a clufter of fmall
iflands in the Straits of Sunda. S. lat. 5° 33'. E. long.
106° 33'. — Alfo, a number of fmall iflands in the river
St. Laurence, a little below lake Ontario ; the part of the
river being called Thoufand Ifland Lake.

Thohsand Lales, a name given to a number of fmall
lakes in America, near the river Mifliflippi 5 60 miles above
St. Anthony's Falls.

Thousand Rocks, rocks in the river St. Laurence ; 72
miles S.W. of Montreal.

THOWLES, in a Boat. See Tholes.
THOYNARD, Nicholas, in Biography, a native of
Orleans, was born in 1629, and at an early age a proficient
in the learned languages, and in medallic fcience. His own
original works were few, but he was hberal in the afliftance
he afforded to other writers. He publifhed two fhort Latin
differtations on particular medals, and notes upon " Laftan-
tius de Mortibus Perfecutorum," and alfo a Critique on
R. Simon's tranflation of the New Teftamcnt ; but his
principal performance was " A Concord of the Four Evan-
gelifts," in Greek and Latin, which was printing at the time
of his death at Paris in 1706, and appeared in 1707, with
learned notes, chronological and hiflorical. In this work he
maintains that St. Matthew, of all the evangehfts, paid the
leaft regard in his narrative to the order of time. This
work was printed at confiderable expence, and is now rare.
Moreri.

THOYT. See Thaut.

THRACE, in Ancient Geography, an extenfive country
of Europe, fituated in the S.E. Its natural boundaries
are, on the S. the iEgean fea, the Propontis, and the Bof-
phorus of Thrace ; on the E. the Euxine fea. Its hmits
to the N. and W. are not fo determinately afcertained.

A penin.

T H R

A peninfula to the S., between the Melanic Valf and the
Hellefpont, made part of the continent of Thrace, but it
afTumed the name of the Cherfoncl'us of Tliracc.

The continent may be confidercd as divided into fix parts :
•vix.. I. The part bounded to the W. by the river Mclas,
which difchargcd itfi-lf into a gulf of the fame name. To
the S. it had the Cherfonefus and the Propontide, and to
the E. the Bofphorus of Thrace and the Euxine fca. The
chief towns of tliis part were, on the borders of the Pro-
pontide, Ganos, Bifanthe or Rccdedus, Perinthus called
alfo Heraclea, Selymbria, Byfantium ; and on the Euxine
fea, Dercon, Salmydeflus.

2. The fecond part of Thrace extended from Melas to
the Hebrus. It had feveral towns on the banks of the
Hebrus, of which, the principal were Philipopolis and
Adrianopolis, c^ed alfo Oreftes, and Trajanopolis. The
Hebrus took, its nfe in mount Haemus, and difcharged itfelf
into the Melanic gulf, near the town of Enos.

3. The third part lay between the Hebrus and the lake
Biftonia to the W., confiding, according to fome authors, of
two fubdiviiions, viz. from the Hebrus to LilTus, and from
Liflus to the lake Biftonis. On the lea-coaft was fituated
Maronea, and in the interior of the country Scaptahyla,
enriched by its mines.

4. The fourth part was narrow, and lay between the lake
Bilionis and the Neftus to the W. The Nellus had its
fource to the N.W. of mount Rhodope, and near it were
the towns of Jampborinum and of Nicopolis ad Neftum.

5. The fifth part was fituated N. of the Tasarus, a river
which had its fource in the mountains S. of Delnetum, and
not far from the Euxine fea, and which ran into the Hebrus
on the left fide of it.

6. The fixth part lay N. of that part of the Hebrus
which ran from Beffa towards the S.E. to Oreftis. In this
part were the towns of Beroea and that of Cabyla, S. of the
Haemus.

The, Cherfonefus of Thrace had for its boundaries to the
S.E. the Hellefpont and a fmall portion of the Propontide;
to the N. the continent of Thrace ; to the N.W. the Car-
diac or Melanic gulf; this is the peninfula of Romania ; and
a wall feparated it from the continent.

Thofe who feek the origin of the Thracians in the
Old Teftament, trace them to Tiras, one of the firft de-
fcendants of Japhet. But whatever was the origin of thefe
ancient people, it is certain that they were warlike and fero-
cious, and lived very much like favages. They were divided
into different hordes, like the ancient Scythians or modern
Tartars. This country, on account of the coldnefs of its
climate, attributed to its mountains, was regarded by the
Greeks with a kmd of horror.

Thrace, in the Notitia Imperii, is divided into fix pro-
vinces, viz. Europe, Rhodope, Thrace, Heminont, the
fecond Mcefia, and Scythia. According to the Notitia of
Hierocles, thefe fix provinces contain 53 cities, of which the
Thrace of Europe contained 14.

Thrace was anciently governed by kings ; of thefe, the
firft who gave them laws for regulating and civilizing their
manners was Zamolxis, a difciple of Pythagoras. Our limits
will not allow us to trace its fubfequent hiftory, as far as it is
known. The whole, or various parts of this country were
pofiTeffed by Philip of Macedon, by the Athenians, by the
Lacedaemonians, and by Alexander, who made a conqueft of
the whole country, nor did they recover their liberty till
after his death. Lyfimachus, one of the fucceiTors of
Alexander, was vanquilhed by a defcendant of one of the
ancient fovereigns of Thrace. But the tranquillity of the
country was of (hort duration ; for a party of Gauls,

T H K

under Brennus, ravaged Greece, and took pon'eflioa of
Thrace. The Thracians afterwards exterminated the Gauls,
and reftored the race of their ancient kings. This prince'
whofc name was Seuthcs, and his dcfcendants, reigned
without interruption till the time of Vcfpafian, who re-
duced Thrace into a Roman province. It afterwards be-
came fubjea to the Turks, who now jjoilcfs it. See
Romania.

THRACES, orTnUAClANS, in Aiitiqtiily, were an order
of gladiators, reputed to be the mofl. fierce and cruel of all.
They were fo called, either becaufe they were natives of
Thrace, or wore armour after the manner of that country.
The particular weapon they ufed was the fca, or faulchion,
and their defence confilled in ixparmn, or a httle round Ihield,
proper to their country.

THRACIA Gemma, a done mentioned by Pliny, and
defcribed by him to be of three kinds : the one of a plain
green, but a confiderably deep and drong colour ; the other
of a paler green, without variegation ; and the third fpotted
with blood-coloured fpots. This is a Ihort defcription, but
the done feems to have been a jafper, of the nature of our
green Oriental jafper and heliotrope.

THRACIUS Lapis, in the Natural Hiftory of the An-
dents, a done often mentioned, and firft called Bente lapis,
from the place wliere it was fird found, which was in the
neighbourhood of Bina, or Bena, a town in Thrace. It has
been by fome authors allowed a place in the catalogues of
the materia medica ; but it is impoffiblc for us to fay, with
any certainty, which, of feveral fubdances now known
(which all anfwer in fome degree to the accounts left us of
it) is the real body they meant by that name.

It was an inflammable body, found in mines, and in the
beds of rivers ; and, in burning, afforded a very offenfive
fmell.

Some of the late authors have fuppofed it was our com-
mon pit-coal the ancients exprefled by this name ; others,
that it was jet ; and others, the common cannel coal. Hill's
Theophradus, p. 34.

THRANITjE, in the Roman Trireme-gaUies, or tliofe
which had three rows of rowers ; thofe of the upper row
were called by this name, the fecond the zygitx, and the
lowed tbalamitie.

The zygitx, or middle row of men, in thefe veflels, took
up but very httle room, having a conveniency of moving
their hands and oars under the feats of thofe who fat next
before tjiem. See Enneris and Polycrota.

THRAPSTON, in Geography, a fmall market-town in
the hundred of Navisford, and county of Northampton,
England ; is fituated on the fouthern banks of the river Nen,
2 2 miles N.E. by E. from the town of Northampton, and 75
miles N.N.W. from London. The town, in general, is well-
built ; and at the wed end is a handfonie done bridge croff-
ing the Nen. By this river a confiderable ti-ade is carried
on with Lynn, Northampton, and various other towns in its
courfe. The country round Thrapdon is open, and affolds
extenfive profpefts : from an eminence, half a mile to the
fouth-ead, may be feen at one view thirty-fix church towers
and fpires. An annual court-leet and court-baron is held
here ; at which are appointed the governing officers, a con-
dable, and a thirdborough ; and alfo bread-weighers, whofe
office is to fee that the bread, butter, and every other mar-
ketable commodity, is good and of jud weight. A well-
fupplied market is held on Thurfdays ; it is the larged mart
for hogs in the country : that branch alone returns every
market-day, on an average, about 500/. Here are alfo two
annual fairs, befides a large market, equal to cither of the
fairs, which is held yearly at Michaelmas. The population

return

T H R

rftum of the year i8i i, ftatcs the mimber of houfos in this
town to be 135. occupied by 708 perfons. It appears
from Leland, that there was formerly a monaft.c eftabhfh-
ment here. He fays, " At the very end of 1 hrapcfton br.dge
Hand ruinesof a very large hermitage, and pnnc.pally welle
bmldid, but a late difcoverld and fuppreffid."-Beaut.es ot
England and Wales, vohxi. NorthamptonHure ; by J. Lvans

and J. Britton. , n r .

THRASEA Pf.tus, in Biography, a Roman leuator,
vho deferves to be recorded for his integrity and patnotifm,
was a native of Padua; educated in Stoical tenets, and a
great admirer of Cato of Utica, whofc life he compo(l-u.
As a fenator, he was a ftrcnuous alTertor of the liberty that
remained under imperial defpotifm, and on this account he ex-
pofed himfclf to the obloquy of all the fycophants of power.
His integrity commanded the acknowledgment of Nero, the
execrable tyrant who put him to death, and many niitances
occur of his undaunted fortitude in maintaining it. We can
only felea the following : After Nero had committed the
deteitable crime of matricide, when the fervile fenate was
decreeing fok-mn thankfgiving and annual feftivab to com-
memorate the event, Thrafea, who, we are told, had been
accuftomed to futfer other adulations to pafs in filence, or
with a flight an"ent, marked the profligacy of thefe motions
by walking out of the fenate-houfe ; thus openly expofing
his life to a danger which he contemned ; for, conformably to
the Stoical principles, he was ufed to fay, ' Nero may kill me,
but he cannot hurt me.' But though Thrafea often efcaped
the brutal vengeance of this imperial tyrant, his fate was at
length dt-creed. In the year 66, the 1 3th of Nero, this
monfter having imbrued his hands in the blood of many of
the moft illuftrious Romans, now refolved, fays Tacitus, to
extirpate virtue itfelf, by the deft;ru6lion of Thrafea Pxtus
and Barcas Soranus. The amount of the charges againft
Thrafea only evinced his contempt of the bafe adulation of
the fenate, and his difpleafure with the vices and enormities
of the reign. No defence could be of any avail, and there-
fore Thrafea prepared in filence to fubmit to his fate. When
the determination of the fenate was announced to him, he was
in his garden furrounded by a number of illuflirious perfous
of both fexes, and attentively liftening to Demetrius, a Cynic
philofopher, who was difcourfing on the nature of the foul,
and its feparation from the body. Having received the
decree of the fenate, he retired into his bed-chamber, and
laid bare the veins of both arms, and then bled to death.
Tacit. Annal. Suetonius. Dion Caff. Plin. Epift.
THRASHING, &c. in Agriculture. See Threshing.
THRASOS, a term ufed by Hippocrates, to exprefs a
wildnefs and fiercenefs in the eyes of perfons who approach
to a delirium.

THRASYBULUS, in Biography, an eminent Athenian,
was the fon of Lycus, and the reilorer of liberty to his
country. When the government of the 400 fucceeded the
overthrow of the democracy in the year B.C. 411, he was
commander of a galley ; and in connexion with Thrafyllus,
he dellroyed the ariftocracy in the camp at Samos, and re-
eftabUflied democracy there, and then propofed the recall of
Alcibiades, in exile at Magnefia, and reftored him to his
country. Thrafybulus and 'Phrafyllus, having purfued the
Peloponnefian fleet, brought it to an adlion in the ftraits
between Sellos and Abydus, in which the Athenians cap-
tured 20 (hips of th« enemy, with the lofs of 15 of their
own. Another engagement foon after occurred, and the
refult of the arrival of Alcibiades's fquadron was a com-
plete vitlory oa the part of the Athenians. When Alci-
biades was made general of the Athenian forces both by fea
>i)d land, he nominated Thrafybulus for one of his colleagues ;

T H R

but a mifunderflanding afterwards taking place between
them, Thrafybulus impeached Alcibiades before an affembly
of the Athenians, and procured his difgrace. On occafioH
of the eftablifliment of the thirty tyrants at Athens by tht-
influence of the Lacedsmonians, Thrafybulus was one of feve-
ral other citizens who took refuge in the Theban territory ;
and zealous for the emancipation of his country from fen'i-
tude, he engaged a fmall body of fugitives to join him in an
expedition to Attica, and took poflefllon of the important
fortrefs of Phyla, on the frontiers of Bceotia. Befieged by
the Greeks, Thrafybulus by his activity repulfed them, and
even followed them in diforder to Athens. Having alfo
furprifed a pofl: which they occupied near Phyla, the thirty
tyrants removed from Athens to Eleufis, and Thrafybulus
feized this opportunity of attacking the Pira:us, and his
cnterprife fucceeded. He then iflued a jcoclamation, ani-
mating the Athenians to refill their tyrants, and to re-
ftore a free government. Having done this, he efl;abliflied
himfelf in the Piraeus. The conflitution of Athens was then
changed, by fubftituting infl;ead of the thirty tyrants, ten ma-
giftrates, one from each tribe. The Lacedaemonians ftill
retained their influence over thefe magiftrates, who fent
to Sparta foliciting affiftance againft Thrafybulus. At length,
however, this refolute commander prevailed fo as to open a
negotiation between the Athenians and the Spartan govern-
ment, which terminated in the withdrawing of the Spar-
tan garrifon, and the re-eftablifliment of a popular conftitu-
tion at Athens. This happy clofe of the conteft was fol-
lowed by the union of citizens of both parties, in a folemn
thankfgiving to Minerva at her temple in the citadel, when
Thrafybulus exhorted them to future concord. The remaining
tyrants at Eleufisendeavoured to foment diflenfions in Athens ;
but the bufinefs terminated in an aft of amnefty or oblivion,
which was paffed by the influence of Thrafybulus in the
affembly of the people, and ratified by an oath. This revo-
lution happened in the year B.C. 401. In accomplifhing
this event, Thrafybulus afted with the moft difinterefted
patriotifm ; for the thirty tyrants, when he feized the caftle
of Phyla, had offered to make him one of their number, and
to pardon any twelve of the exiles whom he might name ;
to which offer he rephed, that exile was much more honour-
able than any civil authority purchafed on fuch conditions.
Thrafybulus remained for fome time in unmolefted retirement,
enjoying the honour accompanying the olive wreath, which,
according to the fimple manners of the age, was beftowed
upon him for his fervices. But in the year B.C. 390, after
the death of Conon, the foreign poffeflions an'd influence of the
Athenians were in danger of being loil; and therefore a fleet
of forty fliips was placed under the command of Tlrrafybulus,
with which he failed to the Hellefpont. On this occafion he
induced two Thracian princes to become allies to Athens,
and compelled the Byzantines and the inhabitants of fome
other cities to abohfti their ariftocratical governments, and
accept of the Athenian model and alliance. He next pro-
ceeded againft the ifle of Lelbos, in the Lacedaemonian inte-
reft, and reduced the whole ifland to obedience. Thence he
failed for Rhodes, having previoufly raifed fupplies from the
maritime towns of Afia, and the capital of Pamphyha. He
alfo indulged his men in private pillage ; and thus fo much
provoked the inhabitants, that they made an attack in the
night on the tents, and put a number of the Athenians to
the fword, among whom was Thrafybulus himfelf. Such
was the inglorious termination of a life that had been de-
voted to the benefit of his native country. Corn, Nepos.
Un. Hift. Gen. Biog.

THRAVE, or Tjireai'E, of Corn, in moft parts of
England, is twenty-four flieaves, or four fhocks of fix (heaves

to

T H R

to the (hock : though, in fome counties, they only reckon
twelve (hocks to the thrave.

King AtheKlan, anno 923, gave by charter, to St. John
of Beverley, four thraves of corn for every plough-land in
the Eaft Riding of York(hire.

" Ya fou threve be heaven king,
Of ilka plough of eft riding."

THRAUPIS, in Ornithology, a name given by many
autliors to the bird more commonly called citrinella.

THRAUSMA, a name given by the ancients to a kind
of gum ammoniacum, which was drier than the common, and
more eaiily crumbled to pieces.

THRAUSTOMICTHES, m Natural Hi/lot y, the name
of a genus of compound earths. The word is derived from
the Greek 9j,oti/cro;, brittle, and fjm^u:, mixt.

The bodies of this genus are loams compofed of fand
and a lefs vifcid clay, and are therefore of a friable or
crumbly texture.

The earths of this genus arc generally ufed to make bricks ;
and there are fcveral fpecies of them. Hill.

THREAD, in the Linm ManufaBure, a fmall line or
twill of flax, the weaving of which compofes cloth. There
is a (Ironger kind made ufc of to few the feams of linen gar-
ments, or to mend them. The fame term is applicable to
cotton or wool. See Spinning.

Thread, fays an eminent French writer (Pajot des
Charraes), bleached by the oxygenated muriatic acid, may
be ufed by the fempftrefs with much greater fpeed and briflt-
nefs than thread of the fame quality bleached in the lield ; it
is lefs brittle, and may be ftruck much more effe&ually home
to its place in weaving, and does not move afterwards. This
information, he fays, was received by him from impartial
and unprejudiced manufafturers.

The thread of the Laplanders is very fine, white, and
f^ong, but it is of a very dilTerent natuce from our's ; they
know nothing of flax or hemp, nor of any other plant whofe
ftalks might fupply the place of thefe in making thread, but
their's is made of the finews of the rein-deer.

They kill of thefe animals a very great number continu-
ally, partly for food, partly for the fliiiis, which they ufe in
clothing themfelves, covering their huts, and on many other
oecafions ; the fmews of all they kill are very carefully pre-
ferved, and delivered to the women, whofe province it is to
prepare this necelTary matter. They beat the finews very
well, after having (ieeped them a long time in water, and
then they fpin them out.

The thread they thus make is of any degree of finenefs
they pleafe ; but it is never any longer than the finew from
which it is made. They ufe this in fewing their clothes,
(hoes, gloves, &c. and the trappings of their rein-deer. The
threads of the fame (inew are laid up together, and are all of
a length ; and as the di(ferent finews alford them very different
leTigths, they accordingly pick out fuch as the prcfent ufe
requires, both in regard to length and finenefs. This fort
' of thread is made with much more labour than our's ; but it
is greatly fuperior to it on many occafious, where ftrength is
rither required than beauty.

Thefe people have, befides this, a way of making a fort of
yarn of (heep's wool, which they weave into garters and a
fort of ribbands, ufed by way of ornament ; but they place
no value on it, becaufe of its want of llrength. Scheffer's
yi\k. Lapland.

Thread, in Botany, is underftood cif thofe capillamcnts
ufiially found in the middle of flowers, as in the )ily, tulip,
Vol. XXXV.

T H R

rofe, &c. There are two kinds ; thofe which fupport apices,
are particularly called Jlamina ; and tlujfe which have none,
pijlilla.

TiiKKAi), GolJ. See Gold.

TurtKAD, rirgin's. See Virgin.

TiiKKADs, y//V, a term ufed by fome to exprefs thofe fine
long white filaments, or thready fubftances, which we meet
with in vaft numbers floating about in the air in Auguft and
September.

The world has been much perplexed about the generation
of thefe, till it was known that they were the work of fpi-
ders, and that they fervcd thofe creatures to move from
place to place by. They are long, downy, and very foft,
and though they hold together when untouched, they ftick
to the fingers in handhng, and eafily break with a fight
touch.

The general method of thefe creatures fpinning and
weaTing the webs, is by letting down the thread, then draw-
ing it after them, and fo difpofing it as they think proper ;
but in the midft of their work of this fort, if they are clofely
obferved, they will be fomctimes found to defift, and turning
the tail to the contrary way of the wind, they will emit a
thread with great violence, no lefs than that with which a
jet of water is difcharged from a cock. In this manner
they continue darting forth the thread, which the wind
takes, and carrying it forwards, it foon becomes many yards
long. Soon after this the creature will throw herfelf off
from the web, and trulling herfelf to the air with this long
tail, will afcend fwiftly, amd to a great height with it. The
fragments of thefe lines, or the whole lines, and the fpiders
attached to them, though unobferved, make thefe air-threads,
and the ufe nature deftines them for, is evidently the wafting
of the creature along the air, and giving it an opportunity
of preying on gnats, and many other i.nfefts that inhabit
the air, out of the re^ch of thefe creatures by any other
means.

When the threads are newly fpun, they are always fingle,
and ai-e generally feen afcending higher and higher in the
air ; but when they are feen coming down, they are found
fometimes compofed of three or four others, and either
without any fpider at the ends, or with two or three, or
more. It is plain that this happens from the meetin-g of
thefe threads one with another in the air, and their tangling
together ; and this incommodes the creatures, and brings
them down.

Thefe are what fill the air with the loofe threads we fee
in autumn ; and as thefe foon entangle together, and bring
one another down, it is no wonder that they are more fre-
quent in the lower regions of the air, than thofe with the
fpiders adhering to them, which ufually rife to great heights,
and fuftain themfelves there. And hence the origin of the
threads was much perplexed among the enquirers, becaufe
they were found without any mark of the animal to which
they owed their exiftence. The bufinefs of feeding is not
all the ufe of thefe threads, but the creatures evidently fport
and amufe themfelves by means of them, floating about in
the air, and changing height and place at pleafure.

When a fpider has once raifed itfclf from the earth in
this manner, it does not defcend always on the fame thread
it arofe by, but draws that up at times, and winds it up
into a hank with its fore -feet, and darts out another by way
of fupport ; and the new thread is made more or lefs loijg,
as it is intended for a higher or lower flight. Philof. TranC
N'so.

Thread of Glafs may be obtained of indefinite minute-

nefs by means ol the blow-pipe. When no thicker than

4 C fiii9

T H R

finf hair, it is extremely flexible and elaftic ; and if ftill
finer, it may bP wound ;.lmort like common thread without
brcakmir. The way of doing it is very limple. A piece ot
.rlafn tube is heated in the lamp, aiid the end drawn out into
a thread by means of another piece of glafs cemented to it.
When a fine thread is once drawn, the end is carried round a
reel or wheel two or three feet in diameter, and by turmng
the wheel and continuing to heat the tube, an endlefs thread
is drawn out, winding round it as long as the artiR pleafes
or the glafs lads. The quicker the wheel revolves, and the
hotter the glafs is kept, the firmer is the thread, which may
thus be made as delicate as a fingle filk-worm's thread, with
extreme flexibihty. Different coloured threads are made in
this way by ufing very deeply coloured glalTes inftead of
common glafs.

TiiuF.ADs, in Glafs. See Glass.

THREAF, in /igricuhure, a term fignifying a handful,
a bundle, or a pottle, in different diftrids of the country.

THREATENING Letters, in Law. By ftatute
9 Geo. I. c. 22. amended by flat. 27 Geo. II. c. 15. know-
ingly to fend any letter without a name, or with a fiftitious
name, demanding money, vcnifon, or any other valuable
thing, or threatening (without any demand) to kill any of
the king's fubjefts, or to fire their houfes, out-houfes, bai-ns
or ricks, is made felony without benefit of clergy. This
offence was formerly high trcafon, by 8 Hen. V. c. 6.

The offence of fending letters, threatening to accufe any
perfon of a crime punifhable with death, tranfportation,
pillory, or other infamous puni(hment, with a view to extort
from him any money or other valuable chattels, is punifh-
able by flat. 30 Geo. II. c. 24. at the difcretion of the
court, with fine, imprifonment, pillory, whipping or tranf-
portation for feven years. Blackll. Com. book iv.

THREATS, a fpecies of perfonal injury. Threats and
menaces of bodily hurt, through fear of which a man's
iiufinefs is interrupted, are comprehended under this de-
fcription. A menace alone, without a confequent incon-
venience, does not conftitute the injury ; but, to complete
the wrong, there muft be both of them together. The
remedy for this is in pecuniary damages, to be recovered by
aftion of trefpafs, nti et armit; this being an inchoate, though
not an abfolute violence. Bbckll. Com. bookiii.

THREAVE. See Thrave.

Three Chapters. See Chapter.

Three Legs, Compajfes of. See Compasses.

Three, Omhre by. See Ombre.

Tiikee, Rule of. See Rule.

T Hr-zs-legged Staff", an inftrument confiding of three
wooden legs, made with joints, fo as to (hut all together,
and to take off in the middle, for the better carriage ; and
ufually having on the top a ball or focket : its ufe is to
fupport and adjuft inilruments for ailronomy, furveying,
&c.

T ilUEU-polnted Pkl, in Agriculture and Rural Economy,
a tool of the pick-kind, having the broad end formed in a
three-toothed manner, about iix inches in length, of great
flrength, and having the width, from the outfides of the
teeth or prongs, of about fix inches. The other end is
formed in the gently curving ordinary one-pointed manner.
When complete, it is provided with a liandje of the ftrong
wooden kind, inferted into the eye or focket of the head-
part,

TiiKzz-pronged Fori, a name fometimes applied to the
common fork which is employed for various purpofes on
farms. Sec Prong and Spud.

TnREE-Jbare Horfe-hoe, a light threc-fltared top; cf the

T H R

horfe-hoe kind, for one horfe, which is often found very
convenient and ufeful in working the intervals of ridged
turnip crops, and thofe of fimilar kinds, as well as for
different other purpofes of tillage hufbandry.

It is conftrufted and wrought fomewhat in the form aiid
manner of the common plough, the hoe parts being fo
contrived and fet as to pare and clean tlie fides and bottom
of each of the ridges in the fame operation. See Horfc-

HOE.

Three Brethren Hill, in Geography, a town of Scotland,
in the county of Selkirk ; 5 miles N.W. of Selkirk.

Three Brothers, three iflands in the Indian ocean.
S. lat. 3° 44'. E. long. 62° 25' — Alfo, three iflands in

the Ealt Indian fea. N. lat. 10° 42'. E. long. io8°

Alfo, three fmall iflands on the coaft of Guiana, in the

mouth of the EfTequibo Alfo, three fmall iflands in

the Indian fea, near the E. coaft of Madagafcar. S. lat.
13° 20*. E. long. 51° 10' — Alfo, three fmall iflands in
the Eaft Indian fea. S. lat. 5° 30'. E. long. 132° 15'.
— Alfo, three fmall iflands in the Atlantic, near Prince's
ifland. N. lat. \° 32'. E. long. 7°. — Alfo, three fmall
iflands in the Eaft Indian fea, near the W. coaft of Am-

boyna. S. kt. 3° 39'. E. long. 128° 18' Alfo, fmall

iflands in the Eail Indian fea, near the S.W. coaft

of Celebes. S. lat. 5° 25'. E. long. 119° 38' Alfo,

fmall iflands in the bay of Gunong TeUu, on the coaft of
Celebes. S. lat. 1°. E. long. 120° 27'.— Alfo, fmall
iflands in the Indian fea. S. lat. 6°. E. long. 71° 36'. —
Alfo, three hills on the N.E. coaft of Terra del Fuego ;
9 miles W. of Cape St. Diego. — Alfo, three hills on the
E. coaft of New Holland, fo called by captain Cook.
S. lat. 31° 40' — Alfo, three iflands on the Spanifli Main,
near the Mofquito ftiore. N. lat. 11°. W. long. 82° 52'.

Three Creek Run, a river of Virginia, which runs into
the Nottoway, N. lat. 36° 36'. W. long. 77° 12'.

Three Hill IJland, a fmall ifland in the Mergui Arehi^
pelago. N. lat. 10° 13'.

Three Hills IJland, one of the New Hebrides, in the
South Pacific ocean, about 12 miles in circumference.
S. lat. 17° 7'. E. long. 168° 35'. See Hebrides.

Three IJland Harbour, a bay on the coaft of Patagonia,
in the Straits of Magellan ; 8 miles N.N.W. of Batclftlor's
river.

Three Iflands, fmall iflands in the Eaft Indian fea, near
the E. coaft of Bintang. S. lat. 1° 10'. E. long. 105° 2'.
— Alfo, fmall iflands in the Indian fea, near the coaft of
Africa. S. lat. 4° 50'.

Three IJlands Bay, or Harbour, a bay on the E. coaft
of the ifland of St. Lucia.

Three Kings, an ifland in the South Pacific ocean, near
the N. coaft of New Zealand, difcovered by Tafman.
S. lat. 34° 12'. E. long. 172° 12'.

Three Rivers. See Trois Ri-uieres.

Three Rivers Harbour, a bay on the E. coaft of the
ifland of St. John, in the gulf of St. Laurence. N. lat.
46" 8'. W. long. 62° 10'.

Three Sifters, three fmall iflands on the W. fide of
Chefapeak bay. — Alfo, fmall iflands in the Eaft Indian
fea. S. lat. 5° 42'. E. long. 105° 41' 36".

Three Stone Oar, a rocl^ near the W. coaft of Corn-
wall. N. lat. 50° 11'. W. long. 5° 32'.

Three Sugar Loaves, fmall iflands in the Mergui Ar-
chipelago. N. lat. 9° 13'.

THRELKELDIA, in Botany, has been fo named by
Mr. R. Brown, in memory of Dr. Caleb Threlkeld, a Dub- ~
lin phylician, who puhlifhed a Synopfis Stirpium Hiber^ica-

9 rum

T H R

T H K

rum in 1727. Tliis 18 an alphabetical catalogue, princi-
pally founded on the papers of Dr. Thomas Molyneux, or
the communications of other people ; nor does it, accord-
ing to our judgment, entitle its editor to any fcientific

rank Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i, 409. — Clafs and

order, IvianJiia Di^ynia. Nat. Ord. Holeraceei, Linn.
Alripl'ucs., .Kifl". Chenopodf/c, De CaiidoUe, Brown.

EfT. Ch. Calyx pitclier-fliaped, with an abrupt iimer mar-
gin. Petals three, membranous. Stamens oppofite to the
petals, inierted into the receptacle. Capfule membranous,
imbadded in the pulpy perhianent calyx, Seed folitary,
ovate.

I. T. d'iffufa. Spreading Threlkeldia — Gathered by
Mr. Brown on the fouth coaft of New Holland, and in
Van Diemen's ifland, growing on the beach. This is a
fmall, diffufe, fmooth Jhruh. Leaves alternate, fcmicylin-
drical. Flowers axillary, fohtary, feffile, without bradeas.
Seed furniflied with albumen, which is embraced by the
circularly inverted embryo. Brotun. We have prefumed
to take for petals, tliough by no . means pertinacioufly,
what Mr. Brown, led by the analogy of the natural order
of the plant, confiders as mere fcales belonging to the
calyx.

THRENGI, or Threnges, in our Ancient Cujloms, a
denomination given to vafTals, but not thofe of the lowell
degree, but fuch as held lands of the chief lord ; other-
wife called drengi, or drenches.

" Quia vero non erant adhuc tempore regis Willielmi
miUtes in Anglia, fed threnges ; praecipit rex, ut de eis
milites fierent ad defendendam ferram : fecit autem Lanfran-
cus threngos fuo milites, &c." Somm. Gavelk.

The name was impofed by the Conqueror : for when
one Edward Sharnbourn, of Norfolk, and others, were
ejefted out of their lands, they complained to the Con-
queror, infilling that they were always on his fide, and
never oppofed him ; which, upon inquiry, he found to
be true ; and therefore he commanded that every one
fliould be reftored to their lands, and be for ever after
called drenches, or threnges. Spelm. Du-Cange.

THRENODY, Threnodia, formed of Spnvof, mournful,
and iiii, Jong, a mournful or funeral fong.

THRESHER, in Ichthyology, a name fometimes given
to the fea-fox.

Thresher, in Agriculture^ a perfon employed in threfh-
ing out grain and other feed crops by means of the flail.
See Thrbshing, and Tnv.K%iu^G-Machine.

THRESHING, the aft of beating out the corn or
other produce from grain or other crops. Tlie flail was the
implement formerly ufed for threfliing of corn, and which
feparated the grain from the llraw and hufks effeftually and
expeditioufly ; but which is now become mnch too tedious
and expenfive, as well as liable to many other objeftions,
and always bruifes a great many feeds, befides leaving many
in the ears. It has been attempted to' avoid thcfe inconve-
nicncies by proper machines provided with a number of
flails, or other parts anfwering the fame purpofe, made
to move by the power of water, wind, (learn, or horfes.
Of thefe, various forts have been lately invented, and brought
to very great perfeftion. See TuKY.snwfS-Machlne.

Although there are many diff'erent methods made ufe of
in feparating the grain from the ear of the corn, that by
the flail is the moft general and common.

Sometimes two perfons tlireih together : and where more
than two are employed together, which is fometimes the
cafe, there muft be frequent interruptions, and a confequent
lofs of time. It is fuggefl.ed alfo, that the tool by which
this fort of bufmefs is performed, fliould be well adapted to

the fizc and ftrcngth of the perfon who ufcs it, for prevent-
iag prejudicial fatigue. The bell method of attachiag
tlic difterent parts of the implement together, is probably,
it is thought, by means of caps and thongs of good tough
leather. Iron is, however, fometimes employed. In the
execution of the work, when the corn is bound into (heaves,
it is ufual for the threfliers to begin at the ear-ends, and
proceed regularly to the others ; then turning the flieaves in
a quick manner by means of the flail, to proceed in the
fame way with the other fide, thus finifliing the work in a
quick eafy manner by their becoming loofe and open.

It is, however, obfcrved by the author of the " Expe-
rienced Farmer," that thrcfliing with the flail is uncertain
when mofl: carefully performed, for the threflier may beat
a long time and not meet with every head, which with the
machine it is hardly pofTible to mifs ; and that the grain
wafted by the ufe of the flail is certainly great. In ihort,
he is of opinion that the corn loft by threfliing with the
flail, is more than would pay for thrcihing it by the machine
all over the kingdom.

In fome places it is the praftice to threlh by the meafure
of grain, as the bufliel, quarter, &c. while in others it is
done by the threave of twenty-four (heaves, and in fome by
the day.

In whatever way the farmer has this fortof bufinefs perform-
ed, there is always much ncceflity for his conftant infpeftion,
in order to prevent the frauds and impofilions that are too
frequently praftifed upon him by the perfons engaged in
the execution of it.

The flail practice, however, from its being fo extremely
flow, tedious, and expenfive, and at the fame time requiring
a great number of labourers, is perhaps only capable of
being had recourfe to with advantage on the fmaller kinds
of grain-farms, that are cheaply fituated in regard to the
command of workmen, and where the expence of having
large machines would be much too great for the quantity of
grain which they produce. But even in thefe cafes, if the
fmall horfe or hand threfhing engines that are conllruAed
on cheap fimple principles, and which occupy but little
room, (hould be brought to perform the bufinefs in an
eafy, expeditious, and effeftual manner, which feems not
improbable from the improvements that have been recently
made in this fort of machinery, it will moft probably be to
the advantage of fuch farmers to abandon it, as the faving
in various ways muft foon repay them the expence of the
machine, and at the fame time afford them a confiderable
profit.

It is moreover ftated, that where thre(hing is performed by
the flail, expenfive barn-floors, either of the fixed or moveable
kind, will conftantly be neceffary ; but that the latter fort may
fometimes be capable of being converted to other purpofes,
which may render it ufeful m other views and intentions,
and thereby leffen the heavy charge of providing them. See
THRESitiNG-F/oor.

It is ftated by the author of " Praftical Agriculture,"
that the fuperiority of the method by machinery over that
of the flail is very confiderable in many other refpefts, be-
fides thofe of its executing the work in a much more
clean and perfedt manner, more cheaply, and with much
greater difpatch, fo as to admit of the farmer being prefent
during the procefs in moft cafes.

It has been further faid, that the flail is a tool which is
only fit for the rude or favage (late of a people ; while the
threlhing by the machine can be performed at any feafon,
as when the weather is wet, and when no other fort of
work can be done, efpecially of the out-door kinds ; and it
will employ vvomen and children, or boys, as well as other
4 C 2 forts

THRESHING.

forts of labourer*. By the ufc of it, the farmer is enabled
to get the advantage of markets, as he has thereby the
power of felling and delivering almoft any quantity within
a little time ; and by thrertiing out and placing the corn in
a fccure llore room or granary, the great lofs often occa-
fioned by vermin may be wholly prevented and removed.
Numerous other beneficial confequences may likewife rcrult
from the prartice of threfhing by means of machinery, but
particularly that of faving the heavy expence of railing
and upholding many different large buildings of the barn
kind, on exlenlive farms of the arable defcription.

It may be dated, that the writer of the Account of the
State of Agriculture in the County of Kent, found, on
having different parcels of wheat-llraw, of thirty-fix pounds
each, thrcllied out clean by the flail, by different fiu-mers,
ai.d the fame weight of llraw threfhed after it came from the
machine, the average produce of corn left in the ftraw by the
common mode of thiefhing was half a pint in every thirty-
fix pounds of draw, more than that left in by the machine
method. And that, befides, fufficient fupplies of both corn
and ftraw may at any time be almoft immediately provided,
cither for the purpofcs of feed, the market, or the feed-
ing of animals, without the other operations of the farm
being in any degree interrupted. It is likewife obtained
w-ith much lefs wafte of the grain, and with lefs danger
of its being injured by being bruifed. Likewife, that from
the then increafing fcarcity of labourers, the great advance
in the price of labour in all the well-cultivated diftrifts,
and the impoflibility of having this fort of work performed
in a clean and exaft manner by the flail, the necefllty as well
as utility of the machine are eltablifhed. And it is further
contended, that the principal obflacles to machines of this
nature being more generally made ufe of, are thofe of ex-
pence in their conftruftion and ereftion, and the littering
flovenly praftice which prevails in fome of the more fouth-
ern diftrifts of harvefting or fecuring tlie grain crops in a
loofe uneven manner. But the firft of thefe objeftions
may probably, it is fuppofed, be obviated by the conftruc-
tion and introduftion of hand, or one-horfe, or ox-threfti-
ing machines ; and the latter by the daily difcoveries that
arc making in the improvement of this fort of machinery.

It is conceived, that the oppofition that has been railed
againft this praftice, on the ground of its baing calculated
to deprive and prevent the labourers of employment during
the winter feafon, is fcarcely deferving of notice, as expe-
rience has fully ftiewn that no injurious confequences can
rcfult from it, as there muft always be work enough of
other kinds at fuch periods, where fanns are under a judi-
cious mode of cultivation.

It is on the whole fuppofed, however, that the faving of
cxpence in this mode of threftiing over that of the flail,
muft differ much according to the nature and manner of
conftriifting the machinery, the power by which it is
wrought, and alfo on the ftate and condition of the grain
at the time of performing the operation, as well as the
full manner and regularity with which it is fupplied and
managed. By fome farmers it is confidered as nearly, if not
quite, one half, while others make it much lefs than that
proportion. But with the beft conttrufted machinery, there
can be little doubt but that it will be performed on an
average of different forts of grain, and different ftates of
them, at lefs than one-third the expence of the flail method,
without taking into the account any thing for the vaft
faving in grain, in which fome reckon a profit of at leaft^
5 per ctnt. ; others, as equal to the feed and prices of
thrWhing, which is fomewhat more than half the price in
the flail method ; or cither of the other operations that may

be performed at the fame time with the fame machinery,
fuch as thofe of winnowing or cleaning the corn, cuttujg
ftraw into chaff, bruifing and grinding the grain for cattle
food, breaking bones for manure, and various other purpofes
and works.

In addition to the advantages that have been chiefly con-
fidered in refpeft to thefe machines, there is another
which, in the then fcarcity of procuring labourers, and in-
deed at all feafons and times, muft be of great importance
to the fitfmer, which is that of their enabling him to per-
form his work with greater certainty and convenience,
and at much lefs expence of labour. It has indeed been
ftated by a writer, in a late periodical work on farming,
that with a machine, two labourers on a farm will be equal
to four without it ; as they are left at liberty, during the
winter months, for performing various other forte of farm
labour.

It has already been noticed, that the charge of this fort
of work with thefe machines will vary confiderably, accord-
ing to the manner in which they are conftrufted. In the
Agricultural Survey of the County of Kent, the expences and
produce of threfliing per day, in different forts of corn,
with an engine of the common conftruftion, without the
late improvements, are ftated in the manner following :

F.Jlimate of ThreJInng Expences, l^c, by the Machine.
For Wheat.

Eight men, at jj-. ^J. each
Four boys, at \s. each
Four horfes, at 2s. 6d. each
Cleaning and meafuring 24 qrs

at 31/. each -

£

o
o
o
o

J.

4
o

o

o

^3 4

This is aboiit is. ^.
of the flail method.

per quarter, or nearly half the price

For Barley.

£ s.

d.

0 8

c

1 7

4

I '5

4

Cleaning and meafuring 3 2 qrs. at 3,/. eacli -
Other expences, as above ...

This is fomewhat more than half the price of the flail
method, this fort of grain having of late been ufually
thre/hed at about is. 6d. the quarter.

For Oats.

Cleaning and meafuring 40 qrs. at id. each
Other expences, as before

This is a little more than half the price of that by the flail ;
this fort of grain being commonly threflicd at about is. id-
per quarter.

The expences are here, however, calculated confiderably
too low for the fucceeding times, as the men would fince
require 2s. or 2s. 6d. and the horfes p. or 6j-. each at leaft
for the day.

But in the improved machinery of this kind fewer hands
arc required, and a number of other operations arc per-
formed

£ s.

J.

0 3

4

I 7

4

I .10

8

THRESHING.

formed at the fame time, which greatly leffens the cxpcnces
of executing tlie work.

In threfhing with a powerful improved machine belonging
to Mr. Harbottle, on the Riminham farm in Berklhire,
according to the writer of the Agricultural Report of that
diftridl, the corapiu-ative calculations of expence and faving
ftand as below.

EJl'imate for Wheal.

A man to feed the machine with fheavos, at \

per day - - - - - .

A woman to throw up the (heaves into the

flicaf-lhclf, at per day
A girl or boy to hand and unbind the (heaves

to the man who feeds, at the fame
A man to riddle or fift the corn from cockles,

or fmall chaff, at - - -

A woman to affid him . - . -

Two men to remove the draw, and to make")

it up into bundles, at Zs. (>d. - 3

A boy to drive the horfes, and attend to their!

paces, at - - - - - J

In all eight perfons . - - -

Four horfes, at "js. 6d. per day, a liberal 1

allowance ----- j

Expence of thrediing zoqrs. which is done")

in the day of labours - - j

Ditto by the flail, at 3^. 6t/. per quarter,

fuppofing a man can threfh a quarter in

the day, which is too much
Savmg by the machine in 2oqrs.
Or by the quarter . - - -

d.
6

o 13

}

2

3

6

3

10

0

I

6

6

0

1

4

EJlimatefor Barley.

Two men to feed and loofe bands, at is. 6d.
Two women to pitch up and fupply machine,!

at SJ. each - . - . j

Two women to riddle, at 8d. - . -
Two men to remove ftraw, at 2s. 6d., and|^

one boy ditto, at u. 6d. - - S

One boy to drive . - . . -

In all nine perfons - . . -

Pour horfes, at -js. 6d. each . - .

I

0

I

4

0

1

4

0

6

6

0

I

6

0

•5

8

I

10

0

2

5

8

3 5

•9

o

']

$ 8

H

o

labourers, the fai-mer (inding horfes. By this method, in
York (hire, the work cods for wheat is. the quarter, and
oats ()d. And in Northumberland they make ufe of a
machine, wiiich threflies at the rate of 33 bufliels/ifr hour,
or 264 in the day of eight hours. In this machine, the ex-
pcnces in the attendance of the threlhing and drefling parts
of it being menly that of three women ; one to feed in,
another to hand the flieaves to the feeder, and a third to
take away and riddle the corn after it is winnowed ; confe-
quently the threfliing and drelTrng the above number of bufliels
oidy coils \s. 6d., while the thrclhing the fame quantity by
the flail would be ^Vth P^rt, or lo^bufhels, which at 2s.
the bufliel is Zls. ; to which mull be added 2s. for the ex-
pence of a man and two women to affid in winnowing,
which makes in all 23;-.

But in the Agricultural Survey of the County of Nor-
folk, there is an account of the expence of thre(hing with the
machine in comparifon with that of the flail, which furniflies
a very different refult. The machine was built by a perfon
from Leith in Scotland, for Mr. Bevan, and cod 100/. ; and'
drongly diews, it is thought, that bad machines arc worfe
than the old method of the flail.

Ufual price by the flail, 2s. 2d. per quarter,

30 qrs. the quantity done in the day of

12 hours . - - - -

Saving on the above quantity - . -

Or by the quarter - - - - -

EJthnate for Oats.

Nine perfons employed, as for barley, andl

the fame number of horfes - - 3

Ufual price by the flail 2j. /icr quarter, on'

40 qrs., the quantity done in the day of

1 2 hours . - . -

Saving on the above quantity
Or by the quarter . - - -

It fhould be noticed, that thefe calculations arc made
fully to the highed, which is fo much the more in favour
of the machine.

In fome of the northern diftrifts, the execution of this
fort of bulinefs by the machine is fometimee undertaken by

Threjhing by Means of the Flail.

Forty coombs of barley, at -jd. come to
To drelfing of ditto

Fifty coombs of oats, at 6d.
Drelfing ditto, at is. per fcore

Forty coombs of rye, at gd.
Drelfing ditto, at ij./ifr fcore

Forty coombs of wheat, at is.
Dreffing ditto . - -

Threjhing by the Machine.

Forty coombs of barley take eight horfes, at!

2s. Gd. 3

Ten men, at is. 6d. each - . -
To dreffing ditto, five men one day

Thus barley cods more by 17/. 2d.

Fifty coombs of oats take eight horfes, at |

2s.6d. 1

Ten men, at is. Gd. each . - - -

To dreffing ditto - . - . -

Thus oats cod more by i^s.

Forty coombs of rye take eight horfes, at 1

2S. Gd. J

Ten men, at is, Gd. each - - . -
To five ditto, at is. Gd. one day dreffing

Thus rye cods more by los. Gd.

£ s. d.
> 3 4

I

5

4

1

0

5

2

0
6

1

7

6

I
0

10
2

0
0

I

12

0

2

0

0

2

0

0

2

2

0

o 15 o
076

o 15 o
076

o 15, o

076

Forty

THRESHING.

Forty coombs of wheat take eiglit horfes, at?

€

/.

d.

I

O

0

o

•^

o

o

7

6

2

2

6

Ten men, at ix. bd. each
Five ditto to droflinj;

And wheat cods more by 6J.

The calculations of the expences are here made greatly
under the rate of wages and hire of horfes which has fince
taken place.

The above (hould lead the farmer to be caretul in put-
ting up thcfc machines ; and to be certain of thei;- being
conllrurted in fuch a way, as to aiifwcr the purpofe m a
perfeft maimer before he begins the work.

It is well obfervcd by Mr. Somcrville, in the Agricul-
tural Report of Eaft Lothian, in caUing the attention of
the public to the unrewarded merits of Mr. Mickle, in
bringing the threfl\ing machine to a (late of perfeftion, that
it is computed, by thofc who have paid every poffible at-
tention to the fubjedl, that in Britain about 7,500,000 acres
are annually employed in raifing grain, the produce of
which, if averaged at three quarters per acre, amounts to
22,500,000 qrs. ; and, as it is admitted that the furplus
quantity gained by the ufe of thrcfliing machines is at
lead a twentieth part more than when the flail is ufed, it
will appear that 1,1 12,500 qrs. would be faved annually,
were the whole of the grain in the kingdom threflied in that
way ; the value of which, if only calculated at 3 2s. per quarter,
would be 1,781,250/. ; to which adding the favings of ex-
pence, at IS. per quarter, upon 22,500/X)0 acres, wx.
1,125,000/., it would make the enormous fum of 2,906,250/.
fterhng; a faft almoft incredible to any but thofe who have
turned their attention to the fubjeft, and are well acquainted
with the great difference between the threfhing-machine and
the flail.

All forts of grain (hould be in a proper, hard, dry con-
dition, when it is to be threfhed out, otherwife the work
cannot be performed in a clean and pirfeft manner, whether
it is to be executed by the flail or the machine.

It is a remark of the time of Lifle, founded on his own
extenfive experience, that wheat threfhed in damp weather
generally yields but little flour, with a great deal of bran,
when it is ground ; and that if it be put into facks, it will
grow mufty in lefs than three weeks, let the weather be
ever fo dry afterwards : but if, on the contrary, it be
threfhed when the air is perfeftly clear and dry, it will keep
well in facks for a long time, efpecially if thefe are laid
upon treffels high enough to fecure them from the damp-
nefs of the ground or floor.

But for keeping of the meal or flour, in general, there
is no better way than firfl to bolt and clean it from the
bran or huflcs, which is apt to make it mufly, and then to
tread it down as hard as pofTible, and head it up clofcly
in clean, dry, tight, and well-bound cafks, which muft be
laid in a cool dry place.

It may be noticed, that the beards of barley come off
bell, in thrcfhing, when the fheaves or fwarths of this corn
have taken the dew before their being houfed. It will keep
well in the mow unthrefhed for one year ; but for making
it into malt, which muft be done before the heat of the
fummer comes on, it (hould not be kept above a year and
a half, or at mod two years : otherwife it will be filled with
weevUs or infefts ; unlefs it has been previoufly cured in a
ftove or kiln.

But oats, from their being defended with a double hufl^,
are the grain leaft fubjed to harbour vermin. The beft way
to keep them after they are threfhed, which (hould be done

when dry, is to dry thera well on a kihi, and tlien to b;nTeI
them up in clean clofc calks. i(

As for beans and peas, they always threfti beft after they
have fweated in the mow, which they are very apt to do ;
as the whole crop of either of them never ripens altogether,
the green parts heat, and communicate their ferment to the
whole heap. The danger to be guarded again ft is, that
they do not heat too much. For this reafon, farmers gene-
rally choofe to ftack them without doors, rather than to
houfe them ; that they may be the more thoroughly dried
bv the fun and air. As beans are a very large feed, and
confequently full of moifture, it is found beft to let thofc
that are intended for keeping, fweat and feafon in the mow
until March, when they may be threfhed without danger,
for beans never give again, after they have once been
thoroughly dried and hardened.

And vetches, when wanted for fowing immediately after
they are cut, may be threfhed very well on a hurdle, with
a cloth ; though they then be too foft, notwithftanding their
being ripe, to be threfhed "on a floor, where the flail and the
threfher's feet would bruife and break them.

In general, in the bufinefs of threfhing, as the work pro-
ceeds, it will from time to time be neceffary to remove all
the long ftraw from the corn beaten out of it, which laft
always lies underneath, with a prong or fork, and then the
pieces of ftraw, broken ears, &c. with a wooden rake.
The remaining grain fhould then be (hovelled up on one fide
of the floor, and the work be repeated till enough be
thre(hed out to make what is commonly called a clearing.
The heap (hould then be wholly paffed through a wide iieve,
which retains only the bits of ftraw, and fuch fragments or
ends of the ears as have efcaped the flail. Thefe frequently
contain fome good corn, and form an ufeful fodder for moft
forts of animals, being what are commonly called ca-v'ings, as
feen below.

Much labour may often be faved in the ufe of the fieve
by faftening a loop to its rim, and refting it thereby on a
hook fufpended by a rope. This will fuftain half the weight
of the corn, and the neceffary circular motion may more
eafily be given to it.

After much threfhed grain has thus accumulated on the
threfhing-floor, and the fliort ftraw and chaffy matter have
been feparated from it, as juft noticed, by pafling it through
a wide riddle or fieve for the purpofe, which (honld always
be done before too much grain has been collefted, as in that
way the bruiCng of it is more effeftually prevented ; it muft
be put by to afford -more room. The fhort chaffy fub-
ftaiyce thus feparated from the grain is in fome diftrifts de-
nominated covings, or ca'vmg-chaff', and is capable of being
employed with advantage, as feen above, in the feeding of
horfes, or neat cattle and fheep. When this has been done,
the loofe grain fhould be thrown into a chamber or other
place conveniently formed for receiving it, where it fhould
remain till a fufficient quantity has been collefted to render
the clearing and cleaning of it by fome kind of machine
for the purpofe, requifite. But the improved threfhing
machines render this unnecefTary, as they drefs or clean it
at the fame time it is threfhing out. See Winnowing
Machine.

Furze tops in their young ftates of growth are in fome
northern fituations beat or threfhed by the flail, and in that
way bruifed as horfe-food, where proper machinery for this
purpofe is not at hand. The work-horfes during their ufe
have Kttle other food, it is faid, though performing great
labour.

From the whole of what has been faid, it is evident that
the farmer fhoidd always confider well before he decides on
the mode of threfhing which may be the moft proper and

advan»

THRESHlNCx.

advantageous, as well as t)ie moft fuitablc, to tlic fort of
farm which lie holds.

TiiUESiilNG-F/oor, the floor on which grain is threflied
out in the barn or other place. All floors ot this fort
fhould be well formed and conllrufted, of whatever fort of
materials they arc made, as without it they -give way and
fall to pieces. When the material employed in this inten-
tion is wood, the timber (hould always be of the bell kind,
and well feafoned, being put together in a careful and firm
manner ; and when of the earthy kind, the difi"erent matters
be well reduced, wrought together, and laid up for fome
length of time before the floor is formed, being then laid
down in a fmooth even manner, and made firm and folid
by frequent ramming with a proper tool for the purpofe,
until the flooring fubllance, whatever it may be, becomes
quite dry.

It has been obferved, that as grain is threflied out by
machinery, from the circumllance of its being ieparated
from the llraw immediately, and not permitted to remain
upon the floor for above an hour or two, when brought to
market, is always much drier, looks better, and brings a
higher price than that which is threflied by the hand, and
fuffcred to remain upon the floor for weeks, where it
becomes mufty, lofes its colour, and is fo raw, that much of
it is bruifed and rendered ufelefs in the working. There-
fore, if the flail-mode of threfliing is flill purfued, it is fup-
pofed that the inconveniences above-mentioned may, in fome
degree, be remedied, by paying proper attention to the
materials of which the floor is made, and raifing it fuffi-
ciently above the reach of moiilure. Where the barns are
very extenfive, and the price of wood uncommonly high, as
is the cafe at prefent, a very good and durable threming-
floor may fometimes be made by laying an uniform ftratum
of round gravel, covering it with a coat of well-tempered
clay ; above which, a mixture of clay, brick-dufl;, forge-
afhes, and a fmall proportion of lime, will make it a hard
uniform floor, proper and fuitable for the purpofe of threfli-
ing upon. It is obferved that the brick-duft and forge-
afties fliould previoufly be beaten very fmall, and well in-
corporated with the clay, ufing a fufiiciency of water to
bring the whole to the confiftcnce of mortar ; in that ftate
the lime, having been previoufly flaked, fliouId be incor-
porated with the other ingredients ; the whole fmoothed
over with the back of the fpade, and allowed to remain in a
round heap for two or three weeks, at the end of which time
it fliould be turned over in the fame manner as plafter lime,
and after being rendered fufFiciently foft with water, it may
be fpread upon the floor, an operation that will require fome
pains on the part of the workman. The floor, in the flrfl:
inllance, fhould have the coat of clay, that is laid above the
gravel, rendered perfeftly fmooth and uniform, by rolling,
beating, or otherwife ; the finifliing coat, compofed of the
mixture above-mentioned, may then be applied, taking care
to break the furface of the clay with fhallow lines, in the
way praftifed by plaiterers, for the purpofe of making one
foat adhere to another in a finn and perfeft manner.

Many other forts of materials, fomewhat of this nature,
are made ufe of for threfliing-floors in different .diftrifts of
the kingdom.

The following plan has been fuggefl:ed as the means of
excluding rats and mice from the barn and threfliing-floors.
Firft, that when the floor is entirely of wood, the fpace
between the fleepers, upon which the boards are laid, (hould
be entirely filled with waflied gravel, well beat down, an
operation which, when properly done, will effeftually pre-
vent the entrance of either rats or mice ; where this precau-
tion is not taktn, when- the floor is laid, .openings ibould be

made at the bottom of the wall large enough to admit cats,
a contrivance that will have the two-fold cftedl of deilroying
the vermin, and afl"ording a free circulation of air. Secondly,
that when the floor is of clay, the vermin generally burrow
under the foundation, and have the entry to their retreats at
the bottom of the wall : in fucli cafes, their accefs into the
barn will be, in fome nieafurc, if not entirely, prevented, by
mixing a confidcrablc quantity of broken glafs with the
materials with wiiicli the threfliing-floor is made. It does
not appear necefl'ary lo mix the glafs with the clay over the
whole floor ; perhaps two feet from the wall quite round
will be fufficicnt. And thirdly, that the top of the wall,
as furniihing a temporary retreat for vermin, deferves alfo
to be noticed : in every inllance it is cuftomary for the
mafon to level the top of the wM previous to the roof being
put on, which, when the building is finiflied, is left in that
Hate, by which a confiderable fpace remains for the flielter
of rats and other vermin : to prevent this, as foon as the roof
is finiflied, the building of the wall on tlie iniide fliould be
continued upwai'ds till it joins the roof, to which it fliould
he clofely united by hard plailering. It is fuppofcd, by
thefe precautions, and fmooth plaft^ering, the walls of barns
as well as the threfliing-floors may be preferved free from
vermin.

"TiiREHHiKG-Machine, an engine of the mill kind, con-
trived for the purpofe of threfliing grain, feeds, and pulfe
out of the ilraw or the ear.

This is a fort of mill or machine that has been chiefly con-
ftrufted on the fame principles as thofe of the flax-mill, and
which is capable of being wrought by different powers, as
thofe of horfes, oxen, wind, water, and ft:eam ; but thofe of
water and animals are the mofl; proper and convenient in
moft inftances : in fome cafes, the grain being beaten or
fwingled out of the ears by means of beaters attached to a
cylinder that has much velocity, while in others it is rubbed
out by fuitable means againft: confined cylinders, as will be
more fully feen and explained in what is faid below.

There is fome reafon to fuppofe, that the original hint or
notion ot thefe mills or machines, was derived a long time
ago from Holland or the Low Countries, and thence
brought into tlie northern parts of this country, where the
different parts of the machinery of them have fince been
gradually undergoing much modification and improvement,
to render them more fuitable and efficient for the purpofe ;
fo that they have now attained a confiderable ftate of per-
feftion in moft parts of the kingdom. The firft of thefe im-
proved machines was, as Mr. Somerville fays, invented by a
Mr. Menzies, brother to the then fheriff' depute of the
comity : the machinery was driven by a water-wheel,
which put in motion a number of flails of the fame kind
with thofe ufed in threfliing by the hand. Trials made with
thefe machines were fo far fatisfaftory, that a great deal of
work was done in a given time, but owing to the velocity
required to do the work perfedly, they foon broke, and
the invention fell into difgrace.

Some time in the year 1758, another attempt was made
by a farmer in the parifli of Dumblane, in Perthfliire. His
machine was conftrufted upon principles fimilar to the flax-
mill, having an upright fliaft with four arms inclofed in a
cyhnder, three feet and a half in height and eight in diameter,
within which the fliaft and its arms were turned with con-
fiderable velocity by a water-wheel. The flieaves, being
prefented by the hand, were let down from the top upon
the arms, by which the grain was beat out, and together
with the ftraw defcended through an opening in the floor,
where they were feparated by riddles and fanners, alfo
turned by the water-wheel.

And

THRESHING-MACHINE.

And it is added, that, aboiit twenty years after this, a
third attempt was made by a Mr. Eldcrton, near Alnwick,
and a Mr. Smart, at Wark, both nearly about the fame time.
Their machines were fo conUriiacd as to ad by rubbing, m
place of beating out the grain. The Iheaves were carried
between an indented drum, about fix feet in diameter, and a
number of rollers of tlie fame defcription ranged round the
drum, towards which they were prelTed by fprings, in fuch
a way as to rub out the grain when the drum was turned
round. Upon trial, this method of conftruAion in thefe
machines was alfo found defeftivc, as along with its doing
very little work in a given time, it bruifed the grain, and fo
materially hurt its appearance, as to Icffen its value confider-
ably in the markets.

It is furtlier ftated that the machine, in its then imperfeft
Hate, was fccn by the late fir Francis Kinloch, bart. of
Glimcrton, a gentleman well acquainted with mechanics,
and who had paid much attention to country affairs : it
occurred to him, that the machine might be rendered more
pcrfeA, by inclofing the drum in a fluted cover, and fixing
on the outfidc of it four fluted pieces of wood, capable of
being raifed a little from the circumference by fprings, in
fuch a way as to prefs jgainft the fluted cover, and to rub
out the grain as the (heaves paffed between them ; but after
repeated trials, it was likcwife found to bruife the grain
nearly as much as the model from which it was copied. In
that Hate it remained for fomc time, and was afterwards fent
by fir Francis to a very worthy and ingenious charafter,
Mr. Micklc of Know-Mill, in his neighbourhood, (a mill-
wright by profefTion,) who had for a confiderable time em-
ployed his thonghts upon the fame fubjeft. After much
confidcration, and feveral trials, it appeared to Mr. Mickle,
that the purpofe of feparating the grain from the ftraw
might be accompliflicd upon a principle different from any
that had hitherto been attempted, namely, by llcutches ail-
ing upon the fheaves by their velocity, and beating out the
grain, in place of prefling or rubbing it out. Accordingly
a model was conftrudled at Know-Mill, in which the grain
was beat out by the drum, to which it was prefented through
two plain feeding rollers, which were afterwards altered for
fluted ones. The firft machine, on a large fcale, executed upon
this principle, was, it is faid, done by a fon of Mr. Mickle's,
for a Mr. Stein of Kilbagie, in the year 1786, which,
when finilhed, performed the work to the fatisfaftion of all
parties. A patent was afterwards apphed for and obtained
in 1788. Since that period, as well as the firft introduftion
of thefe machines, many other improvements have been made
on them by different ingenious artificers in many different
places ; a fcrcen has been added for the grain to pafs through
into a winnowing machine, and a circular rake to remove
the draw from it ; as before this addition, the ilraw was
forced out from the beater upon the upper barn-floor, and
required much time and labour in (haking and putting it into
order, which by this contrivance is faved. And befidss hav-
ing a fuflTicient degree of velocity, without its being fo great
as to injure the machinery, it is found that a point upon
which the clean threfhing of all forts of grain materially de-
pends in the ufe of this machine, is the management of
the ij-on covering, under which the beating-wheel, having
fix of' more beaters, moves : in fome machines this is fixed,
v/hilc the beating-wheel is capable of being raifed or de-
preffed at pleafure ; but a more late improvement is to
fender the iron roof moveable and the wheel fixed, the i^on
bcmg placed foclofe to the beaters, that the grain is rubbed
as well as (haken out of the car. And in fomc cafes the
beaters arc fomewhat rounded, but the flat form is probably
t)etlcr. I J

Different machines of this fort are alfo faid to have been
lately conftruAed fo as to work with chains inftead of cogs,
and to perform the bufinefs in a fatisfaftory manner.
Another great improvement is likewifc believed to have
been made on the feeding rollers ; which is that of having
the upper roller, inftead of being one folid cylinder of wood,
with rods of iron fixed upon it, as was formerly the cafe, an
oftagon or decagon of caft iron, and divided into four parts,
which are loofely joined into each other, fo that in turning
round, each part can rife or fall in a feparate manner, accord-
ing as the corn is fpread out ia a thicker or thinner way.
The advantage is, that by means of this contrivance the corn
is regularly held ; whereas, by the roller being all of one
piece, if at one part the grain fhould happen to be more in a
heap or lump than at another, the whole roller is raifed, and
a great part of the grain paffes through, without having been
held fufficiently to the beaters, and is confequently imper-
feftly thrcfhed out.

This fort of machine is fometimes conftrufted with a
vertical Ihaft, on which is fixed in a horizontal manner an
iron bevil wheel, fix feet in diameter, which drives another
about eighteen inches diameter upon a tumbling ffiaft, upon
which is alfo an iron fpur-wheel, three feet fix inches ia
diameter, driving one about ten inches upon a fliort iron
(haft, which likewife carries a drum or pulley, three feet fix
inches in diameter, from which a fix-inch ftrap drives one
nine or ten inches in diameter, hung upon the iron fliaft or
fpindle which runs quite through the wood-beater or barrel,
two feet in diameter, and three feet in length, having fixed
upon it, by means of ftrong fcrews into its iron bonds,
twelve wrought-iron bars, about an inch fquare, which
beater making upon its horizontal axis about three hundred
revolutions in a minute, and confequently nearly three thou-
fand fix hundred ftrokes in that fpace of time ; the corn
being carried to it by means of a cloth, which is moved
forwards by rollers, lying nearly upon a flat furface of fix
feet long, by three feet wide, two to three feet high from
the ground-floor, which is a very convenient pdfition to feed
upon, and palling between a pair of fluted rollers, over a
bar, comes in contact with the beater, through a cavity,
which may be varied by fcrews, from an inch in width, to
the thicknefs of a grain of corn, when the ftraw is imme-
diately delivered, perfectly clean upon the floor on the out-
fide of the machine, no more injured for thatch, or other
purpofes, than by the flail, and the corn in its paffage under
the beater is filtered through a wooden frame to the floor,
where it remains for removal. Upon this kind of threfhing-
machine many different trials have been made in the view
of afcertaining what fort of power, conilruftion, and velo-
city or fpeed, would produce the bell and moft beneficial
effects on the work, and many improvements have been
fuggefted which we have not room for reciting.

Some machines of this fort have large wooden fly-wheels,
of from twelve to fifteen feet diameter, fixed upon the
tumbling-fliafts, which run over or above the horfe's heads,
perhaps made of fir-timber, as cork unfortunately is feldom
to be met with ; but as their fpeed, in fuch a fituation, can
rarely afford any affiftancc, the lighter they are, the lefs
impediment, it is fuppofed, they wiU produce. The bars or
beaters are alfo fometimes as much as an inch and a half, or
two inches thick, from the barrel or roller upon which they
are fixed, and the roller itfelf three feet or more in diameter;
but fo much of the bar is certainly, it is thought, unneceffary,
as exceeds the length of ftraw drawn in by the rollers,
during each interval between the ftrokes, and which is
feldom more than half an inch ; confequently, whatever is
more than three quarters, produces an increafed impedi-
ment.

THRESHING-MACHINE.

mont. The greater tlie diameter of the fame beater, from
•meeting with the principal refiftance, io much farther from
the centre, of courfc, the proportionately greater power is
required to work it ; but this lail defcription of beater is
faid, in general, to be found to make the bell work, and the
reafon is thought obvious : they are necelTarily driven by
water, lleam, or a number of horfcs, and, it is concluded,
calculated to make the fame number of revolutions in a
minute as one of two ieet, in which cafe their velocity, on
which all depends, is jull half as much more — a moll im-
portant point indeed. The means of regular Heady driving
is likewife of material importance in all machines of this
nature, where animal labour is necelfary.

A very powerful imjjroved machine belonging to Mr.
Harbottle, of the Riminham farm, near Henley on Thames,
confifts of a horfe-wheel which contains 136 teeth, or pinion
wheel with 26, a large wheel with 88, another with 21, the
fame with 88, and a further one with 21, forming the drum.
Underneath the drum is the contrivance for winnowing, or
the wheel that feparates the chaff from the corn, by blowing
it back into a bin below the feeder, and allowing the corn
to fall into a box, froin whence it runs. Every revolution
of the horfe-wheel in this machine produces eighty-eight and a
half of the drum ; and as the horfe-wheel goes about three
rounds of twenty-four yards each per minute, or two miles
and a half in an hour, the drum of confequence muft revolve
on its circumference, of three yards and a half, 265 times in
a minute, or 927 yards. The feeding-board is five feet four
inches wide. The drum-wheel is four feet four inches dia-
meter, being covered with ftieet-iron, and has four beaters,
which project four inches ; making the above number of re-
volutions to one of the horfe-wheel, and the horfes going
the above diftance in the hour ; in a path twenty-feven feet
diameter. The cogs of the wheels are of white thorn pro-
perly feafoned, working into others of caft-iron ; payed only
with black lead, not any greafe being employed. The
level of the flage on which the men ftand to feed, is eight
feet above tho barn-floor in which the machine is fixed.

The drums of threlhing-machiues, it is remarked, in ge-
neral revolve from fixtv to a hundred times for one revolution
of the horfe-wheels ; and that in proportion as thefe move
flower, the horfes mull go fader, fo that the utmoft nicety
is neceiTary to properly adjuil this : as if the horfes are under
the neceflity of trotting, they are greatly injured in long con-
tinued exertion, and if they move too flowly, the work is im-
perfeAly perfo'-med. A Heady common walk is the pace at
which horfes fhould be kept, and the drums of machines
iliould be formed accordingly, in order fidly to efFett their
work, and at the fame time to enable the horles to do a good
jday's labour without too much fatigue and inconvenience.

This machine will threfli, it is faid, from twenty to thirty
quarters of wheat in twelve hours in great perfeflion ; from
thirty to forty-five of barley in the fame time ; and from
forty to fifty quarters of oats. It threflies every thing per-
feftly clean when the grain is in {heaves. But though it
cleans the, corn from chaff, as feen above, winnowing is re-
quired afterwards. It was feen with one feeder to threfli
twenty -two large and long (heaves in three minutes, without
any variation in the ordinary movement of the horfes. This
machine was conflruiled by Elhott of Hexham, in Northum-
berland, and coil about 200/., without the expences of fit-
ting up, &c.

It is ftated, in the Eflex Agricultural Report, that Mr.
Newman of Hornchurch has a threfhing-mill which was built
by two young niillwriglits from Somerfetfliire, in which
there are two new circumllances of improvement, one of
i\';hich is a movement fo prepared, as that the perfon who

Vol. XXXV.

fVeds the mill, by putting his foot on a pedal can lift one of
the fluted cylinders out of its work, fo that the wheat -ears
having been advanced far enough to be threlhed, the draw
may be drawn back again and be prevented from being
broken ; the other is a click, or iron, which admits the
liorfes to be flopped fuddenly without Hopping the beaters ;
by which the couneftion is removed for a moment, fo that
one operates without tiie other : this is of capital im-
portance in working the machine. Reprefentations of thefe
unprovements are given in the above work.

Thefe machines have occafionally grinding-mills combined
witii them, and are in this way found very convenient an^
advantageous. The Hon. Newton Fellows, in Devorvfliire,
has been at very great cxpence, it is faid, in erefting a
threfliing-mill connected with one for grinding, both of
whicii are wrought by a never-failing flream of water. The
power of this mill or machine is laid to be calculated as
equal to fixteen horfes. And together with its power and
capability for threfliing, winnowing, and drefling every kind
of corn, the pair of flones for grinding attached to it are
about four feet in diameter, to wliich a bolting-machine or
apparatus is added.

In working, this threfliing-machine is capable of difcharg-
iug about twenty-five bulhels of wheat, and nearly forty
bufliels of barley or oats in the hour. The barn, or place
where the machine is placed, being filled with the wheat or
other corn ; the manual afTillance for performing the bufi-
nefs is diflnbuted through it m this manner : one man and two
women for unbinding the flieaves of corn and feeding the
rollers, which lafl are grooved and divided into lengths of fix
or eight inches : on the flraw b'^ng difcharged from the
machine, one perfon attends to ihake it well over a large
open fcreen, whence it is tolled over to another perfon, who
removes it out of the way. At and under each of the win-
nowing-machines, fieves are placed to receive the grain com-
ing direClly from the machine, which is then put into the
hopper of the fan of the fecond winnowing-machine, from
which it is again received into another fieve, and thence dif-
charged into the hopper for grinding, for the market, or
for other purpofes : in pafling through this little fan, fuch
a feparation takes place as completely to divide the head
from the tail corn. A cyhadrical pearl-barley machine or
apparatus is alfo applied and ufed to cleanfe the wad of its
fmut, and thus by taking oft' the downy end of the grain, a
much finer fample of both wheat and flour is obtained. This
is preferred to the brufli apparatus ; for although that may
cleanfe the body of the grain, it will not carry off the down
from its end, which may reafonably be fuppofed to con-
tain the germ of fmut, or to form the nefl of otiier animal-
culte equally injurious to fuch grain when ufed as feed on
lands.

There is in this machine only one labouring man employed
to five women, which is an advantage of great importance
in many fituations. The introduclion of fuch machinery as
this is therefore of great benefit in bettering and improving
the rural condition of the country.

But, befides machines of this fort being conflrufted for
performing the different operations of threfhing, winnowing,
grinding, and bolting, they have fometimes contrivances for
other purpofes, as an iron hopper axis for grinding apples ;
and a contrivance for fhelling clover feed, and the haddocks
of wheat. Thefe two additions belong to a threlhing-
machine of Mr. Vinns in the above diftridt ; and fome others
are occafionally met with in other places which are a httle
different in their nature, but unnecefi'ary to be here de-
fcribed.

In the general conftruftion of thefe machines, they are"
4 D commonly,

THRESHING-MACHINE.

lommoiily, fts ha» boon fci-n, made of two defcnptions,
large arnl fmall kinds ; tlio former of which probably not
only perform their work more cxpcditiondy, but m a more
p<-rfea manner, though their cxpencc is an objeaion to tlicm
on finall farms. They require ver^- different ftrength of
teams or other powers in working them, accordmg to their
lizes, the nature of their eonllruttion, and other circum-

Itances. ... ,

It is llated, that in feme large machines of this kuul, the
rollers t.ike in about three hundred inches of grain in a mi-
nute. The medium length of the Uraw being eilimated at
about thirty inches, and fuppohng half a ihcaf to be ii,itro-
duced into the machine at a time, the whole flieaf will be
equal to tixty inches, and the machine, when fupplicd with a
middling quantity of water, will threili five (heaves in a mi-
nute. But in rcfped to tiie performance of thefe mills,
much mull depend on the attention with which tliey arc fed,
as a fmall ncgleft in this point will make a ver)' confiderable
difference in the quantity of work that is performed in a
given time.

In regard to the expencc of thefe machines, it muft de-
pend upon t!ic fi/e and power which they pofTefs of per-
forming work, the number of other operations which they
perfonii at tlie fame time, and whether they be fixed or
moveable. According to fome perfons well informed on
the fubjcft, a fixed mill that requires the power of two or
three horfes, will coll from fixty to a hundred guineas.
This will threlh about fifteen quarters of wheat, and from
that to twenty of barley, oats, peas or beans in the courfe
of eight or nine hours.

It is noticed, that the only defeft of machines worked
by wind, upon their firft introduftion, confided in the
rilk to which they were expofed, by flopping them to
take in the fails, which could fcarcely be done during a
brifk gale : in that way it fometimes happened, that when
the wind frefhened confiderably after the machine was fet
a going, either the fails were torn to pieces, or the arms
broken off. That defeft, however, is now remedied by a
late invention of Mr. Mickle, by which the whole fails can
be taken in, or let out, in lefs than half a minute, merely
by a perfon puUing a rope within the houfe ; by this con-
trivance the fails are, with eafe and expedition, proportioned
to any degree of wind, an uniform motion is produced, and
all danger of draining or hurting the machine is avoided.

It is further obferved, that the number of hands required
for working one of thefe machines, is from five to fix ; but
that this depends greatly on tlie conilruftion of the machine,
fome of them being fo contrived, that the work can be per-
formed with much fewer hands.

It is, however, noticed in the Agricultural Survey of
Norfolk, that a machine erefted by Mr. Johnfon, at Lemp-
fton, appears to be one of the beft, if not the very beft, of
the larger kind that has yet been met with. The movements
in it are uncommonly fmooth. It requires from fix to eicrht
horfes, fix men, and one woman ; it threfhes, without any quef-
tion, much cleaner than the flail, and, without any doubt,
cheaper. To bring it to its prefent perfeftion, as he was
determined to carry his point, he never flopped till it worked
to his mind ; and having completed it, the repairs fince have
been quite trifling. The common complaint of their being
always out of order is attributed to original errors or inat-
tention in the conftruftioH of them. ' The arrangement is
excellent, it is faid, in this machine, for difpofing of the
chaff, colder, ftraw, and corn, at once, in their refpeftive
places, without any confufion or after-removals ; and it
takes up a verj- fmall part of a barn. It was built by Mr.
TV igful of Lynn.

Mr. Whiting, of Fring, has alfo a large threfhing^-
mill, built by Mr. Fordyce, an engineer from Scotland.
It coll him 200/. : is worked by fix horfes ; threfhes
twenty-four coombs of wheat in the day, fifty-five of barley,
and from fixty-three to eighty-four of oats. It has five
beaters on the drum-wheel, and the fluted fegment of a
cylinder which covers tlie drum in two parts, with an un-
fluted plate between them, which is raifed or funk by a fhort
lever : this is a guard againft Hones getting in. In another
circumflance alfo it is fingular ; there is a long platform,
with a rolling cloth bottom : the whole raifed or funk at
pleafure, for delivering the corn, acrofs the floor fpace of
the barn, from the gofF in which the corn is ftacked, to the
other end in which the mill is built; which faves much la-
bour, and works to his fatisfaftion.

The horfe-wheel is liere upon a different conftruftioii
from the common ones, working by a cogged-wheel of fmall
diameter below, inftead of above the hories ; and the com-
municating fpindle under their path ; but it is faid to be
hard work.

And Mr. Coke, of Holkham, is ftated to have a very
large machine, which coll about 600/. Befides threfhing,
it grinds corn, works two chaff-cutters, and breaks oil-cake.
It threfhes fixty-four coombs a day.

Mr. Reeves, of Heverland, has a threlhing-mill which is,
the writer thinks, llill nearer to perfeftion than any other he
has feen ; it was made by Albey, works with two or three
horfes, and coll a hundred guineas. He found it at work,
threfhing oats ; it does for barley as well as for any other
grain, threfhing thirty-two coombs in a day of feven hours
and a half; more of oats; forty of peas; and thirty of
wheat : its day's work of wheat, threflied the day before
he faw it, was thirty-one coombs, which were Handing facked
in the barn. It varies confiderably in the beating-drum
cylinder from the others he has feen, it being of a much
larger diameter, and has eleven beaters.

At Brightwell-Grove, in Oxfordfhire, according to the
Agricultural Report of that diftrift, there is a threfhing-
raachine, belonging to Mr. Lowndes, which was conflrufted
by Raflrick, and in which there is fome novelty of con-
trivance : it works by means of four horfes : the drum-
wheel, in this cafe, is three feet and a half in diameter,
makes two hundred and fixty revolutions in a minute, and,
having fixteen beaters, it gives 4160 ftrokes in that time :
there is a rake with four fets of teeth which takes the ftraw,
and delivers it to a fecond drum-beating cylinder two feet
in diameter. This drum is termed the dreffer, and turning
in an oppofite direftion to the motion of the ftraw, beats it
down, and in its defcent ftrikes it againft a circular board,
faced with bars Ihod with iron, through the fpace of eighteen
inches, by which the ftraw receives feveral additional ftrokes,
which, it is conceived, have a great efFecl in diflodging that
corn which has not been completely feparated in pafTing the
principal drum. This is the addition not ufual in thefe ma-
chines. Thefe are wrought four hours at a time, in which
eight quarters of wheat are threfhed out. Every thing is
threfhed perfeftly clean ; and the ftraw is not broken more
than by the flail. Twelve quarters of barley are threfhed
in four hours, and fixteen have been done in that length of
time. The horfes, in this machine, are not attached in the
draught, in the manner which refembles pufhing, by ad-
vancing with the lever before them, but in the common
drawing method, with the lever behind them, in which
way they are fuppofed by fome to do the work much
better.

This machine was feen to threfh forty-three ftieaves in ten
minutes. It dreffes at the fame lime ; and there is a chaff-
cutter.

THRESHING-MACHINE.

cutter, as well as a corn grinding-mill with ftones, for farm
life, attached, and wrought or not, at pleafure.

It is perhaps only in places fituated in the immediate vi-
cinity of a colliery, and where, from the cheapnefs of fuel,
they are capable of being worked at a very trifling expence,
that fteam can be had recourfe to as the moving power of
tliefe machines. See Stkam, and SrEAM-Engine.

With regard to fmall machines, it is faid in the Eait
Lothian Agricultural Report, that they have been intro-
duced there, upon a reduced fcale, at a price fo low as
40/. : that thefe fmall machines, having little work to do,
and that little being, in general, done flovvly, anfwer the
purpofe tolerably well ; but though cheaper in the firft in-
ilance, they are, in the end, more expenfive than larger ones,
a certain degree of ftrength being abfolutely requifite to
do the work perfeftly. If the parts of the machine are
below that degree of ilrength, the work is either ill done,
or the machine is deftroyed, by being exerted above what it
is able to bear.

The writer of the Eflex Agricultural Survey too Itates,
that in that diilricl at prefent many are made by Balls of
Norfolk, the price fifty guineas, and do their work very
clean and well for all forts of corn, but do not drefs. They
liave been apphed to white clover, and have done it to the
fatisfaftion of the growers, by palling it through twice or
thrice. In one eredled by Mr. Vaizey, which is worked by
horfes, one man feeds, two fupply, a boy drives, and two
men clear away the ftraw. He has threfhed lixty quarters
of wheat with it in eighteen hours. It coft 52/. 10^., and
10/. putting up; the (bed added about 20/., two win-
nowing macliines 15/. ip.; in all, complete, about lOo/.
But in this a greater number of horfes are ufed than are
noticed above. The owner has no fault to find with its
performance, but is very well fatisfied with it. He has
applied it to cobbing white clover with great fuccefs ; by
pafling it thrice through the mill, he got from three jags,
feven bufliels of clean feed in four hours. And one built
by Dickfon of Ipfwich, for Mr. Sanxter, goes with two or
four horfes, and coft fifty guineas. It is fuppofed that it
will threfh twenty quarters of wheat per diem. But it is
now fifty-five guineas, put up and ready to work. Two
horfes work it, without hard labour. The laft year's
wheat, which was very badly threfhed at 7^-. per quarter,
was done by this machine perfeftly well. Alfo at Little
Wakering, Dr. Afplin has a machine which the writer faw
working with one horfe, which moved with great eafe, driven
by a little girl ; one man and two boys work it, and it does
three quarters of wheat in a day. The writer examined the
ilraw ior about a quarter of an hour, and did not find a
Cngle kernel in it. The price is fixty guineas. The con-
ftruftion in this machine varies from the others he has feen,
iu the wheels which communicate the motion. The doftor
threfhes only wheat with it, though it will do for all forts
of grain. He thinks it anfwers greatly, and is perfeftly
fatisfied with it. It was made by Turbot, Bankfide, Weft-
minller, but they are now made by Jones, Clement's-Lane,
Clare-market, London.

There are many other perfons who put up thefe machines
at an equally reafonable rate, and fo as to work witli much
perfeflion.

Where machines of tliis fort coft about one hifndred
guineas, the annual expence m iiitereft of capital and re-
pairs cannot be more than from 10/. to 12/. at moft,
except in the expences of teams and tlie labour of the pcr-
ions employed in the execution of the bufinefs and work
;!bout them.

The expenfive machines which have rollers for rubbing

out the grain inftead of beaters, are thought in general t(»
perform the bufinefs in the moft perfeft manner, though
they require more power to work tliem.

It is, however, thought by fome to be utterly impoflible
to build threftiing-machines which will do juftice to the
owners for any fucli fum as 50/., or thereabouts, as their
durabihty and fuccefs depend materially on tlieir firm-
nefs, ftrength, folidity, and other circumilances of the fame
nature, which are by no lueans attainable for any fuch
money. Yet many of thefe fmall machines of one or two
horfe power, are iaid to perform their work well, and at
the rate of fix quarters of wheat, and the relative propor-
tions of other forts of grain, in the courfe of the day. They
are ftated to be made in feveral different diftrifts, at the
prices of from thirty to fifty guineas, fo as to threfti well at
nearly the above rate, and to have, in fome inftanccs, other
additions, fuch as chaff-cutters, &c. made to them. In
particular cafes, they are thought not to break the wheat-
ftraw fo much as tlie flail ; and though wheat and beans are
moftly well threftied by them, barley is under the neceffity
of being often twice paffed through fuch machines, as feen
above. They do not drefs in general ; but fometimes head
feed clover in a pretty perfeft manner, as noticed already.

Small threftiing-machines have likewife been conftrufted
fo as to be wrought by hand, in fome diftrifts, both in the
northern and iouthern parts of the kingdom, and been af-
ferted by fome to perform their work in a clean and fatis-
faftory manner ; but from their moftly wanting that de-
gree of velocity, in being wrought in this manner, which
is eflential to good work ot this kind, they have not yet be-
come in any way general. Indeed, in fome diftrifts in the
fouth, the working of them by the hand not being found to
fucceed well in aclual praftice, the ufual feeding rollers
have been applied with the horfe-tackle, at the additional
charge of about 20/., which has enabled them, it is faid,
to do the work properly, and in an eafy manner, even by
the power of one horfe. Where the teeth of the iron
wheels in fuch machines have been found too fine for the in-
creafed force made ufe of in this way, vertical wooden
wheels and pinions have been put in their place, which have
contributed to the ilrength and preferved the fimplicity of
the machinery.

Threfhing-machines have now been known, and in fome
meafure employed, in the northern parts of this country for
more than half a century, and are at prefent very general in
thofe that are any way improved ; but in the more fouthern
diftrifts, they have only been attended to, in any confider-
able degree, for the fpace of the laft thirty or forty years,
yet their ufe and application are faft becoming general
among the more extenfive farmers whofe farms ai-e of the
arable kind. In ftiort, it is not improbable but that in a
little time the machine will be the moft prevalent method of
threftiiiig out corn. And it has been fuggefted, that panfh
machines of this nature, in centrical fituations, would per-
haps not be lefs ufeful or convenient than paulli mills, while, at
the fame time, they might be eafily fo regulated as to be
rendered of great general benefit to the community, as well
as advantageous in the way of private fpeculadon to indi-
viduals. Something of this fort is faid to be already the
cafe in fome diftrifts of the North, and would, it is beheved,
be defirable in all, for the convenience and accommodation of
the fmall farmer ; as the fame conveyance that brought the
corn to be threftied, might take back the ftraw and grain,
and in this way little wafte of labour or time be fuftained,
while the faving would be confiderable and certain.

It may be noticed alfo, that in all cafes where threftiing-
machines are made ufe of, tjiey fiiould be well fuitcd to the

4 D ? estcnt

T H R

extent of tlic farms, and be erefted in fucli a manner as to bo
convenient for having tht contents of the (lacks brought to
them. In this view it has been fujjgellcd, n. the Report on
Agriculture for the Welt Riding of Yorkfhire that the
ban.6 to which they are attached Ihould extend into the
yards in which the ftacks arc contained; as ui that way the
Uour and time will be confiderably knened of fupplymg
them with corn in the ilraw for being thrcfhed. And it lias
been iulllv remarked, by an intelligent promoter of agricul-
tural improvements, that this machine has not beqn attended
with one-half of tlie .advantage which might have flowed
from fo ufeful a difcovery, for want of combining the ule
of it with the various connected circumilances of the larm-
yard. The bufinefs of Hacking corn, for inllance, mull, it
is conceived, receive an entirely new arrangement in confe-
quencc of building a threlhing-mill or macliine. By means
of no other additional cxpence than that of an iron railway,
and placing the Hacks on frames relling on block-wheels,
two feet in diameter, a very conliderable annual expence in
time and labour mull, it is fuppofcd, be faved in carting
Hacks to the barns, in lofs of corn, and in waiting for good
weather, as well as in the faving of threfliing by flails, and
all the attendant evils of pilfering and leaving corn in the
ftraw. This is a material objca, which it is thought cannot
receive too much attention from both landlord and tenant,
It is contended that there cannot be the fmalleft doubt of
the propriety or profit of having one of thefc machines
fixed in the principal farm-yard. But that where the farm
is large, and Hacks confequently fcattered over various fields
or parts of it, then it may be right to have a moveable one
alfo ; but fo many operations are wanting at home, that one
Ihould certainly be fixed. The circular form of the rail-
way upon which the Hacks are brought to the mill or
machine, is confidered necelTary in fuch cafes, as being the
onlv one which permits a choice of any particular Hack to
threlh, without waiting for all or many others being done
before it can be got at ; but a Hr.iight line le.iding to and
pall the mill or machine is admiffible, except for this cir-
cunvHance, though much inferior, in fome other points, to
the circular form. In forming this plan, a fort of railway
Ihould be fo contrived as that a horfe or two may be fuf-
ficient to draw all common ftacks to the mill or machine.
And it is dircfted that the wooden Humps on which the
frame refts fliould be tinned, or laid in the common manner
with brafs lattcn, which is more durable than com.mon tin,
to keep out rats. Alfo, that as the power applied to the
threHiing-mill in other ways is at hand, and applicable alfo
to the above fort of work of drawing the Hacks, it may be
uffd for the purpofe in many cafes.

TliitKSiir\f;-il/i7/ Barn or Biill/lin^, that fort of barn,
(lied, or other building which is calculated for receiving, or
which contains this kind of mill or machine.

In this intention, an upper floor, raifed eight, nine, or ten
feet from the ground, in proportion to the height or fize of
the animals, and the arranrement of the machinery which is
to be employed, will be required, and which (hould reach
from end to end of the barn or building, as a repofitory for
the unthreflied corn, which fliould be there lodged and depo-
fited, at leifure times, from the Hack-yard, or other places,
in order to be ready to feed the mill or machine with from
this upper floor. The ground-floor fliould contain the large
mill-wheel, and a horfe-path round it, all the lower parts of
the machinery, a drcfiing-room for the grain, and a wide
open fpace for flraw of different forts, which is there to
be piled up, ready for the caule-flicds, on each fide of
this repoCtory of fodder.

The cxpcnces of thefe prepared barns or buildings, will

T H R

probably not only be much leilened, but wholly done away,
in fome cafes, by the ufe of the ihreihing Hack farm-yard,
which has been dcfcribed in fpeaking of the mills or ma-
chines for this ufe, and much convenience and accommoda-
tion be thereby gained to the farmer in the difpatch of the
bufinefs, &c.

On the whole, by thefe means the labouring teams and
hands will be enabled to perform the work of threfliing at
fuch wet, ftormy, and leifure periods as will render it the
leail troubleiome and expenfive to the farmer. See
I'l I R Es H I N G- Machine.

THRESHOLD Point, in Geography, a cape on the
north-wcH coaH of New Guinea. S. lat. o° 37'. E.
long. 132°.

THREX, among the Romans. See Thraces.
THRIFT, in Bolany. See Statice.
THRIHING. SeeTRrniNG.

THRIMSA, in Antiquity, a filver coin, the value of
which has occafioned a variety of conjeftures. Lambard,
who gave the firft eHimatc of it, makes it a three-fhilling
piece, in which opinion he is followed by fir Henry Spelman.
Bifliop Nicholfon apprehends, that it was the name of their
common coin, and tliat the thrimfa, fceata, and penny, were
all of them the fame. Somner, from the import of the
word, and the value given to the thrimfa in the Saxon laws,
rates it at three -pence. Selden, Brady, and Hickes, are of
opinion, that this coin was either the laH tremiffis of the
Franks and Germans, and confequently four-pence, or the
third part of the Saxon fliilling, i. e. tliree halfpence and
one -third of a halfpenny in their money. Mr. Clarke adopts,
and endeavours to eftablilh the opinion of Somner, who ob-
ferved, from the laws of Athelftan, that the price of a
thane's life was, by the Angli, valued at 2000 thrimfas,
which, by the Mercian eftimate, was 1200 fliillings ; and if
each of thefe fums denotes the fame value, which is pro-
bable, the thrimfa mull; be to the fliilling as 2000 is to 1200,
or three p:u-ts in five of a Saxon fliilling, /. e. three-pence.

The thrimla was firfl coined in the reigns before Athel-
llai!, during their greater affluence in cafh, and defigned
merely for the convenience of exchange, as the moft proper
divifion that could be made in their money without a frac-
tion, between the fliilling and the penny. But when tlie
fliilling was reduced, it was of little ufe, and by degrees
entirely laid afide.

Dr. Hickes obferves, that the mctliod of computing by
thrimfas was chiefly ufed in the more mercantile parts of
this kingdom, among the Eall and WeH and South Saxons,
and poflibly coined only among them ; for it appears that
the inland provinces, the Mercians, reckoned generally by
the fliilling. Clarke's Conn, of the Roman, Saxon, and
Englifli Coins, p. 229, &c.

THRIN, in Geography, a river of Norfolk, which joins
the Yare at Yarmouth.

THRINAX, in Botany, %i»k;, a fan, in allufion to the
form of its leaves ; a name beftowed by the younger Lin-
naus on the little Fan Palm of Jamaica, when he firH dif-
tinguiflied this plant generically from Corypha, to which it
had been referred by Browne. To that genus it is, as
Swartz obferves, very clofely allied, difl^ering chiefly in the
want of a corolla. — Swartz Prodr. 57. Ind. Occ. v. i. 613.
t. 13.' Schreb. Gen. 772. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 202.

Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 307

Clafs and order, Hcxandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord.
Pahii£.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, minute,
hemifpherical, with fix fniall, crcft, marginal teeth. Cor.
none. Stam. Fikmcr.'.s iix, erec\, equal, thread-fliapcd,

about

T H R

T H R

about twice the length of the calyx, iiifertcd at the bafe of
tlie geimen ; anthers terminal, eredt, linear, longer than
the filaments, cloven at each end. Pijl. Germen iialf
immerA'd in the bafe of the calyx, ovate ; ftyle cylindrical,
thickiih, ereft, the length of the filaments ; ftigma very
large, funnel-lhaped, oblique, of a fnigle, dilated, ovate,
rather tumid, lip, finely crenate at the margin, rarely accom-
panied by another lip. Per'tc. Drupa fmall, globular, naked,
rather dry. Seed. Nut lolitary, large, globofe, brittle, of
one cell, with a folitary kernel.

Eil. Ch. Calyx with fix teeth. Corolla none. Stigma
fnmiel-diaped, oblique. Drupa globular, with a fmglc feed.

I. Th. parvijliirii. Small Jamaica Fan Palm ; Palmetto
Royal; or Palmetto Thatch. Willd. n. i. Ait. n. i. —
Native of the fea-coafl, and other barren dry- fituations, in
Jamaica and Hifpaniola. Swartz. The Jiem is from ten
to twenty feet high, unarmed ; tumid at the bafe. Leaves
collefted about the top, llalked, from one to two feet long,
palmate, plaited like a fan ; their fegments lanceolate, ribbed
and ftreaked, rigid, nearly equal. Fooljlalks longer than
the leaves, roundjfli, fomewhat comprelfed, fmooth, flexible,
unarmed. General Sheath compound. Flower-Jlalh ter-
minal, folitary, nearly credl, two or three feet long, pani-
cled, imbricated with partial Jliealhs, or hraBeas ; its branches
alternate, lubdivided, Ipreading ; the ultimate ones oppofite
or ternate, crofllng each other. Flowers ftalked, oppofite

or ternate, fmall, perfeft. ^"liitherj yellow Brown fays,

Hifl. of Jamaica, 191, this tree covers whole fields in many
parts of that illand, thriving better on the rocky hills, than
on the low moiil plains near the fea. The copious little
berries ferve as food for birds and wild boafts. The trunk,
feldom more than four or five inches in diameter, ten or
fourteen feet high, is called the Thatch-pole, and is much
tiled for piles in wharfs and other buildings made in the fea ;
for it ffands the water well, and is never corroded or touched
by worms. The fplit footftalks make balkets, bow-ftriiigs,
I'opes, &c. being very ftrong and tough. The leaves are
called thatch, and are ufed as fuch, for oiithoufes efpeciallv,
being found to refill the weather for many years. Sucii
coverings of buildings have only the inconvenience of har-
bouring rats or other vermin, which prevents their general
life.

THRINCIA, fo called by Roth, from Ifiyy.o.:, the battle-
ment of a zvall, to which he compares the feed-crown of the
marginal florets. The Italian name Triuciatella, ufed by
Camerarius, Hort. Med. 173, fov HyoJ'eris radia'a, m:xy, as
Dr. Roth fuppofes, have a timilar origin ; but it comes di-
reftly from the Italian verb Irhiciare, to cut, alluding to the
remarkable fegments of the leaf in that plant.

This genus of Tbr'inc'ui conlifto of two fpecics, Leontodon
hirtuin of Linnceus, and Hyoferis taraxacohles of Villars, ex-
cluding the fynonyms of the latter. We fee no occafion to
fi?parate them from ylpar^ia of Schreber and Willdenow,
the Hedypnots of Hudfon. Having, in the Prodr. Fl. Grxc.
v. 2. 142, adopted Hedypnois ; and in p. 150 of the fame
volume, Apaugia ; we refer the reader to the former in its
proper place, and fliall here introduce the latter, with its full
charafters and fynonyms.

Apakoia, Avx^yi^i, an ancient Greek name, with whofe
original meaning, or application, we are unacquainted.
Dalechamp has applied it to fomething of the H'terac'ium
kind ; and Schreber, after Scopoli, to the genus now before

us, with which we hope it will remain Schreb. Gen. 5:7.

Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 1547. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Ait.
Hort. Kew. V. 4. 445. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grxc. SibtJi. v. 2.
1^0. Compend. Fl. Brit. cd. 2. 117. Marfch. a Bieberft.
Caucaf. V. 2. 247. (Hedypnois; Hudf. Fl. Angl. 340,

7

Sm. Fl. Brit. 82;?. Leontodon; JulT. 170. Thrincia ;
Roth. Catal. v. 1. 97. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 1554. Ait.
Hort. Kew. V. 4. 447. Virea ; Gaertn. t. 159.) — Clafs
and order, S\<ngenefia Polygainia-dequaiis. Nat. Ord. Compo-
Jilt fem'tflofculofit, Linn. Cichraaceie, JufT.

Gen. Cli. Common Calyx oblong, permanent, imbricated,
of feveral linear, parallel, unequal, longitudinal, incumbent
fcales ; thofe at the bafe very fmall. Cor. compound, im-
bricated, uniform ; the florets iiun\erous, all perfedl, equal,
monopetalous, ligulate, linear, abrupt, with five teeth.
Slam, Filaments five, capillary, very Ihort ; anthers united
into a cylindrical tube. PiJl. Germen nearly obovate ; llyle
thread-rtiaped, the length of the llamens ; lligmas two, re-
curved. Perk, none, except the permanent, Itraight calyx,
at length reflexed. Seeds folitary, oblong, ilriated, crowned
with feffile feathery down, fomewhat chaffy in the lower
part, and often unequal in the marginal florets ; fomewhat
llalked in the central ones, frequently accompanied by
fiiorter hairs or plumes. Rccept. dotted, naked, or very
nightly hairv.

Eir. Ch. Receptacle naked, dotted. Seed-down feathery,
feffile, unequal. Calyx imbricated, with fmall fcattered
fcales at the bafe.

This genus, though very natural and well defined, has the
general habit of Hedypnots, or of Hieracium, agreeing with
the latter in having fome caulefcent fpecies, though in mod
the Jlower-flalis are radical and fingle-flowered. The leaves
are varioufly toothed or finuated, mollly hairy, rarely vil-
lous. Flowers of a full yellow. Roof, except in our thir-
teenth fpecies, perennial, tuberous. We adopt the Englifli
name of Hawk-bit from Petiver.

1. A. aiirantiaca. Orange-coloured Hawk-bit. Willd.
n. I. " Waldil. et Kitaib. Hung."—" Stalk radical,
fingle-flowered, naked ; tumid and hairy in the upper paa-t?
Calyx hifpid. Leaves lanceolate-oblong, flightly toothed."
— Found on the lofty mountains of Hungar}'. Leaves three
or four inches long, fmooth. Stalk fix inches high, fmooth,
except jull below the flower. Calyx clothed with rigid
blackifti hairs. Corolla orange-coloured. Seed-dotuti feliile,
feathery. It differs from the next in having no fcales on the

Jlali, which is more tumid in its upper part ; very fmooth
leaves; and a different-coloured j?ow(v. JVdld.

2. A. alp'tna. Alpine Hawk-bit. Hofl. Syn. 423.
Willd. n. 2. (Leontodon alpinum ; Jacq. Auflr. t. 9J.
L. pyrenaicum ; Gouan. Illuflr. 55. t. 22. f. I, 2. Hedyp-
nois pyrenaica ; Villars Dauph. v. 3. 78, trom the author.
Picris faxatilis ; Allion. Pedem. v. i. 211. t. 14. f. 4. Ta-
raxacum foliis intcgris dentatis, calyce hifpido, pappo plu-
mofo ; Hall. Hclvet. ed. i. 741.)— Stalk radical, folitary,
fingle-flowered, fcaly ; flightly tumid, and fomewhat hairy,
at the top. Calyx hifpid. Leaves lanceolate -oblong, flightly
toothed, fomewh.at hairy. — Native of graffy pafturcs, on the
Alps of Auftria, Switzerland, Dauphiny, and Italy. Haller
found it on mount St. Gothard, Sclileicher on mount Fouly,
and the late Mr. DavallonSt. Bernard. Our fynonymof Hal-
ler's firfl edition, mifquoted by Willdenow, refts on the autho-
rity of Allioni. We do not find the plant in hisfubfcquent pub-
lications. The root is tuberous, perennial, with long fibres.
Leaves from three to eight, radical, ftalked, ereft, obtufe, two
or three inches long ; tapering at the bafe ; diflantly toothed
about the middle or lower part : rough, with fliaggy fliort
hairs, particularly abojit their rib ?mAfootJlalk ; which latter
is fometimes red or purple. Flower^ali from three to ten
inches high, ilender, ereft, bearing a few fcattered linear
fcales, and one yeWowJlower, hardly fo big as our common
Dandelion, whofe calyx-fcales arc narrow, black with
fhaggy hairs.

3. A.

TIIRTNCIA.

3. A. crocfa. Saffron <oloured Hawk-bit. Willd. 11. 3.
(Leontodoii crocun; Hi-nkc in J.icq. Col. v. 2. l6.)—
"Stalk radical, folitary. fing'.f-flowcred, (l.irhtly fcaly ; tu-
mid ana hairy above. Calyx liifpid. Leaves fmuoth, run -
cinatc, with a triangular termiial lobe."— Gathered by
Hai-nke on the alpine heights of Judenberg, in Upper Stiria,
where it inhabits dry, open, barren p llurcs, but is elfewhere
rarely to be feen. This is faid by Willdenow to be like
the preceding, but different in the above-defcribed figure of
its leaves, which are only foinetimes hairy. Flower an inch
and half, or two inches, in diameter, very handfome, and
readily diftinguifhed from all the furrounding fpecies ot
its own tribe, by its colour, which is that of tinfture of
faffron.

4. A. hajlilis. Shining Spear-leaved Hawk-bit. Hoft.
Syn. 423. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. I. (Leontodon haftile ;
Linn. Sp. PI. 11 23. Jacq. Auftr. t. 164. L. prothei-
forme B & C ; Villars Dauph. v. 3. 87. Picris, n. 26 ;
Hall. Helvet. v. i. i2.)-.-Stalks radical, fingle-flowered,
fmooth as well as the calyx. Leaves obovato-lanceolate,

fmooth, with numerous (lightly hooked teeth Native of

the fouth of Europe ; very abundant in Switzerland. The
leaves are often a foot long, tapering at the bafe into purplifh,
flat, w'mged/iotfialii ; their furface fmooth, even, and fome-
what glaucous ; their margin cut into many deep, acute,
triangular teeth, partly hooked backward. St,iHs feveral,
round, very fmooth, glaucous, very rarely divided, twelve
or eighteen inches high. Flower bright yellow, an inch and
half wide, with fcarccly any perceptible hairs on the calyx;
drooping when in bud. Sometimes t\v: Jlower-Jlalks bear a
Jew linear diftant fcales.

5. A. diibia. Doubtful Hawk-bit. Willd. n. 5

" Stalk fingle-flowered, radical, nearly naked ; hairy, as
well as the calyx, above. Leaves lanceolate, toothed at the
bafe, nightly clothed with forked hairs." — Communicated
to Willdenow by Hoppe, from the Saltzburg alps, under
the above name, which feems to us but too well applied.
We have not indeed feen a fpccimen of this plant. Willde-
now defcribes it as intermediate between the laft and j4. h'lf-
piJa. The Jlalh are molUy furniftied with one fmall fcale,
and are tumid under iht: Jlower, whofe ealyx, as well as the
upper part of the ftalk, ai-e befet with (hort forked hairs.
1 he leaves feem fmootli at firll light, but bear fcattered,
white, forked hairs.

6. A.tubero/a. Knotty-rooted Hawk-bit. Willd. n. 6.
Ait. n. 2. Sm. Fl. Gric. Sibth. t. 797, unpubl. (Leon-
todon tuberofum ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1 1 23. Dens leonis hul-
bofus; Ger. Em. 290. Chondrilla altera Diofcoridis, &c.;
Lob. Ic. 232.) — Stalks radical, fingle-flowered, naked,
fomewhat hairy. Calyx hairy. Leaves pinnatifid, runci-
nate, fomewhat lyrate, rough with forked hairs. Root of
many ovate tapering knobs — Native of the fouth of Eu-
rope and the Levant ; very common in the fandy meadows
of Greece, Cyprus, and Zante. The modern Greeks name
it f'zJi'm, or radyh; and it may be, as fome old botanills
have thought, the j-.ovjf.xxn Hsp of Diofcorides, but this is
hard to determine. The perennial root is a duller of feffile
ovate knobs, above an inch long, tapering into radicles.
Leaves numerous, fpreading, dark green, obtule, either
fimply runcinate, with a large terminal lobe, or deeply,
fometimes interruptedly, pinnatifid, and bluntly toothed.
Flawer-Jlalks feveral, a fpan high, afcending, ftriatcd, more
orlefs hairy ; purple, like ■ChfTfootJlalh , at their bafe. Ca-
lyx flender, with acute fcales. Flowers above aii inch wtde,
full yellow ; red underneath.

7. A. incana. Hoary Hawk-bit. Scop. Carn. v. 2.
;i3. Willd. n. 7. Ait. p. 3. (Hieracium incanum;

Jacq. Auftr. t. 287. Linn. Sp. PI. cd. r. 799. H. fexttira;
montanum ; Cluf. Hift. v. 2. 141. Ger. Em. 302. Leon-
todon hifpidum 0 ; Linn. Sp. PI. ed. 2. 1 1 24.) — Stalks ra-
dical, fingle-flowered, almolt. naked, hoary as well as the
calyx. Leaves lanceolate, ereiS, very minutely and fparingly
toothed, hoary with flarry hairs. — Found on hills and moun-
tains in Germany, Switzerland, Carniola and France. The
root is long and woody, divided at the crown, where its bears
feveral tufts of ftraight, upright, more or lefs acute, very-
hoary, leaves, tapering at the bafe, from three to five inches
long, with a few little, marginal, glandular teeth. Stalix
often folitary in each tuft, a foot high, fwelling at the top.
Floiuers light yellow, an inch and a half broad. Calyx-
fcales narrow, acute. The uniformly entire leaves, though
befet with a few glandular teeth, and the ftrufture of mod
other parts, when minutely examined, render this plant fuf-
ficiently diftintl from j1. hifpida, hereafter defcribed, with
which Linnaeus fubfequently confounded it as a variety.

8. A. Taraxaci. Dandelion-leaved Hawk-bit. Willd.
n. 8. Ait. n. 4. Compend. Fl. Brit. n. 3. (Hedypnoii^
Taraxaci ; Villars Dauph. v. 3. 80. t. 26. Fl. Brit. 82 y.
Engl. Bot. t. 1 109. Hieracium Taraxaci ; Linn. Sp. PI.
1 1 25. Retz. Obf. fafc. 4. 30. t. 2. Lightf. Scot. 435.
Picris n. 27 ; Hall. Hift. v. i. 12. P. Taraxaci; AUion,
Ped. v. I. 211. t. 31. f. I.) — Stalks radical, moftly fingle-
flowered ; tumid and hairy at the top. Leaves fmooth, with
recurved teeth. Calyx hairy. — Native of watery paftures
on the loftieft mountains of Lapland, Scotland, Wales,
Switzerland, Savoy, and Dauphiny, flowering in July or
Auguft. Root abrupt, with long lateral fimple fibres. Herb
very variable in the breadth of its leaves, as well as the num-
ber, height and luxuriance of its_/?0'a)^r^a//".f. The former
are either lanceolate, and almoll linear, or fpatulate and
obovate, fharp or blunt, from two to four inches long, with
Ihallow or very deep, always runcinate, teeth. The latter
are afcending or ereft, folitary or in pairs, fometimes, though
rarely, divided, naked or furnifhed with a few linear fcales,
fliaggy v,'ith black hairs at the top, as is likewife the broad
and thick calyx. Flowers an inch broad, or more, of a full
yellow, with brownifli terminal feet. Germen furmounted
with a taper neck, like a ftalk, but as the feed fwells, this
appearance vanilhes, and the feathery down is truly feflile.
Receptacle naked. Willdenow jullly remarks, that Gouan's
fynonym is mifapplied to this fpecies in the Fl. Brit. We
have now quoted it more corrcdlly under our fecond A. alpina,
to which fome of the flender varieties of the prefent bear a
great refemblance. Solander, as well as Linnxus, thought
this plant a mule between Hieracium alpinum and Leontodon
Taraxacum, merely becaufe its jlowers refembled one, and
its leaves the other. The generic charafter differs from
botli.

9. A. autumnalis. Autumnal Hawk-bit. Hoffm. Germ,
for 1791. 274. Willd. n. 9. Ait. n. 5. Compend. Fl.
Brit. n. 4. (Hedypnois autumnalis; Fl. Brit. n. 4.
Engl. Bot. t. 830. Leontodon autumnale ; Linn. Sp. PI.
1 123. Hieracium minus; Fuchs Hift. 320. H. minus,
five leporinum ; Ger. Em. 296.) — Stalks radical, branched ;
their ultimate divifions fcaly. Leaves lanceolate, toothed,
or pinnatifid, fmoothifti, — Native of meadows and paftures
tliroughyut Europe, flowering in autumn ; very common
in Britain. The root is abrupt, with very long and co-
pious fibres. Leaves numerous, varioufly and unequally
pinnatifid, or merely toothed, rarely a little rough or fliaggy,
oblique, or fomewhat ferpentine, in their general form or
pofition. General Jlalks one or more, a foot or two m height,
Ipreading, curved and zigzag, alternately branched, not
quite without pubefcence, terminating in a few long 'fcaly

partial

THRINCTA.

hariialjlalks, wliich ai'e RoUow, and each contains a peculiar
tuft of very white cotton, remarked by the Rev. Mr. Hohnc.
Calyx, and top of each Jlall:, a httle downy. Flnwers
bright leii- on-coloured, hardly an inch broad, often reddifli
on the outfide. Seeils (lender, all crowned with fcffile
feathery down. Sometimes the Jloivers are proliferous, like
the Hen-and-chicken Daify.

10. A. cr'ifpa. Curled H:nvk-bit. VVilld. n. lo. Ait.
II. 6. (Leontodon crifpum ; V^illars Dauph. v. ■\. 84. t. 25.
Hieracium alteram faxatile ir.ontanum ; Colunm. Ecphr.
244. t. 243. H. parviii'i hirtum, caule aphyllo, crifpum
iibi ficcatum ; Bauh. Hill. v. 2. 1038.) — Stalks radical,
almolt naked, fmglc -flowered, hairy as well as the calyx.
Leaves with various divaricated teeth and fegmcnts, rougli
with dcnle three-forked hairs. Seeds with a rough elong-
ated b-ak. — Native of rocks in Daupliiny, Switzerland,
and Italy. — The root is faul to be very long, tlirufting itfelf
deep into the fcarcely vilible clefts of large rocks, and fend-
ing forth many long, iimple, lateral fibres. Lenves nu-
merous, in denfe fpreading tufts, from two to four inches,
Columna fays more than fix, in length, pinnatifid in a rather
lyrate manner, fome of their fegnvents or teeth turned
various ways, efpecially, as J. Bauhin obffrves, whrn dry ;
they are denfely clothed, on both fides, with prominent
hairs, whofe peculiarly white tips have three or more
fpreading forks or points. Floiver-Jlalki afcending, a fpan
high, furrowed, bearing a few linear fcales near the top.
Floiver full an inch broad. Seeds iiniform, each terminating
in a long, tapering, brown, minutely rough beak, which
looks like a ftalk to the denfe feathery down. This fpecies
comes very near the following, but appears to be eflen-
tially diftinguilbed by the beak of the feeds. ViUars con-
founds its fynonyms with thofe of yl. hirta, which differs
very materially in having a fcaly fiiort crown to its mar-
gm^\feeds, as will hereafter be defcribed.

11. A. hijptda. Rough Hawk-bit. Willd. n. 11.
Ait. n. 7. Compend. Fl. Brit. n. i. (Hedypnoishifpida ;
Fl. Brit. n. I. Engl. Bot. t. 554. Leontodon hifpidum }
Linn. Sp. PI. I 144. Curt. Lond. fafc. 5. t. 56. Fl. Dan.
t. 862. Hieracium dentis leonis foho, hirfutum ; Ger.
Em. 303.) — Stalks radical, naked, fingle-flowered. Leaves
with reverfed teeth, rough. Florets hairy at their orifice ;
glandular at the tip. Seeds fcarcely beaked Very com-
mon in meadows, paftures, and wafte ground, throughout
Europe, from Sweden to Greece, flowering in fummer.
The root is tapering, zigzag, long and flender. Leaves ob-
long, more or lefs deeply toothed, or in fome meafure pin-
natifid, their teeth acute, pointing downwards ; they are
much lefs denfely hairy than thofe of the lail, their hairs
generally fimply forked only ; but we are aware of the un-
certainty of this charafter. Stalls feveral, upright, ftriated,
clothed with fimilar hairs. Floivers drooping while in bud ;
afterwards ereA, bright yellow, an inch and half broad.
Calyx hairy ; its outer fcales lax and fcattered. Flprets
with a tuft of long yellow ereft hairs, at the top of their
tube externally ; their fummit terminates in five teeth, at
the back of each of which Mr. Sowerby firft detefted a
fmall triangular duller of brown glands. Thefe two cha-
rafters ferve admirably to diftinguifli the prefeut fpecies
from every other Britilli one, but tlie firfl; of them, if nottlie
other, is found in A. cr'ifpa. The feeds however have not
near fo long a beak as in that fpecies, and they differ from
A. hirta in being all uniformly furnifhed with a feathery
crown. It is curious to trace an affertion of the feed-down
being ftalked in this Ipecies, publilhed by Willdenow, taken
from Haller, on the authority of Reichard. On turning to
Halkr, n. 25, we find he irufted to Berkhey, who, in his

Flores Compoftti, t. 6. f. 10, has figured a feed, fuppofed tO
belong' to the plant before us. On examination however its
crown proves to confill of fimjde, not feathery, rays, and
therefore it has nothing to do with any Apargia. We men-
tion this circumflance, to (hew the mifchief of taking things
for granted ; not only in botanical criticifm, but any other
inquiry of the human mind.

12. A., hirta. Deficient Hawk-bit. Hoffm. Germ, for
1791. 274. Compend. Fl. Brit. n. 2. (Thrincia hirta;
Roth. Catal. V. i. 98. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 1554. Ait.
Hort. Kew. V. 4. 447. Hedypnois hirta ; Fl. Brit. n. 2.
Eiig!. Bot. t. 555. Leontodon hirtum ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1 123.
Curt. Lond. fafc. 6. t. 59. Rhagadiolus 11. 7 ; Hall. Hiit.
V. I. 5, with fome doubtful fynonyms.) — Stalks radical,
naked, fingle-flowered. Leaves toothed, rough. Calyx
iiearly fmooth. Outer row of feeds deftitute of down. —
Native of gravelly heaths and walle ground throughout
Europe. Dr. Sibthorp gathered it, along with our violets
and primroies. in Arcadia. Mr. Curtis obferves that this
fpecies leldom occurs on the fame fpot with the preceding,
of which Mr. Hudfon made it a variety. Otlier botanills
have found great difficulty in diilinguilhing them under all
their various appearances, whilft Haller, and more recently
Roth and Willdenow, have feparated them generically.
Linna;us thought the fimple hairs of the plant before us
afforded a good mark ; but this is fallacious. The herbage
of both is nearly the fame, or at Icaft their varieties clofely
approach each other. The flowers of both droop in the
bud, but thofe of A. hirta are the fmallefl; ; ihm florets
orange beneath, deftitute of hairs about the orifice, and of
glands at the fummit. The moft eflential difference of all
is found in the feeds of the circumference, which have no
feathery down, but inftead thereof a crown of fhort jagged
fcales. The root is abrupt, or bitten oflF, not tapering. ^

13. K. annua. Annual Hawk-bit. (Thrincia hifpida ;
Roth. Catal. v. i. 99. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 1555. Hyo-
feris taraxacoides ; Villars Dauph. v. 3. 166. t. 25, ex-
cluding the fynonyms. ) — Stalks radical, naked, fingle-
flowered. Leaves lanceolate, tootlied, rough witli forked
hairs. Calyx hoary and hifpid. Outer row of feeds def-
titute of down : thofe of the diflt beaked. — Native of Spain
and France, in faiidy ground. The annual fibrous root dif-
tinguiihes this from all the other known fpecies, and efpe-
cially from the laft, with which the fliort crown of its outer
row of feds agrees. The reft of the feeds however are
elongated at the fummit into a flender beak, which elevates
the feathery down, as on a longifh ftalk, but is not really
fuch. The rough and hoary calyx, and the brighter green
of the leaves, are further differences. The name of hifpida
being preoccupied, fee fp. 11, we are obliged to feleft a new
one tor the prefent fpecies.

14. A. ViUarJii. Villarfian Hawk-bit. Willd. n. 12.
(Leontodon hirtum; Villars Dauph. 82. t. 25, excluding
the fynonyms.) — "Stalks radical, naked, fingle-flowered,
nearly Imooth as well as the calyx. Leaves deeply toothed,
or pinnatifid, rough with fimple awlihaped briftles." —
Native of dry funny rocks in Dauphiny. Willdenow, who
had a dried fpecimen, fays the leaves are hoary with co-
pious white hairs. We have not feen the plant, nor dare
we attempt any illullration of it ; Villars having fo con-
founded vai'ious fynonyms under this and his Leontodon pro-
theiformc, p. 87. t. 24, that, even with fome of his fpeci-
mens before us, tlie defcriptions are not fatisfaftory.

15. A. caiuafica. Caucafian Hawk-bit. Marfch. a
Bieberll. Caucaf. v. 2. 247. — " Stalk radical, fingle-flow-
ered, fmooth. Caly.x hairy. Leaves runcinate, rough,
fparingly clothed with fimple depreffed hairs." — Native of

I gralfy

T H R

eraffv paftures on the Caucafia.i alps, flowering iii Augu t
11.(1 StplemlKT. Root perennial, abrupt. Leaves with
triaiiirular, nearly entire lobes pointni^ backward, be-
fpnulud un the upper lide with decumbent l,a>rs, io
fparinRly that they feem altogether fmoolh. SM- longer
than the leaves, llriated, naked except a m.nute fcale or two ;
> little tumid and downy under the calyx, which is blackilh,
though hifpid with whitifh hairs. Flo-wtr of a full ye low.
S^Ji fmooth to the naked eye ; their down fcflile, feathery.
This plant has the habit and ilalure of /I. hifpida, n. H,
but differs in die want of hairs on \iKjialk, as well as m the
form and pofition of the pubefcence of the foliage.

16. A. coronopifolia. Bucks-honi-leaved Hawk-bit.
Willd. n. 13. (Lcontodoii coronopifolium ; Desfont.
Atlant. V. 2. 229. t. 214.)— Stalks radical, fingle-flow-
ered, fcaly, Ihorter than the leaves, hairy as well as the
calyx. Leaves pinnatifid, with blunt lobes, rough with
forked hairs.— Native of the fandy deferts of Barbary, near
Cafsa. The whole plant is rough with branched hairs.
Leaves three or four inches long, fpreadiiig on the ground,
unequallv, but rather regularly, pinnatifid. Stalks feveral,
afteuding, an inch or two high. Flowers yellow, an inch
broad.

17. A. hifpatiica. Spanifh Hawk-bit. Willd. n. 14.
Marfch. a Btebertl. Caucaf. v. 2. 248. (Leoiitodon hif-
pidum ; Cavan. Ic. v. 2. 39. t. 149, excluding the fy-
nonym. )— Stems leafy, moftly iingle-flowered, hairy as well
as the calyx. Leaves oblong-lanceolate, toothed or pinna-
tifid, rough, with forked hairs. — Native of hilly fituations
in Spain, flowering the beginning of May. Frequent alfo
in Tauria. This, as Willdenow remarks, differs as much
as poffible from /I. hifpida. The whole herb is even more
roug-h or briftly than that fpecies. Stems fix inches high,
furnifhed with lanceolate fcales, accompanied by fome ob-
long, obtufe, entire or toothed, leaves, an inch or inch and
half long. The radical leaves are more numerous and longer,
tapering at the bafe, gradually dilated upward, bluntly
toothed, or in fome degree pinnatifid. Floiuers terminal,
foUtarv, pale yellow, nearly an inch and half broad.
Calyx with numerous long, narrow, very hairy fcales. The
hairs of the ftem and other parts are white, fometimes
forked.

iS. A. afpera. Branching Rough Hawk -bit. " Waldft.
et Kitaib. Hung. v. 2. 114. t. no." Willd. n. 15. Ait.
n. 8. — Stem leafy, fomewhat branched, hairy. Calyx
fmooth. Leaves lanceolate, rnncinate, hairy, with forked
briftlcs. — Native of rocky woods in Hungary, near the
baths of Hercules. Very nearly akin to the lall, but the
more branching /?fm, rnncinate leaves, and fmooth very clofe-
prclTed fcales of the calyx, fringed at the edges only, not lax
and hairy, appear fufficient, as Willdenow thinks, to dif-
tingnilh this Ipccies.

19. A.Jlrigofa. Briftly Hawk-bit. Marfch. a Bieberft.
Caucaf. V. 2. 249. (Scorzonera afperrima ; Willd. Sp.
PI. V. 3. 1507. S. hifpida; Forflc. yEgypt.-Arab. 215.) —
" Stem leafy, hifpid, bearing one or two flowers. Calyx
hoary ; the margin and keel of its fcales fringed with
briftles. Leaves lanceolate, toothed, hifpid, with forked
hairs. Seeds rough." — Native of dry open places in Ibe-
ria, and the eallern part of Caucaius, flowering in June.
Forfl<all found it at Eftac, near Marfeilles. We have al-
ready dcfcribed this under the article .SfoRZONERA, n. 32.
The able author df the Flora Taiirko-Caucafica favs, " the
leaves zndjlems are extremely hifpid ; the calyx only hoarv,
except the edges and keels of the fcales. Stems bearing
one or two leaivs, and from one to tliree_^o.7i'fr,r, like yi. kif-
paniea. Flwets pale yellow ; the outermoft purple beneath.

T II R

Seeds brown, linear, tapering much at the top, as in the
Scorzonera; they are rough with minute prominent points.
Down feathery. The habit of this plant, and its affinity to
^. hifpaHica, n. 17, and incana, n. 7, make it rather an
Apar^ia than a Scorzonera.'^ We have feen no fpecimen. The
regularly imbricated membranous-edged fcales of the calyx
in the latter, and the naked tips of its feed-down, arc fuf-
ficient indications of that genus, and if not found in the
prcfent plant, there can be no doubt upon the fubjcft ; but
of this we are left in ignorance.

20. A. variegafa. Party-coloured Hawk-bit. Willd,
n. 16. (Hieracium variegatum ; Lamarck Did. v. 2.
362.) — Stem nearly leaflels, fomewhat branched, fliaggy.
Radical leaves oblong, llrongly tootlied, hairy towards the
edges. Calyx-fcales fpatulate, flat ; downy at the bafe and

margin Gathered by Comnierfon at Monte Video. The

root feems rather woody. Stems feveral, fix inches high,
each terminating in one large yellow or orange-coloured

Jlower, and bearing feveral linear acute fcales, with the rudi-
ments of branches ; but we find none of the pinnatifid ftem-
leaves mentioned in Lamarck. The numerous radical leaves
are two inches long, tapering at the bafe, bluntifli, with
coarfe blunt unequal teeth, green, not hoary ; (liaggy with
fimple briftly hairs about the margin and mid-rib on both
fides. The dilated, obtufe, fmooth fcales of the calyx are
more regularly and copioufly imbricated than ufual in this
genus, and are prettily variegated with white marginal cot-
tony down. The /eed-down is feathery, but of the feeds or
receptacle we can fee nothing.

21. A. hieracioides. Corymbofe Hawk-bit. Willd.
n. 1 7.^-" Stem branched at the top, hairy. Leaves ob-
long-lanceolate, hairy, toothed. Hairs forked." — Native
ot Galatia. Willdenow, who had a dried fpecimen, de-
fcribes this plant as refembling Hieracium murorum. The

Jlem is eredt. Leaves feflile, an inch and a half long.
Flozver-jlalks fcaly and hairy. Do-Mn feflile, feathery.
Receptacle naked.

THRINIUM-GiLD. See Teisium-G;W.

THRIO, 9j)ia', in Antiquity, a feftival in honour of
Apollo.

THRIPS, in Natural Hijlory, a name ufed among the
ancients to exprefs a fort of worm hatched from the egg
of a beetle : which, while in the worm-ftate, eats its way
into wood, and forms cells and cavities in it of various
fhapes, and in various direftions, often refembling the
figures of letters or other things. See Enxylon.

The ancient Greeks are faid to have ufed fmall pieces of
the wood thus eroded in particular forms, as feals, before
the engraving of thefe uteniils was invented ; and indeed
they muft very well have ferved this purpofe, fince it is
fcarcely pofTibly to conceive how one of thefe pieces of cor-
roded wood ftiould be counterfeited, or the imprefiion
imitated.

Lucian mentions his marking his olives with a fignature
of one of thefe pieces of wood greatly eroded, and ufes
the word thrips, not as the name of the animal, but of
the piece of wood eroded by it. Theophraftus, Pliny,
and Ariftotle, alfo ufe the fame expreffion ; and we find
that tlie word thrips was as frequently ufed to fignify
the pieces of wood eroded, as the animal which eroded
them.

Thrips, in the Linnaan Syflem of Zoology, is a genus of
the order of Hemiptera, the charafters of which .ire, that the
roftrum is obfolete, being hidden within the mouth ; the an-
tenna: filiform, and as long as the thorax ; the body (lender,
and of equal tliicknefs ; the abdomen reflexible, and often
benl upwards; the four wings extended, incumbent, j nar-
row.

THRIPS.

TOW, and croffing one another at fome diftancc from their
bafe. The tlirips has fix feet, and the tarfus of each foot
has only two articulations. Gmelin enumerates the follow-
ing eleven

Species.

Paradoxa. Brown, with abbreviated wings, and antennx
peftinate, fiffile ai d filiform. Found in China, but Gmehu
doubts whether 't be of this genus.

PiiYSAPUs. AVith glaucous elytra or (hell-wings, and
black, body. Foun^l frcuuontly on flowers in Europe.

MiNUTlssiMA. With glaucous elytra and body, and
brown eyes. Found as the former.

JuNiPERiNA. With fnowy elytra and brown body.
Found in the galls of the juniper.

Ulmi. Black, with fnowy ciliated wings, and acumi-
nated anus. Fourd gregarious on the bark of the elm.

Urtick. Yellow, with whitifli elytra. Found folitary
on the leaves of the nettle, vine, and hazle.

Fasciata. With elytra banded with white and black,
and brown body. Found on flowers in Europe.

FuscA. Blackifli, with glaucous elytra. Found in
Denmark : the female probably fafciated ?

Obscura. Yellowifh, with palifh elytra, and eyes and
wings of the abdomen black. Found in Denmark.

RuFA. Red. Found on the fpikes of wheat ; if it be
not the larva of i.he minutiflima.

Variegat ^. Variegated. Found on flax.
The thrips is highly injurious and deftruftive to many
forts of fine fruited trees, but particularly fo to thofe of
the grape or vine kind. The bcft and moil effeftual means
of preventing its mifchievous effefts, in fuch cafes, is pro-
bably that of frtquent good walhing of tlie trees with com-
mon water, by the engine or otherwife. It has lately been
advifed that this (hould be done every evening, as, when
performed in the iieat of the fun, the vines are materially
injured.- Indeed all fuch trees fhould, it is fuppofed, be
well wafhed every evening, until the berries begin to colour,
whether infefted with infefts or not, but efpecially in the
former (late ; after which it is to be wholly difcon-
tinued.

Where there is a negleft of walhing the trees in this or
fome other way, the thrips, for the moil part, makes its ap-
pearance. In fuch cafes, thefe infefts may without much
difficulty be deftroyed by the fumigation of tobacco and
damp hay ; the plants or trees being well wafhed after it
by pure water.

The luhue-bug is another infeft which is often very
hurtful to peach-trees and vines in forcing-houfes ; and
the caufe of which is believed to be much owing to the
trees not being daily properly waflied in the above manner.
Each of thefe forts of trees ftand in need of particular
management in clearing them of this infeft.

The brown-bug too occafionally makes its appearance
on, and is hurtful to peach-trees in fuch fituations, efpe.
i;ially when they arc Ihaded, or approach near the flues of
the houfes. Proper walhing of the trees, in thefe cafes,
■with lime-water, in the winter feafon ; and fyringing them
with it as foon as the leaves have fallen ofT, are often very
cffeftual in removing fuch infefts.

, The green-Jly is alio very dellruftive to peach-trees, efpe-
cially when ni the forcing (late. Thefe are the moll effec-
tually deftroyed by means of well walhing the trees daily in
a regular maimer, after the work of forcing is begun. It is
the common praftice of moll gardeners to difconlinue fuch
wa(hings as foon as the flowers begin to make their appear-
ance, but others ha%e lately continued them with fuppofed
Vox.. XXXV.

advantage, and not found them to prevent the fruit from
fetting. If any flics of this fort prefent themfelvcs, they
may be kept under by proper watering or wafliing, as above,
and by carefully picking off the firll buds on which they
appear, which is found to prevent them from breeding,
and to render the ufc of tobacco-fmoke unnccefTary. Fu-
migations of this fubftance are, however, fometimes bene-
ficial in thefe cafes in removing the vermin.

This and the blus-Jv too are often very injurious to plum-
trees, efpecially after they have been affefted with the honey-
dew. The manner of getting rid of them in fuch cafes,
which has lately been recommended, is that of watering
the trees in a plentiful manner two or three times a week,
if the weather be dry ; and during the continuance of the
above fort of dew upon the trees, preparing the water with
a little common fait and the fluid part of a good portion
of broom that has been boiled. This mixture, it is faid,
effeftually kills the flies, while it does no injury to the trees,
if care has been taken not to ufe too large a proportion of
fait. This praftice alfo tends to make the trees flioot
ftronger, and to hinder fuch infefts from breeding.

There is another infeft which has lately been found to
be greatly injurious to apple and other fruit trees, but
which is yet only little known to gardeners. It is the
Tortrix ivaberana, which may be feen well defcribed in the
fecond volume of the " Tranfaftions of the Horticultural
Society of London." It is there dated to be occafionally
very hurtful to fuch trees, not only in the larva (late, but
others ; and that its attacks are by no means confined to the
difeafed parts of fuch trees. The infeft in its perfeft (late
is a fmall moth, which is very abundant in gardens and fruit
grounds.

In what regards the means of removing and defl:roymg
fuch infefts when their attacks become injurious, the hmts
given below are thrown out. The firft and moft eflential
procefs evidently is, it is thought, to cut away the edges of
the cankery parts vs'here they are chiefly found, making
the wound fmooth, and covering it with any compofition
likely to prevent the moth from depofiting her ova or eggs
there again. One precaution is neceffary, which is to put
into boiling water, or to bury at a confiderable depth, the
cut-out pieces of decayed bark containing the larva; ;
which, if left near the tree, would foon crawl from their
holes or other places, and remount it ; thus defeating the
labour of the horticulturalifl, who often, from negleft-
ing a flight additional trouble, lofes the benefit of more
painful exertions. Where the larvx are found to have in-
finuated themfelves generally into the rough bark of old
trees, it would probably, it is thought, be advifable to
fcrape off the whole of the lifelefs bark, and fuch portions
of the alburnum as are injured, as fuggefted by Mr. Knight
on another occafion ; a procefs which, there can be no doubt,
it is faid, would be advantageous to the tree in other re-
fpefts, as pointed out by the above writer. And where
projefting faw-duft-like maffes fiiew that the larva has at-
tacked even fmooth-barked trees, the infertion of a blunt
pricker into the hole would probably, in mofl: cafes, fuffice
to deftroy it, and do lefs injury to the tree than fufFering it
to attain its growth. But the mode which is moft to be
recommended in this, as in the cafe of almofl all infefts
hurtful to fruit or other trees, is, it is faid, to deftroy the
moths themfelves by collefting them from ofi" the trees, or
otlier places, during tlie fummer months, which might be
done by children properly direfted and provided with fuit-
able means for the purpofe, or in other ways. The deftruc-
tion of every female moth, before the depofition of tt»
eggs, may, it is faid, be fairly calculated to prevent the
i(. E ewftencc

T H 11

exiftence of fome hundreds of larvx ; and thus, in any
gardeu or fruit-around not in tlic neiglibourhood of others,
where the fame methods are negH-cled, the wliole race
might, it is fiippofrd, be extirpated in a few years.

THRISSA, in Ichthyology, the name given by the
Greeks and by the modern Latin writers to the li(h which
we call the (had, or the mother of the herrings.

THRIVING, in Nia! Cattle, a term made ufc of by
graziers and other ftock-farmers to fignify the property
they have of doing well on the food they confume, or of
fattening kindly, in contradiftinftion to that of a ftunted
unthrifty growth, or bad fort of feeding. It is moftly
known by tlie hides or coats of the beads having a mel-
lownefs of feel in handling them, with a finenefs and fleck-
nefs in their appearance. This depends, in a very great
degree, upon the pile and growth of the coats, for the
fliorter and flecker they are, the more thriving the beafts ;
as, on the contrary, in proportion to length and hardnefs,
is the unthriftinefs of the ilock.

A coarfe, rough, thick hide is an indication too of hard-
nefs of flelh in beafts ; while, on the contrary, finenefs and
clofenefs of grain in it, give the feel of fine texture in the
hide.

Thefe circumftances demand great attention in choofing
neat tattle for all purpofes.

Thriving Drinks, fuch drinks as are prepared and given
to rieal cattle, or other beafts, when in a low unthrifty ftate.
They are moftly compofed of the powders of different
forts of aromatic feeds, fuch as ihofe of anifeeds, carravvay.
feeds, and grains of paradifc, in the proportion of about
two ounces of each : which are mixed well together and
put into a quart of warm ale, in which they are given to
the beafls ; or of fw^et fennel feeds and cummin feeds,
each two ounces, long pepper, ginger, turmeric, and ele-
campane, each one ounce, mixed together, to be given in
the fame way as above, to which fometimes a little frefh
butter and treacle or coarfe fugar are added. Snake-root
and gentian root, in powder, too, are fometimes employed
in fuch drinks.

As the principal effcft of fuch drinks, for the moft pai-t,
depends upon the elTential oil the fubftances may contain,
they will be fomewhit prefervcd and increafed by giving
them in the above manner.

The moft proper management for the beafts in thefe cafes,
is to change their food as much as polilble for the better,
letting them have occafional good maflies of fcalded bran,
ground malt, or other fjch fubftances, with a fmall propor-
tion of ground oats or barley meal put into them : warm
water may alfo fometimes be noceftary.

By the ufe of drinks of this fort, very reduced cows and
other neat cattle may often be readily reftored and brought
into a thriving condition.

THRIXSPERMUM, in Botany, fo called by Lou-
reiro, from ^^ij, a hair, and a-rrijuo,, feed. We (^nnot fay
much for the conftruftion of this word, which fnould have
been Trkhnfpermum, provided there be no dormant claim to
that name ; but it is not worth changing, till we are better

alFured of the genus. — Loureir. Cochinch. 519 Clafs and

order, Monamlrta Monogynla. Nat. Ord. Orchlde.s ?

Gen.Cli. Common Ca/yx catkin-like, linear, comprefied,
fleihy, with alt-mate, acute, fingle-flowered fcales. Pe-
rianth none. - Cor. Petals five, linear-av/l(haped, long, ereft,
neariy equal. Neft.iry attached to the receptacle, between
the two lowermoft petals, deeply divided into tv/o lips ; the
inner one three-cleft, embraced by the petals, its lateral
fegments fhort and blunt, the middle fegment longeft, co-
nical, afcending; outer one ovate, undivided, prominent
5

T H R

beyond the petals. Stam. Filament folitary, thread-lhaped,
ftiort, attached to the piilil ; anther ovate, of two cells ,
with a lid. P'l/l. Germen thread-lhaped, ftraight, bearing
the flower ; ftyle thick, unequal, ftanding on the bafe of
the neiftary ; iligma fimple. Peru. Capfule oblong, tri-
angular, the angles acutely emarginate, of three valves and
one cell. Seeds numerous, long, very flender, like hairs.

EfT. Ch. Petals five, linear, ereft. Outer lip of the
nedtary ovate, prominent.

I. Th. centlpeda- Nhanh goi rit of the Cochinchinefe.
Found in Cochinchina, creeping upon the native trees.
The Jlem is parafitical, long, comprefted, perennial, creep-
ing by means of fimple, very ftiort, lateral roots. Leaves
linear-lanceolate, entire, fmall, (heathing, rcflexed. Flcwers
pale yellow, with a reddifti r.etlary, in ftraight, lateral,
catkin-like, two-ranked /plies.

We guefs this to be allied to fome of thofe parafitical
Crchidex, formerly referred to Epldendruni by Linna:us ;
and by Swartz chiefly to Cymbldlum. - The ftruAure of
the whole tribe is fo obfcure, that Loureiro may very well
be excufed if we cannot entirely unravel his defcription.

THROANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, on
the other fide of the Ganges, which Ptolemy affigns to the

people called Lefti, or pirates Alfo, a town of Serica,

near the mountains in the vicinity of Afmiraea. Ptolemy.

THROAT, the anterior part of an animal, between the
head and the fhoulders, in which is the gullet.

Phyficiar.s include, under the word throat, all that hollow,
or cavity, which may be feen when the mouth is wide open.

It is fometimes aJfo called l/lhmus, becaufe it is narrow,
and bears fome refemblance to what is called by geogra-
phers ijthmus.

Throat, Sore, in Medicine. See Quikzy.

Throat, Wounds of, in Surgery. See WoUKDS.

Threat, in Archlte8urc, Foriifcatlon, &c. See Gorge
and GuLA.

Throat, in Ship- Building, the infide of knee-timber at
the middle or turn of the arms. Alfo, the middle part of
the floor-timbers ; the inner part of the arms of an anchor,
where they join the fhank ; and the inner ends of booms and
gaffs, where they traverfe round the maft.

The throat is oppofed to peek, which imphes the outer
extremity of the faid gaff, or that part which extends the
fail behind. Hence the ropes employed to hoift up and
lower a gaff, being applied to thofe parts of it, ^re called
the throat and peek haliards. Falconer.

TnuoAT-Wort, in Botany, the name of a perennial weed
common in pafture grounds. The ftalk is cornered and
undivided. The flowers grow in bunches at the top of the
ftalk. They are ereft, of a beautiful purple colour, and
divided in the middle into five acute fegments. It is a very
pernicious weed when fuffered to get a-head in fuch lands,
and not capable of being deftfO)ed without confiderable
difficulty and trouble. See Trachelium.

This plant yields, when wounded, a milky juice in great
plenty, and this, if received into a fliell or other fmall veffel,
curdles immediately, and the whey runs from the thick
part : this whey is of a brown colour, whereas that of the
wild lettuce is of a fine purple, and dries into a cake that
may be crumbled into a purple powder. The juice of the
throat -wort fmells four, and its curdled part, being dried,
burns like refin at the flame of a candle. Phil. Tranf.
N° 224.

THROATING, in Agriculture, the aft of mowing
beans againtt their bending, which is never done but in a
thin crop. But in fuch it is often neceffary, in order to
cut them with the moft perfedion and advantage. They

fliould

T H R

T H R

(Tiould never be allowed to become too ripe when intended
to be cut in this manner. The term is alfo occafionaUy
applied to fome other purpofes in hu(bandry.

THROGGY, in Geography, a river of Monmouthfhire,
which runs into the Severn, 4 miles S.W. of Chepllow.

THROMBUS, from ^^ojxQo:, coagulated blood, a clot of
blood. The term has alfo been applied to a tumour, formed
of a colleAion of cxtravafated blood under the integuments
after bleeding. When fuch an extravafation, though of
fome extent, is not confiderable, it is ufually called an
ecchymofis ; which fee.

A tiirombus fometimes depends on the furgeon having
totally divided the vein ; but much more frequently on his not
having made the opening in the vefTel properly correfpond to
tliat in the fl-:i[i. The patient's altering the pofture of his
arm, while the blood is flowing into the bafin, will often caufe
an interruption to the efcape of the fluid from the external
orifice of the punfture ; and, confequcntly, it infmuates itfelf
into the cellular fubfl:ance in tlie vicinity of the opening in
the vein. In proportion as the blood iflues from the veflel,
it becomes efTufcd between the flcin and fafcia in the inter-
fbices of the cellular fuhftance, and this, with more or lefs
rapidity, and in a greater or leffer quantity, according as
the edges of the lliin impede more or lefs the outward
efcape of the fluid. Sometimes, alfo, a thrombus forms
after venefeftion, when tlie iifual dreffings, comprefs, and
bandage, have been put over the punfture, and the patient
imprudently makes ufe of the arm on which the operation
has been done. This is more particularly liable to happen
when a very large opening has been made in the vein.

The accident is not attended with any danger when the
extravafation is inconfiderable ; for, in this circumftance,
the tumour generally admits of being eafily refolved by
applying to it linen dipped in any difcutient lotion. If the
fwelling (hould be more extenfive, applying to it a comprefs
■wet with a folution of common fea-f;!lt, is deemed a very
efficacious plan of promoting the abforption of the cxtra-
vafated blood. Brandy, and a folution of the muriate of
ammonia in vinegar, are likewife eligible applications.

It fometimes happens, that a thrombus induces inflam-
mation and fuppuration of the edges of the punfture. The
treatment is now like that of any little abfcefs : a common
linfeed poultice may be applied, and any confiderable accu-
mulation of matter fliould be prevented, by making an
opening with a lancet in proper time. As foon as the
inflammatory iymptoms have ceafed, difcutients fhould be
retorted to again, for the purpofe of difperfmg the remain-
ing clots of blood and furrounding induration. Cooper's
Dift. of Praftical Surgery.

THRONE, v^ovof, a royal feat, or chair of ftate, en-
riched with ornaments of architecture and fculpture, made
of fome precious matter, raifed one or more fteps, and co-
vered with a kind of canopy.

Such are the thrones in the rooms of audience of kings,
and other fovereigns.

THRONI, in Ancient Geography, a town of the ifle of
Cyprus, upon the fouthern coaft, S.W. of Leucolla, and at
fome diftance N.W. of the promontory of Pedalium. Near
this town was a promontory of the fame name, according
to Ptolemy.

THRONION, or Thronium, a town belonging to the
Locrians, fituated, according to Strabo, 20 fladia from the
fea.

THRONIUM, a torwn of the Abantide, which was a
tliitria of Thefprotia, in Epirus, towards the Ceraunian
mountains. On the return from the war of Troy, when
the fliips of the Greeks were difperfed, the Locrians of

Tlii'onium, aftd the Abantcs of Eub(ca> were driven with
eight vcfTels towards the Ceraunian mountains. They cfta-
blifiied thcmfetves in this place, and built a town, which
tiiey called Thronium, and they gave the country the name
of the Abantide. " They were afterwards expelled by the
Apolloniates.

THROO, or Through, in Agriculture, a term fignify-
ing a breadth, flip, or width of corn, which a fet of reapers,
&c. drive before them at once, whether it confitt of one or
more lands or ridges. The mode of reaping by means of
throos is very common in fome of the northern counties of
the kingdom, and luppofed by fome to greatly expedite
the work.

THROPPLE, among country people, denotes the
wind-pipe of a horfe.

THROSTLE, or Song-Thrujh, Mavis, or Turdus muftcus
of Linnaeus, in Ornithology, is called by authors the turdus
vifcivorus minor, to diftinguith it from the larger fpecies,
called in Englifb the mijfel-bird, and ufually known
among us by the fimple name of thrujh. It is called -vifci-
vorus by authors, from its refemblance in colour to the
other ■vifci'vorus, not from its feeding on the mifletoe-berrics,
as that does.

It refembles the mifTel-thrurti in colour, except thSt the
inner coverts of the wings are yellow.

It feeds on worms, fnails, and fmall infefts, and remains
with us the whole year. It builds with mofs and ftubble,
and lines the neft; ^ith mud. On this it lays five or fix
eggSj which are of a blueifh-grcen, variegated with a few
black fpots. It fits on hedges and buflies, and fings very
agreeably.

The throftle is the fined of our finging-birds, not only
for the fweetnefs and variety of its notes, but for the long
continuance of its harmony ; as it obliges us with its fong
for nearly three parts of the year. See Turdus.

THROSTLING, a difeafe of black cattle, proceeding
from humours gathering under their throats ; by wluch
means their throats are fo dangeroufly fwelled, that they will
be choaked, unlefs feafonably relieved by bleeding.

THROUGH-Stone, iu Rural Economy, a term which
fignifies a long (lone which pafles the whole breadth of the
wall in making fences of that kind, and which binds them
together in a more perfeft manner than would otherwife
have been the cafe. It is always of great importance to
have plenty of throughs in fences of this nature, from
slmoft the bottom part to near the top.

THROW, the provincial name of a turner's lathe.
There is a great variety of thefe forts of tools in ufe for
different purpofes. See Lathe.

Throw the Glove. See Glove.

THROWED Silk. See Silk.

THROWSTER, one who prepares raw filk for the
weaver, by cleanfing and twilling it. See Milling and
Silk.

THRUM, in Gardening, among the cultivators of fine
flowers, is a term applied to the thread-hke internal btilhy
parts of them, and which, in fome forts of good flowers,
fuch, for inftance, as the auricula and other fimilar kindu,
fhould be of a bright colour, and the chives, or thready
brifi;les, of which it is compofed, clear and (hining witn
fpangles, foniewhat like gold-duft ; and they fhould alfo
be diflinft frqm each other, leaning inwardly towards the
pipe ; as when they appear clotted together, or look bat-
tered Or mis-lhapeji, the beauty of the flowers to which they
belong is much impaired ; which is not unfrequently ccca-
fioned by the wild and other bees, which, when in fearcli
of honey or food, are apt to greatly hurt fuch parts of fine
4 E 2 flowers.

T II R

flowi-rt. The bees, in fuel, cafes, (hould be carefully taken
by proper moans, ami be prwented as much as poflible from
coUettine their foi)d from fiich fine kinds of flowers.

TllRiM-Ci^ IJhml, in Gtosraphy, a low woody illand,
of a circular form, and nol much more than a mile m com-
pafs, in the South Pacific ocean, covered with verdure of
many hues, but without inhabitants, dilcovercd and fo
called by Cook in April 1 769. S. lat. 1 8° 35'. W. long.
1 39^ 4S'.

'Yiwau-H^orl, in /1s"culture, a troublcfomc weed in
fome lands of the rather moid down kind, which is of the
perennial fort.

THRUMMING, in Risging, denotes intcrplacmg Ihort
pieces of thrums, or rope-yarn, in a regular manner into
mattinif, through intervals made by a fid, or large needle.

THRUSH, an afFeaion of the inflammatory and fup-
purating kind in the feet of the horfe, and fome other
animals. In the horfe it is an inflammation taking place in
that part of the foot termed the fentible frog, which is
moftly occal'ioned from want of due cleanhnefs in it, efpe-
cially in tliofe of tlie team or working fort, from the heels
being in a contraded Itate, or from Ihoeing upon erroneous
and bad principles, but mod commonly from the laft of
thcfe caufes. , See Siioeinc.

The difeafe may be known to be prefent in this, as well
as in other animals, by a tcndernefs and uneafy feel being
fhewn on preffing the frog, or affefted part, and its
being accompanied with a difchargc of matter of the puru-
lent kind, as well as by other fimilar appearances.

The means of removing the complaint in the horfe, when
inflammation is chiefly prefent, coniill firft in taking away
the flioe, and lowering the heels, in fuch a manner as that
the frog or difeafed part may come in contaft with the
ground or floor : after which the animal may be fufFered
to ftand fome days without rtioes, the part being well
waftied two or three times a day with a common ftable
brufli, and a folution of foft foap in rain-water, an appli-
cation compofed of white vitriol, Armenian bole, and alum,
in fine powder, of each half an ounce, mixed up with com-
mon tar, in a fuificient proportion to make a fort of ointment,
being then had recourfe to as ^idreffing. This may be
ufed fpread upon lint, being apphcd between the cleft of
the frog, or affeftcd part, and renewed as often as there may
be a neceflity.

It is likewife advifed by fome, that all the difeafed parts,
in fuch cafes, fliould be carefully removed by means of a
drawing-knife, and that if the animal be not allowed to have
reft, a bar-flioe mull be had recourfe to, until the difeafe
becomes quite removed. It is thought, too, that three or
four pints of blood may often be taken away with advan-
tage in cafes where there is much inflammation, and mafhes
with nitre be given in the evenings. Much benefit alfo
may fometimes be found from the ufe of diuretic balls, and
from the foot aflefted being fomented with warm water, in
which a handful of common fait has been diflblved, juft
before the apphcation of the above drefiing. Great utility
is occafioiially derived, too, from the infertion of a feton
or rowel in the chcft, or other proper part, and letting it
continue fome lime. See Shoe.

In cafi'S where the complaint proceeds chiefly from con-
irafted heels, fome fuppofe the only certain and effeftual
mode of removing the aff'eftion is, perhaps, that of the ufe
of the artificial, or patent frog, not long ago invented by
Mr. Coleman, who has beftowcd much attention on the
feet of animals, efpccially of the horfe. See Frog.

In other animals, where the hoofs, claws, or other parts
of the feet are affeftcd with inflammation, and colleaions
2

T H 11

or difchargcs of matter, in fome meafure of the tlirufh kind,
or having fome refemblance to it, the beft means of relief
are probably thofe of firll trying the effefts of difcutient
faturnine applications, and if thefe do not fucceed, to have
recourfe to warm emollient fomentations or poultices, then
cutting or paring the parts down fo as to lay them well
open, and let out any thing they may contain, drefiing the
openings with mild cfcharotics, as there may be occafion.
In this way, very troubkfome afFeftions of this fort may
often be fpeedily removed.

TiiuusH, in 'Medicine. See Aphtha and Infant.
Thrush, in Ornithology, is the tardus •vifcivoriu of Lin-
nxnis, and the largefl of the genus. See TuHDU.s and Mis-
>iV.i.-Bird.

TiiRVsH, IVinrl. See KED-lVing.

THRUSHEI., in Geography, a river of England, in
the county of Devon, ^which runs into the Tamer, oppofite
to Launcefton.

THRUSK. SeeTniHSK.

THRUST, in Fencing, is an aftion of which there are
three kinds. To thrujl in carte, is to throw your hand as far
as poflible on the infide, with the point of your fvvord to-
wards your adverfary's breall : to thrujl feconde, is to have
your arm in a perfeft oppofition to your adverfary's, hold-
ing your head infide : to thrujl tierce, differs from carte only
by the pofition of the hand, which mull be reverfed.

THRUSTING, or HanJ-preJfmg, in Dairying, is a
term applied to the praftice of fqueezing and forcing the
liquid parts contained in the curd out of it by the hand, or
other fuch means, after it has been properly reduced, and
placed by a cloth in an upheaped or conical manner in the
vat or hoop.

THRUSTiNG-iSrrfw, in Rural Economy, a contrivance of
the large fcrew kind, calculated for affording due pref-
fure in the making of cheefe with facility and con-
venience. Thefe fcrews are perfectly fimple, and capable
of being made either of wood or iron ; but the latter mate-
rial IS probably by much the beft. They may be wrought
in feveral different way's, but it is commonly done by means
of a fort of lever applied in fome manner or other, not un-
frequently through a hole for the purpofe in the head of
the large fcrew. In fome diftrifts they have them fixed up
to the under-ildes of the floors above the prefllng-rooms, and
the power of them fo managed as to be regulated at plea-
fure. By means of thefe thrufting-fcrews, it is evident that
the preffure can be gradually increafed, as there may be
occafion, from the firft application to the concluding hard
or heavy preffure in finiftiing the w'ork. This command of
power is, of courfe, a circumftance of great utility and
advantage jn fuch bufinefs.

THRUSTINGS, a term applied in cheefe-making, in
fome d'.ilrifts, to the luhite whey, or that which is the laft
preffed or forced out of the curd by the hand and other
means, after it has been put into the cheefe vat. In fome
inftanccs in the procefs and pradlice of making butter of
the whey kind, tliefe thruilings are fet by in earthen pans
for the purpofe, in order to acidulate, or carve, as it is
called in fome places, either by means of the warmth of the
feafon, or of a room, for being churned, in the fame way
as in the common manner praftifed, in many places, for
making butter from milk. See Whey.

Thefe thruftings, probably, form and conftitute the beft
butter of the whey fort, though it is made from that fluid
managed in other ways, as feen under the head juft referred
to above.

THRYALLIS, in Botany, an ancient Greek name for
fomething of the Mullein kind, whofe woolly leaves fervcd

to

T H U

T H U

to make wicks for lamps. It is not eafy to conceive iiow
Linnaeus came to apply this name here, nor can we trace
out any thing to account for his having done fo. We moll
readily agree with De Theis, that the (lirub about to be
defcribed has nothing in common with Verbafcum but its
yellow rtowers. (See Diofcorides, book 4. chap. 104. ) —
Linn. Gen. 213. Schreb. 289. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 570.

Mart. Mill. Did. ■». 4. Juif. 251 Clafs and order,

Decatidria Monogyma. Nat. Ord. Trtcoccit, Linn. Acera,

juir.

Gen. Ch. Cat. Perianth inferior, in five deep, lanceolate,
ereft, permanent fegments. Cor. Petals five, roundifh,
fpreading. Stam. Filaments ten, awl-Hiaped, longer than
the calyx ; anthers roundifli. Pijl. Gcrmen obtufc ; ilyle
thread-fhaped, the length of the ilamens ; lUgma limple.
Peru. Capfule with three lides, and three angles, obtiile,
feparable into three parts ; its cells burfting at the external
angle. Seeds fohtary, very fmooth, obovate ; obtufe at the
bafe, with an incurved point.

I. Th. brafillenjts . BrafiHan Thryallis. Linn. Sp. PI.
554. Willd. n. I. (Fruticefcens herba ; Marcgr. Braf. 79.
f. 3. ) — Native of Brafil. A \M\fiJJ:nih, with round, jointed,
reddi(h branches. Leaves on reddifh footftalks, oppofite,
ovate, entire, about an inch long ; pale green above ; whitilh
beneath, with a flender mid-rib. Stiptilas brillle-lhaped.
CliiJIers terminal, folitary, from fix or feven inches to a foot
long, with very (lender partial _/?a/ij', longer than the Jlonvers,
and very fliort fetaceouo ireiHeas. Flowers fmall, elegant,
yellow, bordered with red, with which colour alfo their
Ye\[o^N Jlamens are fpeckled. Fruit three -lobad. Neither
the plant nor its flower has any remarkable odour. — Lin-
naeus appears to have examined a dry fpecimen of this plant,
but it is wanting in his herbarium, as well as in every other
that we have feen. His idea of its natural order is furely
lefs corrcd; than Juffieu's. Specimens without fruit are
not unlikely to have been overlooked for fome nondefcript
Bann'i/hria or Malpighia.

THRYANDA, in Jncient Geography, a town of Afia
Minor, in Lycia. Steph. Byz.

THRYOCEPHALUM,in5»/«nj.,agenusofForfter's,
named from SfKo., a fort of riij]}, and xf^'aX^i, a head, becaufe
of the habit of the plant, and its little round head of flowers.
This genus is the fame as Kyllingia. (See that article.)
The only fpecies mentioned by Forfter, is there confidered
by us as K. monocephala. Vahl, in his Eniim. Plant, v. 2. 381,
refers it to K- triceps, probably becauie he faw a fpecimen with
a compound head. This very circuniftance ftrengthens his
own fufpicion, that thefe two fuppofed Ipecies of KyUinvia
are not, in reahty, diftinft. Our fpecimen from Forller
liimfclf has a very flight indication of a fmall lateral head,
by the fide of the principal one, nor can it be otherwife
diftinguilbed from K. monocephala. In the ftruiture or
appearance of any other part, we cannot difcern the leail
difference between monocephala and triceps, in feparating
which we confided more in thofe who have originally de-
fcribed thefe plants, than it feems they deferved.

THRYOESSA, or Tiiryon, in Ancient Geography,
called from the time of Strabo Epitalium, fituated on the
left banks of the Alpheus, E. of Olymnia.

THUAREA, in Botany, bears that name in honour of
M. Aubert du Petit Thuars, a French botaiiifl of the pre-
ftjnt day, who is cited for the genus itfelf in P."rf. Syn. v. i.
1 10. — Brown Prodr. Nov. FIoll. v. 1. 197. — Clafs and order,
Triandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Gramina.

Elf. Ch. Calyx-glumes of one valve, two-flowered, fpiked,
unilateral, on a dilated common ftalk ; the lowermoil ones
only partly perfeft ; the reft male only ; the inner floret of

the lowermoft glume male, its outer valve refembiing the
calyx. Neftary of two fcales at the bafe of the germen.
Stigmas feathery. Seed wrapped in tlie corolla, and en-
folded in the hardened, clofed, involute ilalk.

The ^('mj- are creeping, very long, with eretl, (liort, un-
divided, leafy branches. Spike folitary, terminal, flaort, for
a long time half enclofed in a leaf-like (heath. The common
Jlalk is thick and coriaceous, not membranous, as M. du Pe-
tit Thuars terms it, he having, as Mr. Brown fuppofes,
confounded that part with the flieath. Flowers feffile, in a
fimple row, one or two of the loweil only being perfeft, the
remaining four, five, or fix, in the contradcd portion of the
fpike, males.

Mr. Brown obferves, that this genus of grafles is not
very diftantly related to Paxicum (fee that article) ; efpc-
cially to P. dimidiatum, Retz. Obf. fafc. 6. 23 ; but in
Thuarea, the calyx-glumes are, with refpeft to the Jlalk, in-
verted, and want an outer value. In ilru6ture this genus
agrees, in many particulars, with Spinifex, (fee that arti-
cle,) in which the fexes are indeed more feparated, and
therefore a requifite abundance of males is provided. The
figure and economy of the common-Jlalk, or rachis, too is
different ; though that part is permanent in both genera,
and affifts in both, though not in the fame manner, to dif-
perfe \\\<i feeds.

The only fpecies of which we can give an account are
the three following, though Mr. Brown mentions alfo a
2'. farmentofa.

T. latifolia. Br. n. I. — " Perfeft flowers two. Stems
downy. Leaves lanceolate, filky on both fides." — Ga-
thered by fir Jofeph Banks, in the tropical part of New
Holland.

T. media. Br. n. 2. — " Perfeft flowers folitary. Leaves
linear-lanceolate ; their under fide fmooth, as well as the
ftem." — Found by Mr. Brown, in the tropical part of New-
Holland.

T. in-voluta. (Ifchjemum involutum ; Forft. Prodr. 73.
WiUd. Sp. PI. V. 4. 741.) — Perfea flowers folitary.
Leaves lanceolate, nearly fmooth on both fides. — Gathered
by Forfter in the Society Ifles, and fome other places within
the tropics. The fpecimen given by him to the younger
Linnaeus is marked Taheite. The ere£l Jlems, or branches,
are but two or three inches high, fimple, ftriated, fmooth,
each bearing at the bottom one lanceolate, acute, ftriated
leaf, about its own length ; (heathing at the bafe ; becoming
involute in drying. Sometimes there is another leaf, about
half as long, with a fheath almoft an inch in length, near
the middle of the branch. Spihe fcarcely an inch long, ter-
minal, of about iowT Jloiuers, fpringing lateraUy from the
hollow of a concave pointed leaf, rather ihorter than the
reft. Calyx ribbed. Corolla fmooth. Feathery Jligmas
very confpicuous in the lowermoil^owcr.

THUBUNA, TuBNAB, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Mauritania Sitifenfis, according to Ptolemy ; fituated in the
mountains, between two rivers, S.W. of Igilgili.

THUBURSICA, a town of Africa, in New Numidia.
Ptol.

THUBUTJS, a town of Africa Propria, near Bullaria.
Ptol.

THUCCA, or TuccA, Dugga, a town of the interior
of Africa, mentioned by Ptolemy ; fituated at the extremity
of a fmall chain of hills about two miles S. of Tiburficum-
bure. On this fcite were found many maufoleums, and the
portico of a temple ornamented with beautiful columns.
Here was alfo an aqueduft.

THUGYDIDES, in Biography, a celebrated Greek
hiftorian, was born in the 77th Olympiad, about 470 B.C.

The

T il II

Thf name of liis fatlicr was Oloriis, or Orohis, diat of a
Tliraciiii prince, indicatii.Kaconia-ftioii with Thrace, ui which
hcfeoms tohave poiTolR-d Kold-mincs, and tohavc liad ii.fliience
over its cliiefs. He bolonjrcd to one of the principal famihcs at
Athens and was related to tJiat of Miltiades. His education
was that which dillin^uilhed Athenians of rank : Antiphon
being hii preceptor in rhetoric, and Anaxagoras in philofophy.
When he heard Herodotus recite his hlllory at the Olympic
fellival, lie is faid to have fhcd tears ; and Herodotus obferving
it, congratulated Olorus on his fon's difpofition. At the com-
mencement of the Peloponnefian war he was at Athens, and
Ihared in the calamity of pcllilence that then occurred ; and
in the eighth year of'that war he had a command in Thrace,
and was oppofed to the Spartan general Brafidas, who lur-
prifed the town of Ampiiipolis, for the lofs of which Thu-
cydides was punilhcd by banilhmcnt, though it does not ap-
pear that he could have prevented it. During the twenty
years of his exile, he devoted himfelf to literary refearclies
aiid obfervations through different parts of Greece, and thus
cclleded materials for the hiftory which he was projctlnig.
He refidcd for a confiderable time in Thrace, but the place
and lime of his death are not afcertained. Dodvvell conjec-
tures that he paffed his 8oth year, and died in Thrace. His
hiftory comprehends the tranfadtions of the firft twenty years
«f the Peloponnefian war, difpofed in eight books ; more
limited in its compafs than that of Herodotus, but not
mer;-ly rivalling but furpaffing it in hillorical merit, mere
efpccially if we admit what a modern writer fays of it,
" that the firft page of Thucydides is the commencement of
real hiftory." The diftinguiftiing charafteriftics of this
hiftorian are diligence of refearch, and the feleftion of the
bcft authorities, and perfeft impartiality. To thefe quali-
ties we may add fagacity in inveftigating caufes and effefts,
and a philofophical fpirit in forming a difcriininating judg-
ment of human affairs. His narration is occafionally very
interefting, and indicates the writer of genius. His ftyle,
which has undergone much criticifm, is of that kind which
the ancients termed the auftere, aiming at force and brevity
rather than harmony, elegance, or perfpicuity. Its con-
cifencfs and frequent tranfpofitions render it frequently ob-
fcure, nor is this defeft compenfated by its energy and
elevation. The moft valued editions of this work are
Hudfon's, Oxon. 1696 ; WafTe and Ducker's, Amft. fol.
ry^i ; and the Leipfic, 2 vols. 410. 1790 — 1804. Voff.
Hift.Grzc. Gen. Biog.

THUDACA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa,
ill Mauritania Caefariana, near Tingis. Ptol.

THUELATH, a maritime town of Africa, on the coaft
of Libya, between Autolats and Thagana. Ptol.

THUEYE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ardeche ; 1 8 miles W. of Privas.

THU.IA, in Botany, Swc», 6uik, or iva. of the Greeks,
the name of a tree, whofe very durable wood ferved, accord-
ing to Theophraftus, to make images. Its root in particular,
being curioufly twifted or veined, was ufed for the moft
valuable ornamental works. This plant was probably the
Juniperus Oxyccdrus, very common throughout Greece and
the Archipelago, of which Mr. Hawkins is of bpinion that
the moft ancient ftatues were made. It is the Small Cedar,
KtA^t: ^.xfaof Diofcorides, and ftill univerfally bears the name
of x%! in modem Greek. Ourprefent genus of Thuja has
nothing in common with this claflical plant, except being an
aromatic evergreen tree, of the fame natural order, with a very
durable wood ; but it is not a native of Greece or the Le-
vant— Linn. Gen. 500. Schreb. 651. Willd. Sp. PI.
V. 4. 508. Mart. Mill. Dia. V. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5.
321. Purfti646. J«(r. 413. Tourn. t. 358. Lamarck

T H U

lUuttr. t. 787. Gaertn. t. 91. — Clafs and order, Monoecia
MonaiUlphia. Nat. Ord. Conifene, Linn. JufT.

Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. Catkin ovate, compofed of a com-
mon ftalk, on which the flowers ftand oppofite, in three rows,
each flower having for its bafe a nearly ovate, concave, ob-
tufc fcale. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments in each flower four,
but fcarcely vifible ; anthers as many, attached to the bafc
of the fcale above mentioned.

Female on the fame plant, Cal. Catkin nearly ovate, with
oppofite flowers, and confifting of two-flowered, ovate, con-
vex fcales, converging longitudinally. Cor. none. P'Jf.
Gcrmen minute ; llyle awl-fliaped ; ftigma fimple. Peric.
Cone ovate-oblong, ohtufe, burfting lengthwife, into oblong
imbricated, nearly equal, obtufe, externally convex fcales.
SecJs folitary, oblong, each furrounded by a longitudinal
membranous emarginate wing.

EflT. Ch. Male, Catkin with imbricated fcales. Corolla
none. Anthers four.

Female, Catkin becoming an imbricated cone, with two-
flowered fcales. Corolla none. Seed furrounded by a
vertical membranous wing.

Obf. Linnaeus indicates the clofe relationfhip of this genus
to Cupreous. They arc neverthelcfs diftinguiflied by the
peltate fcales of the rone in the latter, and its angular, obtufe,
fcarcely winged, Jeec/s, or nuts.

1. Th. occidentalis. American Arbor-vitse. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1421. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. I. Purfli n. i. " Mi-
chaux Arb. For. v. 3. 29. t. 3." (Arbor vitae ; Cluf.
Hift. v. I. 36. Ger. Em. 1369.) — Young branches two-
edged. Leaves imbricated in four rows, comprefled, ovate,
fomewhat rhomboid, dotted. Inner fcales of the cone

abrupt, tumid under the point Native of North America,

from Canada to the mountains of Virginia and Carolina,
bloflbming in May. It is rather fcarce in the fouthern
ftates, and only found on the fteep banks of mountain tor-
rents. The branches are extremely tough. Purjh. This
tree was introduced into our gardens in Gerarde's time, or
before, and is much efteemed for ornament and flicker in
ftirubberies, or for platted and cHpped hedges in nurfery-
gardens, in which laft ftate it is really very beautiful. By a
ftrange miftake of Linnseus, this fpecies is handed down as
a native of Siberia ; becaufe Gmehn, Fl. Sib. v. i. 182, men-
tions a Thuja, to which he mifapplies the fynonyms of the
prefent, but which by his own account is different ; for he
lays it is " paler than the garden kind, and fmaller in all its
parts." It was brought him by a travelling furgeon, from
rocks near Pekin in China, and could be no other than the
Th. orientalis, hereafter defcribed. Th. occidentalis is a per-
feftly evergreen tree, of humble growth, much branched,
very different from moft others in the comprefled vertical
afpeft of its younger flioots, and their clofely imbricated
leaves, which are imall, obtufe with a point, fmooth ; thofe
of two oppofite rows comprefled and keeled ; the interme-
diate ones flat, with a glandular point, or cellof refin, at the
back. The JJoivers appear in May, and are fmall, folitary,
terminal ; the males yellowifh, and moft abundant. Cones
ripened the following year, drooping, each the fize of a
filberd-kernel, confifting of about half a dozen lax, fmooth,
coriaceous fcales. The fmell of the bruifed plant is fome-
thing like Savine, aromatic, but not agreeable. The wood
is not hard, but tough and extremely durable, on which lajl
account it is much efteemed in America for making pales
and fences.

2. Th. orientalis. Chinefe Arbor-vitx. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1422. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Gsrtn. f. i. " Schkuhr
Handb. v. 3. 285. t. 309. (Thuya ; Gmel. Sib. v. i. 182
Th. n. 3 ; Duhaniel Arb. v. 2. 320. t. 90, the two lower

figures.

THUJA.

figures. Very bad.) — Young branches two-edged. Leaves
imbricated in four row s, coniprefTed, ovate, fomcwliat rhom-
boid, with a central furrow. Inner fcales of tlie cone ob-
tufe, with a recurved dorfal point. — Native of rocky fitua-
tions ill China. Gmel'm. On mountains in Japan. Thunb.
Jap. 266. A hardy tree in our gardens, which appears to
liave been cultivated by Miller in 1752. It flowers at the
fame time as the former, but though a much more handfome
tree, is Icfs common. Tlie very copious and crowded young
tranches are more ercft, more llender, and rather lefs com-
prefTed than the former, and the leaves are furrowed, with-
out any rcfinous dot. The differences between thefe two
fpeeies are accurately marked in our fpecitic characters,
adopted from Linnius and Willdenow. The inner fcales
of the cone in that before us are remarkably hooked. Gxrt-
ner obfervesthat the wing of its feedis hardly difcernible.

3. Th. articulata. Jointed Arbor-vitse. Vahl. Symb.
V. 2. 96. t. 48. Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 353. t. 252. Willd,
n. 3. (Til. aphylla ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1422, as to the fynonym
cf Shaw, and part of the charafter taken from thence, but
not of Am. Acad. v. 4. 295 ; fee Tamarix. Cypreflus
fruftu quadrivalvi, foliis equifeti inftar ;irticulatis ; Shaw
Afric. n. 188. f. 188.) — Young branches jointed, rather
conipreflfed, with four farrows. Leaves minut^, concave,
pointed, four at the top of each joint ; glandular at the back.
Cones quadrangular, of four hooked fcales. — Native of the
mountains of Barbary, where it is not uncommon. A tree
from iifteeu to thirty feet high, with round branches, the
younger ones repeatedly fubdivided, in a partly oppofite,
partly alternate manner, moderately comprelTed, compofed
of a feries of linear, fniootli, brittle joints, from a quarter to
half an inch long, and marked with four longitudinal fur-
rows, which are continued to the interftires of the four mi-
nute fcale-like iea-ves crowning each of thefe joints. Willde-
now, milled by the analogy of other fpeeies, and the figures
oi authors, fuppofes each^a;'/;/ to be an affemblage of /m'ijw,
from which error the faithful defcriptions of Vahl and Des-
fontaines might have guarded him. Catiitis terminal, foli-
tary ; the males ovate-oblong, of many fcales ; females
roundifh, of much fewer. Fruit fomewhat depreded, about
the fize of a black currant, with four protuberant angles,
and crowned with as many intermediate reflexed points.
The fcales feparate at the angles, but are firmly united at
their bafe. Seeds fmall, with a broad kidney-ftiaped wing.
The late celebrated Brouflbnet obferved the refin called Gum
Sandarache to be procured from this tree. Dale attributes
it to the Common Juniper. Such being the hiilory of the
fpeeies before us, the Th. aphylla of Linnxus becomes a non-
entity.

4. Th. dolabrata. Sculptured Arbor-vitae. Linn.
Suppl. 420. Willd. n. 4. Thunb. Jap. 266. (Quai,
vulgo Fi no ki et Ibuki ; Kampf. Am. 884.) — Young
branches two-edged, jointed ; convex on one fide ; concave
and white on the other ; joints obovate. Leaves lateral,
oppofite, keeled, comprefled. — Native of Japan. Thunberg
obferved it in the countries of Oygawa and Fakonia, between
Miaco and Jedo ; and it was planted along the high road on
the hill of Fakonia. He fpeaks of it as a //•;--• of vaft height
and dimenfions, the moft beautiful of all the evergreen tribe.
The branches are alternate, repeatedly fubdivided, comprefled
and clothed with imbricated leaves. At tirll fi^ht the youngr
branches appeal- covered with four rows of leaves, but the
analogy of the foregoing fpeeies, even of the firft of all, leads
us to believe the intermediate row, on each fide, is an obovate
furrowed joint, infenfibly terminating in a fliort broad leaf,
while the more obvious leaves arc oppofite, laterally inferted
into tlie bafe of the joint at each fide, and about the fame

length ; each of them ftrongly comprefled, with a thick keel,
and incurved point. Their great peculiarity confifts in being
all convex and green on the upper fide of the branch ; con-
cave and as if whitewnrtied, like the furrows of the joints, on
the under. This gives the plant an artificial, but moft ele-
gant, appearance. Tlie flowers we have not fcen. Kaempfer
lays thv fruit is warty, the fizc of a pea.

^.Th. cupriffoides. African Arbor-vitse. Linn. Mant. 125.
Willd. n. 5, Ait. n. 3. Thunb. Prodr. 110. (Th. aphylla;
Burm. Prodr. 27, excluding the reference to Shaw.) —
Young branches but fiightly comprefled. Leaves imbricated
in four rows, even. Cones nearly globofe, of four acute
warty fcales. — Native of the Cape of Good Hope, from
whence Dr. Roxburgh introduced it to Kew Garden in 1799.
The growth of the tree is tall and clofe, like that of the Cy-
prefs. Leaves clofely imbricated, not fpreading. Fruit of
the fize and appearance of the Cyprefs, nearly globular, with
four obiolete angles, leparating into four tliick acute valves
or fcales, tubcrculated externally, keeled within. Seeds
numerous, each terminated by a membranous obovate wing.
Linnoeus adds to this defcription, " Ramuli minime articulate
more Jignifti." If minime be not printed by millake for
minimi, we prefume this alludes to Shaw's fynonym, cited in
the Mantiffii with many fcruples, and certainly not belonging
to this but to articulata, our third fpeeies.

Thuja, in Gardening, contains plants of the hardy, ever-
given tree-kind, of which the fpeeies cultivated are, the
American arbor-vitae (T. occidentahs) ; and the Chinefe
arbor-vita (T. orientaHs).

In the firft of thefe fpeeies there are different vari-
eties ; as the American fweet-fcented, and the variegated-
leaved.

Method of Culture Thefe plants may be increafed by

feeds, layers, and cuttings. Good feeds fhould be obtained
from the native fituations of the trees, and be fown foon
after they are ripe, or as foon as they can be obtained, in
autumn or fpring, in pots or boxes of light earth, covering
them half an inch deep, placing the pots, &c. in a ftieltered
warm fitnation, or under the fnelter of 3 frame in bad wea-
ther, efpecially when fown in autumn, that they may be
protefted from fevere frofts : they fometimes come up in
the fpring, but are frequently apt to remain in the ground
till the fecond year. When the plants are come up, the
pots fhould be placed in an eaft border to have only the
morning fun, but open to the free air, giving frequent but
very moderate waterings all the fummer ; and in winter re-
moving the pots again to a fheltered place till fpring, when
they may be pricked out in nurfery-rows ; or, when they
are fmall and weakly, continued in the pots another year,
placing them in a fhady fituation during fummer, and in a
ftieltered place in winter ; and in the fpring following plant-
ing them out in the rturfery, in rows a foot or two afunder,
in order to acquire fize and ftrength for planting out where
they are to remain.

The layers ftiould be made from the young fhoots of one
or two years growth, which may be laid down early in
autumn, bending down the branches to the earth, and lay-
ing all the young v/ood in by flit or twift-laying, with the
tops only appearing a little above ground ; fhortening any
that have much longer tops than the others : they njoftly
emit roots in the earth, and form proper plants by l!i - autumn
following ; when, or rather in fpring after, tht y fhould be
leparated from the ftools, and be planted in nurfery-rows,
to remain two or three years, or till of a proper fize for
the ihrubbery. Sec.

The cuttings fhould be made from the ftrong young
fhqots of the fame year's growth, which ftiould be planted

in

T II U

in the autumn in a (hady border, takiijg ^^''.''PP^/^^'jJy ?f
(howery weather, if poflible, for the buhnefs ; ^^'Y ^°^^^
be cut otf wuh a fn,all part of the old wood, -h^- P"^;
ticable, and be planted ... rows a foot afu..der, •: ""ng the
c^h ^ell about them: they w.ll be prop.rly .rooted .n one
year for planting out ii. wider t.urfery-rows : they m^y alio
be pla.,.ed in pots, and placed in a hot-bed, .n order to have

them more forward. , , . o ;„

And they all may be planted out into the borders, &c .n
the autsm.i or earlv fpriiiR months.

Thefe trees .n itieir native f.tuations grow to very conl.dc. -
ablef.^es and magnitudes, but in this climate they a.c ot
much inferior growths, feldom rif.ng to any great he.ght
or ihi.knefs. They fucceed bell .n the countr.es from
which they are brought, in rather moill fo.Is; but here they
thnve perfectly in anv tolerably good common kind, and .n
any f.t.iation. They have a beautiful form of growth, be-
ing much and finely branched from their very bottoms, anc
conllanlly clofely adorned with leaves, which are of a very
minute f.zc, andarranged in a curioudy compad imbricated
manner, difplaying a continual verdure and ornamental va-
riety at all times of the year.

They are highly ornamental evergreens, proper tor adorn-
ing the (hrubbei-y and other parts, liavmg a fine effeft alio
when difpofed fingly in borders, &c. and in open fpaces ot
grafs ; in all of which fituations they flioiild be fuffered to
grow with their full branches, in their own natural way. ex-
cept reducing with a knife any low ftragghng or rambling
branches occafionally : this is all the culture they require
afterwards.

They may alfo be employed as timber-trees, .n the ever-
green foreft-tree plantations.

And thofe in the pots, as the Chin&fe arbor-vits, may
be placed among other potted plants to adorn any parti-
cular co.npartment, and in alfemblage \vith greenhoufe
plants for variety.

THUILLIER, Vincent, in Biography, alearned Bene-
dictine, was born at Coney, in the diocefe of Laon. in
l68; ; and entered into the congregation of St. Maur in
17C3. where he was dillinguifiied for his talents. Having
officiated as profelTor of philofophy and theology in the
abbey of St. Germaine-des-Pres. he was made fub-prior,
and died in 1736. With his extenfive literature, he com-
bined a lively imagination and a turn for fatire, which in-
volved him in feveral controverfies. He firft oppofed, and
then warmly defended the bull " Unigenitus." on which
fubjeft he publifhed two treatifes. But he was more ufefully
employed in a French tranflation of Polybius, which appeared
in 1721-28. in 6 vols. 4to. His verfion is elegant and faith-
ful. Moreri.

THUIN. in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of Jemappe, on the Sambre ; 14 miles S.E. of
Mons, N. lat. 50° 20'. E. long. 4° 21'.

THUIR, a town of France, in the department of the
Eiftern Pyrenees ; 7 miles S.W. of Pcrpignan.

THULDEN. Thkodoue Van, in Biography, was one
of th« mod didinguilhed among the pupils of Rubens,
whom he alTifted in forwarding the pidturcs of the Luxem-
bourg gallery. He was born at Bois-le-Duc in 1607,
He painted a confiderablc number of large works for the
churches and public buildings of the principal towns and
cities in Flanders ; fome of which have been lionoured by
Ijeing cohfidered as from the hand of Rubens. Among the
heft of them are the Martyrdom of St. Sebaftian, at
Mechlin) the Martyrdom of St. Adrian, at Ghent j and
^he AITumption of the Virgin, formerly in the church of
tli« Jefuits, at Bruges, He was engaged at Paris, which

T H U

he vifited in 1 633, to paint a feries of piftures of the life
of the patron faint of the Mathurins, St. John of Matha,
which he afterwards etched and publifhed in twenty-four
plates. He is alfo the author of feveral other etchings
from his own works and thofe of others ; particularly of
58 plates of the life of UlyfFes, from piAi.res painted at
Fontainebleau by Primaticcio, of mod of which there is
now no other remembrancer than his etchings. He died in
1676, at the age of 69.

THULE, or TilYLE, in jinciinl Geography, an ifland
of the Northern ocean, defcribed in a very vague man-
ner by the ancients ; but which fome maintain to have
been the Shetland ifles. Virgil (Georg. I. i. v. 30.) and
Seneca (Medea, v. 379.) call this idand " Ultiina Thule."
It is difficult to afcertain its precife fituation. Strabo
afcribes the ignorance and uncertainty that prevailed with
regard to this ifiand to its great diftance. and charges
Pytheas with having made many falfe reports concerning it.
Ptolemy places the middle of this ifland in 63° of latitude,
and fays, that at the time of the equinoxes, the days were
24 hours, which could not have been true at the equinoxes,
but muft have referred to the folftices ; and, th.Tofore, this
ifland is fuppofed to have been in 66° 30' lat. or under the
polar circle. Stephanus Byzantiiius fays of this ifland,
" Thula infula magna in oceano fub Huperboreas partes
ubi jEftivus dies ex viginti horis asqualibus conftat, nox vero
ex quatuor. Hybernae vero dies c contrario." From this
account it appeai-s that the ancients defcribed an ifland
which was f.tuated three degrees on this fide of the polar
circle ; but its fituation, if fuch an ifland exifted, ftill re-
mained very uncertain. As the ancients have not given us
the dimenfions of this ifland, fome authors have concluded
that the appellation of Thule was given to Scandinavia, of
which the ancients had a very imperfeft knowledge. Ac-
cording to Procopius (1. iii. de Bell. Goth. c. 14.) a
party of the Etulians, when vanquifhed by the Lombards,
fought an abode towards the extremities of the earth. With
this view they traverfed the country of the Sclavonians ;
and in their progrefs entered into the country of the Varnae,
and into Denmark, and at length arrived on the ocean,
where they embarked, and then landed on the ifland of
Thule. This ifland, he adds, is ten times larger than
Great Britain, and is far remote from the northern coaft,
a great part of it being defert. The habitable part was
occupied by tliirteen different clafTes of people, who had
their refpeftive kings. Towards the fummer folftice, the
fun appeared 40 days fucceffively above their horizon ; fix
months afterwards, the inhabitants had 40 days of night,
which they pafTed in a flate that was truly deplorable, as
their commerce was totally interrupted. By the account
of Procopius, it appears that the place to which he refers
muft have been beyond the polar circle, ai.d of courfe be-
yond 63° lat., where Ptolemy placed the middle of Thule.
Procopius fays, that he often wifhed to vilit this ifland,
but was never able to accomplifh his objeft ; but he pro.
fefTes to have derived his information from perfcns who had
aftually vifited the country, and he defcrib'-s its afpeft, and
productions, and the manners of its inhabitanis. His de-
tails corrclpond to the accounts that have been given of the
ancient flate of Lapland (which fee) ; but this could not
have been the Thule of the ancients. The defcriptions
tranfmitted to us froin the ancients of their pretended ifle
of Thule are fo intermixed with fabulous and incredible re-
lations, that fome modern geographers have even doubted
whether fuch an ifland as they d^fcribe ever exifted ; others
have fuppofed that they refer to Scandinavia, or fome
country far diftant to the north, of which they could have

no

T H U

T H U

no certain and fatisfaftory accounts ; and others again liave
been of opinion, that no iOanJs to whicli modern voyagers
have liad accefs, correfpond more exaftly to their reports
than the ifles of Shetland, N. of Scotland. See Zet-
land IJhmdi.

Thui.k, in Geography, a town of Weftphalik, in the bl-
Ikopric of Paderborn ; 6 miles W.S.W. of Paderborn.

Tiuhe, a river of Wales, in the county of Glamorgan,
whicl) runs into the Lloghor, near its mouth.

Thulk, Southern, a part of Sandwich Land, obferved by
Capt. Cook in January 1775, in S. lat. 59° 13' 30" and W.
long. 27° 45', and fo called becaufe it is the moft fouthern
land that has ever yet been difcovered. It exhibits a furface
of vaft height, and is every where covered with fnow. Some
thought that they faw land in the fpace between Thule and
Cape Briltol : Cook thought it more than probable that thefe
two lands are conuefted, and that this fpace is a deep bay,
which he called Forfter's bay.

THUM, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Erzgebirg ;
7 miles S. of Chemnitz. N. lat. 50° 37'. E. long. 12°
50'. — Alfo, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Bam-
berg; 3 miles S.S.W. of Forcheim.

THUMATA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Arabs, placed by Pliny on the banks of the Tigris, at a
confiderable diftance from the town of Petra.

THUMATHA, atown fituated in the interior of Arabia
Fehx, between Chabuati and Olaphia. Ptol.

THUMB, PoLLEX, in Anatomy, one of the members or
parts of the hand. See Extremities.

Thumb-S/^//, a ferrule made of iron, horn, or leather,
with the edges turned up, to receive the thread in making
fails. It is worn on the thumb to tighten the ftitches while
fewing.

THUMELITHA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Africa, in Interior Libya, near the fource of the river Ci-
nyphis. Ptol.

THUMEREVILLE, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Mofelle ; 6 miles S.W. of
Briey.

THUMERSTONE, in Mineralogy; Axinite, Haiiy.
This mineral was called Thumerftone by Werner, from
Thum, in Saxony, the place where it was found ; and Axi-
nite by Haiiy, from the flattened (harp edges of the cryftals
refembling the edge of an axe. This is the firft charafter
which ftrikes the eye when this mineral is prefented for in-
fpeftion. It is moft commonly found cryftallized, but
fometimes maffive or dilTeminated. The form of the cryf-
tals is a very comprefTed oblique rliomboidal prifm. The
primitive cryftal, according to Haiiy, is a four-fided prifm,
whofe bafes are parallelograms with very oblique angles :
the larger angle being 101.32, and the fmaller 78.28. In
the fecondary cryftals, the acute edges are generally trun-
cated. It is cryftalhzed alfo in obhque four-fided tables.
The form of the cryftals is fometimes very difficult to be de-
termined ; they not unfrequently interfeft one another, form-
ing a cellular aggregation. The external luftre is generally
fplendent ; Internally it is gliftening or fliining, and is vitre-
ous. It is tranfparent or tranflucent. The frafture is
fine-grained and uneven ; in the tranflucent varieties, it
fometimes approaches to fplintery ; and in the tranfparent
varieties, to the fmall and imperfeftfy conchoidal. It
fcratches glafs ; is harder than felfpar, but not fo hard as
quartz ; it is fragile, and fufible by the blow-pipe into a
greenifli-white glafs, but if laid on charcoal into a black
glafs. The fpecific gravity is from 3.2 to 3.3. The
colours of this mineral are moft commonly a clove-brown of
various degrees of intenfity, inclining to violet and green.

Vol. XXXV. J" B g

It is fometimM green and opaque : according to Brongniart,
this is owing to a mixture of chlorite. It has been ob-
lervcd, he remarks, that the cryftals which are coloured
with this earth arc the moft regular. The conftituent parts
are given by Klaproth and Vauquehn as under.

Kliiprnth. Vauqueliii.
Silex - - - 52.70 and 50.50 44

Alumine - - 25.79 '6. i8

Lime - - 9.39 17. 19

Oxyd of iron - 8.63 9-50 '4

Oxyd of manganefe i. ^.z^ 4

Potafli

0.25

This mineral occurs in Saxony, France, Switzerland,
and Spain, and at mount Atlas, in Africa. It is found alfo
mafTive and cryftallized near St. Juft, in Cornwall, at the
Botellock mine, aflbciated with common garnet, and in veins
between Marazion and Penzance.

The moft beautiful variety is met with in a rock of fer-
pentine, near Balme d'Auris, in Dauphiny, in the depart-
ment of the IfSrc, where it generally occurs in well-defined
cryftals, fometimes colonrlefs and tranfparent, but more
frequently of a dull reddifli-violet colour, whence it ob-
tained the name of violet fchorl of Dauphiny. The cryf-
tals of thumerftone, which are not fymmetrical, become
eleftric by heat : it is indeed a general law, that all minerals
which poflefs tlie pyro-elettric property, are defeftive in
the fymmetry of the cryftals.

THUMLITZ, in Geography, a river of Saxony, which
runs into the Mulda ; 3 miles S. of Grima.

THUMMIM, in the Scripture Learning. See Uhim and
Thummim.

THUMNA, in Ancient Geography, the name of two
towns fituated in the interior of Arabia Felix ; one between
Mochura and Aluare, and another between Mariama and
Vodona. Ptol.

THUN, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, in the
canton of Bern, at the diftance of about 1 2 miles from the
town of Bern. It occupies the bottom and brow of a hiD,
and ftretches on both fides of the Aar. It contains 1200
inhabitants, enjoys confiderable immunities, has its own ma-
giftrates and courts of juftice, in which the bailiff from Bern
alw-ays prefides, and from whofe decifion an appeal always
lies to the capital. The inhabitants employ themfelves in
carding and fpinning filk for the manufaftures of Bafle.
Some of the burghers poflefs large herds of cattle. To the
N.E., on an eminence, ftand the church, and the caftle, which
is the refidence of the baiUfF. N. lat. 46° 44'. E. long.
7° 31'. — Alfo, a lake of S\<atzerland, in the canton of
Bern ; about four leagues long, and one broad, and pro-
bably very deep : the borders are richly variegated, and pre-
fent feveral fine points of view, much heightened by many
rugged rocksrifing boldly frona the margin of the water. The
river Aar pafles through the lake of Bricntz, and then en-
ters that of Thun, from which it is again difcharged, pafling
between two level promontories, prettily fprinkled with
trees, on one of which ftands the caftle of Schadao ; 15
miles S.S.E. of Bern.

THUNA, a town of Cachemire ; 45 miles S. of Ca-
chemire.

THUNBERGIA,in5ote«)',receivedthatname firft from
profeffor Retzius, and next in the Supplementum Plantarum,
from the pen of the younger Linnaeus, in honour of their
mutual friend, fir Charles Peter Thunbeig, knight of the
order of Wafa, by whole difcoveries that work was pecu-
liarly enriched with new and curious fpecies, efpecially from
the Cape of Good Hope. This illuftrious veteran ftill
4 F » fits

T H U

f„. .n thf profcfforiJ chair of Rudbeck and L.nn^us at
Upfal. after having cffc.tially added to the general Hock of
knowledge by hi. Travels to Japan. h,s Moras of tha
country and of the Cape, and h.s very numerous academical
differtations. The liberal communications, and amiable cha-
rader of profeffor Thunbc-rg. have fecured him no lefs per-

than his extenlTvc application and knowledge.

rafter

fonil elleem ...» . . . , -•

His conftitution, though fhaken by a terrible misfortune in
his voyage, the accidental ufe of white lead in his food,
which proved fatal to fomc of his mefs-mates, has ftill car-
ricd him on to the advanced age of 73.— Retz. Aft. Lund.
V 1 i6v Linn. Suppl. 4^). Schreb. Gen. 426. Willd.
Sp PI. V. ^ 388. Mart. Mill. Dia. V.4. Ait. Hort.
kew. V. 4.65. Thunb. Nov. Gen. 21. Prodr. 106.
.luiT. 103. Lamarck lUuilr. t. 549. — Clafs and order,
DUjnamia yinglofptrmia. Nat. Ord. PerfmaU, Lmn.
Acanthi, JufF.

Gen. Ch. Cal P.-rianth inferior, double, permanent:
the outermoll of two ovate, obtufe, ribbed, equal leaves, as
long as the tube of the corolla : inner of one leaf, in many,
about twelve, awl-lhaped ereft fcgments, not one-third fo long
as the former. Cor. of one petal, falver-lhaped : tube gra-
dually dilated upwards : limb in five deep, nearly equal,
obovate, very abrupt fegments, about half tlie length ot the
tube. Sliim. Filaments four, awl-fhapcd, inferted into the
tube, the two lower ones fliorteft, all included within the
tube ; anthers arrow-fliapcd. Piji- Germen fuperior,
roundifli ; ftyle thread-fhapcd, ereA, liardly fo long as the
tube ; ftigma of two rounded flat lobes. Perk. Capfule
globofe with a beak, fmooth, or two cells and two v.ilves,
burfting lengthwife : the beak linear, obtufe, comprelTed,
furrowed ; partition obovate, emarginatc, perforated below
the fummit, membranous at the ildes, permanent. Seeds two
in each cell, kidney-fhapcd, rugged, convex on the outl'ide,
concave on the inner, with a longitudinal furrow.

E(r. Ch. Calyx double ; the outer of two leaves ; inner
in many awl-(haped fegments. Corolla falver-fliaped, with
five regular lobes. Capfule beaked, of two cells.

Obi. Linnaus remai-ks that this genus agrees in many
points with Barler'ia. Thunberg takes the outer calyx-
leaves for brafteas, but this is not countenanced by the alto-
gether peculiar appearance of the inner calyx, by no means
like an external pcriantli.

1. T.cnpenfis. DifFufe Thunbergia. Linn. Suppl. 292.

Willd. n. 1. Retz. Aft. Lund. v. i. 163, witli a figure

Leaves roundiih-ovate, obtufe. Stem diffufe. — Native of
the Cape of Good Hope. The root fecms to be perennial.
Stems a finger's length, diffufe, fimple, leafy, fquare, hairy.
Leaves oppofite, on (hort hairy ftalks, entire or fomewhat
toothed, hardly an inch long, ftrongly reticulated with
veins : very rough with minute briftlcs above ; haii^ be-
neath. Flowers yellow, on fimple, folitary, ftriated, ereft,
axillary, hairy Jlalis, twice the length of the leaves. Outer
ealyx very hairy ; inner rigid, with almoft pungent points.
Corolla about an inch long, its fegments fomewhat rounded.
Capfule rigid, about the fame length.

2. T. fragrans. Twining Thunbergia. Roxb. Corom.
V. I. 47. t. 67. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. i. Andr. Repof.
1. 123 — Leaves ovate -oblong, fomewhat hcart-fhaped, acute.
Stem twining — Common in hedges, ainong bufhes, on the
banks of water-courfes, about Samulcotah, "flowering in the
wet and cold feafons. Dr. Roxburgh never met with it
any where elfe. He fays the plant poii'efles a peculiar and
agreeable fragrance, and the beauty of its flowers, though
not fragrant, entitles it to a place in the flower-garden.
No fcent has been difcovered in any part of this plant in our
ttoves, where it blolToms freely all fummer long. The long

T H U

and twining fltms readily diftinguirti this fpecies from the
foregoing, as well as the elongated form of the leaves, which
are occafionally angular, or toothed, near the bafe. The
flowers arc white, larger, and with a narrower tube than the
capenfls, their fegments more abrupt or fomewliat notched.

It appears by the Linn;ian herbarium that the younger
Linnxus had originally deiliiicd the name of Solandra for this
genus. J

Another Thunbergia was previoufly eftablifhed by Dr. ^
Montin, in the Stockholm Tranfaftions for 1773, but the
noble plant on which it was founded proved a Gardenia.
See that article.

THUNDER, a noife in the loweft region of the air, ex-
cited by a fudden cxplofion of eleftrical clouds ; which, on
this account, are called thunder -clouds.

Seneca, Rohault, and other authors, both ancient and
modern, account for thunder by fuppofing two clouds im-
pending over one another, the upper and rarer of which, be-
coming condenfed by a frefli acceffion of air raifed thither
by warmth from the low er parts of the atmofphere, or driven
upon it by the wind, immediately falls forcibly down upon
the lower and denfer cloud : by which fall the air interpofed.
between the two being comprefled, that next the extremities
of the two clouds is fqueezed out, and leaves room for the
extremity of the upper cloud to clofe tight upon the under ;
thus a great quantity of air is enclofed, which, at length
efcaping through fome winding irregular vent or paffage, oc-
cafions that noife which we call thunder.

But this could only reach to the phenomena of thunder
heard without lightning ; and, therefore, recourfe has been
had to auother lolution. It has been faid, that thunder ii
not occafioned by the falling of clouds, but by the kindling
of fulpluirous exhalations, in the fame manner as the noife
of aurum fulminans.

" There are fulphurous exhalations," fays fir Ifaac New-
ton, " always afcending into the air when the earth is dry ;
there they ferment with the nitrous acids, and fonietimes
taking fire, generate thunder, lightning, &c."

That, befides the vapours raifed from water, &c. there
are alfo exhalations carried off from fulphur, bitumen, vola-
tile falts, &c. is paft all doubt ; the vail quantity of ful-
phurous and bituminous matter all over the furface of the
earth, and the volatile falts of plants and animals, afford
fuch an ample ftock of them, that it is no wonder the air
fhould be filled with fucli particles, raifed higher or lower,
according to their greater or lefs degree of fubtlety and afti-
vity ; and more copioufly fpread in this or that quai'ter, ac-
cording to tlie direftion of the winds.

Now, the effefts of thunder are fo like thofe of fired
gunpowder, that Dr. Wallis thinks we need not fcruple to
afcribe them to the fame caufe ; and the principal ingre-
dients in gunpowder, we know, are nitre and fulphur ;
charcoal only ferving to keep the parts feparate, for their
better kindling.

Hence, if w-e conceive in the air a convenient mixture of
nitrous and fulphurous particles, from the fources above men-
tioned ; and thofe, by any caufe, to be fct on fire, fuch
explofion may well follow,; and with fuch noife and light,
the two phenomena of thunder, as in the firing of gun-
powder ; and being once kindled, it will run from place to
place, this way or that, as the exhalations happen to lead it ;
much as is found in a train of gunpowder.

This explofion, if high in the air, and remote from us,
will do no mifchief; but if near us, may deftroy trees,
animals, &c. as gunpowder would do in the like circum-
ftances.

This nearncfs, or diftance, may be eftimated by the in-
terval

T H U

T H U

terval of time between tlie flafli and the noife. Dr. Wallis
obfervcs, that, ordinarily, the diflcrence between tlie two is
about feven fcconds, which, at the rate of 1 142 feet in a fe-
cond of time, gives the diftance about a mile and a half ; but
fometimes it comes in a fecond or two, which argues the ex-
ploiion very near us, and even among iis. And in iucli
cafes, the doftor afTures us, he lias more than once foretold
the mifchiefs that happened.

Upon the whole, that there is in lightning a fulphurous
vapour has been argued from the fmell of Inlphur which at-
tends it, and from the fultrv heat in the air which ulually
precedes it ; and that there is a nitrous vapour along with it,
the fame writer concludes hence, that we know of no other
l)ody fo liable to a fudden and violent cxplofion. And as to
the kindling of thefe materials, we know that a mixture ot
fulphur and Iteel-fdings, with a little water, will of itfelf
break forth into attual flame. Nothing, therefore, is want-
ing to the explofioii but fome chalybeate or vitriohc vapour ;
and, among the various effluvia from tlie earth, the dottor
does not doubt but there mull be fome of that kind ; but, in
proof of what he leaves as a probability, the following fafts
have been alleged.

In hiilory, we meet with inftances of its raining iron in
Italy, and iron-ftoncs in Germany. Jul. Scahger tells us,
!ie liad by him a piece of iron rained in Savoy. Cardan re-
ports 1200 Itones to have fallen from heaven, fome of them
weighing 30, fome 40, and one 120 pounds, all very hard,
and of the colour of iron.

The matter of fadl is fo well attefted, that Dr. Liller,
in the Philolophical Tranfaftions, builds a whole theory
of thunder and lightning on it ; maintaining that they
both owe their matter to the vapour or exhalation of the
pyrites.

The noife of thunder, and the flame of lightning, are
eafily made by art. If a mixture of oil or fpirit of vitriol
be made with water, and fome filings of fteel added to it,
there will immediately arife a thick fmoke or vapour out of
the mouth of the vefTel ; and if a lighted candle be applied
to this, it will take fire, and the flame immediately defcend
into the veffel, and this will be burft to pieces with a noife
like that of a cannon.

This is fo far analogous to thunder and lightning, that a
great explofion and fire are occafioned by it ; but in this
they difter, that this matter when once fired is dellroyed,
and can give no more explofions ; whereas, in the heavens,
one clap of thunder ufually follows another, and there is
a continued fucceffion of them for a long time. M. Hom-
berg explained this by the lightnefs of the air above us in
comparifon of that here, which therefore would not fuffer
all the matter fo kindled to be difllpated at once, but kept it
for feveral returns.

Ever fince the year 1752, in which the identity of the
matter of lightning, and of the electric fluid, has been afcer-
tained, philofophers have generally agreed in confidering
thunder as a concuflion produced in the air by an elettrical
explofion. For the illuibation and proof of this theory, fee
Lightning. See alfo Elkctricity.

We (hall here obferve, that Mr. Henry Eeles, in a letter
written in 1751, and read before tlie Royal Society in 1752,
confiders tlie eleftrical fire as the caufe of thunder, and en-
deavours to account for it on this hypothefis ; and he tells us,
that he did not know of any pcrfon's having made the fame
conjefture. Phil. Tranf. vol. xlvii. p. 524, &c.

That rattling in the noife of thunder, which makes it feem
as if it pafled through arches, or were broken varioufly, is
probably owing to the found being excited among clouds

hanging over one another, and the agitated air pafling irre-
gularly between them.

See this phenomenon particularly accounted for under

LiGIlTNINi;.

TiiUNDEn-5o//. If what we call lightning afts with ex-
traordinary violence, .and breaks or (hatters any thing, it is
called a tliunderbolt, which the vulgar, to fit it for fucK
eifefts, fuppofe to be a hard body, and even a (lone.

But that we need not to have recourfe to a hard folid body
to account for the eflFects commonly attributed to the thunder-
bolt, will be evident to any one, who confiders thofe of the
pulvis fulminans, and of gunpowder : but more efpecially
the ailonifhing powers of eleftricity, even when collected
and employed by human art, and much more when diredled
and exerciled in the courfe of nature.

When we confider the known effefts of eleftrical explo-
fions, and thofe produced by lightning, we (hall be at no
lofs to account for the extraordinary operation vulgarly
afcribed to thunderbolts. As Hones and bricks (buck by
lightning are often found in a vitrified Hate, we may reafon-
ably fuppofe, with fignior Beccaria, that fome ftones in the
earth, having been ftruck in this manner, firil gave occa-
fion to the vulgar opinion of the thunderbolt.

Places ilruck with thunderbolts were held facred among
the ancients. Nigidius has a curious treatife on the thunder-
boh.

The ancient painters and poets have armed Jupiter with a
fort of flaming dart, called a thunderbolt. Thus, it is faid,
he became mailer both of gods and men.

Thefe thunderbolts are forged for Jupiter, according to
the poets, by the Cyclopes.

The thunderbolt, in antiquity, reprefented fovereignty,
and a power equal to the gods ; on this account, Apelles
painted Alexander, in the temple of Diana of Ephefus, hold-
ing a thunderbolt m his hand : and on medals, the thunder-
bolt is fometimes found to accompany the emperor's heads, as
that of Auguflus.

Appian informs us, that the thunderbolt was the principal
divinity of Seleucia ; adding, that it was adored, even in his
time, with various hymns and ceremonies.

THUNDER-C/(7!;(/t, in Phyjlology, are thofe clouds which
are in a (late fit for producing lightning and thunder. From
fignior Beccaria's exaft and circumftantial account of the ex-
ternal appearances of thunder-clouds, we fliall extraft the
following particulars.

The lirll appearance of a thunder-llorm, (which generally
happens when there is little or no wind), is one denfe cloud,
or more, increafing very fall in fize, and riling into the higher
regions of the air. The lower furface is black, and nearly
level ; but the upper finely arched, and well defined. Many
of thefe clouds often feem piled upon one another, all arched
in the fame manner ; but they keep continually uniting, fwell-
ing, and extending their arches.

At the time of the rifing of this cloud, the atmofphere is
generally full of a great number of feparate clouds, motion-
lefs, and of odd and whimfical fliapes. All thefe, upon the
appearance of the thunder-cloud, draw towards it, and be-
come more uniform in their (hapes as they approach, till,
coming very near the thunder-cloud, their limbs mutually
(Iretch towards one another ; they immediately coalefce, and
together make one uniform mafs. Thefe he calls adfcititiout
clouds, from their coming in, to enlarge the ii/.e of the
thunder-cloud.

But fometimes the thunder-cloud will fwell, and increafe

very fall, without the conjunftion of any adfcititious clouds ;

the vapours in the atmofphere forming themfelves into clouds

4 F 2 wherever

T H U

wUm-M* il paffe*. Some of tlie adfcititious clouds appear
bte while fringfs at the Ikirtsof the thunder-cloud, or under
Okc body of il, but they keep continuaUy growing darktr
and darker, as they approach to unite with it.

When the thunder-cloud is grown to a great file, its lower
(urface it often ragged, particular parts being detached to-
wards the earth, but Hill conneded with the reft. Some-
Onet the lower furface fwells into various large protube-
rances, bending uniformly toward the earth. And fome-
timet one wliole fide of the cloud will have an inchnation to
Uk firth, and the extremity of it will nearly touch the
earth. When the eye is under the thunder-cloud, after it is
OTown larger, and well formed, it is feen to fink lower, and
to 4arken prodigioufly ; at the fame time that a number of
rmall .idfcititious clouds (the origin of which can never be
perceived) are feen in a rapid motion, driving about in very
inicertiiin directions under it. While tliefe clouds are agitated
with the moll rapid motions, the rain generally falls in the
greatell plenty, and if the agitation be exceedingly great, it
commonly hails.

While the thunder-cloud is fwelliiig, and extending its
branches over a large tra<ft of country, the lightning is feen
to dart from one part of it to another, and often to illu-
minate its whole mafs. When the cloud has acquired a fuf-
ficient extent, the hghtning ftrikes between the cloud, and
the earth, in two oppolite places, the path of the hghtning
lying through the whole body of the cloud and its branches.
The longer this lightning continues, the rarer does the cloud
grow, and the lefs dark is its appearance ; till, at length, it
breaks in different places, and fhews a clear ilvy. When the
thunder-cloiid is thus difperfed, thofe parts which occupy
the upper regions of the atmofphere are equally fpread, and
very thin ; and thofe that are underneath arc black, but thin
too ; and they vanilh gradually, without being driven away
by any wind.

Thefe thimder-clouds were fometimes in a pofitive as well
as negative ftate of eleftricity. The eleftricity continued
longer of the fame kind, in proportion as the thunder-cloud
was fimple and uniform in its direftion ; but when the light-
ning changed its place, there commonly happened a change
in the electricity of the apparatus over which the clouds
pafTed. It would change fuddenly after a very violent flafii
of hghtning, but the change would be gradual when the
lightning was moderate, and the progrefs of the thunder-
cloud flow. Beccar. Lettere dell' EUetricifmo, p. 107 ; or
Prieftley's Hift. Eleftr. vol. i. p. 397, &:c. See LlGHT-

.NING.

TuUKDER-Z/'ou/t, in EUSrkity, is an inftrument invented
by Dr. James Lind of Edinburgh, for illuftrating the man-
ner by which buildings receive damage from hghtning, and
to evince tlie. utility of metallic conduftors in preferving
them from it.

A [PlaU XV. EUc!ndty,J!g.2.) is aboard about three
quarters of an inch thick, and lliaped hke the gable-end of
a houfe. This board is fixed perpendicularly upon the bot-
tom board B, upon which the perpendicular glafs pillar
C D 15 alfo fixed in a hole about eight inches diftant from
the bafis of the board A. A fquare hole 1 L M K, about
a quarter of an inch deep, and nearly an inch wide, is made
in the board A, and is filled with a fquare piece of wood,
nearly of the fame dimenfions. It is nearly of the fame di-
menfions, becaufe it muft go fo eafily into the hole, that it
may drop off, by the kaft (baking of the inftrument. A
wire, L K, is faftened diagonally to this fquare piece of wood.
Another wire, I H, of the fame thicknefs, having a brafs ball,
H, fcrewed on its pointed extremity, is, faftened upon the

T H U

board A : fo alfo is the wire M N, which is (haped in 3
ring at O. From the upper extremity of the glafs pillar
C D, a crooked wire proCLids, having a fpring focket F,
through which a double knobbed wire Hips perpendicularly,
the lower knob, G, of which falls juft above the knob H.
The glafs pillar D C muft not be made very faft into the
bottom board ; but it muft be fixed fo that it may be pretty
eafily moved round its own axis, by whicli means the brafs
ball G may be brought nearer or farther from the ball H,
without touching the part E F G. Now when the fquare
piece of wood L M I K (which may reprefent the fhulter
of a window or the like ) is fixed into the hole fo that the
wire L K ftands in the dotted reprefentation I M, then the
metallic communication from H to O is complete, and the
inftrument reprefents a houfe furniftied with a proper me-
talhc conduftor ; but if the fquare piece of wood L M I K
is fixed fo that the wire L K ftands in the diretlion L K, as
reprefented in the figure, then the metallic conduftor H O,
from the top of the houfe to its bottom, is interrupted at
I M, in which cafe the houfe is not properly fecured.

Fix the piece of wood L M I K, fo that its wire may be
as reprefented in the figure, in which cafe the metallic con-
ductor H O is difcontinued. Let the ball G be fixpd at '
about half an inch perpendicular diftance from the ball H,
then, by turning the glafs pillar D C, remove the formei-
ball from the latter ; by a wire or chain conneft the wire
E F with the wire Q of the jar F, and let another wire or
chain, faftened to the hook O, touch the outfide coating of
the jar. Conneft the wire Q with the prime conduftor, and
charge the jar ; then, by turning the glafs pillar D C, let
the ball G come gradually near the ball H, and when they
are arrived fufficiently near one another, you will obferve,
that the jar explodes, and the piece of wood L M I K is
pufhed out of the hole to a confiderable diftance from the
thunder-houfe. Now the ball G, in this experiment, repre-
fents an eleftritied cloud, which, when it is arrived fuf-
ficiently neai- the top of the houfe A, the eleftricity ftrikes
it, and as tliis houfe is not fecured with a proper conduftor,
the explofion breaks part of it, i. e- knocks off the piece of
wood I M.

Repeat the experiment with only this variation, viz. that
this piece of wood I M is fituated fo that the wire L Iv may
ftand in the fituation I M ; in which cafe the conduftor
H O is not difcontinued ; and you will obferve that the ex-
plofion wiU have no effeft upon the piece of wood L M,
this remaining in the hole unmoved ; which fiiews the ufe-
fulnefs of the metallic conduftor.

Farther, unfcrew the brafs ball H from the wire H I, fo
that this may remain pointed, and with this difference only
in the apparatus repeat both of the above experiments, and
you will find that the piece of wood I M is in neither cafe
moved from its place, nor any explofion will be heard, which
not only demonftrates the preference of conduftors with
pointed terminations to thofe with blunted ones, but alfo
ftiews that a houfe furniftied with ftiarp terminations, al-
though not furniftied with a regular conduftor, is alfo fuf-
ficiently guarded againft the effefts of lightning.

Mr. Hcnly, having connefted a jar containing 509 fquare
inches of coated furface with his prime conduftor, obferved
that if it was fo charged as to raife the index of his eleftro-
meter to 60°, by bringing the ball on the wire of the thun-
der-houfe, to the diftance of half an inch from that connefted
with the prime conduftor, the jar would be difcharged, and
the piece in the thunder-houfe thrown out to a confiderable
diftance. Ufing a pointed wire for a conduftor to the
thunder-houfe, iiiftead of the knob, the charge being the

fame

T H U

T H U

fame as before, the jar was difcharged filently, tliougli fnd-
denly ; and the piece was not thrown out of the thunder-
houle. In another experiment having mad>- a double circuit
to tlie thunder-houfe, the firil by the knob, the fecond by
a (harp-pointed wire, at one and one-fourth of an inch dif-
tance from each other, but of exaftly the fame height (as in
jig. 3.) the charge being the fame ; altliough the knob was
brought firft under that connedled with tlie prime conduftor,
which was railed half an inch above it, and followed by the
point, yet no explolion could fall upon the knob ; the point
drew off the whole charge filently, and the piece in the
th-jnder-houfe remained unmoved. Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixiv.
part i. p. 136. See PowTS, in Ekdricity.

THUNDF.R-i7onf, in Natural Hijlory, the fame with that
called by authors brontia.

TnuNUER-iS/orm. See THUNDEK-67oa^^.

Thundkk Bay, in Geography, a bay in lake Huron,
about nine miles long, and nearly as many broad. The In-
dians who refide near, and all European travellers who have
pafPid this bay, agree to call it by the prefent name, on ac-
count of the continual thunder they obferve. N. lat. 44'""
50'. W. long. 83° 30'. — Alfo, a bay on the N. part of
lake Superior.

THUNDERING Legion, Leg'io Fulminans, was a
legwn in the Roman army, confilling of Chriftian foldiers,
who in the expedition of tlie emperor Marcus Aurelius An-
toninus againft the Sannatse, Quadi, and Marcomanni,
A.D. 174, are faid to have faved the whole army, then
ready to perifh with thirft, by procuring, with their prayers,
a very plentiful fhower on them ; and at the fame time a
furious hail, mixed with lightning and thunderbolts, on the
enemy, and thus he obtained a decifive viftory.

This is the account commonly given by ecclefiailical hif-
torians ; and the whole ftory is er.'graven in bas-relievos on
the Antonine column. And hence arofe the denomination
ihundaers : though fome fay, that the legion thofe Chrif-
tians were of was called the thundering legion before.

This deliverance has been thought by many to have been
miraculous, owing to the prayers of the Chriftians who
were in the Roman army ; and it has been fuppofed, that
the emperor wrote a letter to the fenate on this occafion,
which was very favourable to the Chriftians ; others, how-
ever, have thought, that the Chriftians, by a pious fort of
miftake, attributed this unexpefted and feafonable (liower,
which faved the Roman army, to a miraculous interpofition ;
and this opinion, lays Moftieim, is indeed lupported by the
weightieft reafon as well as by the moft refpeftable authori-
ties ; and the letter of Marcus Antoninus is allowed," even by
the defenders of the miracle of the thundering legion, to
have in it manifeft tokens of fpurioufnefs, to be the work of
a man unlkilful in Roman affairs, and who probably lived in
the feventh century. Moftieim fums up the arguments on
this fubjedl in the following manner : it is certain, he fays,
that the Roman army enclofed by the enemy, and reduced
to the moft deplorable and even defperate condition by the
thirft under which they languiftied in a parched defart, was
revived by a fudden and unexpefted rain. It is alfo certain,
that both the Heathens and the Chriftians looked upon this
event as extraordinary and miraculous ; the former attribut-
ing it to Jupiter, Mercury, or the power of magic ; the
latter to Chrift, interpofing, thus unexpeftedly, in confe-
quence of their prayers. It is ftill farther beyond all doubt,
that a confiderable number of Chriftians ferved, at this time,
in the Roman army, and it is extremely probable, that in
fuch trying circumftances of calamity and diftrefs, they em-
plored the merciful interpofition and fuccours of their God
and Saviour. And as the Chriftians of the time looked

upon all extraordinary events as miracles, and afcribed to
their prayers all the uncommon and fmgular occurrences of
an advantageous nature that hapi)cncd to the Roman empire,
it will not appear fiirprlfing, that upon the prefent occafion
they attributed the deliverance of Anloniiuis and his army
to a miraculous interpofition which they had obtained from
above. But, on the other hand, it muft be carefully ob-
fervcd, that it is an invariable maxim univerfally adopted by
the wife and judicious, that no events arc to be eftccmed mi-
raculous, which may be rationally attributed to natural
caufes, and accounted for by a recourfe to the ondinary dif-
penfations of providence ; and as the unexpefted (hower,
which reftored the expiring force of the Romans, may be
eafily explained without rifing beyond the ufual and ordinary
courfe of nature, the conclufion is manifeft ; nor can it be
doubtful in what light we are to confider that remarkable
event. Eccl. Hift. vol. i. 8vo. edit.

Mr. Moyle and Mr. King had a curious and interefting
controverfy on the fubject of the thundering legion. The
leai'ned Dr. Lardner has collefted into one view every thing
relating to it of importance, in his Colleftion of Jewifti and
Heathen Teftimonies, vol. ii. ch. xv. feft. iii. p. 221, Sec.

THUNGEN, in Geography. See Tie.ngkn.

THUNOE, a fmall ifland of Denmark, between the
coaft of jHtland, and the ifland of Samfoe. N. lat. 55^ 58'.
E. long. lo'^ 27'.

THUNUDROMUM, in Jncient Geography, a town,
with the title of a Roman colony, in Africa, in New
Numidia, according to Ptolemy. It is named Tyuidi-umenfe
Oppidum by Pliny.

THUNUSDA, a town of Africa Propria, according to
Ptolemy, denominated by Phiiy Thunufidenfe Oppidum.

THUP^, or Thlpp.e, a town of Africa, in the interior
of Libya, upon the iouthern banks of the Niger. Ptol.

THUPPA, a town of Africa, in the interior of Libya,
upon the northern bank of the river Gira.

THUR, in Geography, a river of Switzerland, which rifes
in the fouth part of the county of Toggenburg, and runs
into the Rhine, 7 miles S.S.W. of Schaft haufen.

THURE, a town of France, in the department of the
Vienne ; 4 miles W. of Chatellerault.

THUfi-EN, a river of France, which rifes in the depart-
ment of the Upper Rhine, paffes by Thana, &c. and joins
the 111 at Enfilheim.

THURGAU, a country of Switzerland, with the title
of landgravate ; bounded on the north by Swabia and the
lake of Coiiftance, on the eail by the lake of Conftance,
on the fouth by the territories of St. Gall, and on the weft
by the cantons of Zurich and Schaffhaufeu. It receives its
name from the river Thur, and, in its moft cxtenfive fenfe,
comprehends all the extent ot country on both fides of that
river. Though fomewhat mountainous towards the fouth,
yet it affords rich paftures ; and its other parts, as approach-
ing nearer to levels, produce plenty of grain, with vegetables
and fruits of all kinds, as alfo wine. The country is popu-
lous, and well cultivated, containing fix towns, with feveral
handfome burghs, a great number of feats, and upwards of
I 70 villages. About one-third of the inhabitants confifts of
Roman Cathohcs, and in church affairs are fubjeft to the biftiop
of Conftance. The other two-thirds, ever fince the year 1 543,
have been Calvinifts. The Thurgau is a very ancient land-
gravate, which, on the extinftion of the counts of Old or
Hohen Frauenfelden, devolved to thofe of Kiburg, and, on
their failure, to the counts of Habftiurg, wIlIi whom it came
to the houfe of Auftria, which contiuiud poffeffed of it till
1460, in which year the Switzers, being at war with tlie
archduke Sigifraund, wrefted this country from him, which,

by

T H U

by the peace concluded at Conftance in the following year,
was confirmed to them. The crintons to which t"^' t*^""!-!-
toriil fovereiRntv of this countrv belongs, arc the eight old
cantons of Zurich. Bern, Lucerne, Schwcit/., U.uierwaldcn,
Zug, and Claris ; but it was not till the peace of Arau.that
the fecond ivas admitted by the others as a co-fovereign.
Thefe eiglit every two years alternately appoint a landvogt
over it, who refides at Fraueiifeld ; and fince the year 1449,
the cantons of Friburg and Soleure have alfo obtained a feat
in its criminal court.

THURGOLAND, a townfhip of Yorklhire, in the
Well Riding ; 4 miles S.W. of Barnefley.

THURIA, in ^«f/Vn/ Gfograph, a town of MefTcnia,
on the river Aris, S.W. of Alagonia. It had a temple
dedicated to the goddefs Ailarte, a Syrian divinity, fup-
pofed to be the Sime with Venus. — Alfo, an idaiid on the
jEgean fea, near Naxos, according to Plutarch.

THURIBULUM, among the Romans, a cenfer, or
vi.(Tel, in which inccnfc was burnt at facrificcs.

THURIFICATI, in Church Hijlory, a defignation
given to thofe who, to avoid the perfccution of the Roman
emperors, offered frankincenfe to the heathen gods.

THURII MoXTEs, in Ancient Geography, mountains of
Italy, in Magna Grascia.

THURINGII, Tiu'RiNGiAN's, a people of Germany,
fuppofed by fome authors to have been a part of the
Vandals. They have been fcarcely known in hillory fince
the fall of the Roman empire. Towards the end of the fifth
or commencement of the fixth century, Thuringia had a king,
or at leaft a warlike chief.

THURINGIA, in Geography, a circle of Saxony,
which forms the N. part of the landgravate of that name.
The country is well watered, yields good pafturage, and
abundance of corn, particularly wheat, which is excellent, as
alfo fine timber-wood, fafflower, anife, fennel, and wine ; and
has alfo a confiderablc breed of horfes, horned cattle, and
ftieep. Of thefe natural produftions of the country, a great
part is exported. Thuringia contains in it 60 towns, 674
villages, and 300 noble cftates. The modern Thuringia,
which lies nearly between the Saale and the Werra, is but a
part of the ancient Thuringia, a country formerly comprized
under that name, extending itfelf much farther every way.
In the fixth century, the Franks and Saxons fubjefted the
Thuringians to their dominions, whofe country from that
time forwards became divided into the North and South.
North Thuringia, tovrards the N., extends itfelf beyond
Harzwaldc, quite to the river Elbe, and belonged to the
Saxons. It was united with the duchy of Saxony, loft its
name, and was at L-ngth annexed to Eaftphalia, or to the
eaftern part of the county of Saxony. South Thuringia
belonged to the Franks, and comprized in it the modern
Thuringia, together with a large (hare of the modern
Franconia, Heffe, &c. Till the eleventh century, it ftood
under the emperors and kings, and befides the counts, we
find alfo fome dukes mentioned, to whom the German kino-s
entrufted the government of this country. Ever fince the
thirteenth century, the marggraves of Meiffen, who after-
wards became cledors of Saxony, have been in poffeflion of
the landgravate of Thuringia, which was at one time divided
among feparate lines, but returned again by the extinftion
of the latter to that of Meiffen. It has been ceded to
Prullia by the king of Saxony.

THURIS, in Ancient Geography, a town fituated in the
mtenor of Arabia Felix. Ptol.

PHURIUM, a town which fucceeded the ancient
Sybans ; which fee.

THURLES, in Geography, a poft-town of the county

T H U

of Tipperary, Ireland, fituate on the river Suire, which
divides it nearly into two equal parts. There was formerly
a callle belonging to the knights of St. John of Jerufalem,
and there are ilill fome ruins of a monadery. Thurles is
70 miles S.W. from Dublin.

THURLMERE, a lake of England, in the county of
Cumberland, from whence a river runs to the Derwent ; 3
miles S.E. of Kefwick.

THURLOE, John, in Biography, fecretary of ftate to
the Proteftorate, was the fon of Thomas Thurloe, reClor of
Abbot's Roding, in Efiex, where he was born in 1616. He
was brought up to the law, and in 1644-5, ^1 '^^ interell
of Oliver St. John, was appointed one of the fecretaries to
the parliamentary commifiioners at the treaty of Uxbridge.
Advancing through other offices, he went as fecretary to
lord chief juftice St. John, and Mr. Strickland, in their
embaffy to the States-General. In 1652 he rofe to the
office of fecretary to the council of ftate ; and when Crom-
well, in 1653, affumed the proteftorate, he was nominated
his fecretary, on whom he repofed peculiar confidence. In
1655 ^'^ "'^^ entrufted with the management of the poft-
office ; and in 1656 he reprefented the ifle of Ely in parlia-
ment. On the death of Cromwell he figned the order for
proclaiming Richard, and in the following parliament was
returned member for the univerfity of Cambridge. He re-
tained his office of fecretary under Richard, and alfo under
the parliament that depofed him. On the reiloration, he -
was accufed of high treafon and examined, but foon fet at
liberty. He then retired to his feat in Oxfordfhire, and
vifited London, at his chambers in Lincoln's Inn, in term-
time. Charles II. often invited him to take a part in his
adminiftration : but he declined it, alleging that perhaps he
fhould not be able to ferve the king, as he had done the pro-
tedlor, in conneftion with men of different charafters and
principles ; the protedtor, as he told his majeily, was ufed
" to feek out men for places, and not places for men."
The abilities of Thurloe for public life were diftinguifhed,
and his charafter in private life no lefs amiable. He died in
Lincoln's Inn, where he was mafter of the bench, in 1667-8,
and was interred in the chapel. His ftate papers formed
a valuable hiftorical colleftion, and were pubhfhed by
Dr. Birch, in 7 vols. fol. 1742. Biog. Brit. Gen. Biog.
THURLOWjin Geography, a townftiip of Upper Canada.
Thurlow'j IJland, a narrow ifland in the Pacific ocean,
near the coail of North America, about 24 miles in length
from E. to W. N. lat. 50° 24'. E. long. 233° 35'.

THURMAN, a poft-towniliip of the United States, in
the ftate of New York, and county of Waftiington, erefted
in 1792 from Queenft)ury, and then comprifing a great ex-
tent of territory, which has been fince fubdivided into other
towns. Thurman is bounded N. by Cheller and Jolinfburg,
E. by Caldwell and Bolton, S. by Saratoga county, and
W. by Montgomery county. The flrft fettlements com-
menced about 1786, and in 18 10 there were about 200
families, moftly Scots, and the reft from the eaftern ftates.
It has one Prefbyterian and one Methodilt meeting-houfe,
and a pretty competent number of common fchool-houfcs
and fchools. The whole townftiip is well watered, and
Crain's mountain in the W. part of it is rich in mineral
treafures. Much of this weftern part is ftill unfettled.

THURN, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 5 miles S. of
Windifch Gratz.

Tulr;} Am Hardt, a town of the duchy of Carniola ; 2
miles S. of Gurckfeld.

THURNAU, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Culmbach ; 5 miles S.S.W. of Culrabach. N. lat. 50° 2 .
E. long. 1 1"- 26'.

THUR-

T H U

*rHlTRNEISSER, Leonard, in Biography, a man of
\;reat temporary celebrity in chemiftry and the occult
fciences, was born at Bade in the year 1530. Having im-
prudently, in I 547, when a boy, married a widow, who proved
unfaithful ; and having involved himfclf in debt, he found
himfclf under a neceflity of leaving both liis wife and his
native place. Accordingly, in 1548 he went to Strafburg,
and from thence he proceeded to Conftance, having, by dili-
gent application to his trade of a goldfmith, amaffed a con-
fiderable fum of money. He employed liimfelf in the con-
ilruclion of mathematical inllrumcnts, and in a variety of
metallurgic operations v\'ith fuch reputation, that he was
cntrulted with the diredlion of the fmelting works at
Eberfvvold in the I'yrol. During his abode at Conftance,
lie married the daughter of a goldfmith by whom he had
been employed, and in 1558 retired with her to Tarcnz
in the Upper Innthal, where he fcn'mcd metallurgic eftablifli-
ments on his own account, and conftrucfed furnaces, toge-
ther with a manufaftory for the preparation of fulphur.
Here he was vifited by feveral perfons of eminence, and
became known to the emperor Ferdinand ; and patronifed
by the emperor's fon, the archduke Ferdinand, he travelled,
by hisconfent, in 1560, to Scotland and the Orkney iflands,
and in 1561 to Portugal and Spain, and alfo to fome parts
of Africa and Afia. On the fummit of mount Sinai he
received the order of St. Catharine ; and in his way home he
vifited Candia, Greece, Italy, and Hungary. When he
arrived in the Tyrol, he found his eftabliftiments in great
confufion ; but he was enabled by the government of
Infpruck to revive and fupport them. He was then deputed
by the archduke to examine the mines in Hungary and
Bohemia; but notwithllanding this high patronage, he in-
volved himfelf in debt, and by his pride and extravagance
forfeited the favour of his patrons. In 1569 he obtained
leave to vifit Lower Germany, for the purpofe of making
fome obfervations in natural hiilory, and of fuperintending
the printing of fome of his works. During the leilure
afforded by fome of his fea-voyages, he had compofed, in
German verfe, a work intitled " Archidoxia," or an account
of the influence which the planets have on the human body,
and on all the employments of man ; together with a fecret
introduction to alchemy. He had prepared alfo another
work, called the " QuintefTence," in which he pointed out
the conneftion between medicine and alchemy, and gave
inftrudlions how to extraA from all fubftances their
quintelTence or fubtile parts. He pretended alfo to have
made fome other curious difcoveries, which we cannot detail.
■ At Mnnfter he publifhcd, in 1569, the firft edition of his
" Archidoxia," in 4to. ; and his " Quinteifence" was
printed there, alfo in 4to., in 1570. Thefe works inere after-
wards enlarged and publifhed in folio. Thurneifter, quar-
relhng with the bifhop, left Munfter and removed to Frank-
fort on the Oder, to print his " Pifon," or Defcription of
Rivers, by which, together with his calendar and book on
plants, he acquired the greateft fhare of his reputation.
Having cured the margravine of Brandenburg of a danger-
ous illnefs, the margrave appointed him his phyfician, and
defrayed the expence of bringing his wife and family from
Conftance. In 1572 he pubhftied his work " On Urine,"
in which he afferts, that by examining the urine of Sigif-
mond I. of Poland, he had difcovered the nature of his dif-
eafe, and predifted his death, with the day on which it
would happen. Under the patronage of the margrave of
Brandenburg he went on profpcroufly with liis laboratory
and printing-prefs ; and indulged in the moft expeniive and
fplendid mode of drels and hving. His vifitors were nume-
rous, and of the lirft rank ; and among his correfpondents

T H U

were the emperor Maximilian, and Elizabeth queen of
England. He was confulttd not only in all kinds of dif-
eafcs, but on witchcraft, magic, and other fucii matters.
His printing-prefs was in high eftimation. By printing,
and the fale of his MSS. and prefcriptions, he acquired great
wealth. For the MSS. the elcftor, John Gruge, gave him
9000 dollars ; and there was formerly in the king's library at
Berlin, a MS. entitled " De Tranfmutatione Veneris in So-
lem," for which an annual penfion of 600 dollars was fettled
on him and his children. He was the firft perfon who formed
a collcftion of natural curiofities in the Marche of Branden-
burg. He had alfo a garden filled with plants for the ftudy
of botany, and a menagerie, containing a colle£lion of various
animals from all parts of the world. In 1575 he loft his
fecond wife, who arranged all his affairs with great pru-
dence ; and this was the era of his downfall. From opulence
he was reduced to poverty. His reputation as a phyfician
declined. Dr. Hoffman of Francfort, in his oration " De
Barbarie Imminente," was formidable to his credit, and he
contrived means to prevent its being printed till the year
1578. Thurncifter, fearing utterly to lofe his charafter,
prepared for his departure from Berlin, and retired to
Baile, where, in 1 5S0, he married a third wife. Withdrawing
from domeftic difquiet into Italy, he is faid to liave con-
verted, in the prefence of the grand duke, Francefco de
Medici, one half of an iron nail into gold. This fingular man
died in 159J, or 1596, in a monaftery at Cologne, after re-
quefting that his body might be interred clofe to that of
Albert the Great. A lift of his works is given by Haller
in his Bibliotheca. Gen. Biog.

THUROTZ, in Geography, a river of Hungary, which
runs into the Waag, 12 miles N. of St. Martin. It gives
name to a county.

THURROCK GRAYS, or Great Thurrock, a
market-town in the hundred of Chafford, and county of Effex,
England ; is fituated 22 miles S.S.W. from Chelmsford,
and 24 miles E. by S. from London. It .acquired the ap-
pellation of Grays from the noble family of that name, wlio
poffefTed the manor for upw ards of three centuries, from the
year 1 194, when it was granted to them by king Richard I.
The town confifts principally of one irregular ilreet, on the
banks of a fmall creek from the Thames, navigable for hoys
and vefTcls of fmall burthen. A weekly market is held on
Thurfdays, chiefly for the fale of corn, and is much fre-
quented : here is alfo an annual fair. The church is built
in the form of a crofs, with a tower on the north fide.
By the return under the population aft. of the year 181 1,
this pariih was ftated to contain 214 houfes, and 1055 in-
habitants.

In the adjacent parifties of Chadwell and Little Thurrock
are various caverns, or holes, of unequal depths and dimen-
fions, formed in the chalk, which here conftitutes the upper
ftratum : they appear to open from the top by a narrow
circular paffage, which near the bottom begins to fpread,
and communicates with fubterranean apartments of dif-
ferent forms. Dr. Dcrham mcafured fix of thefe caverns,
and reports them to be of various depths, from fifty to eighty
feet. The origin of thefe excavations is uncertain ; the
opinion of fome modern writers, that they were the gra-
naries of the Britons, feenis by far the moil rational fuppo-
fition. They are alfo called Dane Holes, and traditionally
reported to have been ufed as receptacles or hiding-places
for plunder during the frequent incurfions of the Danes into
this ifland. — Beauties of England and Wales, vol. v. Effex ;
bv J. Britton and E. W. Brayley.

' THURSDAY, the fifth day of the Chriftians' week, but
the fixth of that of the Jews. See Thou and Week.

Thursday,

I

T H IJ

TiiiKsnAV. //»/y. Sci-Hoi.v.
rmn<iD.\y. Afjuniiay. Set MaVsda\ TMirJJ^y-
THURSIO, in Ickiholoy, a fpccics of fifli mentioned
bv Plinv, lib. ix. cap. 9.' It is thougl.t by fomc to be the
p)<otfnj,ot porpefs ; and by others the fturgeon.

THl'RSO, or TiiOBsw, in Geography, a market-town
in the (liiro of Caithiiefn, Scotland, is fituatcd on the northern
fide of the coaft, .it the extremity of a fpacious bay, on the
eftuary of the river Thurfo, at the dillance of 279 miles N.
from Edinburgh. The town is irregularly built. A new
town, on a rejrular plan, has been lately commenced at
Thurfo, in conlequence of which, the inclofed lands let for
fjx-c guineas per acre /cr annum. Here is a fine bay or
harbour, which is progreflively much improved in conve-
nience and fecurity. Eight vefTels belong to the town, and
arc chiefly employed in conveying falmon to London.
Althoueh the cuftoms of this port are very inconfiderable,
f-ct the fi)ll,>\viiig officers arc regularly Rationed here ; a col-
eftor, comptroller, land-furveyor, land-waiter, two eila-
blifhed tidefmen, and one extraordinary tidefman. Thurfo
is a borough of barony, holding of tir ,Iohn Sinclair as im-
mediate fupcrior. The charter of ereftion was granted by
Charles I. in 1633, in favour of .Tohii Mafter, of Berriedale,
by which it was entitled " to all the privileges, immunities,
and jurifdidtiorio, belonging to a free borough of barony in
Scotland." It is governed by two baillies and twelve coun-
fellors, who are appointed by the fuperior, and hold their
offices during his pleafure. A well-fupplicd market is held
on Fridays ; and here are two annual fairs, one of which
continues for ten days. The principal manufafture of the
town is coarfc linen cloth : in the neighbourhood are a
bleaeh-field and a tannery, both of which are profperous.
In the population return of the year 18 1 1, the town and
parifh of Thurfo were eftimated to contain 592 houfes, in-
habited by 3462 perfons. The parifh extends about three
miles from the town in every direftion, except to the north-
weft, where it is bounded by the fea. The rocks that
bound the coaft exhibit various fcenes of natural grandeur.
The Clctt is an infulated rock about 160 yards long and 80
broad ; it is elevated about 400 feet above the furface of
the fea ; and during the fpring fcafon, is frequented by in-
numerable flocks of fca-fowls.

Thurfo Eaft, anciently called Thurfo Caftle, once the refi-
dcnce of the earls of Caithnefs, is now the feat of fir John
Sinclair, bart. a native of Thurfo ; a gentleman whofe exer-
tions will ever be revered by men of fcience for " The Sta-
tiftical Account of Scotland." In the park are the ruins
of a fm.ill cliapil, where earl Harold the younger was buried,
and where a neat modern monument has been erefted by
the above-mentioned baronet — Beauties of Scotland, vol. v.
Carlifle's Topographical DiAionary of Scotland, vol. ii.

THfR>0, a river of Caithnefs, which runs into the fea, at
the town of Thurfo.

THl'RUS, in Natural Hiflory, the name of a creature
deferibed by Gefner, and fome others, as a diftinft fpecies of
wild bull ; but the accounts of it feem either fabulous or
miftaken defcriptions of the wild bull.

THURY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Yonne ; 10 miles S.E. of St. Fargeau

Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Oife ; 7
miles S.E. of Crefpy. '

THUS, a town of Perfia, in the province of Khoraffan ;
2CO miles N.N.W. of Herat.

Thus, a river of Perfia, which rifes near Mefghid, in
Khoraffan, and runs into the Cafpian fea, 40 miles N.W. of
Zaweh.

Tjitre. See Fr.^nkincense.

T H W

Thits JuJaoruni, called alfo cafctirilla and cortex eleii*
iherur, in the Materia Medica, is the bark probably of the
Ihrub defcribed by Catefby, under the name of rtctnoldes
eUiigni folio or ilalhern, the crolon cafcarilla of Linnajus,
which grows plentifully in moft of the Bahama i/lands ;
thence it is brought to us in curled pieces, or rolled up into
(hort quills, about an inch wide ; covered on the outfide
with a rough whitifh matter ; and brownifli within ; and
exhibiting, when broken, a fmooth clofe blackifh-brown
furface. The bark, freed from the outer coat, has a light
agreeable fmell, and a moderately bitter tafte, accompanied
witli a confiderable aromatic warmth. It is eafily inflam-
mable, and yields, whilft burning, a fragrant fmell, fome-
what refembhng that of muflc. StifTer was the firft who
employed this bark as a medicine in Europe ; who relates
that a tinfture of it in alkalized vinous fpirits, or in dulci-
fied alkaline fpirits, proved carminative and diuretic, and did
fervice in arthritic and fcorbutic cafes. In 1694 and 1695,
it was employed by Apinus in an epidemic fever of the in-
termittent kind. The gentlemen of the French Academy
~ found this bark of excellent fervice againft an epidemic
dyfenteryin 17 19, when the ipecacuanha proved ineffeftual.
At prefent it is of great efteem among the Germans, as a
warm ftomachic and corroborant, in flatulent colics, in-
ternal haemorrhages, dyfenteries, the diarrhoea of acute
fevers, and, mixed with the Peruvian bark, in common in-

termittents Among us it has been lately received into

pradlice ; but its ufe, fays Dr. Lewis, is not yet become fo
general as it well deferves to be. Its virtues are partially
extrafted by water, and totally by rectified fpirits. Lewis's
Mat. Med.

Thus, in Sea Language, the order by which the pilot di-
refts the hclmfman to keep the ftiip in her prefent fituation
when failing with a fcant wind, fo that fhe may not approach
too near the direftion of the wind, and thereby ftiiver her
fails, nor fall to leeward, and run farther out of her courfe.
Falconer. See Steering.

THUSCUS Vicus, in yincient Geography, the name of
one of the feven mountains of Rome, called alfo Coelius Mons.
THUTHOA, a river of the Peloponnefus, in Arcadia,
wliich difcharges itfelf into the Ladon.
THUYA, in Botany. See Thuja.
THWAITE,,in Ichthyology. See Shad.
THWART, in a boat, the feat or bench of a boat on
which the rowers fit to manage the oars. Hence thoughts,
(which fee,) is ufed in the fame fenfe.

Thwart the Hatvfe, in Sea Language. See Athwart.
Thwart Ships, acrofs the fhips. See Athwart.
Thwart the Way, in Geography, a fmall iftand in the

Straits of Sunda. S. lat. 5° 55'. E. long. 105° 43'

Alfo, a fmall ifland in a bay on the coaft of^New Guinea.
S. lat. 2° 15'. E. long. 136° 54'.

THWARTER, Trembling, or Leaping-IIl, a difeafe
in fheep, of the {baking, jumping, and convulfive kind.
Thefe different terms, fome of which were formerly par-
ticularly ufed in one part and another in another, efpecially
in the northern diftrifts of the kingdom, are now faid to be
had recourfe to indifferently, and appHed indifcriminately to
all difeafes which, on a dry foil, proceed from a weak and
enfeebled ftate of body and baiTen feafons. Under this
threefold name, fome fay they have feen fheep fuffering by
difeafes, which at leaft had much refemblance to thoft of
feveral other forts, as the apopleftic, paralytic, rheumatic,
&c. ; and that even when an old fheep falls down, and
dies of weaknefs and exhauftion, the manner of its death
differing fomewhat from that of the hog-fheep, it is frequently
aforibed by (hepherds to the thwarter or trembling -ill.

1 o There

T H W

T H W

There is, on the whole, fo much contrariety of opinion,
and diverfity in the tlefcriptions of the difeafe, its caufcs,
and the means of cure, that the writer of a paper on fome
of the difeafes of fheep, in the third volume of tlie " Tranf-
adions of the Highland Society of Scotland," has divided
and conlidcred it under two diftinft fpecics.

T\iejirjl variety, it is faid, is much more rare than for-
merly, and is fcarcely known in the Highlands of the above
country. It appears moftly in the fpring and harvell
feafons. It afFeAs fheep of all ages and kinds, but never
when in good-condition, exifting chiefly on dry farms, which
have a northern expofure, and which are evidently over-
ftocked ; but on thefe only when the fpring is fevere and
dry, or when early April grafs has been cut down by frolls,
and the {heep can find no fucculent food or any thing green.
Its produ&ion is favoured by a long continuance of eafterly
winds ; and in cold weather, ewes are fometimes attacked by
it, even after they are fleeced. In thefe circumftances they
become extremely emaciated, efpecially when heavy with
lamb in many of them, or giving fuck ; and when at this
time they get an overilretch in running or leaping, or even
an haily Hart, or crufh in the fold, numbers fall a prey to
this difurder.

The appearances are, that fome fheep, it is faid, will fall
down and die in two or three minutes ; others will lofe the
power of one fide, and lie fprawling until they die of hunger ;
others again will lie fhivering, and very fick at times, until
death alfo comes on ; and fome will go a long time quite
lame, until they are likewife quite exhaufted. Others defcribe
it as of two kinds ; in one, fometimes feizing the whole fyflem,
when there is a general trembling over the whole body, and
in the other, fometimes afFefting the legs only, when the
animal immediately falls down, and the fhaking, which is
uninterrupted, is confined to the legs. Some fay that the
animal gradually lofes the power of its legs and body, until
it becomes quite weak, always lying at laft upon one fide.
Thofe fheep which die of it in fpring, are lean and ufelefs ;
but the mutton of fat hog-lheep carried off by it in the
autumn is not uneatable. It is fometimes extremely fatal.
In one inftance, out of a flock of forty fcore, feventeen
fcore were, it is flated, lofl; in one fpring. It was formerly
thought to be contagious, and although this can fcarcely be
the cafe, it is certainly moil deftruftive when it firft comes
among a flock ; and when fheep are brought from a clean
ground to one infefted with it, great numbers of them are
fure of dying. Thofe which furvive it one feafon, are fure
to relapfe the next fpring.

Udder-locking fhould be entirely laid afide, as in one in-
ftance, one-twentieth of a large parcel of ewes is faid to
have died of the difeafe, in the courfe of a week after they
had been udder-locked. See X^HTiEn-Locking.

It is alfo faid to be ufeful during the early fpring months
to provide them with fufBcient food and flielter ; and to
avoid overftocking, if the early grafs has been blighted, to
paflure them in a rich park or other ground, on water-
meadow, or on mofs and early rye-grafs.

T\\e fecond variety of the difeafe is, it is remarked, chiefly
confined, in the above part of the kingdom, to the flocks in
the fouth of it, more efpecially about the banks of the river
Tweed, and of thofe which difcharge themfelves into it.
It is faid to be a complaint almoft unknown to the farmers
on the Pentland range, and to the north of the Forth.
In thofe places where it prevails, it is fometimes peculiarly
fatal, and a farmer often lofes more of the flock by it alone,
than all the other difeafes put together.

The appearances when it firfl comes on, which is gene-
rally during the fummcr or harvcft months, are, that the

Vol. XXXV.

animal turns fomewhat flupid and negleds its food, do7.cs
round, in fome meafurc, as in the fturdy, and frequently
leaps up, as if to clear any bufli or dike before it ; at times,
it will cat voracioully, and again refufe all fuflenance for a
confidcrable time. It continues frequently leaping during
the day, and the neck is often fliff, and turned on one fide ;
convulfions take place in the limbs which caufe the animal to
fall down, make curious contortions, and at times run to a
little dillance ; the body fometimes partakes of thefe, when
the fheep becomes totally incapable of motion, and dies from
want of food, which the jaws will not open to admit, being
clofely wedged together. In this flate, it is unable to fol-
low the flock, and the wool claps to the body. It lies for a
long time motionlefs, and at length dies. After lying
motionlefs for a confiderable time, in thofe cafes where
the difeafe is not fo violent, and the fpafm of the jaw not
fo fevere, it gradually relaxes, and the fheep will eat the
whole of the food within reach quite bare, although the
power ol the limbs is totally gone, leaving the earth quite
red and naked all round them. If the fhepherd be at-
tentive, and lifts them from place to place, and the feafon be
pretty well advanced, they often flowly recover, and are
again reflored to the ufe of their limbs. When they lie in
this inatlive flate, if the weather be warm, maggots are very
apt to breed in them ; and if not attended to, foon deftroy
them.

The difeafe moflly appears at the periods flated above,
efpecially during hot and fultry weather, and arifes either
from the fheep being put into violent motion by dogs, or
overheated by the fun ; in which cafes, in a few hours after-
wards, it makes its appearance by the fliff neck, or fome of
the other figns coming on. When the fheep are expofed
to fatigue, it will take place, if the weather be warm,
independent of violent motion. They are commonly the
fatteft of the flock that are cut off by it. It not unfre-
quently arifes from the braxy, of which it is moftly a fa-
vourable fign. It is never fevere, however, when it is the
confequence of that difeafe, and the ftiff neck never accom-
panies it.

la regard to the means of cure in t\ie Jirfl fort, they
are various. When the fheep fall down fuddenly, and
are threatened with immediate death, bleeding, by cutting
the t,ail, or opening a vein on the infide of the fore-thigh,
will fometimes give inflantaneous rehef. In all the other
cafes it is proper to take them home and feed them with
ftrengthening food ; and if at this time they be attacked
with a temporary fcouring, they moflly recover very faft, and
foon acquire their former vigour. It is faid that fome few
means of cure are occafionally tried, but it is believed with
little fuccefs. Dipping in cold water is not unfrequently
praftifed : whifky and gunpowder are fometimes poured
down their throats ; and balls of muftard and other hot
pungent medicines are often adminiflered. Others recom-
mend bringing them into the houfe, giving them a mixture
of equal quantities of fallad oil and fpirits, with a little
finely powdered ginger, and at the fame time rubbing into
the back a little black foap broken in warm water, and
feeding them on hay, the produce of dry walks or other
grounds.

The giving of the fheep a decoftion of the dewcup and
healing leaf boiled in butter-milk, is faid to have been uni-
formly fuccefsful in treating fheep affedled with this diforder
during the fummer and autumn.

In the removal of the fecond kind of the difeafe, as it
arifes from the brain being oppreffed, by too much blood
being fent to it by the quickened circulation, the firft thing
to be attended to on its appearance is copious blood-letting,

j^ G which

THY

which will be more effcaual if taken from the veinb of the-
nrtk, or from a vein on the outfide of the eye, moiUy well
known to (hephords. It may even be taken from the tr>il, or
fore-leg ; but opening of the veins of the head !S gener-
ally conlidered as the moft proper and beneficial in this
fpecies of the complaint. As there is too great a deter-
mination of blood to the head, it will be attended with ad-
Tintage to make a determination to the bowels, by ftimu-
latiug them by means of purgatives, fuch as thofe of coni-
montalts, one ounce or more ; calomel, from ten grains to half
a drachm ; or, what is fuppofcd more proper, as it alfo ads
upon the kidney* and Ikin, a dofe of half an ounce or more
of nitre. Thele remedies are to be perfevered in, until all
marks of the difeafe difappear. But if the flieep be too far

func in the diforder, and has loft all motion, it (hould be
iUed for the fake of the carcafe, which in this fpecies of
the difeafe is not affeaed, or at leaft but very flightly.

In the managing of the cure, much nice attention is ne-
ceffary in both kinds of this difeafe.

THY, in Grography, a town of Pruflia, in Pomerelia ;
7 miles N. of Marieiiburg.

THYAMIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Pelo-
ponnefus, in Sicyonia. Xcnophon.

THYAMIS, a town of Arachofia, founded by Semi-
ramis. — Alfo, a promontory of Epirus, between Thefpro-
tia and Ceftrinia.

THYARIS, a river of Afia.in Phrygia Salutaris, which
palTed through the northern part of this province, and dif-
charged itfelf into the Sangara.

THYATIRA, Akhlsak, a town of Afia Minor, in
Lydia. According to Steph. Byz. it was very ancient,
and called Pelope, Pelopea, or Pelopia, and afterwards Semi-
ramis. According to Pliny it was alfo denominated Evippa.
n derived its name of Thyatira, from the Greek word fignify-
ing daughter, from Seleucus Nicanor, who received the news,
33 it is faid, at this town of the birth of a daughter. From
an infcription found in this city, it appears that Adrian had
a temple in it ; and medals have been found here that were
ftruck in honour of Adrian. Strabo fays that the town of
Thyatira was confidercd by fome authors as the laft of the
diftrift of Mylia, and that it was a colony of Macedonians.
After Scipio had defeated Antiochus near Magnefia of
Sipyla, the town of Thyatira fent ambafladors to the Ro-
mans, to render them homage. Thyatira was taken by
Ariftonicus, in the year 130 B.C.; but this prince having
been taken prifoner in the fame year by the conful Perpenna,
this town reverted to the dominion of the Romans. Thya-
tira was much diftinguilhed by the benefadions of the empe-
ror Caracalla ; and it appears by a medal of this town, that
under the reign of this prince it took the name of Neocorus.
This place was one of the feven churches of Afia, mentioned
m the book of Revelations ; fo that the Chriftian religion was
introduced here by the apoftles and their immediate difci-
ples ; but whether the church was founded by St. Paul or
St. John, or by either of them, does not appear.

The inhabitants of Thyatira had a particular veneration
for Diana. This appears from many infcriptions found in
the town, on one of which this goddefs bears the title of
" Diana Montana." The town was fituated at the fouthem
foot of a chain of mountains, on the route from Pergamus
to Sardis, and it was watered by a ilream of the river Caicus.
The town fufFercd much by an earthquake in the reign of
Tiberius. See Akhisar.

THYIA, ©1(5-, in ylnttquhy, a feftival in honour of Bac-
chus, celebrated by the Eleans.

THYITES L.APis, in the Materia Medico of the An-
iiicnts, the name of an indurated clay, approaching to the

THY

nature of a ilone. It was f<iund in Egypt, and ufed in dif-
tempcratures of the eyes.

Tliis fubftance has been very much mifunderftood by
late writers, and by moft of them fuppofed to be loft at this
time ; but this was wholly owing to their miftaking the clafs
of bodies among which they were to look for it : fome ima-
gining it to have been a fpecies of green marble ; and others
the turquoife-ftone, that Diofcorides meant by this name.
It is very plain, however, that it was no other than an indu-
r.ited clay of the morochthus kind, and no more a ftone than
that fubftance, that being alfo frequently called lapis mo-
rochthus.

It is of a fmooth, even, and regular textui-e, very heavy,
of a fhining furface, and of a pale green, without the ad-
mixture of any other colour. It does not at all adhere to
the tongue, nor ftain the fingers in handling ; but drawn
along a rough furface, leaves a flender white hne. It melts
flowly in the mouth, and is of a fharp, acrid, and difagree-
able tafte ; and when rubbed down with water on a marble,
it melts into a milky liquor of a pure white, not the leaft
greennefs being fenfible in it. It is found at prefent in the
great mine at Gofielar in Saxony, and feems to owe its co-
lour to particles of copper, to which alfo it owes the virtues
attributed to it by Diofcorides, afting as a weak kind of
verdigris. Hill.

TKYLACION, a word ufed by the ancient medical
writers, to exprefs the bag formed by the membranes of
the foetus at the orifice of the pudenda, before the birth.

THYLLA, ©u^Aa, in Antiquity, a feftival in honour of
Venus.

THYMALLUS, in Ichthyology. See Grayling, and
Salmo Thyma/lus.

THYMATERIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Africa, in Libya, two days' journey beyond the Columns of
Hercules, according to the Periplus of Hannon : it is the
Thymateria of Steph. Byz.

THYME RA, a town of Afia Minor, in the Troade, ac-
cording to Steph. Byz. who fays that it was founded by
Dai-danus, who gave it its name after that of his friend
Thymbros. Apollo had a temple here under the appellation
of Thymbrian. Strabo fays that a ftream called Tym-
brius traverfed its canton, and that this ftream difcharged
itfelf into the Scamander, before the temple of Apollo.
Servius fays that Achilles was wounded here by Paris ; and
this circumftance gave occafion to the report that the wound
was infliiled by Apollo.

Thymbra, or Tymbra, a mountain of Afia, in Phrygia.

Thymbra, in Botany, a name borrowed from Diofco-
rides, whofe real 6vfj.^^a., however, is a fpecies of Satu-
REIA ; fee that article, n. 3. Linnaeus therefore has adopted J
the above name for another Greek genus, nearly akin to the ■
original plant. — Linn. Gen. 288. Schreb. 385. Willd.
Sp. PI. V. 3. 46. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 3. 375. Sm. Prod. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. i. 398.
JufT. 115. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 512. — Clafs and order, Di-
dynamia Gymnofpermia. Nat. Ord. Verticillatie, Linn.
Lahiatis, Julf.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, nearly cy.
lindrical, with a longitudinal hairy keel at each fide, the ori-
fice two-lipped ; upper lip broadeft, cut half way down into
three equal converging fegments ; lower in two deep narrower
fegments. Cor. of one petal, ringent ; tube nearly cylin-
drical ; upper lip flat, ereft, cloven, obtufe ; lower in three,
nearly equal, flat lobes. Stam. Filaments four, thread-
ftiaped, approaching each other in pairs, two of them ftiorter
than the reft ; anthers of two divaricated lobes, under the
upper lip of the corolla. Pijl. Germen fupcricr, four-
cleft ;

THY

THY

cleft ; ftyle thrcad-fliapcd, cloven a little way down ; ftig-
mas two, acute. Peru: none, except the uiialtoa-J calyx.
SciJs four.

Ed". Ch. Calyx nearly cylindric.il, two-lipped, marked
on each fide with a hairy prominent line. Style cloven.

1. Th. fpicata. Spike-flowered Thymbra. Linn. Sp. PI.
795. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Sm. l'"l. Gr-.rc. Sibth.
t. 546, unpublilhed. (Th. fpicata verior hifpanica ; Barrel,
let. 1230. Thymum majus longifolium, &c.; Pluk. Phyt.
t. 116. f. 5.) — Flowers fpikcd. Leaves lanceolate. — Na-
tive of the Levant, on dry hills. Dr. Sibthorp met with
the plant in Crete, Afia Minor, and Greece, and conceived
it to be the na-a-unro; o/mo:, or Mountain HyfTop, of Diofco-
rides, which is extremely probable. The_y?fm is fhr\ibby,
very bufliy, about a foot high, with numerous, upright,
fimple, leafy, purphfh, quadrangular branches, whofe op-
pofite ildes are often denfely downy, in an alternate manner
between the different pairs of leaves, the pubefcence recurved.
Leaves oppofite, feflile, crowded, fpreading, acute, entire,
about an inch long, fmooth on each fide, befprinkled with
refinous dots, and fringed at the margin with copious white
hairs. They are accompanied by axillary tufts of fmaller
and narrower leaves. Flowers of a fine reddifh purple, in
folitary, terminal, denfe, leafy, v/horXe A /pikes , from two to
four inches long. Calyx reddifh, aboundmg in effential oil,
fmooth and naked, without ribs, except the lateral line at
each fide, which is fringed, as well as the teeth, with
ftrong white hairs. BraSeas lanceolate, fringed, purplilh.
Tube of the corolla twice the length of the calyx, fomewhat
downy ; lower lip deflexed, in three obtufe equal fegments,
iairy about the throat. The whole herb has the warm pun-
gent flavour of Thyme, and the afpeft of Hyffop.

2. Th. vcrttcillata. Whorl-flowered Thymbra. Linn.
Sp. PI. 796. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. (Hyflbpus mon-
tana ; Dalech. Hift. 934 ; not 394, as Willdenow, copy-
ing Linnaeus's typographical error, has it.) — Flowers
whorled. Leaves linear-lanceolate. — Native of the fouth
of Europe. The Jlem is ftirubby, but more flender than
the laft, hairy in the fame manner, but more univerfally.
Leaves much narrower, dotted and fringed in the fame
manner. Flowers axillary, from top to bottom of each
branch ; thofe of the principal one fix in each whorl ; thofe
of the lateral branches only two. In ftrufture, fize and co-
lour they agree with the foregoing, only the calyx has fomc
appearance in the dried fpecimen of being more ribbed. Its
lateral keels, as well as the teeth, are ftrongly fringed. Nc-
verthelefs, the general hue and afpeft of thefe two plants are
fo much alike, that there feems great reafon for Linnseus's
fufpicion of their being varieties of each other. At the
back of the original fpecimen of this laft is the following
fynonym. Tragoriganum creticum, majore crafliore afpe-
riori foho ; Profp. Alpin. Exot. 79. So confufcd is this
old author, that one can hardly tell which of his plates his
loofe defcriptions refer to ; but bur plant certainly agrees
better with his Tbymhra, t. 80, than with his Tragoriganum,
t. 78, though the above fynonym feems to indicate the
latter.

3. Th. ciliata. Capitate-flowered Thymbra. Desfont.
Atlant. V. 2. 10. t. 122. Willd. n. 3. — Flowers capitate.
Leaves linear. Brafteas ovate. — Found by Desfontaines, on
dry hills and uncultivated fpots, near Mafcar, in Algiers. A
fmall \ivA\^ Jlirub, fi-om eight to twelve inches high, agree-
ing much in habit with the two preceding fpecies ; but the
leaives are linear ; while the braBeas are broader and more
ovate, as well as the Jpikes much ftiorter, than in the Th.

fpicata. The leaves are equally fringed in all. Nothing is
iiiid, or exprefled in the figiire, of any hairy lateral lines on

the calyx, the mod important charafter of Thymbra. Having
fecn no fpecimen of this fpecies, we cannot judge with cer-
tainty refpefting its genus, nor whether it might not rather
be referred to Satureia, fee that article ; but we cannot fa-
tisfa6torily aflent to the opinion of its learned difcoverer,
that thefe genera are not fufliciently diftinft. The calyx in
the natural ordf^r to which they belong afl'ords, in many in-
ftances, clear, though nice, generic differences. At the fame
time we admit that Linna;us is incorreCl in makmg a femi-
bifid ftyle, by which muft be undcrftood a ftyle cloven half
way down, one of tlie cflcntial marks of a Thymbra.

Thvmbua, in Gardening, furniflies plants of the under
flirubby, exotic kind, among which the fpecies cultivated are
the fpiked thymbra (T. fpicata) ; and the whorled thymbra
(T. verticiilata).

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants may be increafcd by
feeds, flips, and cuttings. The feeds ftiould be fown in the
early fpring in a warm border, and fheltered from bad wea-
ther by glaffcs ; or, which is better, in pots filled with
light mould, and placed in a mild hot-bed : when the plants
have attained fome growth, they fhouldbe fet out or removed
into feparate pots.

The flips and cuttings fliould be planted out in the fpring
and fummer, and when well rooted, removed where they are
to grow : they alfo fometimes fucceed by bottom offsets,
planted out as above.

They afford variety among other potted greenhoufe
plants ; and require the proteftion of fuch houies during the
winter feafon, in this climate, in almoft all fituations and
places.

THYMBRiEUS Mons, in Ancient Geography, a moun-
tain of Afia Minor, in the Troade ; from which, according
to Feftus, Apollo was denominated Thymbrian.

THYMBRIA, a place of Ionia, four ftadia E.S.E. of
Myus. The cavern Charonium was near Tymbria, which wa«
thought to be one of the mouths of Hell, becaufe from it
iffued peftilential vapours.

THYMBRIUM, a town of Afia, in Phrygia, at the
diftance of twelve parafangas from Cayftropedium. At this
place was a fountaui, called the fountain of Midas, king of
Phrygia.

THYME, in Botany. See Thymus.

In the Materia Medica, the common garden thyme is a
moderately warm pungent aromatic. To water it imparts by
infufion its agreeable fmell, with a weak taft,e and yellowifh or
brown colour ; in diftillation, it gives over an effential oil, in
the quantity of about an ounce from thirty pounds of the
herb in flower, of a gold yellow colour if diftilled by a
gentle fire, of a deep browniih-red if by a ftrong one, of a
penetrating fmell like that of the thyme itfelf, but lefs grate-
ful, and in tafte exceedingly hot and fiery : the remaining
decoftion, infpiffated, leaves a bitterifh, roughilh, fubfaline
extraft. The aftive matter, which by water is only par-
tially diffolved, is by reftified fpirit difTolved completely,
though the tinclure difcovers lefs of the fmell of thyme than
the watery infufion ; and the fpirit brings over, in diftillation,
a part of its flavoiu-, leaving an extraft of a weak fmell, and
of a penetrating camphorated pungency. Murray has ob-
ferved, that this plant feems afilually to contain a fpecies of
camphor.

The virtues of thyme, according to Bergius, are refolvent,
emmenagogue, diuretic, tonic, and ftomachic. As agreeing,
fays Woodville, in common with the natural order of verti-
cillatae, its aromatic qualities may be found equally ufeful in
fome of thofe complaints for which lavender, fage, refemary,
occ. are ufually employed.

TYie fcrpyllum, or mother of thyme, is an elegant aromatic
4 G i plant,

» THY

plant, firmlar to the preceding fpecic», but milder, and in fla-
vour rather more grateful ; its efTential oil is both in fmaller
quantity and Ufs acrid, and its fpirituous extrad comes
greatly ihort of the penetrating warmth and pungency of
that of the others, fo that it is lefs medicinal than the other
fpccies. It is faid to afford an agreeable dillilled water,
more durable, but K-fs adive and penetrating than pepper-
mint. ( Lewis. ) This has been much extolled as a nervous
limple. An infufion of it has been faid to do wonders in
tumours, lownefs of fpirits, and head-aches : and it has
been much commended for the cure of the night-inare.

The lemon-lhymc, wliich is a variety of the laft, is lefs
pungent than the lirll fort, but more fo than the fecond, and
much more grateful than either. Dillilled with water, it
yields a larger quantity than the other forts, of a yellowifli
very fragrant oil of the lemon-flavour, containing nearly all
the medicinal parts of the plant. It gives over alfo, with
rectified fpirit, its finer odorous matter. Lewis.
Thyme, Cat. Sec Teucrium Marum.
Thvme, Miiflich. See Thymus Mafuhina.
THYMELjEA, in Botany, from 6^0;-, thyme, and iXona,
an olive, (the firft aUuding to the leaf, and the latter to the
(tape and oilinefs of the fruit,) is an ancient Greek name,
found in Diofcorides, book 4. chap. 173. His ^tiy^'Kam, there
defcribed, is thought to be the Daphne Gnldhitn of Lin-
nius ; and muft be at Icaft one of that natural order, and,
probably, genus. Hence the name has been apphed by
many botanills, amongll which were the Bauhins and Tour-
nefort, to what Linnxus called Daphne ; fee that article.
This latter appellation was preferred by him and his fchool,
becaufc a name compofed of another, already eftabliflied, is
contrary to a very found law of the Philofophia Botanica ;
and in the prefent inftance the word is compounded of two
other generic names, though one of them has been made
Latin in Oka- The French however ftill hanker after Thy-
meUa, as appears by Juffieu's choofing it for the title of one
of his Orders. See ThymeI-JE^.

THYMEL-EiE, the twenty-fifth of Juffieu's Natural
Orders, or the fecond of his fixth clafs, thus named from
an ancient fynonym of the genus Daphne, which makes a
principal figure herein. (See Daphne and Thymeljea.)
This order is analogous to the VeprecuU of Linnaeus. For
the detailed characters of Juffieu's fixth clafs, fee Lauri.
The order of Thymelme is defined as follows.

Calyx of one leaf, tubular, inferior. Corolla none ; but
in fome inftances there are petal-like fcales, originating
from the mouth of the calyx, which have the appearance of
a polypetalous corolla. Stamens definite, inferted into the
calyx, and for the mofl^ part double the number of its feg-
ments, fome being oppofite, o'thers alternate therewith.
Germtn fuperior, fimple ; ftyle folitary ; ftigma moftly un-
divided. Seed folitary, fuperior, either naked, or pulpy,
or clothed with the calyx. Embryo deftitute of albumen ;
its radicle fuperior. Stem moitly (hrubby. Leaves generally
alternate.

We may add to thefe charafters of Juffieu the remarkable
filky appearance of the inner bark, when a twig is broken.
Mr. Brown, Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 358, obferves that the
general number oi Jlamens is eight, fometimes four, rarely
but two ; in the latter cafes always oppofite to the fegments
of the calyx, which are occafionally five, fometim.-s, not
always, with lenjlamens. The fame writer informs us th-re
IS lometimes a (light portion of aliwnen. The leaves are en-
tire, deftitute oijlipulas. Flowers capitate or fpiked, ter-
mina[ or axillary, fometimes fohtary.

The genera, as they (land in Juirieu, zre Dirca ; La^ctta,
Lamarck lUuftr. t. 289 ; Cansjera, Jufl". append. 448 ;

THY

Daphne; Pajferina; Stellera ; Siru/hiola ; I.achnea ; Dais;
Gnidia; Neflandra of Bergius, included under Gnidia by
LinnsEUS ; and Quifqualis. To thefe is to be added the
great diandrous genus of Pimelea, of which Mr. Brown de-
fines thirty-four New Holland fpecies.

The order under confideration is one of thofe which has
moft excited the queftion of what is a calyx f and what a
corolla? and is appealed to equally by thofe who maintain
different theories on this intricate fubjeft. It feems to us
that the Thymelaa combine both thofe parts in one, Jie co-
loured infide of their calyx having exaftly the nature of a
corolla; which is confirmed by the remark of Juffieu, tliat
the tube of Daphne Mezereum is double, formed of two
layers. The appendages, in the form of fcales, or glands,
found in Gnidia and Siruthiola, are more evidently />f/a/f, and
would doubtlefs be univerfally taken for fuch, did not ana-
logy and theory call a doubt over the fubjeft. At any rate
it is fafe to fay that Daphne has a coloured calyx, as well as
moft of its allies ; juft like Polygonum, in the generally co-
lourlefs order of Holerareic, or Atriplices.

Thymel^a; Radix, in the Materia Medico, the dried

root of the thymeUa foliis livi of Tournefort and other

authors.

It is a light root of different fizes, of a reddifti colour

without, and greyifti within, woody, and full of fibres, and

taftes f'.veet at iirft, but is hot as fire when it has been held

a little time in the mouth. It lofes however both this fiery

tafte, and its acrid quality, in long keeping, and with them

its virtues.

It is to be chofen new, well fed, and not worm-eaten.

The fruit of this plant is the granum cnidium of the ftiops.

They are both of an acrid quality, and are not in ufe in the

(hops at prefent.

THYMELE, in Biography, a celebrated female Grecian,

who invented theatrical dances. It is fuppofed that the

Gi-eeks called their comedians Thymelici from her name.
Thymele, in the Ancient Theatre, a kind of pulpit, where

the fingers, called thymelici, performed.

THYMELICI, among the Romans, were muficians,

who fung in the interludes, or who danced and kept time

with their geftures. The place where they performed was

called thymele, whence Juvenal, vi. 66.

" Attendit thymele, thymele nunc ruftica difcat."

THYMIAMA, 9u/^ia^a, in j4ntiguity, an offering of in-
cenfe to God.

Thymiama, in the Materia Medico, a name by which
fome authors have called the cafcarilla bark ; called by fome
cortex thuris, or Indian bark. (See Thus Judmrum.) The
cortex thymiamatis of the German (hops is a bark, in fmall
brownifti-grey pieces, intermixed with bits of leaves, brought
from Syria, Cihcia, &c. and fuppofed to be the produce of
the liquid ftorax-tree. It has an agreeable balfamic finell,
approaching to that of liquid ftorax, and a fubacid bitterifh
tafte accompanied with fome flight aftringency. Cartheufer
and Hoffman report, that it affords an excellent fumigation
for oedemas, rheumatifms, and catarrhs ; and that tlie fpi-
rituous tinfture and extraft, and the diftilled fpirit, are
ufeful anodynes or antlfpafmodics in convulfive coughs and
other diforders. It is rarely met with in this country.
Lewis.

THYMIAMATA, a kind of fumigations among the
ancients, the ingredients of \vhich were fo various, that it
appears they always confulted utility as well as pleafure, in
their compofition of them.

We find the gum ammoniacum of the ancients, which
had the fmell of caftor, ufed in them : whence it is evident,

that

THY

T H Y

that the ancients ufed falutiferous as well as fweet-fcentcd
things in thefe fumigations. Galbanum lias a worfe fmell
than ammoniacum, and yet this alfo we find, together with
the myrrh, and other gums, is made an ingredient in the
oldeft prefcriptions of this kind. — And Pliny mentions the
ammoniacum with the fchxnanth, and other fweets, ufed
for this pnrpofe.

THYMIATUM, in indent Geography, a country of
Africa, in Libya, on the coaft of the Atlantic, according
to the Periplus of Hannon.

THYMIC, in Anaiojny, arteries, veins, &c. belonging
to the thymus ; fee that article.

THYMIUM, a wart or excrefcence on the flcift.

THYMNIAS, in Ancient Geography, a gulf placed by
Phny on the coall of the Doride, a province of Alia Minor.
Here was a promontory of the fame name.

THYMOXALME, in the Materia Medka of the An-
cients, was a compofition ufed externally in the gout, and
many diforders of the limbs, and was given inwardly in dif-
temperatures of the ftomach, a quarter of a pint for a dofe.
It operated as a purge, and was prepared in the following
manner : talce two ounces of bruifed thyme, as much fait,
a little meal, rue, and pennyroyal. — Thefe were to be put
into a pot, and three pints of water and fourteen ounces of
vinegar are to be poured upon them ; after which they are to
be covered with a coju-fe cloth, and fet in the fun for fome
time. Diofcorides, lib. v. cap. 24.

THYMUS, in Anatomy, a glandular body, occupying
the upper and anterior part of the cheft, and neighbouring
portion of the neck, very large in the foetus, and dimlniOied
or nearly difappearing in the adult. The name is Greek,
^vl^o;, which Pollux defines " caro fimilis tonfillas, prope
cordis caput ;" p. 258. The gland confifts of two lobes, a
right and left, which are elongated and conical, being
broader below and narrow above : they are joined by cellu-
lar fubftance, which can eafily be deftroyed by difleftion, in
their inferior two-thirds, but above they are feparated by
the intervention of the trachea. The thymus, indeed, may
be defcribed as forming two elongated horns above, of which
the right is fometimes longer than the left : it alfo forms two
horns below ; but they are fhorter, thicker, and more ob-
tufe. The principal body of the gland occupies the cavity
of the mediaftinum, or the interval between the right and
left pleurae, behind the upper part of the fternum. Here it
is covered in front by that bone, on the fides by the pleurs,
and it refls behind on the front of the pericardium, of the
aorta at its origin, and of the left fubclavian vein. The in-
ferior cornua reach to about the middle of the pericardium ;
and fometimes nearly to the diaphragm : the fuperior run
into the neck, on each fide of the trachea, between that tube
and the carotid, and reach the thyroid gland, or nearly fo.

The thymus is large in the foetus ; nearly equal to the
heart or one of the lungs. In a foetus of fix months, this
gland was to the kidney as 4 to 6. It not only does not in-
creafe after birth, but it becomes lefs, contains lefs fluid, is
harder, and is nearly loft in the furrounding fat. In the
mature fcetus it weighed 160 and 180 grains; at twenty-
eight years, 90 grains. In a calf it was 16 ounces; in a
full-grown cow, 9 ounces.

In itrufture it refembles the conglomerate glands : that
is, it is compofed of innumerable fmall portions, united by
cellular fubftance. By maceration thefe may be feparated
into fmaller and fmaller lobules. It is however fofter than
the pancreas or falivary glands, and of a darker colour.
When cut into, a copious whitifh fluid may be fqueezed out
from all parts of its texture. If air be impelled into it, the
whole is reduced into a fpongy kind of fubftance.

No excretory duft has been difcovered in the thymus ;
altiiough anatomifts have fancied that they had difcovered
padages from it to the afophagus, trachea, pericardium, &c.

It has fevcral arteries and veins : the former principally
from the thyroid and mammary. The veins join the left fub-
clavian, or the jugular, and the internal mammary.

The nerves, if it has any, are extremely fmall twigs from
the phrenic. Its abforbing veffels, which no doubt exift,
are not much known.

It is of confiderable fize, even in the adult, in fome ani-
mals, as the rat : the fame may be obferved of the Arftic
bear. It is large in fctaceous animals.

We know nothing of its office, nor why it is fo large in
the foetus. There is not even a probable conjefture on the
fubjeft.

Thymus, a warty excrefcence, efpecially about the anus
or pudenda.

THYMUS, in Botany, Thyme; Su'/jo; of the Greeks, whe-
ther fo called from flu^oc, courage, in allufion to its cordial
qualities ; or from Svu, to glow or burn ; or to facrifice, becaufe
it may have been ufed in facrifick garlands ; we muft leave to
every one's opinion. The lall explanation appears the leaft

fatisfaftory Linn. Gen. 297. Schreb. 394. Willd. Sp.

PI. V. 3.' 138. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew.
v. 3. 413. Sm. Fl. Brit. 639. Prodr. Fl. Grasc. Sibth. v. i.
419. Purfli4i3. Juff. 115. Tourn. t. 93. Lamarck Illuftr.

t. 512 Clafs and order, Didynamia Gymnofpcrmia. Nat.

Ord. Verticillatci, Linn. Labiatte, Jufl^.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular, per-
manent, divided nearly half way down into two lips, the
mouth clofed with converging hairs ; upper lip broadeft,
flat, ereft, with three teeth ; lower of two equal awl-fhaped
fegments. Cor. of one petal, ringent ; tube the length of
the calyx, with a fmall throat ; upper lip rather the fliorteft,
flat, ereft, emarginate, obtufe ; lower longer and broader,
fpreading, in three obtufe lobes, of which the middle one is the
broadeft. Stam. Filaments four, incurved, two longer than
the reft ; anthers fmall, two-lobed. Pi/l. Germen fuperior,
deeply four-cleft; ftyle thread- ftiaped ; ftigma divided,
acute. Peric. none, the feeds being concealed in the calyx,
whofe orifice is contrafted and hairy. Seeds four, fmall,
roundifli.

Efl". Ch. Calyx two-lipped, its mouth clofed with hair.
Upper lip of the corolla flat, emarginate.

The trifling genera of old authors, made out of the pre-
fent, though indicated by Linnaeus, are not worth confi-
dering. It is more defirable to define the limits of Thymus
itfelf, which run very clofe upon thofe of Melissa ; fee that
article, at the end of which this fubjeft is difcufled. The
number of fpecies in Syft. Veg. ed. 14. are eleven ; Will-
denow has 22. We fliall find fome things among them to
correft, and feveral new fpecies to add. The habit of the
whole is more or lefs fhrubby, but their ftature humble, with
fpreading or diffufe branches. Root woody, generally pe-
rennial. Branches fquare. Leaves oppofite, moftly entire.
Floivers either whorledor capitate, purple or lilac, fometimes
nearly white ; never really blue, fcarlet or yellow. Whole
plant abounding with pungent aromatic effcntial oil. This
genus is almoft entirely European, and inliabits dry hilly
fituations, in the warmer or more temperate climes.

I. Th. Serpyllum. Wild Thyme, or Mother of Thyme.
Linn. Sp. PI. 823-. Willd. n. i. Fl. Brit. n. i. Engl.
Bot. t. 15 14. Curt. Lond. fafc. 2. t. 47. Woodv. Med.
Bot. t. no. (Serpyllum; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 42. S.
vulgare ; Ger. Em. 570. Dod. Pempt. 277. Vaill. Parif.
t. 32. f. 9, as well as the varieties 6, 7 and 8.)

/S. Ser-

THYMUS.

/9. Scrpyllum citratum ; Gcr. Em. S7 ■ • R'^'"- ^°"°P-
Irr. t. 41. l.cmoii Thyme.

,. Thymus lanuginofus ; WillJ. n. 2. (1 -• Serpyllum
i; Linn. Sp. PI. 825. Th. pnni.onicus ; AUion. Pod.-m.
>. 1. 20. Th. n. 236. Hall. Hid. V. I. 103. Serpy-Uum
montanum hirfutum ; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 42.) Hoary
Mother of Thvnu'.

Flowers capitate. Stems decumbent, creepmg. I^^^v*'
flat, ovate, obtufe ; fringed at the bafe — Native of dry
heaths and hiHocks, as well as alpine pafturcf, throughout
Europe, from Sweden to Greece, flowering all fummer
long. Its entangled brandies form an clallic perennial turf,
exhaling a warm aromatic odour when trodden upon, which
varies in degree, and, in tlie well-known variety B, aflumes
the grateful flavour of lemon-peel. The hoary or woolly
variety we believe to be no more fpecifically diftinft, not-
withll'anding Willdenow's remark, of its being unchanged
by culture ; for he does not mention liaving raifed it from
feed. The Jlems of Th. Serpyllum are wiry and flender,
always wavy, never ilraight ; their branches leafy and downy,
afccnding, each terminating in a httle round head of numer-
ous purple ^owfr/, whofe palate is Tariegated with white and
crimfon. Leaves dotted, llrongly fringed at the bafe, as are
their fooljlalis throughout. Slipitlas none. Bees frequent
the fio'joers in great numbers. Hairy fwellings, caufed by
an infett, are common on the young Ihoots. 'Y\i<t feeds are
rarely perfcfted.

2. Th. Ixvtgatus. Smooth Arabian Thyme. Vahl.
Symb. v. 2. 65. Willd. n. 3. (Th. Serpyllum ; ForOv.
itgypt.-Arab. 107.) — " Flowers capitate. Stems pro-
cumbent. Leaves hnear, obtufe, feflile ; contradled at the
bafe." — Found bv Forflcall, on mount Chadra, in Arabia
Felix. Stems flirubby, tliread-rtiaped ; fmooth in the lower
part, villous above, grey, with jointed annulated branches.
Leai<es half as long as the nail, very fmooth, without ribs,
dotted on both fides ; fringed at the bafe. Head oi Jlowers
feflile, terminal, hemifpherical, furrounded with numerous
larger leaves. Calyx marked with elevated hairy lines ; its
teeth awl-fliaped, fringed. Corolla rather hairy. Vahl.

3. Th. montana. Smooth Mountain Thyme. Waldfl:.
ct Kitaib. Hungar. v. i. 72. t. 71. Willd. n. 13, excluding
the red of the fynonyms, which belong to our Th. Serpyllum,
var. 7. Ait. n, 7. — Flowers in elongated heads. Stem
crcft, branched. Leaves ovate, obtufe, flat, fmooth and
naked, entire — Native of the Carpathian mountains. We
received it from the Cambridge garden, in 1803. The root
is perennial, with many long branching fibres. Stem a fpan
high, bufliy ; the angles downy, with fine recurved hairs.
Leaves ftalked, broadly ovate, (lightly revolute ; very fmooth
and even above ; deftitute of fringe at the bafe. Inflorefcence
like Th. Serpyllum, but rather more elongated, or fpiked,
and Xhefoivers fmaller, with a much lefs hairy, though not
fmooth, calyx, the hairs of wliofe orifice are fcarcely promi-
nent at all, by no means fo confpicuous as in the Serpyllum.

4. Th. nummularius. Money-wort Thyme. Marfch. a
Cieberll. Taur. v. 2. 58 — Flowers capitate. Stems de-
cumbent, creeping, hairy. Leaves roundifli-ovate, flat, ob-
tufe; fomcwhat fringed at the bafe and midrib Native of

mount Caucafus. We received wild fpecimens from Dr.
Fifcher. This has a very diff"erent afped from Th. Serpyl-
lum, on account of its almoil orbicular leaves, and the he-
mifpherical leafy heads of jloiuers: Every part moreover is
three or four times the fize of that common fpecies. The
joints of \.\\<tjlem are remarkably villous in their upper part,
cfpecially near \S\eJlo-wers. Sometimes, it is fajd, the whole
plant 13 denfely hairy.

5. Th. Marfchallianus. Bufhy Taurian Thyme. Willd.

4

11. 8. Marfah. a Bieberft. Taur. v. 2. 59 — Flowrers in
elongated heads. Stem flirubby ; its flowering branches ereft.
Leaves linear-lanceolate, bluntifli, flat, fomewhat triple-
ribbed ; fringed at the bafe. Frequent in dry grafly hilly
places, about mount Caucafus, flowering from May to Au-
guft;. This feems by the defcription more akin to Th. Ser-
pyllum than to Th. Zygis, for which latter it was taken by
Pallas. The Jlem is procumbent, fending up numerous
fimple flowering-branches, fix inches high, downy in the
upper part. Leaves eight lines long, one and a half broad,
on very fliort ft;alks. Calyx hairy, ftriated. It varies with
leaves but half as broad.

6. Th. vulgaris. Common Garden Thyme. Linn. Sp. PI.

825. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 2. Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 109.
(Thymumdurius; Ger. Em. 573.) — Stem flirubby, much
branched, ereft. Leaves ovate, revolute. Whorls crowded
int© leafy fpikes. — Found on ftony hills in Spain, Portu-
gal, the fouth of France, Greece, and the Archipelago.
Common in gardens, flowering during fummer. The
Bern is bufliy, woody and rigid. Leaves a quarter of an
inch long, various in breadth, downy, of a greyifli hue,
numerous, with little axillary tufts of fmaller ones.
Flowers fmall, light purple, in hairy heads, or fhort fpikes,
with two or three remote whorls beneath. Calyx-teeth
ftrongly fringed. This has ufually a warm pungent fla-
vour, like Winter Savory ; but there is a fweet-fcented
variety, called Frankincenfe-Thyme, differing in no other
refpeft from the common fort, which is commonly cul-
tivated in Norfolk, and highly grateful to moft people.
Th'j flu/ao; of Diofcorides is not, as Bauhin fuppofed, this
plant, but Satureja capitata.

7. Th. lanceolatus. Lanceolate Thyme. Desfont. At-
lant. V. 2. 30. t. 128. Willd. n. 5. Prodr. Fl. Grsec.
n. 1396. — .Stem flirubby, ereft. Leaves elliptic-lanceolate,
obtufe, entire, downy, fiat. Whorls crowded into a denfe

fpike Found by profeflor Desfontaines, flowering in the

early fpring, on mount Atlas, and by profeflor Sibthorp in
hilly places in Greece. Root creeping, woody. Stems nu-
merous, fimple or branched, about fix inches high, downy.
Leaves near an inch long, and one-third as broad, rather
crowded ; veiny and dotted beneath. Spikes two inches
long, interfperfed with lanceolate bradeas. Calyx downy.
Corolla purple, glandular, about the fize of the laft.

8. Th. numidicus. Nuniidian Thyme. Desfont. At-

lant. V. 2. 29. Willd. n. 6 " Stem fomewhat flirubby,

ereft. Leaves linear, fpreading, fmooth ; ribbed beneath.
Flowers capitate. Brafteas ovato-lanceolate, fringed. Ca-
lyx hairy." — Native of Barbary near La Calle. A little J
hn^Y Jhrub, four inches high, with flender upright branches, ■
downy in the upper part. Leaves entire, with axillary tufts.
Floivers in oblong heads. Calyx villous, ilriated. Corolla
fmall, rofe-coloured. Allied to Th. Zygis, but the leaves
are quite fmooth, not fringed ; and the bradeas broader at
the bafe. Desfontaines.

9. Th. Zygis. White Spanifli Thyme. Linn. Sp. PI.

826. Mant. 413. Willd. n. 7. Ait. n. 3. Sm. Fl.
Graec. Sibth. t. 574, unpubliftied. (Thymum angufl:o
longioreque folio ; Barrel. Ic. t. 777. Serpillum fylvellre,
Zygis Diofcoridis ; Cluf. H'ft. v. i. 358. S.creticum; Ger.
Em. 571.) — Stem flirubby, afcending. Leaves linear -lan-
ceolate, obtufe, revolute ; tapering and fringed at the bafe.

Whorls crowded into leafy fpikes Native of Spain and the

Levant. Dr. Sibthorp gathered it on hills about Athens
and Conft;antinople. Mr. Malcolm is faid in Hort. Kew.
to have had the plant in his garden in 1 77 1. Linnaeus cul-
tivated it at Upfal. The root is woody and perennial. Stems
numerous, from four to fix inches long, leafy, round, finely

downy.

THYMUS.

Oowiiy, reddifh, fiightly branched, fpreading on the ground
before flowering, then afcending. Leaves three-quarters of an
inch long, numerous, crowded, fpreading, very min\itely and
denfely downy, copioufly dotted ; ribbed and rather paler be-
neath ; tapering into a (hort, broad, dov/ny footjlali, coarfely
fringed like the bafe of the leaf itfelf. Flowers in leafy
heads, often with an axillary whorl below. Calyx clothed
with recurved hairs ; ail its teeth tapering and parallel,
Itrongly fringed. Corolla white, with red dots on the pa-
late. Anthers reddilh, promnient. Pi-ofelFor Sibthorp
adopted the opinion of the old authors, that this might
perhaps be the f^Tjri/Xi; l^vyt; of Diofcorides. Its appellation
in modern Greek is a-i^d^i, which, if we miftake not, means
" the delight of bees."

10. Th. Acinos. Bafil Thyme. Linn. Sp. PI. 826.
Willd. n. 10. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 411. Curt.
Lond. fafc. I. t. 43. (Acinos; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 43.
f. 2. Ocymum fylveftre ; Ger. Em. 675.) — Flowers on
fimple footftalks, about fix in a whorl. Stem herbaceous,
afcending, branched. Leaves acute, ferrated. Calyx gib-
bous at the' bafe. Native of dry gravelly or chalky pafr
tures, fallow fields, &c. throughout Europe, nor rare in
England, flowering from July to September. The root is
annual, of a few flender fibres. Stems clothed with re-
curved hairs, reddifli, lax and fpreading, hardly a fpan long ;
their flowery ultimate branches ereft. Leaves on (hort foot-
ftalks, fmall, ovate, varying to roundifh or oblong, but al-
ways acute, more or lefs deeply and copioufly ferrated, rarely
quite entire, veiny, hairy ; the upper ones tapering much at
the bafe. Flowers light violet ; their palate white, with
dark purple fpots. Stamens fliort. Calyx deeply furrowed,
hairy, fringed, fwelling underneath, as is the cafe, more or
lefs, with all the fpecies to which this is allied. The herb
is rather flightly aromatic, not pungently fo.

11. Th./ua-veolens, Penny-royal-fcented Thyme. Prodr.
Fl. Grasc. n. 1400. (Clinopodium minus anguftifolium,
pulegii odore, romanum ; Bocc. Muf. v. I. 50 — 54. t. 45,
A. ) — Flowers whorled. Leaves lanceolate -elliptical,
pointed, fomewhat ferrated, hairy. Stems flirubby. — Na-
tive of Italy and Greece. The Jlem is a foot high, bufliy ;
the branches leafy, rough, with recurved hairs. Leaves
with xheWJlalis about an inch long, rigid, ribbed, briftly,
often quite entire. Flowers fix or eight in a whorl, on fimple
ilalks. Calyx like the laft, but longer and more flender.
The whole plant fmells powerfully of Penny-royal, even
after having been dried thirty years. On this fubjeft Boc-
cone has treated us with a long difquifition, quite in the
Itahan ftyle, in which the faflis are better than the philofo-
phy, though fome of thofe want confirmation. He attri-
butes the above fcent to particles of fulphur and bitumen
communicated by the foil.

12. Th. patavinus. Marjoram-leaved Thyme. Jacq.
Obf. fafc. 4. 7. t. 87. Willd. n. 11. Ait. n. 5. (Clino-
podium perenne, pulegii odore, majorans folio, patavinum ;
Bocc. Muf. V. 1. 60. t. 45, B.) — Flowers whorled. Leaves
ovate, with copious fliallow ferratures, flightly hairy.
Stems flirubby. — Native probably of the fouth of Europe,
though no botanift who has defcribed this fpecies feems to
have known it but from gardens. Hence even its name ori-
ginated, which is therefore liable to great exception. Will-
denow appears to have feen no fpecimen. The fpecific cha-
rafter taken by him from the firft edition of Hort. Kew. of
" the inflated throat of the corolla, extending beyond the
calyx," is not in the lealt degree peculiar. Neverthelefs, au-
thentic fpecimens of the plant prove it di^linft from the fore-
going and the following, in the broad-ovate, almofl. heart-
ihapcd, figure of the rather flcfliy leaves, their even furfa(;e,

and numerous,^ minute, fliallow ferratures. They much rc-
femble fome kinds of Ocymum, and like thofe are fometimes
concave.

13. Th. alpinus. Alpine Thyme. Linn. Sp. PI. 826.
Willd. n. 12. Ait. n. 6. Jacq. Aufl^r. t. 97. (Chnopo-
dium montanum ; Bauh. Pin. 225. Bocc. Muf. v. i.
t. 45, C. C. aullriacuni ; Cluf. Pann. 622, 623. Hilt.
V. 1.353. ^^'■- Em. 676.) — Flowers on fimple footftalks,
about fix in a whorl. Stem herbaceous, afcending, branched
at the bottom. Leaves ovate or ronndifli, bluntifh, coarfely
ferrated. Calyx gibbous at the bafe. — Native of the lofty
mountains of Auftria, Switzerland, Italy, and Crete, as
well as of the Bithynian Olympus. Nothing is more dif-
ficult than to define the difference between this and our
Th. Acinos, except that the alpinus is in every part larger
and more handfome, with a ftrong refinous fcent. The root
is either biennial, or perennial, we are not certain which.
The leaves are too entire in the cut of Clufius and Gerarde.

14. Th. exiguus. Small Cyprian Thyme. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Grxc. Sibth. n. 1402. Fl. Grasc. t. 575, unpubhlhed.
— Flowers very few in a whorl. Leaves rhomboid, pointed,
obhque, nearly entire. Stems branched at the bafe. Tube
of the corolla thread-ftiaped. — Difcovered by Dr. Sibthorp
in hilly fituations in the ille of Cyprus. The root is annual,
fimple, fibrous. Stem two or three inches high, ereft, with
fimple leafy hairy branches from the bottom. Leaves one-
third of an inch long, fmoothifli, on long hairy ftalks.
Flowers either two or four in each whorl, on thick ftalks.
Calyx flender, furrowed, hairy. Corolla with a very flender
white tube, enclofing the Jlamens, and (hort, rounded, pale-
purple fegments in the limb.

15. Th. pulegioiJes. Penny-royal-leaved Thyme. Linn.
Sp. PI. ed. I. 592. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. n. 1307.
(Cunila thymoides ; Linn. Sp. PI. ed. 2. 31. Willd. Sp.
PI. v. I. 123. Acinos thymi folio annuus, floribus inex-
panfis ; Morif. feft. 1 1 . 1. 1 9. f. 6. ) — Whorls many-flowered,
crowded into long, denfe leafy fpikes. Leaves ovate, ob-
tufe, entire. Stem herbaceous, branched, with four hairy
angles. — Native of the fouth of France, and of hills in

Greece Root fibrous, marked as annual by Linnseus, but

the ftems have a (hrubby appearance. They are a fpan
high, with oppofite branches, leafy, their angles denfely
clothed with recurved hairs. Leaves ftalked, from a
quarter to half an inch long, deflexed, dotted, fmooth, ex-
cept a few occafional coarle marginal hairs. Flowers on
longilh, cylindrical, denfely downy ftalks, ten or twelve in
each whorl. Calyx ftrongly furrowed, hairy, with a broad
upper lip, and two long, narrow, fringed teeth in the lower
one ; the orifice denfely hairy. Corolla fmall ; its limb
feems to refemble the laft-defcribed. Sometimes the Jlem is
clothed with whorls oi Jlowers almoft from the bottom to
the top, and the upper leaves are larger than the lower.
The odour of the plant is that of Thyme, not of Penny-
royal.

16. Th. graveolens. Strong-fcented Greek Thyme. Sm.
Prodr. Fl. Grxc. Sibth. n. J403. Fl. Grasc. t. 576, un-

pubhflted Whorls barely fix-flowered. Leaves ovate,

rhomboid, obtufe, revolute, fomewhat ferrated. Stems

much branched, flirubby Gathered on mount Parnaffus,

by Dr. Sibthorp, who fufpefted it might be the Tpstycpiyaw;
of Diofcorides, and from whofe manufcripts we have adopted
the fpecific name. The ftrong, woody, branching root
bears a tuft of numerous afcending, branched, leafy, reddifh,
downy Jlems, about fix inches high. Leaves dark green,
paler beneath, fmooth, a quarter of an inch long, on foot-

Jlalks of nearly their own length. Flo-wers on fimple ftalks,
with a pair of fmall oval braSeas at the bafe of each ftalk,

ufually

THYMUS.

ufually three or four in a whorl, fomctimes Hve or f.x.
^•.,/,. «nth a Ihorlilh furrowed tube, very gibbous at th.
U. b«nea,h; its upper hp bro.d ; lower of two awl-
Ihaped fringed teeth ; both tn.ged w.th red. Corolla of a
purplilh cnmfon, large and handfome, downy u. the mouth,
« well a. at the bntE, which latter is the cafe with yianos,
iiA>;/iuy, andallof ihefamctribe. .

I-. Th. mar^ln^lus. Thick-edged Thyme. Sm. in
Dickf. Dr. PI. n. 71. (Th. Piperella; AU.on. Pedem.
VI 'I t. 37. f. 3, excluding the fynonyms. ) — Malks
minv-floweredl lateral and terminal. Leaves ovate, nearly
fmooth. nbbed, entire, with a thick cartilaginous margin.
Calvx-teeth nearly equal. Stems (Tirubby, afcending.— Un
the 'rocks of the maritime alps of Piedmont very abundantly.
yf/liom. Of more humble flature than the laft, with many
round, flender, downy, purplilh, afcending /cmJ, about a
finger's length, branched at the bafc only- Leaves nezAy
felhle, inclining to heart-fhaped, covered with refinous dots,
fomctimes flightly downy, remarkable for their thick,
fmooth, pale margin. Floiver-Jlalh chiefly axillary, about
35 long as the leaves, fomewhat corymbofe, downy, bearing
fovcral fmall ovate bradeas, and three or four Jlowers,
Calyx cylindrical, furrowed ; all its fegments awl-rtiaped,
and not very unequal, none of them fringed. Corolla with
a (lender hairy tube, twice as long as the calyx, and a fhort
rounded limb. The whole plant is warm and pungent,
highly aromatic. It is very diftinft from the following.

18. Th. Piperella. Pepper Thyme. Linn. Syft. Nat.
ed. 12. V. 2. 400. Willd. n. 14, excluding the fynonym
of AUioni, and poffibly thofe of Vahl and Forfkall. ( Marum
hifpanicum nigrum, fiore purpureo, Piperella hifp ; Barrel.
Ic. t. 694. Bocc. Muf. 166. t. 117.) — Stalks many-
flowered, lateral. Leaves ovate, fomewhat heart-fhaped,
obtufe, entire, fmooth, ftrongly ribbed, copioufly dotted.
Upper lip of the calyx very broad ; lower fringed. — Native
of Spain. The rooMs perennial. ■S^^'mj- apparently trailing,
a fpan long, branched, bluntly quadrangular, finely downy.
Lea-ves varying in fize, but fcarcely more than a quarter of
an inch long at the mofl, thick, flat, without any cartila-
ginous edges, their ribs numerous, parallel and ftrong.
Footjlalhs fhort, downy. Flowers in axillary, corymbofe,
downy, leafy tufts, with ovate braSeas. Upper lip of
the cjlyx remarkably broad, and rather the longefl:, covered
with refinous dots ; lower ftrongly fringed. Corolla a little
longer than the calyx, pale, dotted with refinous points.
The odour of the plant is mofl like Th. Serpyllum- Vahl
fpeaks of a border to the leaves, which induces a fufpicion
that he took our margmatus for Piperella.

19. 'T\\. Brownei. Jamaica Thyme. Swartz. Prodr. 89.
Ind. Occ. 101 1. Willd. n. 15. (Th. n. i ; Browne Jam.
2J9. ) — Stalks axillary, thread-fhaped, fingle-flowered.
Leaves orbicular-heart-fhaped, crenate, fmooth. Calyx-
teeth ovato-lanceolate, nearly equal. Stem herbaceous,
procumbent. — Native of moift grafly places, near rivulets,
in Jamaica and Hifpaniola, flowering all fummer. The
root is annual, fibrous. Stems a foot long, creeping, flender,
quadrangular, fmooth, often purple, with fhort leafy
branches. Leaves about half an inch long, not unlike fome
of our annual Veronicie, paler beneath, on flender flalks.
Flowers purplifh-white, fmall, on long, very flender, folitary
flalks. Calyx cylindrical, fmooth, ft^rongly furrowed, with
broad pointlefs teeth. Swartz fays it has a very ftrong
fmell, like Mentha arvenfis.

20. Th. JUiformis. Minorca Thyme. Ait. n. 8. Willd.
n. 16. — Stalks axillary, thread-ihaped, fingle-flowered.
Leaves heart-fhaped, bluntly pointed, entire, with a thick
canJlaginous margin. Stems thread-ftiaped, decumbent. —

Native of the Balearic iflands. Introduced into our green-
houfes in 1770, by Mr. Malcolm. The root is perennial,
woody. Stems from four to fix inches long, trailing, pur-
plifli, flightly branched. Leaves ftalked, agreeing with
thofe of u. 17. in their tumid margin, but not half fo large,
and more pointed. Flowers very fmall. Calyx ovate,
furrowed ; its three upper teeth broadeft and fhorteft ; lower
ones fringed.

2 1 . Th. incamis. Hoary Calamint Thyme. Sm. Prodr.
Fl. Grsc. Sibth. n. 1405. Fl. Grsec. t. 577, unpublifhed.
(Calamintha orientalis annua, ocymi folio, flore minimo ;
Tour. Cor. 12, by the charadler. ) — Whorls fimply ftalked,
of about fix flowers. Leaves roundifh, entire, clothed with
hoary down. Beard of the calyx concealed. Stems pro-
cumbent. Common in the iflands of the Archipelago, and

about Athens. The root is woody, and but for Tourne-
fort's fynonym, we fhould judge it perennial. Stems her-
baceous, numerous, diffufe, a foot long, with oppofite leafy
branches, clothed, like every part of the herbage, with fine,
foft, grey pubefcence. Leaves ftalked, convex, ribbed,
rounded and blunt, half an inch in diameter. Flowers
fcarcely projefting beyond the leaves, on fimple hairy ftallcs.
Calyx ovate, tumid, ribbed ; with lips of equal length ; the
upper broad, abrupt, three-toothed : converging hairs of
the throat concealed in the tube. Upper lip of the corolla
pink, hairy ; lower white ; palate dotted with red.

22. Th. grandiflorus. Large-flowered Calamint Thyme.
Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 997. (Th. carohnianus ; Michaux
Boreal-Amer. V. 2. 9. Calamintha grandiflora ; Purfh4l4. )
— Whorls fimply flalked, of about ten flowers. Leaves
ovate, ferrated, nearly fmooth. Beard of the calyx con-
cealed. Stems ereft, fhrubby — On the banks of the river
Savannah, in Georgia and Carolina, flowering in July and
Auguft. Purjh. Cultivated by John Walker, efq. at
Southgate, about 1804. The roons perennial. .J/cmj bufliy,
with oppofite branches, a foot or more in height. Leaves
ftalked, deflexed, above an inch long, green, fomewhat
downy to the touch only. Flowers large, pale purple, with
a vaulted upper lip, and a dotted palate. Upper lip of the
calyx very broad.

23. Th. Calamintha. Common Calamint Thyme. Fl.
Brit. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 1676. (Meliffa Calamintha;
Linn. Sp. PI. 827. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 147. Calamintha ;
Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 46. f. 2. Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 76.
C. vulgaris officinarum ; Ger. Em. 687.) — Whorls ftalked,
many-flowered, forked. Leaves hairy, with fhallow ferra-

tures. Beard of the calyx concealed. Stem ereft

Native of dry banks, and the borders of fields, efpecially on
a gravelly foil, in England and the more fouthern parts of
Europe, flowering in July and Auguft. The whole herb
has a peculiarly fweet and grateful fragrance. The root is
perennial. Stem twelve or eighteen inches high, hairy, with
many oppofite branches. Leaves broad, ovate, bluntifh, on
long ftalks. Flowers copious, pale lilac, the whorls be-
coming leaflefs in the upper part of the branches. BraBeas
briflle-fhaped, fringed. Calyx ovate, furrowed, briftly ; its
broad upper hp deeply three-cleft ; lower fringed.

24. Th. Nepeta. LefTer Calamint Thyme. Fl. Brit,
n. 4. Engl. Bot. t. 1414. (Melifla Nepeta ; Linn. Sp.
PI. 828. WiUd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 147. Curt. Lond. fafc. 6.
t. 40. Calamintha odore pulegii ; Ger. Em. 687. C. folio
incano ; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 47. ) — Whorls ftalked, many-
flowered, forked, longer than the leaves. Leaves ferrated.

Beard of the calyx prominent. Stem ereft Native of

chalky banks, and the borders of fields, plentifully in
England, and throughout the fouth of Europe ; very
common in Greece and the Archipelago, flowering in

Auguft,

THYMUS.

Auguft. The habit of this fpccies is like the laft, but
with fmaJlor leaves, more confpicuous longPi--ftalkcd_^0'U'crj-,
and leis upright Jlans. Its fcent is diflereHt, and much
ftronger, refembhng Penny-royal.

2^. Th. cephalotus. Great-headed Portugal Thyme. Linn.
Sp. PI. 826. Willd. n. 17. Ait. n. 9. VahlSymb. v. 3. 77.
«' Hoffm. ct Link Lufit. v. i. 127. t. 13." (Tragori-
ganum dlftaumi capite, hifpanicum ; Barrel. Ic. t. 788.
Bocc. Muf. 50. t. 43.) — " Heads of flowers with loofely
imbricated, large, coloured brafteas, dcftitute of dots.

Leaves linear, entire Native of Spain and Portugal. A

ilirubby bufhy plant, with purphlh^fmj, and downy branches.
J.ijves fringed at the bafe. Flo'uiers concealed by the
large purplifh braSeas, forming an ovate head. Upper lip
of tlie calyx rather the largell ; lower fringed. We ha\^
feeii no fpecinien, either of this or the next.

26. Th. Jlriatus. Striated Neapolitan Thyme. Vahl.
Symb. V. 3. 78. Willd. n. 18. — " Heads of flowers with
clofely imbricated, ovate, ftriated, dotted brafteas. Leaves
linear-lanceolate, ferrated, dotted in the margin." — Found
by Cyrillo, in the kingdom of Naples. T\iq Jlans are (liorter
and more upright than the foregoing ; not branched in their
upper part. Leaves broader, ereft ; ftriated at the back.
Heads fmaller, with fmaller green braSeas. Vahl.

27. Th. 'uillofus. Hairy Thyme. Linn. Sp. PI. 827.
Willd. n. 19. Ait. n. 10. " HofFm. et Link Lufit. v. i.
128. t. 14." Sm. Fl. Grasc. Sibth. t. 578, unpubhihed —
Heads of flowers with imbricated, fringed, lanceolate,
ternate, keeled brafteas. Leaves lanceolate, hairy, acute.

Stems trailing Native of Portugal, Cyprus, and the

Archipelago. The fl;rong woody root fends out numerous,
decumbent, branched, rarubby_y7cmj-, which compofe ample
tufts, taking root as they fpread, with fliort, fimple, afceiid-
ing flowering branches. Leaves cluftered, nearly awl-fliaped,
dark green, fringed with coarfe white hairs. BraBeas and
eaJyx tinged with a violet purple ; the upper lip of the latter
oval, with three (harp teeth. Corolla rofe-coloured, with a
ilender hairy tube, twice the length of the calyx. Stamens
prominent.

28. Th. Majlichlna. Mallick Thyme. Linn. Sp. PI.
S27. Willd. n. 20. Ait. n. II. (Marum ; Rivin. Monop.
Irr. t. 40. Ger. Em. 670.) — Whorls ftalked, many-flow-
crcd, crowded into round heads. Leaves ovate, obtufe,
entire. Calyx-teeth awl-fliaped, taper-pointed, all fringed,
nearly uniform. — N.itive of ftony ground in Spain and
Greece. Dr. Sibthorp gathered it on momit Hymettus,
near Athens, fo famous for honey. This plant has been
trcafured up in many a rultic garden, or cottage window,
ever fince the days of old Gerarde ; but will fcarcely bear
our winters unprotetled, for any length of time. It flowers
throughout the latter part of fummer. The figure of Ri-
vinus is cited by miftake, in the ufually accurate Hort.
Kew. for Teucrium Marum. The Jlem of the prefent fpecies
is Ihrubby, twelve or eighteen inches high, crcdl and bufliy,
with many roundirti, downy, leafy branches. Leaves nu-
merous, ftalked, about the fize and (hape of Th. Serpyllum,
but thicker, finely downy, and not fringed at the bafe ;
moft hoary beneath. Floiwrs white, fmall, confpicuous for
the long (lender teeth of the calyx, which are peClinated
with abundance of long briftly hairs. The tube is clofed
with copious white hairs, nor can we fee any foundation
for Linuicus's doubts, whether this plant ftiould be referred
to Thymus or Satureja, except the calyx-teeth being nearly
equal, which is the cafe, more or lefs, with fome of the
foregoing. The odour of Th. Majlichina is pleaiantly aro-
matic, not very pungent.

Vol. XXXV.

2(). Th.Tragorigamtm. Goat's Tliyme. Linn. Mant.84.
Willd. n. 21. Ait. n. 13. Turr. Farfet. 11. (Tragori-
gajium majus ; Alpin. Exot. 79. t. 78. T. fecunda, altera
fpecies; Cluf. Hift. v. !. 355. T. cretenfe ; Ger. Em.
668. ) — " Stem fomcwhat flirubby, ereft. Flowers whorled.
Leaves hifpid, pointed." — Native of hills in Crete ; as well
of Cypnis and Bceotia, according to Dr. Sibthorp's manu-
fcripts, thougli his herbarium contains no fpecimen. Neither
does that of Linnaeus, whofe fpccific charafter we are
obhged to copy. He defcribes it as a fweet-fcented plant,
with hairy Jlcms, a foot high ; leaves rather rigid, pointed
at each end. The root appears to be woody and perennial.
Whorls numerous, denfc, of mix\j Jlowers.

For Th. v'irginiius, Willd. n. 22, fee Pycnanthemum,
n. 5. The fame author has a Th. inodorus, «. 9, adopted
from Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 30. t. 129. A fpecimen ap-
parently anfwering to this, gathered by Thunberg at the
Cape of Good Hope, is preferved in the Linnsean herbarium,
with a note at the back adverting to the fuigularity of a
plant of the Didynamia Gymnofpermia having alternate
leaves ; and it is named Satunja alternifolia. We do not
find that either Linnaeus or Thunberg ever publiflied this
plant ; poffibly becaufc of the uncertainty of its genus ; or
it may be among thofe which the latter has referred in his
Prodromus to Selago, feveral of which we have no means of
determining. Whether the plant of Desfontaines be the
fame or no, we dare not, without examination, confider it as
a Thymus, though he defcribes the calyx as clofed with hairs,
which is certainly not the cafe with Thunberg's fpecimen.

Thymus, in Gardening, contains plants of the low, aro-
matic, perennial kind ; among which the fpecies cultivated are,
the wild thyme (T. ferpillum) ; the garden thyme (T.
vulgaris) ; the maftick thyme (T. maftichina) ; and the
Virginian or favory thyme (T. virginicus).

In the firft fort there are feveral varieties ; as the broad-
leaved, the narrow-leaved, the variegated-leaved, the filver-
ftriped-leaved, the citron-fcented or lemon thyme, and the
great purple-flowered.

And in the common fert there are different varieties ; as
the broad-leaved, tlie narrow-leaved, and the variegated or
ftriped-leaved thyme.

Method of Culture. — Thefe plants may be eafily raifed
from feed, by flipping the roots and branches, and by cut-
tings ; but the feed method is feldom praftifed, except with
the fecond fort, or garden thyme. The feed (hould be
fown in the early fpring on light, rich, dry ground, which
fliould be properly dug over, and the furface be made mo-
derately fmooth with the fpade. As the feed is fmall, it
(hould not be fown too thick, or be covered too deep : the
feed is beft fown while the ground is frefh ftirred, either
broad-caft on the furface, raking it in lightly, or in flat
fliallow drills, earthed over thinly : the plants appear in two
or three weeks. It is neceffary to be careful to keep them
well weeded, giving occafiond light waterings in dry
weather ; and by June they will require thinning, efpecially
if the plants are to grow ftocky, and with bufhy full heads ;
in which cafe they fliould be fet out to fix or eiglit inches
diftance ; when thofe thinned out may be planted in another
place, in rows fix or eight inches afunder, giving water till
fre(h rooted, keeping the whole clean from weed"; by occa-
fional hoeing between them in dry days, which will alfo ftir
the furface of the earth, and much improve the growth of
the plants : they will be in perfeftion for ufe in fuaimer, or
early in autumn.

Sometimes the market kitchen-gardeners raife large quan-
tities in beds, for daily fupply, leaving the whole thick ;
4 H when

^'^^n nf

THY

oner fTTOwlh they pnll them clean up, root and
m dne IQ tine, a« wanted, and tie them m

rT,v,r.i-^-

ultl

V

■■i for kkclien

apart,

plants,

-.5, each

^. .. proper

It ipay alio often be

'J other compart-

'i::t5 multiply ex-

;.:. . iic .1; u.i..;, fumiihing the

reafe. Some ihould, however,

feed in the above manner, as

ironutic quality than thofe

.tended to incrcafe any particular varieties,
• with certainty, it can only be ef-

l - and flips, all the forts aiultiply

bv . '. flips of the branches : the rooted

•J liivjii cipeiiitious metliod, as the old plants in-

: ir.iny offset ftems rifing from the root, each fur-

.. fibres ; and by taking up the old plants in the

. ,:. and flipping or dividing them into feparate parts,

not t o imall, w-ith roots to each, and planting tliem in beds

cf grxKl eartli, in rows half a foot afunder, giving water di-

rtctlv, and repeating it occafionally in dry weather till they

hcvt taken root, aad begin to (hoot at top ; they foon grow

freely, and form good bufhy plants in two or three

months.

The ftrong flips of the branches without roots, fucceed
when plar:ed any time in the early fpring feafon in a fhady
border, in rows four or five inches diitant, giving due water-
ings ; and become good plants by autumn, when they may
be planted out where tliey are to remain.

The cuttings of the young branches grow readily, the
fame as the flips, when planted at the fame feafon in a fliady
place, znd well watered.

The common th)-me is in univerfal ufe as a pot-herb for
various cuhnary purpofes ; it may alfo be employed in af-
f^-mblage ^vith other fmall plants, to cmbellifli the fronts of
flower-borders, Ihrubbery clumps, fmall and floping bank*;,
&c. placing the plants detached or Cngly, to form little
bufliy tufts, and in which the variegated forts, ar.d the filver
thyme and k-mon thyme particjlarfy, form a very agreeable
variety. The lemon thyme is alfo in much eilimation for its
peculiar odoriferous fmell. Some of each of thefe forts may
alfo be potted, in order to be moved occafionally to any par-
ticular places as may be required, and under occalional
(helter in fevere winters, to prefcr.-e the plants more effec-
tually in a lively Ibte ; likewife fome cf th; maftick thyme.
Spanifli ar.d Portugal thymes are alfo fometimes potted for
the fame purpofe, and to place under the protection of a
garden frame or greeiihoufe in -.nnter, to cor.tinuc: them in
a more frefh and lively growth ; and fometimes fome of the
fmaller thymes are fown or planted for edgings to particiilai-
bed3 or borders for variety, fuch as tue lemon thyme, fiiver-
leaved and variegated forts ; alfo occafionally the common
thyme ; and^all kept low, clofe and regular, by cUpping
them at the udes and tops annually in the fummer feafon.

All the feveral forts and varieties poffefs an aromatic
quality, which principally relides in the leaves, whence it is

THY

imparted and affords a fine agreeable fragrance. But die
firft three kinds arc by much the moft noted and valued in
kitchen gardens, and more cfpecially the common thyme,
which is To very ufeful as a culinary herb.

In gathering this for ufe, in common gardens, it (hould
ir gei.eral only be cut or flipped as it is wanted, in fmall
quantities at a time, and then not ftumped off in too clofe a
manner ; but the mode purfued by market gardeners is quite
different, as has been already leen.

THYNI, in Anc'tcrA Geography, a people of Thrace, ac-
cording to Strabo. Among the Thraces of Afia, men-
tioned by Herodotus, we are to include t}\e Bithynians and
Thvnians. Thefe people were originally of Europe, and
were driven from thence by the Teucrians and Myfians.
Thev \'^re alfo called Strymonians : and upon pafSng into
Afia, they took the name of Bithynians. The Thynians
were originally Thracians ; inhabiting the environs of
Salmydetfus and Apollonia : and upon their removal to
Afia, they occupied the fea-coaft, and fome part of the ad-
jacent territory. Thefe people had acquired the art of en-
graving precious ftones : accordingly we find the following
verfe of Mec<enas upon the death of Horace, preferved by
Ifidore in his Origines :

" Nee percandida margarita quaero
Nee quos Thynica hma perpolivit,
Amellos, nee jafpios lapiUos."

THYNIA, a country of Afia, in Bithynia. Phny.

THYNIAS, an ifland of the Euxine fea, oppofite to
Bithynia, according to Phny, but on the coaft of Bithynia,
according to Strabo.

THYNNIA, ij.:.%, in Antiquity, a facrifice offered to
Neptune by the fifhermen, after a plentiful draught.

The word comes from Ci/vo;, a tunny, that being the fa-
crifice offered.

THYNNUS, in Entomology, a genus of the Hymenop-
tcra order of infefts : the charafters of which are, that the
mouth is horny ; the mandible bent, with a ftiort jaw,
ftraight ; the lip larger than the jaws, with the apex membra-
naceous ; trifid ; the intermediate fringes emarginate ; the
tongue very fliort or folded ; the four palpi filiform and
equal ; the antennse filiform. Gmelin enumerates three

Species.

Dektatus. With black abdomen ; the fecond, third,
and fourth fegraents marked with two white points. Found
in New Holland.

Emarginatuk. With black abdomen, the fegments
ha\'ing a yellow interrupted band ; the fcutellum emargi-
nate. Found in New Holland.

Integer. Black, with the fegments of the abdomen
villofe-cinereous at the margin, and the anus entire. Found
in New Holland.

TuYXN-fs, in Ichthyology. See Tunny, and ScoiiBER, of
which it is fpecies.

THYOS, Qvj-:, in Antiquity, an offering of fruits, leaves,
or acorns, which were che only facrifices at firft in ufe.

THYR.^1, in Ancient Geography, a people of Italy, in
Japygia, who inhabited the middle of the ifthmus, between
Taientum and Brundufium, according to Strabo.

THY RE A, a town of the Argphde, upon an eminence,
in that part which adjoined Laconia, that is, on the weftem
co-ft of the Argolic gulf. The country in which it was
fituated bore the name of Cynuria or Cynouria. — Alfo, a
town of Greece, in the Phocide, where, according to Pau-
fanias, Phocus, the fon of Harmythion, placed a colony. —

Alfe,

THY

T H Y

Alfo, a place fituatcd on the coaft of the Pcloponncfus.
According to Herodotus, the inhabitants of Hermionegave
it to thofe of Samos.

THYREUM, a fmall town of Arcadia, S. of Megalo-
pohs. It was deferted in the time of Paiifanias.

THYRIDES, a town of Laconia, S.E. of Meifla.
Near this phicc were the ruins of the town of Hippola, in
the midft of which was fecn, in the time of Panfanias, a
chapel of Minerva Hippolai':is. — Alfo, the name of the
fummit of Txnarus, in the Peloponncfus ;■ 30 ftadia from the
promontory Taenarum. Pliny gives the name of Thyrides
to three iflands of the gulf Afinaeus.

THYROID, in Anatomy, thyroideus, or more properly
thyreoldtus, from 9uf !(/u?'>i<, compounded of Sup so;, ajhield, and
uh:, form ; a name given to one of the cartilages of the
larynx (foe Lakynx), to a gland fituated near that carti-
lage (fee Larynx), and to the arteries and veins of the
gland. See Aiitery and Vein.

Thyroid Gland, D'lfcafcd. See Bronciiocele.

Thyroid Gland, Extirpation of. It cannot be doubted
that this operation is one of the moll difficult and danger-
ous in tlie practice of furger\' ; and it ought never to be
undertaken, except under the moll urgent circumftances, and
by operators of confuinmate (kill and judgment. Were a
furgeoh, fuperficially acquainted with anatomy, and little
accuilomed to attempts of fo bold a kind, to undes-take the
operation of cutting away a difeafed thyroid gland, he
would run the utmoft ride of feeing the patient bleed to
death under his hands.

The following is a memorable inftance of the fuccefsful
performance of this operation. In the year 1784, J. Hyons,
twenty years of age, experienced an acute pain at the mid-
dle and anterior part of the neck, in confequence of a
violent extenfion of the head. This pain, which was only
momentary, was followed by fome difficulty of motion.
About three months afterwards, a fmall, hard, indolent
tumour appeared on the right fide of the trachea. Tlie
fwelling was unattended with pain, or alteration in the
colour of the integuments. The tumour feemed to be raifed
by a pulfatory aftion, which tended to prove the exiftence
of a large arten,- underneath, and, in faft, its bafe was
fituatcd on the general courfe of the carotid artery. The
patient feeling no inconvenience, neglected it until June
1788. At this time it was an inch in diameter. Its pro-
grefs, which in the firft inilance was flow, now augmented
with proportionable rapidity. Internal remedies and topi-
cal applications had no effeft in preventing its increafe.
A fluftuation in its centre was foon evident : an incifion
was then made into this part, and a quantity of yellow fe-
rofity difcharged. Three months after this operation,
which was not of the lead fervice, recourfe was had to
eauftics, which were repeatedly applied without any ad-
vantage. On the 20th of March 1791, (lie prefented herfelf
for admiffion at the Hotel-Dicu. At this period the tu-
mour was two inches in diameter, round, hard, and at-
tached to the right and middle part of the trachea, and it
pufhed outwards the fterno-maftoideus mufcle. Independ-
ently of its being feniiblv raifed by each pulfation of the ar-
teries, it obeyed the motions of deglutition, and in a flight
degree impeded the paffage of the folid aliment. The pa-
tient; , -neftly defiring to get rid of fo inconvenient a de-
formity, .elermined to fubmit to its extirpation, which ap-
peared her only rcfource. The danger, the length of time,
and the pain neceffarily annexed to the operation, were not
concealed from her. The operation, after a few days pre-
vious preparation, was performed in the amphitheatre by
Default in the following manner : the patient being laid on

her back, a little inclined on the left fide, with the bead and
neck more raifed than the reft of the body, the (urgeoii
made a longitudinal inciCon through the middle of the
tumour, beginning one inch above, and finiftiing one inch
below, to allow room to finifti the operation with eafc : in
the firft fcftion he cut down as far as the gland, dividing
the integuments, the platyfma-myoides, and fome fibres of
the fteriio-tiyoideii and fterno-thyroideii mufcles ; an afCft-
ant, with the view of fixing the tumour, drew towards the
left the infide edge of the wound made by the incifion,
whilft the furgeon detached it from the fterno-maftoidcui;
mufcle. In didefting the cellular fubftance which united
the parts, two fmall arteries were divided, which were raifed
by a pair of differing forceps and fecurcd by ligatures.
The external fsrface of the tumour being thus difengaged,
the internal part was detached in the fame way. The
tumour was drawn outwards by means of a hook, that it
might be feparated with more eafe from the anterior part
and from the fide of the trachea. In the courfe of this dif-
feftion, the branches of the thyroid arteries were fuccef-
fively tied, as faft as they were divided. The affiftant, to
whom the hook was confided, dircAed the gland from
within and forwards, whilft the furgeon finiftied the diflec-
tion outwards and from above downwards. This part of
the operation was the moft minute and difficult : it was ne-
ceftary by means of a fponge continually to wipe away the
blood, which neceflarily prevented the parts from being
eafily diftinguiftied, and obliged the furgeon to divide but a
little at a time, and previoufly to feel with his finger thofc
parts he was about to incife. By this cautious difftiftion of
parts, the fuperior and inferior thyroid arteries were laid
bare, and afterwards fecured by ligature by means of a
blunt crooked needle. They were afterwards tranfverfcly
divided, and the remaining part of the tumour detached
from the trachea, to which it ilrongly adhered. The wound
refulting from this operation was near three inches in depth :
it was outwardly bounded by the fterno-maftoideus mufcle,
and inwardly by the trachea and ccfophagus ; pofteriorly
by the carotid artery, and by the nerves of the eighth pair,
which were expofed at the bottom of the wound. After
the wound was well wafticd with warm water, and cleared
from the blood, it was filled with coarfe lint, powdered with
colophony ; fquare compreftcs, fecured by a bandage mo-
derately tight, formed the reft of the drefling. The extir-
pated tumour was five inches in circumference ; and on ex-
amination was found to differ in no particulai" from fchirrous
glands, except that in the centre there was a cartilaginous
nucleus. The patient fupported this long, difficult, and
painful operation with uncommon firmnefs : fhe paffed the
reft of the day without experiencing any other fymptom
than a flight fhivering, generally confequent to large wounds.
The following night (he complained of a fenfe of heat in
the neck, and fome difficulty in deglutition. The next day
a little eafe was obtained by moillening the dreffing with a
decoction of marfhmallows. A weak drink of the herb
dog's-tooth, acidiJated with oxymel, was prefcribed. On
the third day the fever was very moderate, but the difficulty
in fwallowing had confiderably increafed at this period ; the
compreffes and the external hnt were removed, and frefti
apphed. On the fourth, the fever ceafed, and deglutition
became lefs painful. Suppuration now became eftablifhed.
The next day all the hnt was detached, and the whole of
the dreffings renewed. The wound was in a good ftate : it
was di-effed with foft Hnt and coinpreftes moiftened with an
emollient decoclion ; a pradlice which was continued for
the following days. No particular circumflance occurred
during the cure. The \\«ound followed the ordinary pro-
4 H 2 grefs,

T H Y

tT«f«, aiwi wai cicatrized at the end of a month. The
piticm left the hofpital, porf^aiv cured, the 34th day
after the operation. See Default's Parifian Chirurgical
Jounial, vol. ii. p. 192 — 296.

To the pretediiijr cafe, the editor of the above work has
annexed the few following refl-'ttions.

The extirpation of the thyroid gland is an operation ex-
tremely difficult, and certainly highly dangerous, wlien per-
formed by an opirator but moderately exercifed in the prac-
tice of his profelTion. The number and fize of the arteries
uccc{rar\' to divide, the proximity of the traciiea, ccfophagus,
and carotid, near which the knife mull ncceirarily pafs, are
the principal dangers that the operator ihould avoid. Thefe
arc the circiimtlances which have deterred the majority of
praditioners from performing it, particularly thofe who
from long eftablirtied prejudice have been deterred from ufing
ligatures in cafes of wounded arteries. Examples of this
operation are very rare. The firft time that Gooch under-
took to perform it, he was deterred from finifliing it by the
hemorrhage, and his patient died on the eighth day. The
fecond time he fucceeded better, but was incapable of fe-
curing the vcflels, and fucceeded in flopping the hemorrhage,
which would otherwife have been mortal, by caufing the
parts to be comprefled by the hand of an afliftant for the
fpace of eight days. Gooch's Med. and Chir. Obf. p. 130.
Bell's Syllem of Surgery, vol. v. p. 525. And La Bib.
Chir. de Richter, 1. 2. 4c partie, p. 128.

A. F. Vogel and Thedcn have praftifed the fame oper-
ation with the moil complete fuccefs. All danger from the
hemorrhage, or inconvenience arifing from the difcharge of
blood, may be obviated by pinching up the fniall velTels,
tying them as faft as they are dividid, and by difcovering
and tying the large veiTels previous to their diviilon ; other
parts that cannot be wounded without danger, are to be
avoided by diiretling (lowly and a little at a time, and feel-
ing with the finger every part previous to its divifion with
the biftoury.

THYRO.ARYTENOIDEUS,amufcleofthelarynx.
Sec Lakynx

THYRO-EPIGLOTTICUS, a fuppofed mufcle of
the larynx. S;-e Larynx.

THYRO-HYOIDEUS, a mufcle paffing between the
OS hvoiries and the thyroid cartilage. See Larynx.

THYRO-PHARYNGEUS, a portion of the inferior
conftriclor of the pharynx. See Degh/tition.

THYROIDE.^ GlanduU Mufculm. See the defcrip-
tion of the tliyroid gland in the article Larynx.

THYRRjEUM Vinlm, a fort of wine among the an-
cients, remarkable for its thicknefs and dark colour ; it was
fweet and lufcious, and not aftringent.

THYRREUS Lapis, in Natural Hiflory, the name of a
foffil, which the writers of the middle ages have called ^rHj-.

It has many virtues afcribed to it ; but all the accounts
wc have of its real properties are from Pliny, who obferves,
that it fwam upon the water while whole ; but when broken
into fmall pieces, thefe funk to the bottom. It feems to
have been a fort of bitumen of a fpongy ftrufture.

THYRSINE, in Botany, probably from its denfr cluf-
ter-like appearance, a name given by Gleditfch to the Cy-
TiKvs, (fee that article,) in a trcatife publifhed in his Phyfic.
Botan. Oecon. Abhandlungen, v. 1. igg. t. 2. He is
cited in Schreb. Gen. 609, and WiUd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 589.

THYRSUS, ra:»cTo,-, in Antiquity, the fceptre which the
ancient poets put in the hands of Bacchus, and with which
they fumidied the Mxnades in their Bacchanalia.

The thyrfus was originally a lance or fpear, ^vrapped
up in vine leaves; with which Bacchus is faid to have

T H Y

armed himfelf and his foldiers in his Indian wars, to amufe'
and deceive the unpraftifed Indians, and make them fufpeft
no hoftilities.

Hence it was afterwards borne in the feall and ficrifices-
of that god ; and as the Satyrs, who were Bacchus's fol-
diers, were fuppofed to have fought with it, it became a
cullom to reprcfent theni therewith.

Thyrsus, Ori/lagni, in yincient Geography, a river of
the ifle of Sardinia, which ran from N. to S. and dif-
charged itfelf towards the W. into the fea.

Thyrsus, in Botany, a Bunch, is a mode of inflo-
refcence, ne.irly allied to a Racemus, or Clufter, except
in being compound, in which it agrees with a Panicle.
Its form is more or lefs ovate, and the difpofition of the
brandies and fubdivifions is either oppofite or alternate ;
the ultimate one fometimes obfcurely umbellate. Exam-
ples are found in the Lilac, Syringa vulgaris, and a
bunch of Grapes, Vitis vinifera ; as well as in the herba-
ceous plants Tujjllago hybrida and Petajites. Hence it
appears that a Thyrfus is nothing more than a denfe or
clofe Panicle ; and in the examples laft cited, this mode
of inflorefcence adlually becomes a loofe panicle, as the
plant perfefts feed. See Panicula and Inflorescence.

THYSANOTUS, dva-a.m7o~, fringed, a very defcriptive
name of Mr. Brown's, which he complains of Mr. Salif-
bury for having knowingly fupprefTed. — Brown Prodr.
Nov. Holl. v. I. 282. (Chlamyfporum ; Salif. Parad.
103.) — Clafs and order, Hexandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord.
Coronaria, Linn. Afphodeli, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. none. Cor. inferior, of one petal, in fix
deep, fpreading, permanent fcgments ; the three inner
ones broadeft, fringed at the edges with jointed hairs ; the
three outennofl: externally of the texture of a calyx.
Statu. Filaments fix, awl-fliaped, fmooth, much (horter
than the calyx, inferted into its bafe ; anthers linear, in-
cumbent, attached by the finus at their bafe, a little un-
equal at the end, the three outer ones generally elongated
and reclining. Pijl. Germen fuperior, roundifh ; ftyle
thread-fhaped, declining, about the length of the ila-
mens ; ftigma fimple. Peric. Capfule oval, of three cells
and three valves, with a partition from the centre of each,
enveloped in the withered corolla. Seeds two in each cell,
one ereft, the other pendulous, roundifh, fomewhat ftalked,
inferted into a cup-fhaped white appendage ; albumen denfe,
flefhy.

Obf. A few fpecies have only three ftamens.
Eff. Ch. Corolla in fix deep fegments ; the three in-
nermofl broadeft, fringed ; permanent. Stamens fmooth.
Capfule fuperior, of three cells and three valves. Seeds in-
pairs., with cup-fhaped appendages.

A rather numerous genus of perennial herbaceous plants,
natives of different parts of New Holland. The root is
either fibrous, or confifts of cluflered flefhy bulbs. Stem
generally branched and leafy. Leaves linear, narrow, often
channelled, fometimes thread-fhaped, or fhortened. Flowers
terminal, umbellate ; rarely fcattered ; their ftalks jointed
in the middle. Corolla blue within ; three, at leaft, of its
fegments green at the back. Anthers purple ; the outer
ones fometimes whitifh, which in the triandrous fpecies
are wanting. Seeds black. The permanent corolla, and
fmooth filaments, principally diftinguifti this genus from
Mr. Brown's Arthropodium, Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 276,
by which it is related to the Linnjean Anthericum. The
learned author whom we follow defines twenty-one fpecies,
of which he feems doubtful whether any one has ever been
introduced into the Englifh gardens, at leafl fo as to bear
flowers ; for he thinks the figure in Parad, Lond. was done

fron>

'J' 11 Y

T H Y

from a dried fptuiiiicii. On this fubjeCl \tc have no parti-
cular information. Several drawings of this genus and its
allies, made in New Holland, have paffed under our in-
Ipettion, and d'fplav a degree of elegance which renders
the plants highly defirable. ,

Of the twentv-one fpecies, feventeen are hexandrous, four
triandrous.

Seft. I. Slamensjis.

Th. tub-rofus. Tuberous Fringe-bloffom. Br. n. i. —
" Bulbs fafciculated, ilallced. Radical leaves channelled,
lax, fniooth, rather (horter than the round, fmooth, pa-
nicled (lem. Umbels of two or three flowers. Anthers
unequal." — Gathered by Mr. Brown, near Port Jackfon,
New South Wales.

Th. junceus. Rufli-leaved Fringe-bloffom. Br. n. 9.
(Chlamylporum jnncifolium ; Salif. Parad. t. 103.) — " Root
fibrous. Stems branched, difFufe, round, llriated ; branches
nightly angular. Radical leaves fhort ; thofe of the llem
llraight, (lightly fpreading. Umbels of few flowers.
Anthers unequal." — Native likevvife of Port Jackfon,
from whence we have received fpecimens by favour of
Dr. White. The Jlems are about a foot long, diffufe, ac-
cording to Mr. Brown, fmooth, flender, rufliy, alternately

branched Flowers about an inch in diameter, their inner

fegments obtufe, delicately fringed. They are faid to be
very tranfient.

Th. dlchotomus . Forked Fringe-bloffom. Br. n. 14.
( Ornithogalum dichotoraum ; Labillard. Nov. Holl. v. i.
83. t. 109.) — Root fibrous. Radical leaves hifpid. Stem
round, ilriated, with numerous rather fpreading branches ;

forked above. Flowers folitary. Anthers unequal

Gathered in Lewin's land by M. Labillardiere, from
whom we have a fpecimen. The Jlem is 15 or 18 inches
liigh, repeatedly divided from the bottom, fo as to be
ulmofl; corymbofe at the top, rougliifh to the touch, flightly
leafy. Radical leaves numerous, aboMt four inches long,
ereft, linear, obtufe, entire, channelled, rough with fliort,
rigid, pale, prominent hairs ; (heathing at the bafe ; tliofe
of the ftem folitary under each branch, fhort, awl-fliaped,
flriated, clafping the ftem with a dilated, membranous
margin in the lower part. Flowers terminal, two or three
to each brancii, but it appears to us that the individual
ones are folitary. Three inner fegments purple on the
infide, with a fringe of the fame colour ; their outfide, like
the whole of the outer ones, green, jitithers but flightly,
if at all, unequal. Valves of the capfuk beaked.

Seft. 2. Stamens three.

Th. triandrus. Triandrous Fringe-bloffom. Br. n. 18.
(Ornithogalum triandrum ; Labill. Nov. Holl. v. i. 84.
t. 1 10.) — " Root fibrous. Leaves linear, fringed, the length
of the fmooth unbranched common flower-ftalk. Umbel
many-flowered. Lower joint of each partial ftalk feveral
limes longer than the bracteas. — Gathered by Labillardiere,
in Lewin's land. Stalks one or more, compreffed, a fpan
high, as well as the numerous, all radical, leaves. Umkd
of about nine Jlozuers ; its Jlalis jointed below the middle.
Stamens but three, oppofite to the three fringed fegments
of the corolla, which are purple on the infidc.

THYSANUS, from ^v(favo;, a fringe, becaufe of the
fringed tunic of the feed. — Loureir. Cochinch. 284.— Clafs
aad order, Decandria Tetragynia. Nat. Ord. Terdnntace/e,
Juff.?

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five coloured, per-
manent, lanceolate, concave, hairy, fpreading leaves. Cor.
bcll-(haped, of five fpreading oblong petals, the fize of
the calyx. Stam. Filaments ten, fhort, reflexed ; anthers
ioundifh, ereft, of tno cells. P'ljl. Germen fuperior,

quadrangular 5 ftyles four, thread-fiiaped, inferted lateraUT
into the four angles of the germen ; ftigmas (lightly
cloven. J'eric. Drupas four, oblong, gibbous, recurve"
at the point, with a woolly co.at, burihng laterally. Setds'
Nuts folitary, oblong-ovate, fmooth, naked at the top>
enveloped in their lower part with a flelhy, fringed, red
tunic.

Eff. Ch. Petals five. Drupas four, gil)bous. Nuts
with a fringed tunic.

I. Th. Palala. Deei Khe of the Cochinchinefc

Native of the woods of Cochinchina. A large, woody,
nearly ereft, branching Jhrub, without thorns. Leaves
pinnate, of about ten pair of oblong, entire, fmooth
leaflets. Stalks axillary, many-flowered. Calyx red. Co-
rolla white. Wing, or tunic, of the nuts red.

Such is the defcription of Loureiro, who quotes, with
a mark of doubt, Palala fecunda ; Rumph. Amboin. v. 2.
26. t. 6. But that is a Myrijlica, and has fimple leaves.
Yet hence the fpecific name appears to be taken. He
more juftly indicates the affinity of his plant to S'rmaha ;
Aubl. Guian. 400. t. 155, of which we propofe to tr»at
hereafter in its. proper place, under Schreber's name of

ZwiXGEKA.

We pfefume Loureiro's Thyfanus to be very nearly
related to Cnestis of .luffieu and Willdenow ; fee that
article. The number of germens may be very variable or
uncertain. What the author terms a drtipa, appears,
from its burfting laterally, to be a true follicle, as is the
feed-vcffcl of Cnejlis. Whether the feed of the latter
has any thing analogous to the fringed tunic, does not
appear.

THYSDRUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa
Propria, and one of thofe which, according to Ptolemy, lay
to the S. of Adrumetum.

THYSIUS, (Thvs,) Antony, in Biography, a philolo-
gift, was born at Leyden in 1603, and became profeffor of
eloquence and poetry in the univcrfity of his native city,
and public librarian. Befides two or three works of his
own, he was the editor of feveral editions of clalfics called
" Variorum ;" of which were " Valerius Paterculus,"
" Sallull," " Valerius Maximus," " Seneca the Trage-
dian," " Laftantius," and " Aldus GeUius." 'He died in
1670.

THYSSAGETiE, hi Ancient Geography, a people who
inhabited the territory near the Sarmatse, where was the
fource of the river Tanais. Animianus MarceUinus fays
that thefe people had their abode in large forefts, and lived
by the chace. Their wives and children they had, he fays,
in common. Herodotus fays they were a numerous nation,
and governed by their own laws. Hardouin, in his notes
on Pliny, fays that they inhabited the banks of the Tanais,
towards that bend of the river, where it moft nearly ap-
proaches the Wolga, and which is now the territory of
Aftrachan.

THYSSELINUM, in Botany, a name adopted by
Lobel in his hones, 711, for the Seltnum fylveflre ol Lin-
nsEUS. Lobel cites Pliny, but the name in that author is
ThyPfclium. The plant to which it belonged was "not un-
like parfley, Apium ; its root when chewed purged humours
from the head." Rivinus, Pentap. Irr. t. 19 and 20, has
the Linnasan Selinum fylveflre and paluflre under the generic
name of Thyffelinvm, as has Tournefort likewife, in his
Inflitutioncs, 319. The latter diftingui(hes his genus from
Oreofelinum folely by its milky juice. As this juice is
highly acrid, thefe authors (liould feem to confider the
word as derived from foi-, to burn, and a-Xim-,, parjliy.
Linnxus omitted the firfl fyllabk as, in his opinion, fupcr-

Ouous,

T 1 A

fluou., and eyni Haller foUows liii example. See Se-

"■'tHYSSUS. i.. Mci-m G^o^r.,phy, a town of Macedonia,
on ...ul :,boul nwiu.l Atl.os. I'll.) :.i.d TIn.cyd.des

THYSTIUM. or TiivruM, a lo^vn of Etolia. .Suidas.

Tl A »A. a town of Alia Minor, in Cana. Strabo.

TIAGAR, :i town in thi; interior of Arabia Fehx, be-
tween I naplii and A ppa. Ptolemy. ,

TiAOAli, in Geograbhy, a town of Hindooftan, in the
Carnatic ; yo miles W.S.W. of Pondicherry. N. lat.
1 1 '42'. t. lon;r. 79^ J 2'. . , ■■ r „f

TIAGNANUCO, a town of Peru, in the diocele ot
La Paz. This is a town of great antiquity, and is faid to
have received its name from one of the Licas. In it are
fome ilatucs, and a coloflal pyramid, with a variety of hu-
man figures cut out of (lone, which, though decayed by time,
appear to have belonged to fome gigantic -nation ; 36 miles
N.W. of La Paz. . ^ ,.

TIAGURA, in Ancient Geography, a town ot India,
on this fide of the Ganges, and E. of the river Nomadus.

Ptolcmv.

TIANG-POTAO, in Geography, an liland ot Corea,
about thirty miles in circumference, in the Hoai;g-hai. N.
bt. 37' 20'.' E. long. 1 24" 52'.

TIANO. See TiiEANO.

TiANO, a fmall ifland in the North fca, near the coaftof
Lapland. N. lat. 68= 42'. .

TIANTEGNIES, a town of France, in the department
of .Icmappc ; 6 miles S.W. of Tournay.

TIANTON'G, a town of Upper Siam, on the Mecon ;
60 miles N.W . of Porfelouc.

TIAOYU-SU, a fmall ifland in the Chinefe fea, belong-
ing to thofe called Lieou-kicou. N. lat. 25= 55'. E. long.

TIARA, Uy.^x, an ornament, or habit, with which the
ancient Perfians covered their heads ; and which the Arme-
nians and kings of Pontus wear on medals : thefe laft, be-
canfe defcended from the Perfians.

Latin authors call it indifferently iiarci and cldarh.
Strabo fays, the tiara was in form of a tower ; and the
i'chohall on Arillophanes's comedy, hxH''"'-) ^^ i- fcene 2.
affirms that it was adorned with peacocks' feathers. Some
moderns, however, fancy the fcholiaft is here fpeaking of the
cafquc which the ancient Perfians wore in war, rather than
of the habit which they wore on the head in the city.

Tkc kings of Pcrfia alone had the right of wearing the
tiara ftraight and ercft ; the priefts and great lords wore it
deprelTed, or turned down on the fore-fide. Xenophon, in
his Cyropardia, fays that the tiara was fometimes encom-
paffed with the diadem, at lead in ceremonials ; and had fre-
quently the figure of a half-moon embroidered on it : others
are of opinion, that ttic diadem was in figure of a moon ; and
that it was hence the tiara was called lunata. Laftly,
others think that the tiara itfelf was made fometimes in form
of a half-moon. From what we have faid, it appears that
there were different forms of tiaras ; and, in effect, Pafcha-
lius, DeCoroiiis, diftinguifhes no lefs than five different kinds.
See Diadem.

The tiara- was alfo an ornament belonging to the Jewifli
prietls. Exod. xxviii. 40. xxxix. 26.

Tiara is alfo the name of the pope's triple crown ; an-
ciently called rognum.

The tiara and keys are the badges of the papal dignity ;
the tiara of his civil rank, and the keys of his jurifdiftion :
for as foon as the pope is dead, his arms are reprefented with
the tiara alone, without the keys.

The ancient tiara of the popes was a round high cap.
9

T I A

Boniface VIII. firft encompaffed it with a crown. Bone-
dift XII. added a fecond crown; and .lohn XXIII. a
third.

Tl A.YLA\iT\5S,'\n Ancient Geography, a river of Scythia,
wl'icli ran into the Danube ; now the Alut.

'^'lARE, a town of Afia Minor, in the Troade. Pliny.

TIARELLA, in Botany, the diminutive of Tist^a, a
Perfian diadem, or ornament for the licad. This name alludes .
to the form of the feed-veffel, and was contrived by Lin-
nseus to preferve an analogy with Miiklla, fee that article,

to which the prefent genus is next akin Linn. Gen. 223.

Schreb. 301. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 659. Mart. Mill. Did.
V. 4. Ait. Hort. Kevv. v. 3. 72. Purfh 659. Juflf. 309.
Lamarck lUullr. t. 373 — Clafs and order, Decandria Di-
'ynia. Nat. Ord. Succulentii, Linn. Saxifragic, JufF.

Gen. Cli. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five deep,
ovate, acute, permanent fegments. Cor. Petals five, oblong,
their claws infcrted into the calyx. Slam. Filaments ten,
capillary, longer than the corolla, inferted into the calyx ;
anthers incumbent, orbiculai-. Pift. Germen fuperior, cloven,
terminating in two very {hort ftyles ; ftigmas fimple. Peric
Capfule oblong, fomewhat conipreffed, of one cell and two
flattifh valves, one of them twice as long as the other.
Seeds numerous, ovate, polifhed.

Eff. Ch. Calyx in five deep fegments. Petals fiTe, un-
divided, inferted into the calyx. Capfule of one cell, with
■two unequal valves.

Obf. The undivided petals, and the inequality of length
in the two valves of the capfule, diftinguifh this genus fi-ora
Mitclla.

1. T. cordifolia. Heart-leaved Tiarella. Linn. Sp. PI. 580.
Willd. n. 1. Ait. n. i. Purfli n. i. Lamarck as above. -
(Cortufa americana, flore fpicato, petalis intcgris ; Herm.
Parad. 1 29, without a figure. ) — Leaves heart-fiiaped, acutely
lobod, with pointed teeth. Clu.fl:er fimple, ovate — Native
of the fhady woods of Canada, and the high mountains of
New York and Pennfylvania, flowering in April and May.
Purjli. It is hardy in our gardens, flowering at the fame
feafxjn, but chiefly preferved in the more curious coUeftions
only. The root is tuberous, with many blackifh fibres,
perennial. Learns feveral, all radical, light green, hairy,
elegantly lobed and veined, acute, about an inch and half
in diameter, on ereft, fimple, hiaTy footjlallts, thrice as much
in length. Flo'wer-Jlalk radical, mofUy folitary, unbranched,
hairy, taller than the leaves, bearing a fimple downy clufl;er,
an inch long, of ab«ut twenty fmall, delicate, Vsh\te Jlotuers,
which is fubfequently elongated as the fruit ripens. The
capfules then become deflexed, two-lipped, nbbed, fmooth,
and fliining. It is wonderful that every author (liould per-
fifl in quoting, after Linnsus, the plate of Hermann's Para-
difits, which is evidently Heuchcra americana, and is men-
tioned under the name of Cortufa americana, flore fquallide
purpureo, in the text of the fame work, p. 1 3 i ; where alfo
this figure is referred to. The editor, having committed a
double blunder, in the title of the plate and its reference,
i3oinlleadof 131, is in fome meafure refponfible for the
miftake ; which however the compound panicle, and clofed
calyx, ought to have fooner correfted.

2. T. Menzlefi. Slender-fpiked Tiarella. Purfh n. 2.—
" Leaves ovate-heartlliaped, acute, toothed, with Ihallow
lobes ; thofe of the flem alternate, remote. Cluftfr thread-
fhaped, fomewhat fpiked. Calyx tubular." — G.ithered by
Mr. Menzies, on the north-weft coait of America. Perennial.
More than a foot high, with five or fix alternate leaves on
theflem. Purfl:i.

3. T. trifoliata. Three-leaved Tiarella. Linn. Sp. Pl. 580.
Willd. n. 2. Purfh n. 3. (Mitella foliis ternatis ; Linn.

Am.

T 1 A

T 1 ii

Am. Acadi V. 2. 351.) — I^eaves ternate, lobed and toothed.
Stem leafy. Cluilcr compound. — Gathered by Mr. Men-
zies on the north-well coall of America, where it Is freijuent
in woods. Linntcus faw it only in the collcftion of phmts
from Kamfchatka, fubmitted to iiis infpcftlon by DemidofF,
and defcribed in the 2d voUmieof the jimtenitnta ylcademicir;
for there is no fpocimen in his own herbariui'i. The root is
tuberous, and fomewhat creeping, perenniaU Stiins above
a foot high, ereft, limple, leafy, fmooth and /lender. Leaves
all teniate, (lightly hairy, paler bi.-neath ; the leaflets lome-
what rhomboid, acute, more or lefs deeply lobcd, and irre-
gularly notched, an inch or an inch and half in length ; the
lateral ones often deeply divided ; fo tliat they much re-
femble fome of the more delicate fpecies of Rubuu The
radical leaves have long (\i;ndcv footjlalis ; tliofe on t!ie Hem
fhort ones. Clufter manv-flowered, from tlircc to fix inciies
long, alternntely branched ; the branches corymbofe, each
bearing from three to fix or feven very fmall greenifli-wiiite
Jlowsrs. The hafe of the calyx is concave, or flightly bell-
fliaped. Capfuh iialf an inch long, each valve tipped with
a permanent, elongated, capiihirv jhle-

4. T. liternala. Compound-leaved Tiarella. Venten.
Malmaif. t. 54. Purlh n. 4. — Leaves twice ternatc, lobed
and toothed. Stem leafy. Panicle compound, divaricated ; its
branches fomewhat fpiked. — Found on tiie mountains of South
Carolina,floweringin May. Root perennial. Stem a yard high.
The appearance of the plant is juftly compared by Ventenat
to Splrira Animus. The lea'ves confdl of nine large ovate
leajlets, (lightly hairy, partly lobed, and all llrongly toothed,
or notched. Flowers very fmall, ycllowifh-white, ahnoil
feffilc, difpofed in numerous long clufters, forming a large,
fpreading, repeatedly branched /irjn/c/i'. The petals in Ven-
tenat's figure are narrow, elliptic-lanceolate. Purfli fays
they are fometimes wanting. Tiie appearance of the capfule
in that figure is very different from the other fpecies, and
the valves are of equal length. This plant is faid to have
proved biennial in the garden of Malmailon ; but it may
ftill be perennial in its native country. We have feen no
fpecimen, nor has this curious fpecies, any more than the
laft, yet found its way into the Englifh gardens.

TIARINI, Alessandro, in Biography, an hiltorical
painter, who was born at Bologna in 1577. He was firft a
difciple of Profpero Fontana, but on the death of that mafter,
he received inf'-uiSions from Bartolomio Cefi, from whom,
being obliged to leave Bologna on account of a quarrel, he
went to ftudy under Padignano at Blorence. After fome
time, about ftven years, as the influence of the circumftance
which had driven him from his native city fubfided, he ven-
tured to return there, and became a pupil of. the Caracci ;
and he principally attached himfelf to Ludovico, more for
the -improvement of his ftyle, than for practice.

He had, during his refidence at Florence, acquired con-
fiderable fam^-, and painted feveral pictures for churches and
convents in places within and round about that city. On
his return to Bologna, his talents acquired him confiderable
employment there, and many of his principal works ftill
adorn its public edifices. Ferdinand, duke of Mantua, in-
vited him to take up his refidence with him ; fat to him for
bis portrait, is did all the princes of his family, and many of
the nobles of his court. ,

The colouring adopted by Tiarini in his bed time is clear
and rich ; h:. defign tafteful and agreeable, though of a ferious
call ; and h's expreffion jult and natural : and there are not
many artifts who have have done more credit to the Bolognefe
fchool. He died in 1668, at the advanced age of 91. "
TIARIULiIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hif-

pania Citcrior, in the interior of the country of the ilcr-
caons. Ptol.

TIARP, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Weftmann-
land ; 25 miles N. of Upfal.

TIASSE, in ylncienl Geography, a river of the Pelopon-
nefus, in Laconia, which ran between Sparta and Amycla.
Paufanais.

TIASUM, a town of Dacia, in the vicinity of Nanti-
dava and Zugma. Ptol.

TIAUSPA, a town of India, on this fide of the Ganges,
W. of tliis liver and near it. Ptol.

TIB, in Geogniphy, a town of Perfia, in Chufiflan, or
Ku/.iftan ; 6o miles N.W. of Shufter.

TIBAENS, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Eiitre Duero e Minlio ; 4 miles W. of Braga.

TIBALDI, Pei.i.eghino, in Bicgrapliy, was born at Bo-
logna in 1527. He was the pupil of Bagnacav;Jlo, and
copied with much attention the works of Vafari, in the
refedory of S. Michele in Bofco. At the age of twenty he
went to Rome, chiefly to ftudy the works of Michael An-
gelo. The pictures he produced at Rome obtained for him.
the patronage of the cardinal Poggi, who employed him in
ornamenting his Vigna, near the Porto del Popolo, with
works in frefco, and then fent him back to Bologna, to alTift
in the completion of his palace there (now tlie Academical
Inftitute), both as architect and painter ; and in both cha-
rafters it remains as the principal tellimonial of his powers
remaining in Italy. He alfo conllrufted and adorned a
chapel for his patron in the church of S. Giacopo Maggiore.
One of the paintings lie executed there was the Preaching of
St. John, and another, the Laft Judgment ; where, in the opi-
nion of the Caracci, he almoft equalled the majefty of Mi-
chael Angelo, and it was preferred by them to all the other
works of Pellegrino, and ferved them and their fcholars as a
model of ftudy.

From Bologna, the cardinal fent him to Loretto, to fuper-
tend the ereftion of a chapel in the church of La Madonna,
which he alfo ornamented with ftuccoesaad paintings of the
Nativity, the Prefentation in the Temple, the Transfiguration,
and the Decollation of St. John. From thence he went to
Ancona, where he wrought in the churches of S. Agoftino
and Ciriaco ; and in the great hall of the merchants he painted
one of his moft celebrated piftures, the fubjeft of which is
Hercules overthrowing monftcrs. He alfo fuperintended,
as mihtary architect, the fortifications of the place, about
the year 1560; and two years afterwards vifited ^Pavia,
where he conftruAed the palace of the Sapienza ; he then
went to Milan, and there built the temple of S. Fidele,
and before the year 1570 was elefted architedl of the
cathedral.

Here he difencumbered the dome of numerous Gothic
monuments, fepulchral urns and trophies, and cmbellifhed
it in their (lead with various chapels and a majeftic choir.
He foon after received a coramiffion from Philip II. to pre-
pare defigns and plans for adorning the Efcurial, both archi-
tectural and pittorial. He followed them to Spain himfelf
in 1586. There he fuperintended the work for nine years,
p;unting a great number of piftures, particularly fome in
frefco in the lower cloifter, whence he expunged the unfuc-
cefsful produftions of F. Zucchero. The fubjects were
from fcripture, of the Purification; the Flight into Egypt;
the Murder of the Innocents ; Chrift tempted in the Wil-
deriiefs; the Elettioii of the Apoftles ; the Refurrcftion of
Lazarus ; the Expnlfion of the Money Changers tiom the
Temple; and the Refurreition of' our Saviour. Befides
thefe, he painted during his refidence in Spain fcvcral pic-
tures

T r B

,ur.. for o.l>or phrcs. pnrUcularly fur I ho great clmrcl. at
Madrid. wh.-r. fu.ro .r. f.v. pictures by h.n,. But h s moft
^,.„w,K'd work, and wluch moft contributed to clbbl.ih h-s

T I B

f«ne ii. Spain, v»as tlu- cicling of the library of the Efcurial,

tares of his to be met with of diminutive dimenfions, with all
the finifli of miniatures, though rich in figures, touclied with
great fpirit and equal viracity of colour : they afe generally
let off by backgrounds drawn from his favourite branch of
"'^- ' \uA tU.. .-/.mnnfition of the art, architecture. Fufeli's Pilkington.
when; he appears to have /'7"''^.;\^^"^ 'f°f °"J' ''f TIBARANIA, or Tibar^nTa, in JncUnt Geograpl^y,
fchW of Athens bvRapha.^ hi Lice nd ffftoTs in a country of Afia, .n Pontus, in the vicinity of Cappldo^^;
cluJdren and figures fnpportin^ "«c corn.ce adjoining the country of the Chalybes. Steph. Byz.

which he exhibited in thefo great works, PhUip loaded h,m 1 .benus, whence ,ts name

with riches and honours, and even gave him patents of no-
bility, creating him marquis of Valdelfa ; a diftncl m which
hit father and his uncle had laboured in the humble capacity
of mafons. He lived to an advanced age, but the exatt
year of his death is not known, though it is thought to
have been about 1600. r ir •

Pellegrini Tibaldi is confidered, and with fufficicnt evi-
dence from his works, as the greateft defigncr of the Bo-
lognefe and Lombard fchools. He approaches the Imp oi
Michael Angelo nearer than all the reft of his imitators ;
but as he had decidedly adopted the technic without always
penetrating the moral principles of his model, the manner
of the mafter frequently became the ftyle of the pupil;
though it cannot be denied that he often united energy of
attitude and grandeur of line, with fublimity of conception
Mid dignity of motive. Of thefe he has given no where
more fignal proofs than in the cielings and the compart-
ments of the Academical Inftitute at Bologna. They rcpre-
fcfit \-arious fcenes from the OdyfTey ; among them, Poly-
pheme waking under the pangs of the fiery point, though
painted with a fentiment of original cxpreffion, is evidently
imitated from the newly created figure of Adam in the Sif-
tina ; but the fame Cyclops groping at the entrance of his
cave to prevent the efcape of Ulyftes and his alTociates, is
in conception of the whole, and in the detail of the parts,
an original invention ; a form, than which Michael Angek
himfclf never conceived one of greater energy, with ex-
prelTion, attitude, and limbs more in unifon. With this may
be placed that wonder of forefliortening, excentricity, and
rotundity, the figure of Elpenor, on one of the architraves
of the Salotto, reprefented in the moment when, yet dream-
ing, he leaves his hold, and is precipitated from the roof.
The air of originality which this figure in every view pre-
fcnts, and the elegance with which the imitator has reverfed
ttic figure in the Laft .Judgment of Michael Angelo, from
which he borrowed th" principal limbs of his own, place
him on a level with the inventor.

It was, however, Icfs for the powers exerted by Pellegrino,
in the decorations of the Inftitute, than for the ecleftic
principle which they difcovered in his fubfequcnt works, that
the Caracci gave him the epithet of Michel jln^elo rifci-mato,
.ind commended

" Del Tibaldo il dccoro e il fondamento."

The compofitions of the chapel Poggi, in St. Giacomo,
where the imitation of Michael Anj;elo is blended with that
of Raphael, Corregio, and D. da Voltcrra, contain the ru-
diments of their own fyftcm.

Pellegrino Tibaldi is more known by his works in frefco
than by his pifturos in oil, whicli are extremely fcarce : one
of the ^arlieft is the Nativity, already mentioned, in the Palace
Borghefe, of which the cartoon ilill exifts in a private col-
leftion of drawings. It is painted in a fober unaffeaed
tone, and confidered as the work of an artift jealous of his
line, with great mellownefs of touch. The figures of this
are confidcrably Icfs than the fize of life ; but there are pic-
5

TIBERIACUM, a town of Italy, near Ravenna.— Alfo,
a town of Lower Germany, upon the route from Colonia
Tiajana to Colonia Agrippina, between this latter place and
Juliacum, according to the Itinerary of Antonine.

TIBERIADES Water, the water of a hot fpring
near Tiberiades in Egypt.

Dr. Perry, when on the fpot, tried fome experiments on
this water, which give us a much better idea of its nature
than we have from any other accounts of it. Half a drachm
of oil of tartar being mixed with an ounce and half of the
water, it becomes turbid and muddy ; and after twelve
hours, three parts of the whole appear like white wool, only
leaving a fmall portion of clear water at the top. The
white woolly matter dried, produced only a fmall quantity
of yellow ochre.

Spirit of vitriol added to the water in the fame quantity,
affords a large unftuous fediment of a white colour. A fo-
lution of fubhmate being mixed in the fame quantity, it
became turbid and yellowifti, and yielded an earthy fediment
in fmall quantity ; whence it feems evident, that it contains
a fal murale. Saccharum faturni being added in the fame
quantity, the water depofited a lateritious fediment in a fmall
quantity. Mixt with fpirit of fal ammoniac, it turns to a
blueifh-green turbid liquor, and finally yields a woolly fedi-
ment. Sugar of violets mixed with it, turned it to a yel-
low colour ; and the fcrapings of galls mixed with it, turned
it to a deep purple ; and on fliaking, this became as black
as ink.

It appears from thefe experiments, that the water con-
tains a good deal of a grofs fixed vitriolic fait, fome alum,
and a fal murale. It is too fait and naufeous for internal
ufe ; but it muft be of ufe as a bath in all cutaneous foul-
neffes, efpecially in fcorbutic and leprous cafes ; for it will
powerfully deterge, fcour, and cleanfe the excretory pores,
and it may be, by its weight and ftimulus, reftore them to
their natural ftate and tone, and reftore the true ftate of the
vitiated folids in general. Phil. Tranf. N^ 462. p. 52.

TIBERIANI Campi, in Amiait Geography, fields of
Italy, in the vicinity of Rome, which took their name from
the emperor Tiberius, who fixed them at 25 acres.

TIBERIAS, a town of Paleftine, the capital of Gali-
lee, was fituated in a plain, near the lake of Gennefareth,
which from this city was alfo called the lake or fea of Ti-
berias. This city is very famous, and often mentioned by
•lewifli writers, becaufe, after the taking of Jerufalem, there
was at Tiberias a fucceffion of Hebrew judges and doftors
till the fourth century. It was a bifliop's fee in this cen-
tury. Epiphanius fays that a Hebrew tranflation of St.
John, and the Afts of the Apoftles, was kept in this
city. It was diftant about 90 miles from Jerufalem. See
Tabaria.

TIBERINA Insula, the ide of Tiber, fituated in the
city of Rome ; called by Suetonius the ifle of iEfculapius.
Plutarch f.;ys that this ifland was called at Rome the faered
ifle and the ifle of two bridges, becaufe in confccrating to
Mars a field which belonged to the Tarquins, they threw into

tlie

T I B

T I B

the river the corn and alfo tlie trees which grew in this field.
Thefe materials, united with the mud brouglit down by the
river, formed an ifland, on which were built feveral temples
r.nd porticoes.

TiBERiNA Regio, a country of Afia, in Cappadocia, where
was a place named Ariarzus.

TIBERIOPOLIS, atownofAfia, in Phrygia Major.
Pto!. — Alfo, a town of Bulgaria, upon the coaft of the
Euxine fea.

TIBERIS, or Tiber, a river of Italy, which had its
fource in llie Apennines, towards a place called Tifcrnum
Tibai'inum. Its courfe was firft towards the S. pafling by
Perufia, as far as Tuder, where it turned towards the S.W.
as far as the Volfinii. Having received the Clanis, it turned
towards the S.E., received the Nar at Hortanum, and con-
tinued in this diredlion as far as a point that lies between
Capena and Cures. AiTuming a direftion towards the S.,
it pafied to Rome, and then proceeded towards the S.W.
to the fea before Oflia, ». e. the mouths, of which it has
many. This river was inconfiderable till it reached Hor-
tanum ; but afterwards it was augmented by the Nar, the
Valinus, and the Anio, fo that at Rome it was large and
deep. The ancients, by way of enhancing its celebrity, re-
prefent it as receiving twenty other rivers ; but under this
■g-eneral denomination they mud comprehend feveral finall
ftreams. It was called by various names.

TIBERIUS Claudius Nero, in Biography, a Roman
emperor, fo called after his father, his mother's name being
Livia DrufiUa, was born in the year B.C. 42. He was at
E.n early age fo well inftrufted in Greek and Roman litera-
ture, as to be able, when nine years old, to pronounce a fu-
neral oration for his father, which gained great applaufe.
His temper was naturally referved and gloomy, and yet,
with the advice of his mother Livia, who was married to
Auguftus, he conduced the ufual fpeftacles with a magni-
ficence which gave fatisfaftion to the Roman people. His
firft appearance in a military charafter was as a tribune in
the Cantabrian war ; he next fuftained the office of com-
mander-in-chief in placing Tigranes on the Armenian throne,
and on his return was made praetor. He was afterwards
fent to join his brother Drufus, and gained a decifive viftory
over the Rhetians and Vindelicians. He became conful in
the twenty-eighth year of his age, and thus rapidly ad-
vanced to the rank which, as the emperor's ftep-fon, he was
likely to obtain, and his elevation was accelerated by the
death of Agrippa, B.C. 22. Previoufly to his being ad-
mitted into a partnerihip of the empire, Auguftus obliged
him to divorce his wife Vifpania, the daughter of Agrippa,
and the objeft of his choice and afFeftion, and to marry his
■own daughter Julia, of doubtful reputation.

The next objeft of his military career was the reduftion of
the Pannonians, in confequence of which he \\'as honoured
with triumphal ornaments. From his fuccefsful profecution
of the war in this part of the empire he was fuddenly called to
attend his brother Drufus in his laft moments : and he after-
wards accompanied his remains on foot in a funeral pro-
ceflion to Italy. After his viftories had been celebrated by
an ovat on, lie was deputed to make peace in Germany, and
being a fecond time made conful, B.C. 7, he triumphed
on the day when he took polTeflion of his dignity. At the
expiration of the year, Auguftus conferred upon him the
tribunitial power for five years. At this time Caius, one
of the emperor's adoptive fons, though under age, was
raifed to the pontificate, and introduced into the fenate.
Jealous of Caius as a rival, and difgufted by the open gallan-
tries of his wife Julia, he refolvcd to aflc permiflion to with-
draw from public bufinefs, and to live in retirement at the
Vol. XXXV.

idand of Rhodes. Accordingly he failed for Rliodef. His
wife's conduft became fo notorious, that fl»e was baniOied
by her father to the ifle of Pandataria, and divorced from
her huft)and. Having obtained leave of tiie emperor, though
reluftantly granted, to return from Rhodes to Rome, he
hvcd privately till the death of the two Cacfars, Caius and
Lucius, opened to him new profpefts. The emperor,
whofe declining age needed an aflbciate, adopted Tiberius
A.D. 4, renewing his tribunitian power, and then placing
him next to himfclf in the empire. Having brought the
war againft the Pannonians and Dalmatians, as much by
policy as by force, to an honourable termination, he obtained
a triumph, A.D. 9 ; and as a rccompence of other fervices,
his tribunitian authority was prolonged : but the emperor
terminating his life at Nola, Tiberius, without oppotition,
fucceeded to the empire, in the fifty-fifth year of his age.
Paft experience had taught liim the art of diffimulation,
and this art he praftifed during the progrefs of his
reign. Although he was very jcalouj of his authority, he
was moderate in the exercife of it, and always paid great
deference to the fenate, and refpeft to the confuls. He was
zealous in the adminiftration of juftice, and avoided op-
preffive impofts even in the moft diftant provinces, for which
he had the lefs occafion, as he was not avaricious of money ;
a virtue which, as Tacitus fays, he retained, when he had
renounced all others. To which we may add, that he was
munificent in his relief of pubhc calamity and private dif-
trefs. Thefe qualities, combined with his found fenfe, ren-
dered the earlier part of his reign as profperous as perhaps
any in the annals of the empire.

The popularity of Germanicus rendered Tiberius jealous,
and vigilant of his conduft ; and in order to reftrain his au-
thority, he employed Pifo, a man of ancient family and im-
perious fpirit, as his fubordinate agent for this purpofe.
Germanicus, however, died of a lingering difeafe, and Pifo
was fufpefted, if not aecufed, of having given him poifon.
Pifo was impeached in the fenate for his conduft towards
Germanicus. In the courfe of his trial, Tiberius afted
with apparent impartiality ; but the aecufed, defpairing of
an acquittal, put an end to his own life. Tiberius, in the
feventh year of his reign, withdrew from Rome to Cam-
pania, in order to accuftom Drufus, who was then conful,
to the exercife of the fupreme power. Notwithftanding
feveral inftances, in which he manifefted a moderate exercife
of power, a ftern unfeeling tyranny was becoming the
fettled charafter of his reign, to which his growing con-
fidence in the deteftable Sejanus very much contributed.
The death of Drufus, A.D. 23, occafioned by poifon, ad-
miniftered in confequence of the feduftion of his wife, was
borne by his father Tiberius with a degree of felf-pofteflion,
which was imputed to want of natural affeftion. After this
event he appeared in the fenate : and the two elder fons of
Germanicus were prefented to him. Taking them by the
hand, and delivering a fpeech which melted the whole af-
fembly into tears, he recommended thefe orphans, vi'ho had
loft both their uncle and father, to the guardianihip of the
fenate. Two years after the death of Drufus, Tiberius
took an opportunity, which a propofal for erefting a temple
to him and his mother afforded him, of giving his fentimenls
on that deification which difgraced the reigns of the Roman
emperors. Recognizing himfelf as a mere mortal, fubjeft
to all the infirmities of the human condition, and fufficiently
honoured in holding the firft place among men, he was dc-
firous that pofterity fliould know his fentimcnts on the fub-
jpft, and that he wiflicd for no other honours paid to his
memory than to be thought to have worthily performed the
duties of hisftation. The whole fpeech, replete with xvif-
4 I dom

T I 1?

dom and good fcnfi-. is nportcd by Tacitus. His defign
ot' ix-tiring frum the capital, i-iicoarai;i.d for fclfilh purpolcs
b) Scjanus, was put into execution A.D. 26. Accordingly
he withdrew into the ifle of Caprcx, near the bay of Naples.
Here he palTed liis remaiuiiig years, Immcrfed in grofs and
mfiraous debauchery, hating mankind, fcarcely known to
exift but by his cruelties, and rendering himfelf, in direft
oppoClion to his own maxims, " let them hate, provided
they cllcem me," no Icfs contemptible than odious. It
ought to be mentioned, however, that in a conflagration
which confumed a large quarter of Rome, he difplayed a
Tcry laudable and fpontaneous munificence. For an account
of his connection with Sejanus, and of the effcAs and ter-
mination of that conneftion, we refer to the article Sejanus.
Tlic latter part of Tiberius's reign was marked by fervility
on one hand, and defpotic ferocity on the other ; and it ap-
pears by one of his letters to the fenate, that he fuffered as
much mifery from the aiiguifli of felf-reproach and tumult
of mind as lie inflicted : " What I fli.-dl write to you, con-
fcript fathers, or wliat I (hall not write, or why I fhould
write at all at this time, may the gods and goddelTes plague
me more tlun I feel daily that they are doing, if I can tell ! "
Wliat mental torture it mull have been, fays Tacitus, that
could have extorted fuch a confeflion. Some few occafional
i£ts of wifdom and munificence brightened in a faint de-
give the black picture that was exhibited by his general
conduct. Towards the clofe of life, and at an advanced
age, the appointment of a fucccflbr engaged his attention.
He had two alternatives ; the one was the nomination of
Caius, his grandfon, the fon of Germanicus, who was his
adopted fon ; and the otiier, the appointment of Gemellus,
the fon of Drufus, who was his fon by nature. The former
wai of mature age, being now twenty-five, and polTefled of
popular favour. The diflimulation of this afpirant to the
empire had not eluded the penetration of Tiberius. See
Caliglla.

Tiberius, leaving Caprex, frequently changed his abode,
and at lall flopped at a country -houfe, which had belonged
to Lucullus, near the promontory of Mifenum. There,
on March i6lh, A.D. 37, he funk into a Jlate, in which he
appeared dead ; upon which Caius, with indecorous preci-
pitance, proceeded with a numerous efcort to feize pofleffion
of the empire : but his revival tlxrew them all into confufion.
At this inllant Macro, the pretorian prefeft, caufed him to
be fuffocated with pillows. He died in the feventy-eighth
year of his age, and twenty-third of his reign, univerfally
execrated ; and his predominant vices were fuch, that they
have almoll effaced the records of his laudable qualities.
Tacitus. Suetonius. Crevier.

Tiberius Constantine, emperor of the Eaft, was a
Tiracian by birth, and by olHce captain of the guards to
.Tuftin H. By the recommendation of the emprefs Sophia,
he was raifed to the rank of Ca;far A.D. 574, and in 578,
when Juflin died, fncceeded to the imperial throne. Sophia,
attached to his perfon, had flattered herfelf with the hope
of his being her fecond hufband ; but on his acceffion to
the empire, it appeared that he had been previoufly married
to Anallafia, who was proclaimed Augufla. Sophia, thus
difappointed, concurred in a confpiracy for raifing to the
purple Juilinian, commander of the eaftern army ; but the
plot bcmg difcovered, Sophia was puniflied by lofing the
greateft part of her allowance. The government of Ti-
berius has been favourably reprefented. He was temperate,
JuR, and humane ; economical in the difburfemcnt of the re-
venue, yet hberal and beneficent, and ready to remit the
dues of taxation to fufferers under public calamity. The
pnncipal events of his reign were two vidories over the Per.

T I B

fi,ins. Soon after the fecond victory, Tiberius fell into a
difeafe, during which he declared Maurice, who had married
his daughter Conllantia, and who had been nominated Cg;far,
his fuccelTor : and after a reign of four years, he clofed Ihs
life in 5^2, with the general regret of his fubjefts. Anc.
Un. Hill. Gibbon's Rom. Emp.

TIBESTI, in Geography, a town of Africa, on the
route from Fezzan to Bornou, inhabited by the people
called Til/l/o (which fee); Ijo miles S.E. of Mourzouk.
The vales of Tibelli are fertile in corn, and paflurage for
cattle, of which they have numerous herds ; and they are
particularly celebrated for their breed of camels, which are
efleemed the beft in Africa. For this fertility they are irt-
debted to the water of the innumerable fprings, that amply
compenfate for the want of rain, which feldom, if ever,
falls within the limits of Tibefli. Among the natives of
Tibelli, different religions are profefFed ; for fome of them
are Mahometans, and others continue attached to their an-
cient fyflem of idolatry. From the plain, which lies to the
W. of the defert of Tibefli, a part of the mountains of
Tibefli take their rife. Thefe vail hills, the range of
which] is very extenfive, are varioufly peopled : but fuch of
them as are crofTed on the route from Fezzan to the city
of Bornou, are inhabited by a mixture of MufTulmen and
idolaters, who employ themfelves in breeding camels and
affes, and other cattle, particularly horfes of a fmall fize.
TIBET. See Thibet.

TIBI, a town of Arabia, in the country of Oman ;
8 miles N. of Kalhat.

TIBIA, in Anatomy, the large bone of the leg. See
Extremities.

Tibia, FraSures of the. See Fracture.
Tibia Bleeps. See Bicep.s.

Tibia, in Mujic, was originally a flute, made of the
fhank or fhin-bone of an animal ; and when the art of bor-
ing flutes was difcovered, they were made of box-tree,
laurel, brafs, filver, and even of gold. See Fh;te.
Tibia Artuularis. See Bagpipe.

Dr. Burney (Hill. Muf. vol. i. p. 521.) apprehends
that the union of this inflrument with the fyrinx fuggefled
the firfl idea of an organ.

TlBliE Pares el Impares, in the Dramatic MuJic of the
Ancients. It has been long doubted, whether pares and
impares meant double and fingle flutes, or equal and un-
equal in point of length and fize. But though in pre-
ferring either of thefe acceptations, fome fenfe and mean-
ing is acquired, yet we fhould incline to the latter. For in
none of the reprefentatious in ancient painting or fculpture,
which we have yet feen, does it appear that the tibicen, either
at facrifices or in the theatre, plays on a fingle flute, though
we as often fee double flutes of different lengths in his hands,
as of the fame length ; and as harmony, or mufic in different
parts, does not appear to have been praCtifed by the an-
cients, the flutes of equal length may naturally be fuppofed
to imply unifons ; and unequal, fuch as are odlaves to each
other.

TIBIALIA, among the Romans, a kind of fwaths
with which they ufed to cover their legs.

TIBIALIS, in Anatomy, a name applied to various
organs fituated in the neighbourhood of the tibia. There
is an anterior and a poflerior tibial artery, an anterior and
pofterior tibial nerve (fee Artery and Nerve), and the
two following mufcles.

Tibialis Anticus, jambier anterieur, tibio-fus-tarfien ;
an elongated mufcle, flattened at the fides, placed on the
front of the leg, and extending from the upper end of the
tibia to^the firft cuneiform bone. It is covered in front by

the

T I B

T I B

the aponeuroGs *of the leg, to wliich it adheres clofely at
the upper part : the anterior furface of the muftle forms
the convexity on the outfide of the tibia, which is more
confiderable in llrong miifcular fubjetls. The inner flat
furface corrcfponds to tiie outer or concave furiace of the
tibia, and is attached to its upper half: the outer lurface
corrcfponds above to the extenfor 'longus digitorum pedis,
below, to the extenfor longus poUicis pedis : the anterior
tibial yeiTels and nerve being interpofcd. The pollerior
edge of the mufcle is attached to tlie upper three -fourths
of the interoifeous ligament, then it lies on the front of the
tibia, on the ankle joints, and on the up])er and inner part
of the tarfus. The upper extremity of the mufcle is fixed
to the front of the external tuberofity of the tibia ; thence it
defcends parallel to tlie tibia, firft increafuig in fize, then
diminilliing again, and ending about the lower third of the
leg in a thick and flat tendon, which defcends over the
front of the tibia, and of the ankle, confined by the fupe-
rior annular ligament of the tarfus. (See Fascia.) Hav-
ing pafTed this ligament, the tendon paflcs forwards on the
foot, then turns obliquely inwards, becoming a little
broader, over the convexity of the firft cuneiform bone,
and divides into two portions. The pofterior, which is the
largeft, is fixed to the inner and front pajt of the bafis of
that bone ; the anterior and fmaller is attached to the pof-
terior extremity of the firft metatarfal bone.

The lower part of the tibialis anticus confifts of a ftrong
tendon, which enters tlie fubilance of the mufcle, and ex-
pands into an aponeurofis reaching nearly to the upper end
of the mufcle. The flelby fibres ai-ife from the fafcia of
the leg, from the external furface of the tibia, from the
interofTcous ligament, and from an aponeurotic feptum be-
tween it and the extenfor longus digitorum. They pafs
obliquely to both furfaces of the tendon, like the barbs on
the fliaft of a feather, and are continued much lower on its
pofterior than on the anterior furface.

It bends the foot on tlie leg, and turns the point inwards :
it elevates at the fame time the whole internal edge of the
foot. It brings the leg forwards on the foot, and maintains
it in that pofition.

Tibialis Pojlicus, jambier poftcrieur, tibio-fous-tariien,
is a long narrow mufcle, thicker above than below,
placed at the back of the leg, under the calf, and extend-
ing from the upper part of the tibia and fibula to the os
naviculaie. It is covered behind by the foleus, by the
flexor longus digitorum and pollicis pedis. In front it is
attached to nearly the whole pofterior furface of the inter-
ofleous ligament, and above, to the pofterior furface of the
tibia. On the outfide it is fixed to the fibula. Its upper
extremity is divided into two portions, an external and fmaller
attached to the fibula, an internal larger to the tibia and in-
teroIFeous ligament ; they are feparated by an interval, through
which the anterior tibial artery pafles. The mufcle de-
fcends parallel to the bones of the leg, and arcuated be-
tween them, becoming larger to its middle, from which it
again diminiflies ; towards the lower part of the leg it
forms a ftrong tendon, which runs in a groove hollowed in
the external malleolus, and furrounded by a fibrous fheath,
which feparates it from the flexor longus digitorum. In
this groove the tendon becomes broader : it paffes below
the head of the aftragalus, fwelling into a hard and nearly
bony fubftance, and is attached to the lower and inner part
of the OS naviculare, and to the bafis of the firft cuneiform
bone. The inferior tendon afcends into tlie mufcle, ex-
panding into an aponeurofis, in which the fleftiy fibres are
inferted obliquely on all fides from the fibula, the tibia, the
jnterofleous ligament, and the aponeurofis, which covers it

from the flexor losgus digitonini. It extends the foot on
the leg, turning the fole and point a little inwards. It
will carry the leg backwards on the foot, when that is
fixed.

TIBICEN, in Ancient Mufic, a flute-player.
TliiiCEN, in Ichthyology, a fifli of the trivia kind, called
by many authors lyra, or the harp-jijh ; and in fome parts
of England, the piper.

The head of this fifli runs out into two broad horns,
which are ferrated, or befet with a fort of teeth, or fmall
fpines, all along their edges, which is its principal diftinc-
tion from tlie hirundo or fwallow-fifli. Above the gill-fins
it has on each fide a long and fliarp fpinc. The forehead
is elevated into a fort of eye-brows over the eyes : and at
the angles of thefe there arc fmall and (liort fpines. which
are long and crooked. The fide lines feel but very little
rough to the touch, and the forehead between the eyes is
not liollowed. The whole head is covered with a bony
cruft, which runs into two horns or fpines behind. It ha*
three fingers or filaments on each fide, from the roots of
the gill-fins ; and its jaws are rough hke files, but have no
diftinft teeth. The tail-tin, and the middle of the back,
in this fifli, arc red. It is caught in the Mediterranean,
and in fome other feas. In our county of Cornwall it is
not unfrequently caught about tlie fliores, and from the
noife it makes, when taken out of the water, is called the
piper. Ray and Willughby.

TIBIGENSE Oppidum, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Africa Propria, according to Pliny ; called Thigiba by
Ptolemy.

TIBIGI, in Geography, one of the rivers of the Brazils,
which flow into the Parana, rich in diamonds, as the few
families that five in its vicinity have rcafon to remtmber
with gratitude. Weft of this river and of Corritiva, it is
dangerous to land, fince in that direction are found the An-
thropophagi, who were driven from thefe boundaries at a
very recent period. The country to the N. abounds with
wood.

TIBILIS, in Ancient Geography, a place of Africa, dif-
tant lo leagues S.W. from Hippo Regius, and i6 miles E.
of Cirta ; where are many ruins.

TIBISCA, a town of Lower Moefia. Ptol.
TIBISCUM, one of the moll confiderable towns of
Dacia. Ptol.

TIBISCUS, a river of Dacia, which ran into the
Danube.

TIBISIS, a large river, which rofe in mount Hsemus,
and purfuing a north courfe, difcharged itfelf into the
Ifter.

TIBIUM, a mountain of Afia, in Phrygia.
TIBOELALE, in Geography, a town on the S. coaft
of the ifland of Coram. S. lat. 3° 19'. E. long. 128° 45'.
TIBOUCHINA, in Botany, an unexplained barbarous
name, Aubl. Guian. 445. t. 177. Juflf. 329. The fhrub
which bears it is fufpefted by Schreber to be a fpccies of
Melastoma. ( See that article. ) We fee no reafon to
queftion this, though Aublet defcribes the fruit as a dry
capfule ; for the known Melq/loma differ greatly in the
degree of pulp in their berries, efpecially according to tl^e
period at which they are examined.

TIBOULEN, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Medi-
terranean, near the coaft of France. N. lat. 43° 15'. E.
long. 6° 24'.

TIBOURBOU, in Botany, the Caribbean name of a
fine tree of Guiana and Cayenne, called Apelba Tibour-
iou in Aubl. Guian. 538. t. 213. See Aubletia and
Sloanea.

4 I 2 TIDRA-

T 1 B

TIBRACANA, m /Incuni Geography, a town of Alia,
i;; Uie interior of Media. Ptol.

TIBULA, orTiBLL.i^, a town fituated on the northern
coaft of iko illand of Sardinia. Ptol. Iter. Anton.

TIBULLUS, Albii-s, in Biography, a Roman poet
of the Auguftan age. of the cqueftrian rank, whofe native
place and time of birth are not afcertained. His patri-
mony wai much impaired, either by his own prodigality,
or by the de vallation of feveral wars ; but yet he does
not (ecm to have been diltinguidied by any tokens of the
liberality of Augullus and Mxccnas, the munificent patrons
of literature at the period in which he lived ; nor does he
mention tlieir names in any of his poems. M. Valerius
Meflala Corvi.ius, upon whom he compofed a panegyric,
\va» his particular friend and patron, whom he accompanied
in his expeditions to Alia ; but he preferred peace and re-
tirement in the fociety of one of thofe objefts of his affec-
tion whom he has celebrated in his elegies. Horace, with
whom he was intim.ite, has adJrcfTcJ to him an ode and an
cpittle, comphmenting him as a candid judge of his writings,
and delcribing him as potTefled of every worldly advantage.
It has been inferred, from an epigram of Domitius Marfus,
that he died about the fame time with Virgil, B.C. 19, in
the flower of his age. Ovid lamented his death in a beau-
tiful elegy, rcprefenting his mother and filler as mourners
at Kis funeral, and fpeaking of him as a poet of the highefl.
reputation.

The poems of TibuUus are elegies comprifed in three
books, and a panegyric of MelTala. His fame is founded
on his elegies, which arc dcfcribed by one of his biogra-
phers as occupying, by thcteltimony of ancient and modem
critics, the firll clafs of fuch compofitions with regard to
" the appropriate qualities of elegance, tendernefs, and that
beautiful fimphcity, which is the charafter of real feeling."
Their principal fubjefts are " love and rural life." With
his defcription of a paffion which is illicit, he has blended
" more touches of a pure, and what may be termed a con-
jugal affeftion, than almoft any other Roman poet. His
language is a true example of what the Latins call terfe,
or neat and pohfhed. He is eafy and natural, with fcarcely
any mixture of learned allafion or figure." His works are
ufually printed with thofe of Catullus and Propertius ; but
of the feparate editions, the moll efteemed are thofe of
Brookhufius, Amft. 1708, 4to. ; of Vulpius, Patav. 1749,
4to. ; and of Heyne, Lipf. 1755, 1777, 8vo. Gen.
Biog.

TIBUR, TlvoLl, in ^indent Geography, a town of
Italy, near the Anio, N.E. of Rome, in the country of
the Sabines. Pliny refers its origin to the age which pre-
ceded the fiege of Troy, and fays that its founder was
Tiburnus, one of the fons of Amphiariis, aflifted by his
two brothers, Catille and Corax. This Tiburnus was re-
garded after his death as a god ; and was worfhipped in a
wood confecrated to him, and where a temple v/as erefted
to his honour. But Dionyfius Halicarnaffenfis pretends
that it was built by the Sicuh, before this epocha. For
its fituation, and feme other circumftances attending it, we
refer to the article Tivon.

Horace has dcfcribed in a few lines the beauties which
he admired in contemplating this ancient city, Od. 7. lib. i.
" Nothing," fays the poet, " ftruck me fo much as the houfe
of the relounding Albunea, the lofty cafcade of the Anio,
the facred wood of Tiburiuis, and the gardens irrigated by
unintermitting fuppliesof water." The " domus Albunea:
refonantis" of the poet was the folfatara or fulphureous
abyfs of the place, probably the crater of feme ancient
volcano, which perpetually difcharged a kind of gas or

TIC

mephitic v.ipour, that was thought to poffefs a fanative
quality, and to be a remedy for many diforders. Many
perfons reforted hither for relief; and Suetonius informs us,
that Auguftus alio came for the benefit of the baths
which the place afforded. Thefe benefits were afcribed to
imaginary deities, who were thought to prefide over this
privileged fpot. Accordingly, a monument has been dif-
covered, which indicated that Hygeia, the goddefs of
health, was worfhipped here. The vapour poffeffed alfo 3.
kind of infpiring quality, fo that here was a temple of the
Mufes ; and alfo, befides various other monuments, a temple
in which was an oracle. Virgil informs us how this oracle
was confuked. The " prsceps Anio" of Horace refers to
the cafcade of this river. The gardens and vineyards have
to this day retained their celebrity ; the wine of this canton
being held in high eftimation.

Tibur was alfo famous for its temple of Hercules, which
had its college of priefts and curator; a beautiful portico,
where, according to Suetonius, Auguftus adminiilered juf-
tice when he refided here ; and an excellent library of whicli
Aulus Gellius fpeaks in his " Noftes Atticx." Tibur
had alfo a temple of the Sibyl, much admired for its elt-
gance. This place was alfo famous for other monumentr,
now in ruins. Towards the end of the Roman republic,
the adjoining territory was felefted for fuperb buildings and
houfes of various kinds, all diftinguilhed by their magni-
ficence and beauty. Of thefe, the Tiburnus of Adrian was
the moft colebrated.

TIBURO, in Ichthyology, a fifh very badly and falfely
dcfcribed by feveral authors, and proving, on a ftridl in-
quiry, to be no other than the lamia or vvfhite fhark.

The tiburo of Linnasus is a fpecies of fqualus, with a
very broad and heart-(haped head, found in the American
feas. Linnaeus queries, whether it is not a variety of the
zygisna, or hammer-headed fiiark.

TIBURON, in Geography, a town and bay on the S.W.
coaft of Hifpaniola, near Cape Tiburon. — Alfo, a fmall
ifland in the Pacific ocean, difcovered by Magellan in 1520.
It is varioufly laid down in maps. S. lat. 9°, 13°, 14°, 15°,
and 17°.

TIBURONES, or Main Cape Reef, two fmall idands,
furrounded with rocks, near the coaft of Honduras. N. lat.
15° 10'. W. long. 82'' 8'.

TICADEE, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Ruttunpour ; 15 miles N. of Dumdah.

TICAL, in Commerce, a weight for gold and filver, and
alfo a money of account in certain parts of the Eaft Indies,
particularly at Pegu and Siam. At Pegu, the weight of
filver, under this denomination, is divided into 16 toques or
touch. Gold and filver are here vv-eighed by the tical, and
their finenefs is exprefTed by the parts called touch. The
tical weighs 45 pagodas, or 2373- Englilh grains. The
commercial weights are the vis of 100 ticals or tuals, and
the candy of 100 vis. From the above weight of the tical,
the candy (hould weigh 5085 lbs. ; neverthelefs the English
reckon it at 6 maunds 28 feers of the Bengal faftory, or
500 lbs. avoirdupois.

At Siam, the accounts are kept in catties, tales, ticals or
tuals, miams, fouangs, and cowries. The catty is =: 20
tales, the tale :.= 4 ticals =16 miams := 32 fouangs; and
the fouang is = 800 cowries. The coins are gold ticals,
which pafs for ten filver ticals ; filver ticals, miams, fouangs,
and fompeias, the latter being the fourth part of a fouang.
The filver tical weighs 225^ Engliih grains, and being from
II oz. 4 dwt. to II oz. 12 dwt. fine, is worth from zgj.
to 30</. fterbng ; but thefe coins are often adulterated ;
2 ticals pafs commonly for i Spanifh dollar, and 2| ticals for

1 Dutch
4

T I C

T I C

1 Dutch ducatoon. The finenefs of gold and filver is ex-
prefled by toques or touch, the weiejht being divided into
I CO parts. The pccul, or weight for heavy goods, is =
50 catties, and the catty — 20 tales — 80 ticals. The
Siam pecul weighs 129 lbs. avoirdupois, and the catty,
41 oz. 4^ dwt. avoirdupois.

TICANONA, Tacona, Jcanona or Jcatona, in Ancient
Geography, a town of Egypt, between Cese and Oxyryn-
chon. Itin. Anton.

TICAO, in Geography, one of the Philippine iflands,
about 25 miles long, and from 3 to 8 broad. N. lat. 12° 39'.
E. long. 123° 34'.

TICENA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa Propria,
S. of Carthage, between the rivers Bagradas and Triton.
Ptol.

TICENGO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the de-
partment of the Upper Po ; 6 miles E. of Crema.

TICHASA, Te-Gewse, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Africa Propria, S. of Carthage, between the rivers
Bagradas and Triton, 12 leagues S.W. of Capfa : in which
are fome veftiges of the Romans. Ptol.

TICHENBRAY, in Geography. See TiNCHEBRAY.

TICHFIELD, a village of England, in the county of
Hants, fituated on a river which runs into the Southampton
Water. Here Charles I. concealed himfelf, when he fled
from Hampton-Court, in the year 1674, 3' ^ ^^^^ °f ^^ ^^''^
of Southampton. This feat had been an abbey, and is faid
to be the place where the marriage of Henry VI. with
Margaret of Anjou was folemnized ; 8 miles N.W. of
Gofport — Alio, a town of Jamaica, on the N. coafl ; 22
miles N.E. of Kingfton. N. lat. 18° 12'. W. long.
76° 10'.

TICHIS, in Ancient Geography, a river which flowed
from the Pyrenees, now Tech, in the department of the
Eaftern Pyrenees.

TICHIUM, a town of Greece, in Etolia. Thucydides.

TICHOS, or TicHus, a fortrefs of Achaia, in the
eaftern part to the S. of the promontory Araxum.

TICINDLO, or Maviglio Grande, in Geography, a canal
made from the river Tefmo to the city of Milan, by order
of Francis I. king of France.

TICINUM, PaVIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Tranfpadane Gaul to the S.W. upon the river Ticinus, or
near it. After the fecond Punic war, it attained the rank
of municipal. Odoacer, king of the Heruli, deftroyed it,
and it was rebuilt under the name of Papia, whence the
name Pavia.

TICINUS, Tesin, a river of Tranfpadane Gaul, wliich
commenced in the country of the Lepontii, traverfed the
lake Verbanus, and difcharged itfelf into the Po, near
Ticinum. It is celebrated for a battle of the fame name,
between the Romans, condufted by Cornelius /Scipio, the
father of Scipio Africanus, and the Carthaginians, con-
dufted by Hannibal, in the year of Rome 535, in which
the Romans were defeated.

TICK, in Natural Hijlory, a nafty little animal of a livid
colour, with a blunt and roundifli tail, elevated antenna, a
globofe -ovate form, and full of blood ; which infefts cows,
fwine, goats, flieep, and dogs. The tick or ricinus is, in
the Linnsean fyftem, a fpecies of acarus in the aptera order
of infefts.

In order to deftroy and remove thefe noxious vermin,

which fpread very rapidly in fiieep, it has been recommended

to fepa-ate the wool, and to wafli the difeafed fpots two

or »^ree times, or oftener, if neceflary, with a liquid pre-

I ^yaration, confifting of one ounce of cream of tartar, and a

quarter of a pound of bay-falt, each finely powdered and
fifted, and one ounce of corrofive fublimate, reduced into the
fame ftate; the whole being well diffolvcd and mixed toge-
ther in two quarts of foft water : or four pounds of foft
fo.-ip, and two pounds of arfcnic, may be ftccped and dif-
folved in tliirty gallons of water, and the animals be im-
merfed in the mfiifion or folution, the heads of them being
carefully kept above water, and the (heep being fheltered
from rain for one or two days afterwards. The wool muft
be clofely prcfTcd, and the liquor that runs off be caught in
a tub, or other veflel, for future ufe. The proportion above
fpecified, is fufficient to bathe or wafh forty lambs, or the
fame number of fmall fheep ; and fometimes many more.

But the preparation which is in ufe at Holkham-Hall, in
the county of Norfolk, for this purpofe, confifts of two
pounds of tobacco, two pounds and a half of foft foap, and
one pound of the white calx of mercury, well reduced into
powder ; tlie whole being boiled in eight gallons of water
for an hour This is a quantity fufficient for dreffing fixty
(heep, being applied by parting the wool down the (houlders
and breaft, and twice on each of the fides of the (heep, then
pouring it in very carefully fo as to prevent its being wafted.
It is faid to be very effeftual not only in deftroying the
vermin, but in removing the fcabby fores that are pro-
duced.

It is ftated in a paper in the third volume of the " Tran-
faftions of the Highland Society of Scotland," that the
tick, or acarus reduvius, is a diftinft fpecies or fort of vermin
of this kind from that of the kid, or hippobofca ovina, the
former of which haralTes the lambs and trembling (heep in
the fpring feafon, while the latter molefts all forts and ages,
but particularly hogs or young (heep, and chiefly fuch as
are in a lean ftate. The former always adheres clofe to
the bare fpots of the (houlders, thighs, or ears, draining
and drawing away the blood from them ; and for the molt
part drops off about midfummer : but the latter har-
bours in the wool, bites the (heep, and fucks their blood.
Smearing with tar, it is faid, expels it from the (liin, and it
foon afterwards drops from the wool. Tobacco-juice is
fatal to it almoft inftantaneoufly, and mercurial ointment
deftroys it. The former, or tick, is removed by the fame
remedies as the kid, and it is wholly prevented by having
the young (heep in good condition. This diiliiiftion, in
fome cafes, may be of confiderable ufe to the (heep-farmer
in the deftruftion and removal of fuch hurtful vermin.

Tick, in the Manege, a habit that fome horfes take of
prefling their teeth againft the manger, or all along the
halter or collai", as if they would bite it.

TlCK-Bean, or Ticks, in Agriculture, a term commonly
apphed to the fmall bean employed in the feeding of horfes
and other animals ; of which there are feveral kinds, as the
common ticks, the large flat ticks, the fmall or EfTex ticks,
and the French ticks. The firft is a fort which is fmall and
very commonly cultivated, but moft generally by the farmers
of Kent, where they are ufed for the fattening of hogs, and
as food for horfes, efpccially thofe of the team kind. The
fecond is a larger fort than the common, and ripens fome-
what more early. They are very produftive in fome cafes ;
but from being larger in fize, they of courfe arc l"fs heavy,
and confequently of rather lefs value the quarter or any
other meafure. They are fometimes called May beans.
The EflTex ticks are a much fmaller fort than the common,
and of a rounder (liape or form. They ripen a few days
later, and are not fo produftive, but are 11. ore valuable, as
being heavier in proportion. The lall fort, or fmall French
ticks, are a ilill lefs kind, being only about as large as a
middling-fized pea, and nearly circular. They ripen later

than

T I C

,ha.. any of ll.c otl.er forts, but aix- the mod valuable when
drr. on account of their gn-at weight. . .

Ticks .ire an important article of ctikivation in molt
plaeps, «vh-r.- thr hnJ is f.ritcd to their growth ; and tlu.ugh
ihet havr Wf. for .1 Ion- time, and are at prcfent, almoit
trhoify confined to the counties of EfTex and Kent, they
may be raifed in many Crther dillrias vnth equal fuccefs and

T1CK.ARRY, in Gtography, a town of Hmdooftan, in
Bnhar; 15 miles N.W. of Gaya. N. lat. 24° 58'. L.

long. K,-".

TICKELL, Thomas, in Biography, an Enghfli poet,
was the fon of a clergyman in Cumberland, and born at
Dridcktrk, near Carline, in the year 1686. He was ad-
mitted at Queen's college, Oxford, in 1701 ; and m 1707 he
publilhcd a poem, entitled " Oxford," and infcribed it to
lord Lonfdale, cxprcffing his gratitude to that univerhty.
In 1708 he took his degree of M.A., and two years after
was cleacd a fellow of his college, under a difpenfation
from the crown againll the ftatnte wliich required him to be
in orders. With a view of advancement by the exercife of his
literary talents, he came to the metropolis, and ingratiated
himfelf with Addifon by an elegant copy of verfes in praife
of his opera of Rofamond. He contributed to the periodi-
cal publications of the " Spcftator" and " Guardian," in
the latter of which, all the papers on paftoral poetry, except
one by Pope, are afcribed to him. During the negotiations
which terminated in the peace of Utrecht, he pubhihed a
very popular poem, entitled «' The Profpeft of Peace,"
which was highly commended by Addifon, in return for
whii:h commendation he wrote his lines on the " Cato" of
that author. On the acceflion of the Hanover family, to
which he was attached, he prcfentcd George I. on his arrival
with a piece caOed " The Royal Progrefs ;" and he ferved
the caufe ftill more elTeftually by two fatirical poems on the
Jacobite party, viz. " An Imitation of the Prophecy of
Nereus," and " An Epiftle from a Lady in England to a
Gentleman at Avignon." Tickcll accompanied Addifon
to Ireland, and was tiiere initiated in public bufinefs with a
view to future preferment. On occafion of Pope's pub-
lication of the firft volume of liis trandation of Homer's
Ibad, Tickcll publifhcd a tranflation of the firft book of
that poem, which was patronifed by Addifon, fo as to occa-
fion an interruption of his friendfliip with Pope. When
Addifon was made fecrctary of flate, TickeU was under-
fccretary, and continued in office under his fucceffor Craggs.
On the death of Addifon, TickeU was entrufted with the
charge of publiihing his works, to which he prefixed a
valuable life of the author. In 1725 he was appointed to
the lucrative poft of fecretary to the lords-jufticesof Ireland,
and retained it till his death, which happened at Bath in
1740. Tickell liad been married and left a family.

Tickcll is ranked by his biograpliers^mong Engiifh poets
of the feeond order ; equalled by few of his contemporaries
in eloquence of diftion and harmony of verfification, and
without lofty flights maintaining a decent elevation by a
cultured ftyle, and by juft and ingenious thoughts. His
funeral poem on Addifon is pronounced by Dr. Johnfon to
be more fiiblimc and elegant than any that is to be found in
the whole compafs of Englifli literature. His " Ode to
the Earl of Sunderland," and his « Colin and Lucy," are
highly commended.

Richard Tickcll, efq. a grandfon of this poet, who was a
commiflioner of the ftamp-office, has been known to the
Kterary world by his " Wreath of Fafhion," and efpecially
by an effufion of political art and fatire, entitled " Anti-
cipations of the Debates of the Houfe of Commons," 1778.

TIC

He died at Hampton Court in 1793. Johnfon and Ander-
fon's Lives of the Poets. Gen. Biog.

TICKELY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
circar of Cicacole ; 30 miles N.E. of Cicacole. N. lat.
18" 36'. E. long. 84° 34'.

TICKERA, a pafte which is prepared in Fezzan from
dates and the meal of Indian corn, and which, whenever they
travel, is in great requeft among the people ot Fezzan.

TIC KE REE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Oude ; 48 miles N.E. of Mamckpour.

TICKHILL, a market -town in the lower divifion of the
wapentake of Straftord-and-Tickhill, in the Weil Riding
of the county of York, England; is 4 miles W. from
Bawtry, 7 miles S. from Doncafter, and 154 miles N. by
W. from London. The houfes arc placed in a valley, and
cover a large fpace of ground. Some of them are of brick,
and others of Hone : a few of them are refpeftable, but the
more numerous have only a mean appearance. A market
is held on Fridays, but is nearly fallen into difufe. A fair
is kept annually for horfes, horned cattle, and (heep. The
population return of the year 18x1, ftates that Tickhill
contained 1508 inhabitants, who occupied 279 houfes. The
objefts moil worthy of attention are the church, and the re-
mains of an ancient caille. The former is a fpacious edifice,
with a lofty and beautiful tower, and from its arcliitefture
feems to have been built in the reign of Henry III. The
caftle, of which nothing now remains but the lofty mound
on wliich the keep formerly flood, with a ditch and part
of the walls furrounding the fortrefs, isfituated on the fouth
fide of the town. An ancient gateway, forming the en-
trance on the weftern fide, is the moft curious part of the
ruins. Part of thefe, with modern repairs and additions, i&
the feat of the honourable Frederick Lumley. A great
part of the ground within the walls is converted into gardens
and (lirubberies. The lleep declivity of the mound is
formed into winding walks, leading by a gentle afcent to
the fummit.

The hiflory of Tickhill prior to the Norman conquefb is
wholly unknown. It appears to have been one of the fortv-
nine manors given by the Conqueror to Roger de Bufli, wliu
probably ercfted and refided in the caftle. It was after-
wards fucceffively held by feveral noblemen, till Richard II.
gave it to his uncle, John of Gaunt, duke of L,ancafter,
from whom it paffed to the crown by the fucceffion of
Henry IV. In the year 1 644 the caftle was regarded as a
very ftrong fortrefs, and was garrifoned for Charles I. ; but
being furrendered to the parliament, an order was iflued that
it fhould be difmantled and rendered untenable. The pr-
cular keep was in confequence demolilhed, but the founda-
tions may ftill be traced by opening the ground. A royal
free chapel or collegiate church was founded in the caftle by
queen Eleanor, wife of Henry II. It was given by king
John to the prebends of the cathedral church of Rouen in
Normandy. It was afterwards granted to the prior and
convent of Lenton, Nottinghamfhire ; and in 1504 to the
abbot and convent of St. Peter, Weftminfter. After
the dilTolution it was given by Edward VI. to Francis, earl
of Shrewsbury.

About two miles and a half from Tickhill is Sandbeck>
the feat of the earl of Scarborough. The manfion, built
by the late earl, is a large and commodious edifice, feated in
a fpacious park, which abounds with foreft trees ; and is
adorned with an extenfive lake. Near the weftern verge of
the park, are the venerable and pi<Sturefque ruins of Roche
abbey, which was founded in the year 1 147, for monks of
the Ciftercian order. Here is a famous quarry, from whiclw

the''

T I C

T I D

the ftone for building the abbey, and for many otlier public
edifices, was obtained.

About five miles nearly S. from Ticlchill is Walding
Well, the feat of fir Thomas White, bart. The houfe is a
modern edifice, fituated in a well-wooded park of confider-
able extent, and ftands partly in Yorklhire and partly in
Nottinghamfliire ; a fmall rivulet, which runs under a part
of the out-buildings, forming the boundary between tiie
two comities. In the park was formerly a priory of nuns,
called St. Mary in the Park, founded by Ralph de Cheurol-
court. This religious houfe appears to have ftood within

the limits of Nottinghamfliire Beauties of England and

Wales, vol.xvi. Yorklhire ; by J. Bigland.

TICKING, or TiCHiXG, in Hujbnndry, denotes the
aft of fetting- up turfs in fuch a manner as that they may
be dried bv the fun, and fit for being burnt into allies on
the land.

TICKLE Harbour, in Geography, a harbour on the E.
coall of Newfoundland.

Tickle me Ouickly, a bay on the coaft of Darien, near the
Samballas.

TICKLISH, in the Manege. A horfe is faid to be
ticklifh that is too tender upon the fpur, and too fenfible,
that does not freely fly the fpurs, but in fome meafurc
refills them, throwing himfelf up when they come near and
prick his fkin. A ticklifh horfe has fomewhat of the
ramingues, :'. e. the kickers againil the Ipurs ; but with this
difference, that the latter put back, leap, and kick, andyerk
out behind, in difobeying the fpurs ; whereas a ticklifh
horfe only refills for fome time, and afterwards obeys, and
goes much better, through the fear of a vigorous ham, when
he finds the horfeman ftretch his leg, than he does upon
being aftually pricked.

TICKS AH, in Geography, a river of America, in the
Miffiflippi territory, which rifes lo miles N.E. of the forks
of the Amite, and when it enters Well Florida, is a creek
of trivial fize ; it then becomes gradually augmented by
feveral creeks, and after a S. courfe of 50 miles, falls into lake
Maurepas, 4 miles N.E. of the mouth of Amite. Three miles
above its mouth the Tickfah receives from the E. the united
ftreajns of the Notalbany and Pontchatoola, upon the latter
of which ftands Springfield, on the road from Madifonville
to Natchez. Springfield is one of the landing places of
travellers, who pafs in fchooners from New Orleans to
Natchez. The above-mentioned Amite rifes within the
Miffidlpi territory, about 20 miles N. of the town of
Liberty, in Amite county. The two llreams that confti-
tute the Amite, remain feparate in their courfe through the
Miffiffipi territory, but unite immediately on entering Well
Florida, and then it joins the Iberville, and falls after a whole
courfe of 100 miles into the lake Maurepas. Below the
junftion of Amite and Iberville, the united ilreams form
a fine navigable river, admitting velfels of fix feet draught.

TICKSEED SuN-FLOWER. See Coreopsis, and Sun-
flower.

TICOLEA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bahar ; 7 miles N. of Bettiah. N. lat. 26° 55'. E. long.
84° 38'.

TICOLOOSA,atownoftlie United States of America,
in Tenneffee ; 38 miles S. of Knoxville.

TICONDEROGA, a townlbip of Effex county, in
the ftate of New York, erecled in 1804. It is bounded N.
by Crown Point, E. on lake Champlain, S. by Wafhington
county, W. by Scroon, and includes the N. end of lake
George. Mount Defiance is in the S. part of this town-
lbip. In 1810 it had about two hundred families, and
^irty.five fenatorial eleftors : feven faw-mills, three grain-

mills, three forges, three cardine-engines, and fome other
machines, and three fchool-houles. Here is alfo a broom
machine, in which, by means of machinery moved with water,
one man makes a hundred brooms a day. The inhabitants
are moflly farmers.

In this townfliip ftands the fortrefs of Ticonderoga, now
a heap of ruins. It was built by the French in 1756, On
a point of land formed by tlio JunAion of laki- George
creek witii lake Champlain, in N. lat. 43° 50', and 34' E.
long, from New York. It was, both by nature and art, a
place of great ftreiurth. On three fides it is furrounded by
water, and about half the other fide is occupied by a deep
fwamp, and the line of defence was completed by the
French with tlie ereftion of a breaft-work nine feet high,
on tlie only ad'ailable ground. In 1758, general Abercrombie
with the Britifli army unfucccfsfuUy affailed this fortrefs,
and with the lofs, as it is faid, of 1941 men ; but in July of
the following year it was furrendered to general Amherft.
It was the fird fortrefs carried by the arms of America, in
their conteft for independence ; being taken by furprife by
general AUen, May 10, 1775, and retained till July 1777,
when it was evacuated at the approach of general Burgoyne
with the Britifh army. This fort is never likely to be re-
built ; for the fituation is very infecurc, being commanded
by the lofty hill called Mount Defiance. Mount Indej>end-
ence hes on the E. fide of the lake, about two miles S.E. of
tlie fort, between which two plac<;s there is a well-regiJated
ferry. The population of the townfhip, in 18 10, confifled
of 985 perfons.

TICOO, a town oil the W. coaft of Sumatra, near the
Line. E. long. 99^ 21'.

Ticoo IJliuids, a clufter of fmall iflands near the W.
coaft of Sumatra. S. lat. 0° 6'. E. long. 99° 13'.

TICORANTE, a town of the ifland of Teneriffe.

T ICO RE A, in Botany, a name of Aublet's. Sec

OZOJ'IIVLI.U.M.

TICOS, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Pacific
ocean, near the E. coaft of the ifland of Lu^on. N. lat.
14° 10'. E. long. 124'^.

TICOUL HoTU.v, a town of Corea; 450 miles E.N.E.
of Peking.

TICOUR, a town of France, in the department of the
Mofelle ; 6 miles N.W. of Morhange.

TICSAN, a town of Peru, in the jurifdiftion of
Cuen^a.

TICUARIN, the name of the ifland of Goa, before the
city was built.

TICUNAS, Polfon of, is an aclive poifon prepared by
the native Indians, on the borders of the river of the Ama-
zons, in tliree or four degrees of fouth latitude, which,
together with that of Lamas, Pevas, and Yameos, is ex-
trafted by fire from plants, called by the French lianes,
and ufed in poifoning their arrows. See an account of
the nature and effefts of thefe poifons by M. HerifTant,
in Phil. Tranf. vol. xlvii. art. 12. and by M. Fontana,
in Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixx. part i. Append, art. 2. ; and
alfo Fontana fur les Poifons, &c. Florence, 4to. See alfo
Poison.

TIDE, or TiDi, in Geography, a river of England,
which paffes by St. Germains, and runs into the Hamoaze
below Saltafh.

Tide, the fame with time, or feafon. The word is
originally Saxon, t'ld ; which fignifies the fame.

Tide, among Miners, denotes the fpace of twelve
hours.

Tide, Shrove. See Shrove.

Tide, Twelfth. See Twelfth.

Tide-

TIDES.

TioK, Whiifun. Sec Whitsun-TV,*-.
TIDES, two periodical motions of the waters of the fea ;
called alfo thf/ux and reflux, or the ebb and/ow.

When tlie motion of the water is againll tlic wind, it i3
called a ■wind-war J-tide : when wind and tide go in the fame
diredion, lenuarJ-iiJ.' : when it runs very ftiong, it is called
a liJe-gttte.

T» tuU a over or up into anyplace, is to go in witli the tide,
rither ebb or flood, as long as that lafts ; then to Hay at
anchor all the time of contrary tide ; and thus to fct in
again with the return of the next tide.

It is faid loflcw-tide and half-tide, allowing fix hours to
a tide, when the tide runs throe hours in the offing longer
than it does by the (liore ; but, by longer, tliey do not
mean its running more hours ; but that, if it be high
water a-ftiore at twelve, it will not be fo in the offing till
three. An hour and a half longer make tide and quarter-
tide, three-fourths of an hour longer make tide and half-
quarter tide, &c.

When the moon is in the firft and third quarter, i. e.
when (he is new and full, the tides are high and fwift, and
are called fpring-iidet : when (he is in the fecond and lall
quarter, the tides are lower and flower, and called neap-
tides.

Tides, Phenomena of the. The fea is obferved to flow,
for certain hours, from fouth towards north ; in which mo-
tion, or flux, which lafts about fix hours, the fea gradually
fwells : fo that, entering the mouths of rivers, it drives
back the river -waters toward their heads, or fprings.

After a continual flux of fix hours, the fea feems to reft
for about a quarter of an hour ; after which it begins to
ebb or retire back again from north to fouth, for fix hours
more ; in which time, tlie water finking, the rivers refume
their natural courfe. Then, after a teeming paufe of a
quarter of an hour, the fea again begins to flow, as before ;
and thus alternately.

Thus does the fea ebb twice a day, and flow as often ;
but not in the fame hours. The period of a flux and re-
flux is 12 hours 50^ minutes ; fo that the tides return
later and later each day by 505 minutes, which is the ex-
cefs of a lunar day above a folar one, fince 285 lunar days
are nearly equal 295 folar ones. So that the fea flows as
often as the moon palTes the meridian, both the arc above,
and that below the horizon ; and ebbs as often as flie pafTes
the horizon, both the eaftern and weftern point of it.

This farther agreement we obferve between the moon
and the fea, that the tides, though conftant, are not equal ;
but are greateft, when the moon is in conjunftion or op-
pofition to the fun, or at the time of new and full moon ;
and leaft, when in quadrature to it. This increafe and di-
minution conftitute the fpring and neap tides : the augmenta-
tion becomes alfo ftill more obfervable when the moon is in
its perigee, or neareft the earth. The loweft as well as the
higheft water is at the time of the fpring-tides : the neap-
tides neither rife fo high nor fall fo low.

Laftly, thofe tides are the greateft, which happen in the
new and full moon, and the time of the equinoxes, while
the moon is in its perigee. Thefe tides are often ftill more
increafed by the equinoftial winds, which are fometimes fo
powerful as to produce a greater tide before or after the
equinox than that which happens in the ufual courfe, at the
time of the equinox itfelf.

Add, that the fame things are obferved throughout moft
ot the coafts of Europe ; only that the tides are fo much
the Icfs, and happen the later, as the coafts are the more
northerly.

Thefe phenomena of the tides arc admirably accounted

for, from the principle of gravitation. All we require to
their folution is, that the earth and moon, and every particle
of them, mutually gravitate towards each other : the rea-
fonablenefs of which alFumption, fee under the article
Gravity.

Indeed the fagacious Kepler, long ago, conjeftured this to
be the caufe of the tides : " If," lays he, " the earth ceafed
to attraft its waters towards itfelf, all the water in the
ocean would rife and flow into the moon : the fphcre of thc
moon's attraftion extends to our earth, and draws up the
water." Thus thought Kepler, in his Introd. ad Theor.
Mart. This furmife, for it was then no more, is now
abundantly verified in the following theory, firft amply de-
duced by Dr. Hallcy from the Newtonian principles.

However, we may obferve with M. de la Lande (Aftro-
nomie, vol. iv. Paris, 1781.) that feveral of the ancients,
and among others, Pliny, Ptolemy, and Macrobius, were
acquainted with the influence of the fun and moon upon
the tides. And Pliny fays exprefsly, that the caufe of
the ebb and flow is in the fun, which attradls the waters of
the ocean ; and adds, that the waters rife in proportion to
the proximity of the moon to the earth.

Tides, Theory of the. — I. It is obvious, that if the earth
were entirely fluid, and quiefcent, its particles, by their
mutual gravity towards each other, would form themfelves
into the figure of an exadt fphere.

Suppofe, then, that fome power afts on all the particles
of this earth with an equal force, and in parallel direftions,
the whole mafs will be moved by fuch a power, but its
figure will fufFer no alteration by it ; becaufe all the par-
ticles, being equally moved by this power in parallel lines,
they will ftill keep the fame fituation with refpeft to each
other, and ftill form a fphere, whofe centre will have the
fame motion as each particle. Upon this fuppofition, if the
motion of the earth round the common centre of gravity
of the earth and moon were deftroyed, and the earth were
left to the influence of its gravitation toward the moon,
the earth falling toward the moon would ftill retain its
fpherical figure ; all the parts being equally carried on, and
retaining therefore the fame fituation with refpeft to each
other. But the effedls of the moon's aftion, as well as the
aftion itfelf, on different parts of the earth, are unequal,
at all places within the angular diftance of 79^° from the
line paiTing through the attrafting body, either in the
nearer or in the remoter hemifphere : thofe parts, by the
general law of gravity, being moft attrafted which are
neareft the moon, and thofe being leaft attrafted which are
fartheft from the moon ; while the parts that are at a middle
diftance, are attraAed by a mean degree of force ; befides,
all the parts are not afted on in parallel lines, but in lines
dircfted towards the centre of the moon ; and on thefe
accounts the fpherical figure of the earth muft fufFer forae
change from the moon's aftion.

Suppofing the earth to fall towards the moon, and ab-
ftrafting from the mutual gravitation of its parts towards
each other, and alfo from their cohefion ; it wiU eafily ap-
pear, that the parts neareft the moon would fall with the
fwifteft motion, being moft attradled, and that they would
leave the centre or greater bulk of the earth behind them
in their fall, while the more remote parts would fall with
the floweft motion, being lefs attrafted than the reft, and
be left a little behind the bulk of the earth, fo as to be
found at a greater diftance from the centre of the earth
than at the beginning of the motion. Whence it is mani-
feft, that the earth would foon lofe its fpherical figure, Si^.d
form itfelf into an oblong elliptic fpheroid, whofe longeft
diameter would point at the centre of the moon.

If

TIDES.

If the particles of the earth did not gravitate towai-d
C3ch other, but toward the moon only, the dillances be-
Tvvixt tlie parts of the cjrth that are fuppoicd to be neareit
the moon, and the central parts, would continually increafc,
becaufe of their greater celerity in falling ; and the dillancc
betwixt the central parts, and tlie parts that arc fartheft.
from the moon, would increafe continually at the fame
time ; thefe being left behind by tiie central paits, which
they would follow, but with a lefs velocity. Thus the
figure of the earth would become more and more oblong,
tiiat diameter of it which pointed toward the moon conti-
nually increafing.

But there is another reafon why the earth would foon
aiTunie an oblong fpheroidal form, if its parts were allowed
to fall freely by their gravity towards the moon's centre ;
for the lateral parts of the eartii, or thofc which arc at the
diftance of a quarter of a circle from the point which is
direftly below the moon, and the central parts defcending
with eqn.il velocities toward the fame point, viz. the centre
of the moon, in approaching to it, would manifeftly ap-
proach, at the fame time, to each other ; and their diftance
becoming lefs, the diameters of the earth paffing through
them would be diminifhed, fo that the diameters of the
earth that point toward the moon would increafe, and thofe
diameters of the earth that are perpendicular to the line
joining the centres of the earth and moon, would decrcafe
at tlie fame time, and render the figure of the earth ftill
more oblong for this reafon.

Let us now allow the parts of the earth to gravitate to-
wards its centre ; and, as this gravitation far exceeds the
aftion of the moon, and much more exceeds the differences
of her aftions on different parts of the earth, the effeft re-
fulting from the inequalities of thefe aftions of the moon,
will be only a fmall diminution of the gravity of thofe parts
of the earth which it endeavoured in the former fuppofition
to feparate from its centre, and a fmall addition to the
gravity of thofe parts which it endeavoured to bring nearer
to its centre ; that is, thofe parts of the earth which arc
neareft to the moon, and thofe which are fartheft from her,
will have their gravity toward the earth fomewhat abated ;
whereas the lateral parts will have their gravity increafed ;
fo that if the earth be fuppoled fluid, the columns from
the centre to the neareft, and to the fartheft parts muft
rife, till, by their greater height, they be able to balance
the other columns, whofe gravity is either not fo much
diminifhed, or is increafed by the inequalities of the aftion
of the moon. And thus the figure of the earth muft ftill
be an oblong fpheroid.

Let us now confider the earth, inftead of falling toward
the raoon by its gravity, as projefted in any direftion, fo as
to move round the centre of gravity of the earth and
moon ; it is manifeft, that the gravity of each particle to-
ward the moon will endeavour to bring it as far from the
tangent, in any fmall moment of time, as if the earth were
allowed to fall freely toward the moon ; in the fame man-
ner as any projeftile, at our earth, falls from the line of
projeftion as far as it would fall by its gravity in the per-
pendicular in the fame time. Confequently the parts of the
earth neareft to the moon will endeavour to fall fartheft
from the tangent, and thofe fartheft from the moon will en-
deavour to fall leaft from the tangent, of all parts of the
earth ; and the figure of the earth, therefore, will be the
fame as if the earth fell freely toward the moon ; that is,
the earth will ftill afFeft a fpheroidal form, having its longeft
diameter direfted toward the moon.

In order to underftand this theory, it muft be carefully
confidered, that it is not the aftion of the moon, but the
Vol,. XXXV.

inequalities in that a^ion, tliat produce any variation from
the fpherical ficure ; and that if this aftion were the fame
in all the particles as in the central parts, and operating in
the fame direftion, no fiich change would enfue.

For the farther illuftration of the preceding obfervations,
we muft perceive that the waters at Z [Plate I. Grot^raphy,
fig. lo.) on the fide of the earth ABCDEFGH, next
to the moon M, are more attraftcd than the central parts
of the eartli, O, by the moon, and tiie central parts are morp
attraftcd by her than the waters on the oppolite fide of the
earth at n ; and therefore the diftance between the earth's
centre and the waters on its furface, under and oppofite to
tlie moon, will be increafed. For let H, O, and D be three
bodies, all equally attrafted by the liody M, and they will
all move equally fall toward it, their mutual diftances from
each other continuing the fame. If the attradlion of M is
unequal, then that body wliicli is moft ftrongly attrafted
will move fafteft, and this will increafc its diftance from the
other body. Confequently, by the law of gravitation, M
will attradl H more ftrongly than it docs O, by which the
diftance between H and O will be increafed ; and a fpec-
tator in O will perceive H rifing higher toward Z. In hke
manner O, being more ftrongly attrafted than D, will move
farther toward M than D does ; and therefore the diftance
between O and D will be increafed ; and a fpeftator in O,
not perceiving his own motion, will fee D receding farther
from him towards n ; all effefts and appearances being the
fame, whether D recedes from O, or O from D.

Suppofe now there is a number of bodies, as A, B, C, D,
E, F, C H, placed round O, fo as to form a flexible or
fluid ring ; then, as tlie whole is attrafted toward M, the
parts at H and D will have their diftance from O increafed ;
whiUl the parts at B and F, being nearly at the Came dif-
tance from M as O is, will not recede from one another ;
but rather, by the oblique attraftion of M, they will ap-
proach nearer to O. Hence the fluid ring will form itfelf
into an ellipfe ZIBLnKFNZ, whofe longer axis n O Z
produced, will pafs through M, and its fhorter axis, B O F,
will terminate in B and F. Let the ring be filled with fluid
particles, fo as to form a fphere round O ; then, as the
whole moves toward M, the fluid fphere, being lengthened
at Z and n, will affume an oblong or oval form. If M is
the moon, O the earth's centre, ABCDEFGH the fea
covering the earth's furface, it is evident that, vvhilft the
earth by its gravity falls towards the moon, the water di-
reftly below her at H will fwell, and gradually rife toward
her ; and alfo the water at D will recede from the centre,
(or, ftriftly fpeaking, the centre recedes from D, ) and rife
on the oppofite fide of the earth ; whilft the water at B and
F is depreffed, and falls below the former level. Hence,
as the earth turns round its axis from the moon to the
moon again in about 24|- hours, this oval of water muft Ihift
with it ; and thus there will be two tides of flood and two
of ebb in that time.

Some perfons have found a difficulty in conceiving how,
agreeably to the principles above ftated, the earth can fall
towards the moon by the power of gravity, when the moon
is full, or in oppofition to the fun ; fince the earth revolves
about the fun, and muft continually fall towards it ; and if
the earth is conftantly falhng towards the moon, they muft
at laft come together. In order to obviate this difficulty,
it has been fuggefted, that it is not the centre of the earth
that defcribes the annual orbit round the fun, but the com-
mon centre of gravity of the earth and moon, the diftance of
which from the earth's centre, dividing 240,000 miles, the
moon's diftance from the earth, by 40, the excefs of the
earth's weight above that of the moon, is 60CO miles ; and
4 K that

TIDES.

tliit whilll the carlh is moving round the luii, it alfo de-
fcribi-s a circle round that centre of gravity, going as many
tiiuci round it in one revolution about the fun as there arc
Ijnations or courfc» of the moon round the fun in a year ;
ii.d therefore the earth is conllantly falling towards the
moon from a tangent to the circle which it defcribcs round
the faid common centre of gravity. Let M {Jig. ii.) be
tiie moon, T W part of the moon's orbit, and C the centre
of gravity of the earth and moon : whilft the moon goes
rouud her orbit, the centre of the earth defcribes the circle
Jgt round C, to which circle^u^ is a tangent ; and, .-liere-
fore, when the moon has gone from M a little beyond W,
the earth has moved from g to e, and in that time lias fallen
towards the moon, from the tangent at a to e, and fo on
r6uiid the whole circle.

From the above reafoning it appears, that the parts of
the earth dircclly under the moon, or that have the moon
in their zcr.ith, and alfo thofe in the nadir, or places dia-
metrically oppolite to each other, will have the flood, or
)ii^h water at the fame time.

Moreover, thofe parts of the earth, where the moon ap-
pears ia the horizon, or gc° dillant from the zenith and nadir,
will liave the ebbs, or lowcfl waters.

It is evident that, by the motion of the earth on its axis,
the moll elevated part of the water is carried beyond the
moon in the direction of the rotation. The water continues
to rife after it has palTed direAly under the moon, though
the immediate aftion of the moon there begins to decreafc,
and comes not to its grcatert elevation till it has got half a
quadrant fartlic-. It continues alfo to defcend after it has
pafTed at 90° diftance from the point below the moon, though
the force which the moon adds to its gravity begins to decreafe
there. For ftiU the action of the moon adds to its gravity, and
makes it defcend till it has got half a quadrant farther ; the
greateft elevation, therefore, is not in the points which are in a
line with the centres of tlie earth and moon, but about half a
quadrant to the eaft of thefe points in the direftion of the
motion of rotation. Thus in open feas, where the water
flows freely, the moon, M, {Jig. 10.) is generally pafl the
nortli and fouth meridian, asat^, when the high water is
at Z and at n : the reafon of which is plain, becaufe the
moon afts with fomc force after flie has paft the meridian,
and thereby adds to the Ifbratory or waving motion, which
the water acquired when (he was in the meridian ; and, there-
fore, the time of high water is not precifely at tl-.e time of her
coming to the meridian, but fome time after.

Befides, the tides anfwer not always to the fame diftance
of the moon from the meridian at the fame places ; but are
varioufly affeAed by the aftion of the fun, which brings them
on fooncr when the moon is in her firft and third quarters,
and keeps them back later when fhe is in her fecond and
fourtli ; becaufe, in the /ormer cafe, the tide raifed by the
fun alone, would be earlier than the tide raifed by the moon,
and in the latter cafe later.

For the further illuftration of the principle upon which
lunar tides depend, wc (hall fuppofe, with Dr. Young, that
the earth were wholly fluid, and the fame part of its furface
were always turned towards the moon ; in which cafe, the
pole of the fpheroid being immediately under the moon, the
lunar tide would remain ftationary ; the greateft elevation
being at the points neareft to the moon and fartheft from
her, and the greateft deprcfiion in the circle equally diftant
from thefe points ; the elevation, however, being twice as
great as the deprellion, on account of the fmaller furface to
which it is confined. The aftual height of this elevation
would probably be about 40 inches, and the depreffion 20,
making together a tide of five feet. If alfo the waters were

\2

capable of afTuming inftantly fuch a form as the equilibrium
would require, the fummit of a fpheroid equally elevated
would dill be direftcd towuids the moon, notwithftanding
the earth's rotation. This may be called the primitive tide
of the ocea.1 : but on account of the perpetual change of
place whicli is required for the accommodation of the fur-
face to a fiinilar pofition with refpeft to the moon, as the
earth revolve.;, l!ie form muft be materially difl'erent from
that of fuch a fpheroid of equilibrium. The force employed
in producing this accommodation, may be eftimated by
conlidering tlic adual furface of the fea as that of a wave
moving on the fpheroid of eq'uihbrium, and producing in the
water a fuflicient velocity to preferve the aftual form. We
may deduce, fays Dr. Young, from this mode of confidering
the fubjeft, a tlieory of the tides which appears to be more
fimple and fatisfaftory than any which has yet been publi(h-
ed : and by comparing the tides of narrower feas and lakes
with the motions of pendulums fufpended on vibrating cen-
tres, we may extend the theory to all pofTible cafes.

If the centre of a pendulum be made to vibrate, the vibra-
tions of the per.diilum itfelf, when they have arrived at a ftate
of permanence, w'ill be performed in the fame time with
thofe of the centre ; but the motion of the pendulum will be
either in the fame direftion with that of the centre, or in a
contrary direftion, accordingly as the time of this forced
vibration is longer or (horter than that of the natural vibra-
tion of the pendulum ; and in the fanie manner it may be
(hewn that the tides, either of an open ocean or of a con-
fined lake, may be cither direft or inverted with refpeft to
the primitive tide, which would be prodiced, if the waters
always affumed the form of the fpheroid of equilibrium, ac-
cording to the deplli of the ocean, and to the breadth as well
as the depth of the lake. In the cafe of a direft tide, the
time of the pafTage of the luminary over the meridian muft
coincide with that of high water, and in the cafe of an inverted
tide with that of low water.

In order that the lunar tides of an open ocean may be
direft, or fynchronous, its depth muft be greater than 1 3
miles, and for the folar tides than 14. The lefs the depth
exceeded thefe limits, the greater the tides would be, and
in all cafes they would be greater than the primitive tides.
But in faft the height of the tides in the open ocean is
always far (hort of that which would be produced in this
manner ; it is therefore improbable that the tides are ever
direft in the open ocean, and that the depth of the fea is fo
great as 13 miles.

In order that the height of the inverted or remote lunar
tides may be five feet, or equal to that of the primitive tides,
the depth of the open fea muft be 6i- iniles ; and if the height
is only two feet, which is perhaps not far from the truth, the
depth muft be 3^ miles.

The tides of a lake or narrow fea differ materially from
thofe of the open ocean, fince the height of the water
fcarcely undergoes any variation in the middle of the lake ;
it muft always be high water at the eaftern extremity when
it is low water at the weftern : and this muft happen at the
time when the places of high and low water, with refpeft to
the primitive tides, are equally diftant from the middle of
the lake.

The tides may be direft in a lake 100 fathoms deep and
lefs than 8° wide ; but if it be much wider, they muft be
inverted. Suppoiing the depth a mile, they will be direft
when the breadth is lefs than 25° ; but if a fea, like the
Atlantic, were 50 or 60 degrees wide, it muft be at leaft
four miles deep, in order that the time of high water might
coincide with that of the moon's fouthing.

Hitherto we have confidered the motion of the water as

free

TIDES.

free from all refinance ; but wlierc the tides are dircft, they
rauft be retarded by the efFeft of a rcfillance of any kind ;
and where they are inverted, they mull be accelerated ; a
fmall refinance producing, in both cafes, a confiderable
difference in the time of high water.

Where a confiderable tide is obferved in the middle of a
limited portion of the fea, it muft be derived from the cffeft
of the elevation or deprcflion of the ocean in its neighbour-
hood ; and fuch derivative tides are probably combined
in almoft all cafes with the ofeillations belonging to each
particular branch of the fea.

Lunar tides, the rife and progrefs of which are fcientifi-
cally traced by Dr. Young, are fubjeft, independently of the
influence of the fun, to a variety of modifications, fome of
which we fliall fpecify in the fequel of this article.

2. We have hitherto taken notice only of the aftion of
the moon in producing tides ; but it is manifell that, for
the fame reafons, the inequality of the fun's action on dif-
ferent parts of the earth would produce a like effeft, and
that this alone would caufe a like variation from the exaft
fpherical figure of a fluid earth. So that, in reality, there
are two tides every natural day from the aftion of the fun,
as there are in the lunar day from that of the moon, fubjeft
to the fame laws ; and the lunar tide, as we have obferved,
is fomewhat changed by the aftion of the fun, and the
change varies every day on account of the inequality between
the natural and the lunar day. Indeed, the effeft of the fun
in producing tides, becaufe of his immenfe diftance, muit be
confiderably lefs than that of the moon, though the gravity
toward the fun be much greater, the folar tide being, as
Dr. Young ftates it, only about two-fifths of the lunar.
For it is not the aftion of the fun or that of the moon, but
the inequalities in the aftions of each, which have any effeft.
The fun's diftance is fo great, that the diameter of the earth
is as a point compared to it, and the difference between the
aftion of the fun on the neareft, and that on the farthcft
parts, becomes, on this account, vaftly lefs than it would be
if the fun were as near as the moon.

However, the immenfe bulk of the fun makes the effeft
ftill fenfible, even at fo great a diftance ; and, therefore,
though the aftion of the moon has the greateft fhare in pro-
ducing the tides, the aftion of the fun adds feniibly to it
when they confpire together, as in the change and full of
the moon, when they are nearly in the fame line with the
centre of the earth, and therefore unite their forces. Thus,
in conjunftion, or when the fun and moon are on the fame
fide of the earth, they both confpire to raife the water in
the zenith, and confequently in the nadir ; and when tl\ey
are in oppofition, that is, when the earth is between them,
whilft one makes high water in the zenith and nadir, the
other does the fame in the nadir and zenitii. Confequently,
in the fyzygies, or at new and full moon, the tides are the
greateft, and are what we call the fprlng-t'tdes. Moreover,
the aftion of the fun diminifhes the effeft of the moon's
aftion in the firft and laft quarters, becaufe the one raifes the
water in that cafe where the other depreffes it ; and there-
fore, in the quadratures tlic tides are the leaft, and are called
neap-tides.

As the lunar tide is much larger than the folar tide, the
former muft always determine the time of high and low water,
which, in the fprlng and neap-tides, remains unaltered by the
effeft of the fun ; fo that in the neap-tides the aftual time of
low water is that of the folar high water ; but at the inter-
mediate times, the lunar high water is more or lefs accelerated
or retarded. The progrefs of this alteration may eafily be
traced by means of a fimple conftruftion. If we make a

triangle, of which two of the fides are two feet and five feet
in length, the extern.il angle which they form being equal
to twice tlie diftance of the luminaries, the third fide will
Ihew prccifely the magnitude of the compound tide, and the
halres of the two angles oppofite to the firfl two fides the
acceleration, or retardation, of the times of high water be-
longing to the feparate tides refpeftively. Hence it appears
that the greateft deviation of the joint tide from the lunar
tide amounts to 1 1'' 48' in longitude, and the time corre-
fponding to 47 minutes, fuppofing the proportion of the
forces to remain always the fame ; t)ut in faft the forces in-
creafe in proportion as the cubes of the diftaiices of their
refpeftive luminaries diminifli, as well as from other caufcs ;
and in order to determijie their joint cffefts, tlit lengths of
the fides of the triangle muft be varied accordingly. In
fome ports, from a combination of circumftances in the
channel, by which the tides reach them, or in the feas, in
which they originate, the influence of the fun and moon may
acquire a proportion fomewhat different from that which
naturally belongs to them : thus at Breft, the influence of
the moon appears to be three times as great as that of the
fun ; when it is ufually only twice and a half as great.

Sir Ifaac Newton has calculated the cffefts of tlie fun and
moon refpeftively upon the tides from their attraftive
powers. Tlie augmentation of the gravity of the lateral
parts of the earth, produced by the aftion of the fun, is a
fimilar effeft to an augmentation, eftimatcd by him on
another occafion, that is made to the gravity of the moon
toward the earth by the fame aftion, when the moon is in
the quarters ; only the addition made to the gravity of the
lateral parts is about 605 times lefs, becaufe their diftance
from the earth's centre is fo many times lefs than the diftance
of the moon from it. The gravity of thofe p.irts of the
earth that are direftly beneath the fun, and of thofe oppofite
to it, is diminiftied by a double quantity of what is added to
the lateral parts ; and as the diminution of gravity of the
one, and augmentation of gravity of the other, confpire
together in raifing the water under the fun, and the parts
oppofite to it, above its height in the lateral parts ; the
whole force that produces this effeft is to be confidered
as triple of wliat is added to the gravity of the Lateral
parts ; and 's thence found to be to the gravity of the
particles as i to 12868200, and to the centrifug.ar force at
the equator as i to 44527. The elevation of the waters
by this force is confidered by Newton as an effeft fimilar
to the elevation of the equatorial parts above the polar
parts of the earth, arifing from the centrifugal force at the
equator ; and, being 44527 times lefs, is found to be i foot
and liV^ inches, Paris meafure. This is the elevation
arifing from the aftion of the fun upon the water.

Mr. Maclaurin makes this elevation to be i foot iOtVuti'^
inches, of the fame meafure, which differs from the above
eftimate by tlie ^th part of an inch ; and the greateft ele-
vation, when the fun is in the equinoftial, 1 foot 1 1-^^
inches.

In order to find the force of the moon upon the water,
Newton compares the fpring-tides, M. the mouth of the
river Avon, below Briftol, with the neap-tides there, and
finds their proportion to be that of 9 to 5 ; whence, after
feveral neceffary correftions, he concludes, that the force
of the moon is to that of the fun, in raifing the waters of
the ocean, as 4.4815 to i ; fo that the force of the moon
is able, of itfelf, to produce an elevation of 8 feet and 7-,?-j-
inches, and the fun and moon together may produce an
elevation of about 10^ feet, in their mean diftances from
the earth, and an elevation of about 12 feet, when the
4K 2

moon

TIDES.

•ncM,. .> neurcU thf rarth. The height to which the water
.> f..und to rife, upon coalU of the open and deep ocean, is
aifrtcable enough to lhi« computation.

Dr. Horlley eftimates thr force of the moon to that ot
the fun as 5.0469 to I. Newton Princip. lib. in. fed. 1...
prop. l6, ^7,apuJ Newt. Op. Ed. Hordey, vol. 111. p. 104.
&c and "Maclauri.i's Di(T. de Caufa Phylica Fluxus &
Rertuxus Maris, apud Phil. Nat. Princ. Math. Comment.
le Seur & Jacquier, torn. iii. p. 272.

V It mull be obfcrvcd that the fpring-lides do net
happen precifely at new and full moon, nor the neap-tides
at the quarters, but a day or two after, (at lead two, and
commonlv three tides after,) becaufc, as in other cafes, fo
in this, the cffeft is not greateil or lead when the immediate
influence of the caufe is greated or kail. Ah '■ g- the
gn-ateft heat is not on the folilitial day, when the immediate
aflion of the fun is greatcft, but fomc time after.

That this may be more clearly underllood, let it be con-
fidcred, that though the aftions of the fun and moon were
to ceafc this moment, yet the tides would continue to have
t'r-.tir courfc for fome time ; for the water, where it is now
highell, would fubfide, and flow down on the parts that are
lower, till, by the motion of dcfcent, being there accumu-
hted to too great a height, it would neceffarily return again
to its firft place, though ioi a lefs meafure, being retarded
by the refiftance arifiiig from the attraftion of its parts.
Thus it would for fome time continue in an agitation like to
that in which it is at prcfent. The waves of tlie fea, that
continue after a ftorm ceafes, and every motion almofl of a
fluid, may illuftrate this.

The refinance of fluids, in general, fays Dr. Young, is
as the fquare of the velocity, confequently it muft be rhuch
greater for the lunar than for the folar tide, in proportion
to the magnitude of the force ; and the acceleration of the
lunar tide produced by this caufe muft be greater than that
of the folar : hence it may happen, that when the lunar Lde
occurs two or three hours after the tranfit. of the moon, the
folar tide may be three or four hours after that of the fun,
fo as to be about an hour later, at the times of conjunftion
and oppotition, and the tides will be higheft when the moon
paflTes the meridian about an hour after the fun ; while at
the precife time of the new and full moon, the lunar tide
will be retarded about a quarter of an hour by the effeft of
the folar tide.

4.. The different diftances of the moon from the earth
iiroduce a fenfible variation in the tides. When the nioon
approaches the earth, her aftion on every part increafes,
and the differences of thataftion on which the tides depend,
mcreafe. For her aftioii increafes as the fquaies of the
diflancis decreafe ; and though the differences of the dif-
tances themfelves be equal, yet there is a greater difpropor-
tion betwixt the fquarcs of lefs, than the fquares of greater
quantities i e. g. ^ exceeds 2, as much as 2 exceeds i ; but
the fquare of 2 is quadruple of the fquare of i, whilft the
fquare of 3 (ijja. 9) is little more than double the fquare
of 2 [viz. 4).

Thus it appears, that by the moon's approach, her aftion
on the neareft parts increafes more quicltly than her ac-
tion on the remote parts ; and the tides, therefore, increafe
in a higher proportion as the diftancesof the moon decreafe.
Sir Ifaac Newton (hews, that the tides increafe in propor-
tion as the cubes ef the diftances decreafe, fo that the moon,
at half her prefent diftance, would produce a tide eight times
jfreater.

The moon defcribcs an ellipfe about the earth, and in her
ixarcft diftance produces a tide fenfibly greater than at her
7

greatell dillancc from the earth : and hence it is, that two
great fpring-tidcs never fucceed e.ich olh-r immediately ;
for if the moon be at her neareft dillance from the earth
at the change, fhe muft be at her greateft diftance at the
full, having, in the intervening time, fiiiifhed half a revolu-
tion ; and, therefore, the fpring-tide then will be much lefs
than the tide at the change was : ;ind for the fame reafou,
if a great fpring-tide happens at the time of full moon, the
tide at the enfuing change will be lefs.

5. The fpring-tides are greateft about the time of the
equinoxes, i. e. about the latter end of March and Sep-
tember, and leaft about the time of the folftices, i. f. to-
ward the end of June and December ; and the neap-tides
are leaft at the equinoxes and greateft at the folftices ; {o
that the difference betwixt the fpring and the neap-tides is
much lefs confiderable at the folftitial than at the equinoc-
tial feafons. In order to illuftrate and evince the truth of
this obfervation, it is manifeft, that if either the fun or moon
were in the pole, they could have no efFeft on the tides, for
their aftion would raife all the water at the equator to the
fame height, and any place of the earth, in defcribing its
parallel to the equator, would not meet, in its courfe, with
any part of the water more elevated than another, fo that
there could be no tide in any place.

The efTeft of the fun or moon is greateft when in the
equinoftial ; for then the axis of the fpheroidal figure,
arifing from their aftion, moves in the greateft circle, and
the water is put into the greateft agitation ; and hence it is
that the fpring-tides produced, when the fun and moon ai-e
both in the equinoftial, are the greateft of any, and the
neap-tides are the leaft of any, about that time.

But the tides produced when the fun is in either of the
tropics, and the moon in either of her quarters, are greater
t!' 'n thofe produced when the fun is in the equinoftial, and
the moon in her quarters, becaufe, in the firft cafe, the moou
is in the equinoftial, and in the latter cafe, the moon is in
one of the tropics ; and the tide depends more on the aftion
of the moon than that of the fun, and is, therefore, greateft
wh?n the moon's aftion is greateft.

Hff^vever, it is necefTary to obferve, 6. That, becaufe
the f"i!n is nearer the earth in winter than in fimimer, i. e,
in Febru-vry and Oftober than in March and September,
t^: greaOjft fpring-tides are after the autumnal, and before
tit' vernal c^ainox.

; . Since the greateft of the two tides happening in every-
diurnal revolution of the moon, or lunar day, i. e. about
24'' 50™, is that in which the moon is neareft the zenith, or
nadir ; for tliis rcaibn, while the fun 'is in the northern IJgns,
the greater of the two diurnal tides in our climates, is that
arifing from the moon above the horizon : when the fun is
in the fouthern figns, the greateft is that nrifing from the
m.oon below the horizon.

In proof of this obfervation, let it be confidered, that
when the moon declines from the equator toward either
pole, one of the greateft elevations of the water follows
the moon, and defcribes nearly the parallel on the earth's
furface which is under that \vhich the moon, on account of
the diurnal motion, feems to defcribe ; and the oppofite
greateft elevation, being antipodal to that, muft defcribe a
parallel as far on the other fide of the equator ; fo that
while the one moves on the north fide of the equator, the
other moves on the fouth fide of it, at the fame diftance.
Now the greateft elevation which moves on the fame fide of
the equator, with any place, will come nearer to it than the
oppofite elevation, which moves in a parallel on the other
ide of the equator ; and, therefore, if a place is on the fame

fide

TIDES.

<kie of the equator with the moon, the day-tide, or that which
is produced while the moon is above the horizon of the
place, will exceed the night -tide, or that which is produced
while the moon is under the horizon of the place. It is the
contrary if the moon is on one fide, and the place on the
other fide of the equator ; for then the elevation which is
oppofite to the moon, moves on the fame fide of the equator
with the place, and, therefore, will come nearer to it
than the other elevation. The difference will be greateft
when the fun and moon both dofcribe the tropics ; becaufe
the two elevations in that cafe dcfcribe the oppofite tropics,
which are the fartheft from each other of any two parallel
circles they can defcribe. Thus it is found, by obfervation,

world N and S ; but when we conAder that F G H is
under the moon's orbit, it will appear that when the moon
is over H, in the tropic of Capricorn, the north pole of
the tides ( which can be no more than 90° from under the
moon) mull be at C in the arftic circle, not at P, the north
pole of the earth ; and as the moon afcends from H to G
in her orbit, the north pole of the tides mult fliift from
c to a in the arftic circle, and the foutli pole as much in
the antarftic.

It is not to be doubted, but that the earth's quick rota-
tion brings the poles of the tides nearer to the poles of the
worid than they would be if the earth were at reft, and the
moon revolved about it only once a month ; for, othenvife,

that the evening tides in the funimer exceed the morning the tides would be more unequal in their heights, and timea

tides, and the morning tides in winter exceed the evening of their returns, than we find they are. But how near thf

tides. The difference is found at Briftol to amount to earth's rotation may bring the poles of its axis and thofe of

fifteen inches, and at Plymouth to one foot. It would be the tides together, or how far the precedintr tides may

ftill greater, but that a fluid always retains an impreffed affeft thofe which follow, fo as to make them keep up

motion for fome tim.e ; fo that the preceding tides affeft nearly to the fame heights, and times of ebbing and flownig,

always thofe that follow them. Upon the whole, while the is a problem moi-e fit to be folved by obfervation than by

moon has north declination, the greateft tides in the northern theory

hemifphere are when (he is above the horizon, and the re-
verfe while her declination is fouth.

To illuftrate this matter by figures ; let N E S Q {Jig. 12,
13, 14.) be the earth, NCS its axis, EQ the equator,

Thofe who have opportunity to make obfervations, and
choofe to fatisfy themfelves whether the tides are really
affe&ed in the above manner by the different pofitions of the
moon, efpecially as to the unequal times of their returns,

T So the tropic of Cancer, t Vj" the tropic of Capricorn, may take this general rule for knowing when they ought

ab the arftic circle, cd the antarftic, N the north pole,
S the fouth pole, M the moon, F and G the two eminences
of water, whofe lowell parts are at a and d (Jig- I2.), at
N and S {ftg. 13.), and at b and c {Jig. 14-), always 90^
from the higheft.

Now, when the moon is in her greateft north declination
at M {Jig. 12.), the higheft elevation, G, under her is on
the tropic of Cancer, T 25, and the oppofite elevation, F,
on the tropic of Capricorn, t Vj" ; and ihefe two elevations
defcribe the tropics by the earth's diurnal rotation. All
places ;a the northern hemifphere, E N Q, have the
liigheft tides when they come into the pofition i s Q,
under the moon ; and the loweft tides when the earth's
diurnal rotation carries them into the pofition aTE, on the
fide oppofite to the moon : the reverfe happens at the
fame time in the fouthern hemifphere E S Q, as is evident
to fight. The axis of the tides aO. d has now its poles
a and d (being always 90° from the higheft elevations) in
the ar£lic and antarftic circles ; and, therefore, it is plain,
that at thefe circles there is but one tide of flood, and one
oi ebb, in the lunar day. For when the point a revolves
half round to b in twelve lunar hours, it has a tide of flood ;
but when it comes to the fame point a again in twelve
hours more, it has the loweft ebb. In fevcn days after

to be fo affefted. When the earth's "axis inclines' to The
moon, the northern tides, if not retarded in their paflage
through fhoals and channels, nor affefted by the winds,
ought to be greateft when the moon is above the horizon,
leaft when ftie is below it ; and quite the reverfe when the
earth's axis declines from her ; but in both cafes at equal
intervals of time. When the earth's axis inclines fideways
to the moon, both tides are equally high, but they happen
at unequal intervals of time. In every lunr.tion the earth's
axis inclines once to the moon, once from her, and twice
fideways to her, as it does to the fun every year ; becaufe
the moon goes round the ecliptic every month, and the fun
but once in a year. In fummer, the earth's axis inclines
towards the moon when new ; and, therefore, the day-tide^
in the north ought to be higheft, and night-tides loweft
about the change : at the full the reverfe. At the quarters
they ought to be equally high, but unequal in their returns ;
becaufe the earth's axis then inclines fide\vife to the moon.
In winter the phenomena are the fame at full moon as in
fummer at new. In autumn the earth's axis inclines fide-
wife to the moon when new and full ; therefore the tides
ought to be equally high and unequal in their returns at
thefe times. At the firft quarter the tides of flood fnould
be leaft when the moon is above the horizon, greateft when

ward, the moon M {Jig. 13.) comes to the equinoftial file is belovv' it, and the reverfe at her third quarter. In

circle, and is over the equator E Q, when both elevations
defcribe the equator ; and in both hemifphercs, at equal
diftances from tlie equator, the tides are equally high in
both parts of the lunar day. All the phenomena being
reverfed, when the moon has fouth declination, to what they
were when her declination was north, require no farther
delcription,^^^. 14.

fpring, the phenomena of the firft quarter anfwer to thofe
of the third quarter in autumn, and vice vcrfd. The nearer
any time is to either of thefe feafons, the more the tides
partake of the phenomena of thefe feafons ; and in the
middle between any two of them, the tides are at a mean
ftate between thofe of both.

8. Such would the tides regularly be, if the earth were

From what has been faid it appears, that as the tides are all over covered with fea very deep, fo that the water might

governed by the moon, they muft turn on the axis of the follow the influence of the fun and moon ; but, by reafon of

moon's orbit, which is inclined 23^ degrees to the earth's the fhoalnefs of fome places, and the narrownefs of the

axis at a mean ftate ; and, therefore, the poles of the tides ftreights in others, by which the tides are propagated, there

muft be fo many degrees from the poles of the earth, or in aiifes a great diverfity in the effcft, not to be accounted for,

oppofite points of the polar circles, going round thefe without an exaft knowledge of all the circumftances of the

circles in every lunar day. It is true that, according to places; fuch as the pofition of the land, and the breadth

.Af- '4> when the moon is vertical to the equator E C Q, and depth of the channels, diredtion of the winds, &c. For

the poles of the tides fccm to fell in v.ith the poles of the a very flow and imperceptible motion of the whole body of

water,

TIDES.

water, where it i> (foreximple).t\vo miles deep, will fufficc
to raife its furface ten or twelve feet in s tide's time ; where-
as, if the lame (juantity of water were to be conveyed
throujjh a channel forty fathoms deep, it would require a very
grejt ftream to effert it in fo large inlets as are the channel of
England and the German ocean ; wlience the tide is found
to let ilrongtfll in thofe places where the fea grows narroweft,
the fame Quantity of water being, in that cafe, to pafs
through a imaller patfage.

This is mod evident in the ftreights between Portland
and Cape la Hogue in Normandy, w'liere the tide runs like a
(luice ; and would be yet more between Dover and Calais, if
the tide, coming round the ifland, did not check it.

Thii force, being once impreffed upon the water, conti-
nues to carry it above the level of the ordinary height of the
ocean, particularly where the water meets a direft obftacle,
as it does in St. Maloes ; and where it enters into along
channel, which running far into the land, grows very
Hriight at its extremity, as it does into the Severn fea at
Chepftow, where the tide rifcs to 40 feet, and Briftol, where
its height is 30 feet. At Breft, the height of the tides is
about JO feet ; at St. Maloes, 50; at Annapolis, in the bay
of Fundy, as much fomctimes as 100 feet. In the Medi-
terranean, the tides are generally inconfidcrable ; nevcr-
thelefs they are perceptible : at Naples, they fometimes
rife to a foot ; at Venice, to more than two feet ; and
in the Euripus, for a certain number of days in each luna-
tion, they are very dillinftly obfervable from the cur-
rents which they occafion. In the Weft Indies, and alfo
in the gulf of Mexico, the tides are lefs obfervable than in
the neighbouring feas, perhaps on account of fome combina-
tions derived from the variations of the depth of the rivers,
and from the different channels by which they are propa-
gated.

The (hoalnefs of the fea, and the intercurrent continents,
are the reafons that in the open ocean the tides rife but to
very fmall heights in proportion to what they do in wide-
mouthed rivers, opening in the dircdtion of the ftream of the
tide ; and that high-water is not at the time of the moon's
appulfe to the meridian, but always fome hours after it, as it
is obferved upon all the wcftcrn coafts of Europe and Africa,
from Ireland to the Cape of Good Hope ; in all which a
fouth-weft moon makes high water ; and the fame is reported
to hold in the weft' of America.

So that tides happen to different places at all diftances of
the moon from the meridian, and confequently at all hours of
the lunar day.

It is to be confidered that, in order to allow the tides their
full motion, the ocean, in which they are produced, ought
to be extended from eaft to weft 90° at leaft. Becaufe the
places, where tlie moon rifes moft, and mcjft deprelTes the
water, are at that diftance from each other. Hence it ap-
pears, that it is only in the great oceans tliat fuch tides can
be produced, and why in the larger Pacific ocean they ex-
ceed thofe in the Atlantic ocean. Hence alfo it is obvious,
why the tides are not fo great in the torrid zone, between
Africa and America, where the ocean is narrower, as in the
temperate zones on either fide ; and we may hence alfo un-
derftand, why the tides are fo fmall in iflands that are very
far diftant from the ftiores. It is manifeft, that, in the At-
lantic ocean, the water cannot rife on one (hore but by de-
fcending on the other ; fo that, at the intermediate diftant
iflands, it muft continue at a mean height betwixt its ele-
vation on one and on the other (hore. But when tides pafs
over (hoals, and through ftreights into bays of the fea, their
motion becomes more various, and their height depends on
many circumftances.

The tide entering the Atlantic appears, fays Dr. Young, to
advance northwards at the rate of about 500 miles an hour,
correfponding to a depth of about three miles, fo as to reach
Sierra Leone at the eighth hour after the moon's fouthing ;
this part of Africa being not very remote from the meridian
of the middle of the South Atlantic ocean, and having little
(hare in the primitive tides of that ocean. The foutheni
tide feems then to ])afs by Cape Blanco and Cape Bojador, to
arrive at Gibraltar at the thirteenth hour, and to unite it3
effefts with thofe of other tides at various parts of the
coafts of Europe.

We may therefore confider the Atlantic as a detached fea,
about ■5500 miles broad, and three miles deep ; and a fea of
thefe dimenfions is fufceptible of tides confiderably larger
than thofe of the ocean, but how much larger we cannot
determine without more accurate meafures. Thefe tides
would happen on the European coafts, if there were no re-
fiftance, a little lels than five hours after the moon's fouth-
ing, and on the coaft of America, a little more than feven
hours after ; but the refiftance oppofed to the motion of the
fea may eafily accelerate the time of high-water in both
cafes about two hours, fo that it may be a little before the
third hour on the wellern coafts of Europe and of Africa,
and before the fifth on the moft expoled parts of the eafteni
coaft of America ; and in the whole of the Atlantic, this
tide may be combined more or lefs both with the general
fouthern tide, and with the partial effefts of local elevations
or depreffions of the bottom of the fea, which may caufe
irregularities of various kinds. The fouthern tide is, how-
ever, probably lefs confiderable than has fometimes been fup-
pofed, for, in the latitudes in which it muft originate, the
extent of the elevation can only be half as great as at the
equator ; and the iflands of Kerguelen's land and South
Georgia, in the latitudes of about co° and 55°, have their
tides delayed till the tenth and eleventh hours, apparently
becaufe they received them principally from diftant parts oi
the ocean, which are nearer to the equator.

On the weftern coafts of Europe, from Ireland to Cadiz ;
on thofe of Africa, from Cape Coaft to the Cape of Good
Hope ; and on the coaft of America, from California to the
ftreights of Magellan, as well as in the neighbouring iflands ;
it is ufually high-water at fome time between two and four
hours after the moon's fouthing ; on the eaftern coaft ef
South America, between four and fix ; on that of North
America, between feven and eleven ; and on the eaftern coafts
of Afia and New Holland, between four and eight. The
Society Iflands are perhaps too near the middle of the Pa-
cific ocean to partake of the eifefts of its primitive tide, and
their tide, being fecondary, is probably for tliis reafon a few
hours later. At the Almirantes, near the eaftern coaft of
Africa, the tide is at the fixth hour ; but there feem to be
fome irregularities in the tides of the neighbouring iflands.

The progrefs of a tide may be very diftinftly traced from
its fource in the ocean into the narrow and {hallow branches
of the fea which conftitute our channels. Thus the tide is an
hour or two later at the Scilly Iflands than in the Atlantic,
at Plymouth three, at Cork, Briftol, and Weymouth four,
at Caen and Havre fix, at Dubhn and Brighthelmftone
feven, at Boulogne and Liverpool eight, at Dover near nine,
at the Nore eleven, and at London-bridge twelve and a half.
Another portion appears to proceed round Ireland and Scot-
land into the North fea ; it arrives from the Atlantic at Lon,
donderry in about three hours, at the Orkneys in fix, at Aber-
deen in eleven, at Leith in fourteen, at Loeftoffe in twenty, and
at the Nore in about twenty-four, fo as to meet there the fub-
fequent tide coming from the fouth. From the time occu-
pied by the tide in travelling from the mouth of the Englifli

Channel

TIDES.

Channel to Boulogne, at the rate of about fifty miles an hour,
we may calculate that the mean depth of the channel is
aboat twenty-eight fathoms, independently of the magni-
tude of the refinances of various kinds to be overcome,
which require us to fuppofe the depth from thirty to forty
fathoms. In the great river of Amazons, the iffeds of the
tides are Hill fenfible at the llreights of Pauxis, 500 miles
from the fea, after an interval of feveral days fpent in their
pafTage up : for the flower progrefTive motion of the water
no more impedes the progrefs of a wave againft the ftrcam,
than the velocity of the wind prevents the tranfmiflion of
found in a contrary direftion.

Dr. Young obferves, that fcarcely a fingle inflance oc-
curs tliat favours the fuppofition of high water in the open
fea being within an hour of the moon's fouthing, as it mull
be if the depth were very great ; fo that neither the lieight
of the tide, nor the time of high-water, will allow us to
fuppofe the fea any where quite 10 deep as four miles.

The tide that is produced on the weftern coaftsof dirope,
in the Atlantic, correfponds to tlie fituation of the moon
already defcribed. Thus it is higli-water on the coails of
Spain, Portugal, and the weft of Ireland, about the third
hour after the moon has paffed the meridian ; from thence it
flows into the adjacent channels, as it finds the eafieft paffage.
One current from it, e. g. runs up by the fouth of Eng-
land, another comes in by the north of Scotland ; they take
a coniiderable time to move all this way, and it is high-water
fooner in the places to which they firfl come, and it begins
to fall at tliofe places, while they are ftill going on to others
that are farther in their courfe. As they return, they are
not able to raife the tide, becaufe the water runs fafter off
than it returns, till, by a new tide propagated from the open
ocean, the return of the current is (lopped, and the water
begins to rife again. The tide, propagated by the moon in
the German ocean, when fhe is three hours pad the meridian,
takes about twelve hours to come from thence to London-
bridge ; fo that when it is high-water there, a new tide is
already come to its height in the ocean ; and, in fome inter-
mediate place, it mufl be low water at the fame time.

Confequently, when the moon has north declination, and
we (hould expeft the tide at London to be the greatell
when the moon is above the horizon, we find it is leaft ; and
the contrary when flie has fouth declination.

At feveral places it is higii-water three hours before the
moon comes to the meridian ; but that tide which the moon
puflies, as it were, before her, is only the tide oppofite to
that which was raifed by her when (he was nine hours paft
the oppofite meridian.

It would be endlefs to recount all tlie particular folutions
which are eafy corollaries from tliis dottrine : as why the
lakes and feas, fuch as the Cafpian fea and the Mediterranean
fea, the Black fea and Baltic, have either fmall or no very
fenfible tides: for lakes are generally fo fmall, that when the
moon is vertical fhe attrafts every part of them alike, and
therefore no part of the water can be raifed higlier than an-
other : and having no communicatioa with the ocean, it can
neither increafe nor diminifh their water, in order to rife and
fall ; and feas that communicate by fuch narrow inlets, and
are of fo immenfe an extent, cannot, in a few hours time,
receive and empty water enough to raife or fink their furface
any thing fenfibly.

To demonftrate the excellency of this doArine, the exam-
ple of the tides in the port of Bat(ha, in the kingdom of
Tonquin, in the Eaft Indies, 20° 50' N. lat. which are fo
extraordinary and diflerent from all others we have yet
heard of, may fuffice.

The day in which the moon paflTes the cquinoftial, the

water ftagnates there without any motion ; as the moon re-
moves from the equinodlial, the water begins to rife and fall
once a day ; and it is high-water at the fetting of tlie moon,
and low-water at her rifiiig. This daily tide increafes for
about fevcn or eight days, and then decreafes for as many
days by the fame degrees, till this motion ceafes, when the
moon lias returned to the cquinottial. When Ihe has
paded the equinoftial, and declines toward the fouth
pole, the water rifes and falls again as before ; but it is
hi^h-water now at the rifing, and low-water at the fetting
of^the moon.

Sir Ifaac Newton, in order to account for this extraordi-
nary tide, confiders that there are two inlets to this port of
Batlha, one from the Chinefe ocean, betwixt the continent
and the Manillas, die other from the Indian ocean, betwixt
the continent and Borneo. This leads him to propofe, as a
folution of this phenomenon, that a tid^-may arrive at Batfiia,
througli one of thcfe inlets, at the tliird hour of the moon,
and another through the other inlet fix hours after, at the
ninth hour of the moon. For, while ihefc tides are equal,
the one flowing in as the other ebbs out, the water mull
llagnate ; nov? they are equal when the moon is in theequi-
nodtial ; but as foon as the moon begins to decline on the
fame fide of the equator with Batflia, it has been (hewn that
the diurnal tide muft exceed the nofturnal, fo that two
greater and two leffer tides muft arrive at Bavfiia by turns.
The difference oi thefc will produce an agitation of the
water, wliich will rife to its greateft height at the mean time
betwixt the tv»-o greateft tides, and fall lowell at a mean
time betwixt the two leaft tides ; fo that it will be high-
water about the Cxth houi" at the fetting of tlic moon, and
low-water at her rifing. When the moon has got to tlie
other fide of the equinoftial, the noAurnal tide will exceed
the diurnal ; and, therefore, the high-water will be at the
rifing, and low-water at the fetting of the moon.

The fame principles will ferve to account for other extra-
ordinary tides, which, we are told, are obferved in plaoes
whofe fituation cxpofes them to fuch irregularities : and, as
fome think, for particular currents and winds. See Cur-
rent and Winds.

When the time of high-water at any place is, in general,
mentioned, it is to be underftood on the days of the fyzy-
gies, or days of new and full moon ; wlien the fun and moon
p;ifs the meridian of the place at the fame time. Among
pilots, it is cuftomary to reckon the time of flood, or high-
water, by the point of the compafs the moon bears on,
allowing three quarters of an hour for each point, at that
time ; thus, on the full and change days, in places where it
is flood at noon, the tide is faid to flov.' N. and S., or
at 1 2 o'clock ; in other places, on the fame days, where
the moon bears I, 2, 3, 4, or more points to the E. or
W. of the meridian, when it is high-water, the tide Is faid
to flow on fuch point ; thus, if the moon bears S.E. at flood,
it is faid to flow S.E. and N.W. or three hours before the
meridian, that is, at 9 o'clock ; if it bears S.W. it flows
S.W. and N.E. or at three hours after the meridian ; and
in like manner for other points of the moon's bearing.

The times of high-water in any place fall about the fame
hours after a period of about fifteen days, or between one
fpring-tide and another ; but during that period, the times of
high-water fall each day later by about forty -eight minutes.

From the obfervations of many perfons there have been
collected the times when it is high-water on the days of the
new and full moon, on moft of the fea-coafts of Europe,
and many other places ; which are ufually put in a table
againft the names of the places ; a fpecimen of which is
fubjoined.

A Table

TIDES.

A Table of thf Times of High-Water on the Days of Uie New and Full Moon, on mod of the

Sea-Coafts of Europe.

Niinf) of rincci.

Countries.

Coaft.

High-

Water.

H.

M.

Abbrevrak - - - -

Frxnce

Englifls Channel

4

30

Aberdeen . - - -

Scotland

German Ocean

o

45

Aldborough ...

England

Ditto ....

9

45

Alderney, Ifle of

Amaions, River (Mouth) -

Ditto

Englifli Channel

12

0

Amazon

Atlantic Ocean

6

0

Ameylajid, Ifle of

Dutchland -

German Ocean ...

7

50

Amfterdam ...

Ditto

Ditto . . . -

3

0

Andrews, St. - - -

Scotland

Ditto . . . -

2

15

Anholt, Ifle of -

Denmark -

Sound ....

O

0

Antwerp - - - -
Archangel . - - -
Arran, Ifle of - - -

Flanders

River Schelde -

6

0

Ruflia

".'hite Sea

6

0

Ireland

St. George's Channel

u

0

.^(hley. River

Carolina

Atlantic Ocean

o

45

Auguftinc, St. -
Baltimore . - - -

Florida

Ditto ....

4

30

Ireland

Weftern Ocean

4

30

Barfleur, Cape

France

Englifli Channel

7

30

Bas, Ifle de ...

Ditto

Ditto ....

3

45

Bayonne ....

Ditto

Bay of Bifcay . . -

3

30

Bcachy-Hcad

England

Englifli Channel

o

0

Bear, North 1
Bear, South J

Labrador -

Hudfon's Bay ...

12

0

Belfaft ....

Ireland

Irifti Sea -

lO

0

BeUeifle ....

France

Bay of Bifcay -

3

33

Bermudas, Ifland of

Bahama Ifics

Atlantic Ocean

7

0

Berwick . . - -

England

German Ocean ...

2

30

Bic, Ifle du ...

Acadia

River St. Lawrence -

2

0

Blackney ....

England

German Ocean

6

0

Blacchart-Racc -

France

Englifli Channel

9

45

Blanco, Cape . . -

Negroland -

Atlantic Ocean

o

0

Bojador, Cape ...

Ditto -

Ditto ....

0

0

Boulogne ....

France

Englifli Channel

lO

30

Bourdeaux ....

Ditto

Bay of Bifcay .

3

0

Bretfound ....

Dutchland -

German Ocean ...

4

30

Bremen ....

Germany

River Wefer ...

6

0

Breil

France

Bay of Bifcay ...

3

45

Qjridlington Bay - . -

England

German Ocean ...

3

45

Brill

Dutchland -

Ditto ....

I

30

Briilol ....

England

St. George's Channel
German Ocean - . -

6

45

Buchannefs ....

Scotland

3

0

Button's Ifles

North Britain

Hudfon's Straits

6

50

Cadiz .....

Spain

Atlantic Ocean

4

30

Caen - - . . .

France

Englifli Channel

9

0

Caithnefs Point -

Scotland -

Weftern Ocean

o

0

Calais .....

France

Englifli Channel

II

30

Caldy, Ifle of . - -

England

St. George's Channel

5

15

Camfer . . . .

Dutchland -

German Ocean ...

1

30
0

Canaria, Ifle of -

Canaries

Atlantic Ocean

3
o

Cantin, Cape

Barbary

Ditto ....

0

Caflcets ....

Guernfey -

Englifli Channel

8

15
0

Charles, Ifle of .

Labrador -

Hudfon's Straits

10

Charles-Town ...

Carolina

Afliley River -

3

o

Chigneftow ...

Nova Scotia

Bay of Fundy ...

45

30
20

Cherbourg . - . -

France

Englifli Channel

7

7
4
3

Churchill, Cape and River

North Wales

Hudfon's Bay -

Clear, Cape

Ireland

Weftern Ocean

30
0

Concarneau - . . .

France

Bay of Bifcay .

TIDES.

Names of Places.

Coumrics.

Conquet

France

Coquet, Ifle of

.

-

-

England

-

Corke

.

.

.

Ireland

.

Corfe, Cape

.

.

-

Guinea

.

Cromer

.

.

.

England

.

Dartmouth -

.

.

_

Ditto

_

David's Head, St

,

.

.

Wales

.

Dieppe

.

.

.

France

.

Dort -

.

.

.

Dutchland

.

Dover

-

-

-

England

-

Downs

.

.

_

Ditto

_

Dublin

.

.

.

Ireland

.

Dunbar

.

.

.

Scotland

.

Dundee

-

.

.

Ditto

-

Dungarvan -

.

-

.

Ireland

.

Dungenefs -

-

-

-

England

-

Dunkirk

-

-

.

France

.

Dunnofe

-

.

.

Ifle of Wight -

Edinburgh -

-

-

.

Scotland

-

Edyftone

-

-

-

England

-

Elbe, River (Mouth)

-

-

Germany

-

Embdcn

.

.

.

Ditto

.

Enchuyfen -

-

-

.

Dutchland

-

Eftaples

.

-

_

France

-

Falmouth

-

-

-

England

-

Flamborough-Head

-

.

Ditto

.

Florida, Cape

.

-

.

Florida

.

Flufhing

-

-

.

Dutchland

-

Fly, Ifle of -

-

.

.

Ditto

-

Foreland, North

-

-

.

England

.

Foreland, South

-

.

.

Ditto

.

Foulnefs

-

-

.

Ditto

-

Foye -

.

-

.

Ditto

.

Garonne, River

.

-

_

France

.

Gafpey Bay

-

.

.

Acadia

-

Gibraltar

.

.

_

Spain

.

Good Hope, Cape of

-

_

Cafiers

.

Granville

,.

.

_

France

.

Graveline

.

.

_

Ditto

.

Gravefend -

.

-

.

England

.

Groinc, or Cape

Corunna

-

Spain

-

Guernfey, Ifland of

.

_

England

.

Haarlem

-

.

.

Dutchland

.

Halifax

-

.

.

Nova Scotia

Hamburgh -

-

-

.

Germany

.

Hartlepool -

-

-

-

England

-

Harwich

.

.

.

Ditto

_

Havre de Grace

-

-

.

France

.

Henry, Cape

-

-

.

Virginia

.

Holyhead

-

-

-

Wales

-

Honfleur

.

.

.

France

_

Hull -

.

-

.

England

_

Humber, River

Entrance)

_

Ditto

-

Ice Cove

.

.

_

North Main

John's, Fort St.

.

.

Newfoundland

John de Luz, St

,

_

.

France

_

Julian, Port St.

-

.

.

Patagonia

_

Kentifh Knock,

-

.

.

England

-

Kilduin, Ifle of

.

-

.

Lapland

.

Kinfale

.

.

_

Ireland

_

Land's-End -

-

.

.

England

-

Leith -

-

-

-

Scotland

-

Vol

. XXXV.

Coaft.

High-Watu-.

]|.

M.

Englifh Channel

2

15

German Ocean - . .

^

0

St. George's Cliannel

(5

30

Ethiopian Sea . - -

3

30

German Ocean

7

0

Englilh Channel

6

30

St. George's Channel

6

0

Englifli Channel

lO

30

German Ocean

3

• 0

Englifli Channel

II

30

German Ocean

I

15

Irifli Sea . - . -

9

15

German Ocean

2

30

Ditto ....

2

15

Atlantic Ocean

4

3°

EngUfli Channel

9

45

German Ocean

o

0

Enghfli Channel

9

45

German Ocean

4

30

Englifli Channel

5

3°

German Ocean , -

o

0

Ditto . - . .

o

0

Zuyder Sea ...

o

0

Enghfli Channel

II

0

Ditto ....

5

3°

German Ocean

4

0

Gulf of Mexico

7

30

German Ocean

o

45

Ditto . - . .

7

30

Ditto - -

9

45

EngUfli Channel

9

45

German Ocean

6

45

Englifli Channel

5

15

Bay of Bifcay -

3

0

Gulf of St. Lawrence

I

30

Mediterranean Sea

o

0

Indian Ocean ...

3

0

Englifli Channel

7

0

Ditto ....

o

0

River Thames ...

I

30

Bay of Bifcay ...

3

0

Enghfli Channel

I

30

German Ocean

9

0

Weftern Ocean

7

30

River Elbe

6

0

Ditto ....

3

0

Ditto ....

II

15

Englifli Channel

9

0

Atlantic Ocean

II

15

Irifli Sea . - . -

I

30

River Seine ...

9

0

River Humber ...

6

0

German Ocean

5

•3

Hudfon's Straits

lO

0

Atlantic Ocean

6

0

Bay of Bifcay -

3

30

South Atlantic Ocean

4

45

German Ocean

o

0

Northern Ocean

7

30

Atlantic Ocean

5

15

St. George's Channel

7

30

German Ocean

4

30

4L

TIDES.

, of pu

Leolloffc

Li-»is, I (If of, North Port

Lime - - - •

Liftioii - - -

Livirrpool - - -

Lizard - - -

London - - -

London, Now

Lon^ I (land

Longfand-Hcad

Louis, Port

Lundy, Ifli.' of

Lynn . - - -

Madeira, Ifland of

Macs, River (Mouth) -

Maloes, St.

Man, Kle of (weft end)

Margate - - -

Milford

Mount's Bay

Nantes . . -

Naze . . - -

Needles ...

Newcaftle - - -

Nieuport ...

Nore . . - -

Nortli Cape

Orfordncfs . - -

Orkney Ifles, (limits) -

Oftend

Placentia ...

Plymouth ...

Portland

Portfmouth ...

Quebec . . -

Rhec, ir.eof

Rochefort ...

Rochelle ...

Rochefter ...

Rotterdam - - -

Rouen ...

Rye ....

Sandwich ...

Scarborough-Head

Scilly Ifles -

Seine, River

Senegal, River

Severn, River

Sheernefs ...

Shetland Ifland (limits)

Shorcham ...

Sierra Leona

Sky, Ifle of

Southampton

Spurn ...

Start-Point ...

Stockton ...

Strongford Bay

Sunderland - . .

vSwin ....

Tamarin-Town

Tees, River (Mouth) .

Counirie':.

England

Scotland

England

Portugal

England

Ditto

Ditto

New England

Ditto

England

France

England

Ditto

Canaries

Dutchland -

France

England

Ditto

Wales

England

France

Norway

England

Ditto

Flanders

England

Lapland

England

Scotland

Flanders

Newfoundland

England

Ditto

Ditto

Canada

France

Ditto

Ditto

England

Dutchland -

France

England

Ditto

Ditto

Ditto

France

Negroland -

England

Ditto

Scotland

England

Guinea

Ditto

England

Ditto

Ditto

Ditto

Ireland

England

Ditto

Socotora

England

Coaft.

German Ocean

Weftcrn Ocean

Englifli Channel

River Tagus

Irifti Sea - - -

Englifli Channel

River Thames -

Weftcrn Ocean

Ditto

German Ocean

Bay of Bifcay -

St. George's Channel

German Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

German Ocean

Englilh Channel

Irifh Sea - - -

Englifli Channel

St. George's Channel

Englifli Channel

Bay of Bifcay -

Weftern Ocean

Englifli Channel

German Ocean -

Ditto

River Thames -

Northern Ocean

German Ocean

Weft.ern Ocean

German Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

Englifli Channel

Ditto

Ditto

River St. Lawrence -

Bay of Bifcay -

Ditto

Ditto

River Medway .

German Ocean

River Seine

Englifli Channel

Downs - - _

German Ocean

St. George's Channel

Englifli Channel

Atlantic Ocean

St. George's Channel

River Thames .

Wefl^ern Ocean

Enghfli Channel

Atlantic Ocean

Ditto ...

Enghfli Channel

German Ocean

Englifli Channel

German Ocean

Irifli Sea ...

German Ocean

Entrance of the Thames

Indian Ocean -

German Ocean

High-Water.

H.

M.

9
6

45
3°

7

0

2

'5

II

IS

7

3°

3

o

I

3°

3

o

lO

30

3

0

S
6

15

0

12

4

I

6

30
0

9

0

1 1

'5

5

•5

4

30

3

0

II

15

10

15

3

■5

12

0

0

0

3

0

9

45

3

0

12

0

9
6

0
0

8

15

1 1

'5

7

30

3

0

4

15

3

45

o

45

3

0

I

15

II

15

1 1

30

3

45

3

45

9

0

lO

3°

6

0

9

0

3

0

lO

30

8

•5

5

30

o

0

5
6

15
45

5

15

lo

30

3

30

12

0

9

0

3

0

TIDES.

Names of Places.

Coumries.

Coaa.

Higli-VVai<:r.

TencrifTe, Ifland ojf
Texcl, Ifland of -
Thames, River (Mouth)
Tinmoutli . - - .
Topfliam ....
Torbay . . . -
Tory, Ifland of - - -
\'alery, St. -

Vannes . - - -
Ufliant, Ifle of - - -
Waterford ....
Weymouth - . . -
Whitby ....
Wight, Ifle of. North, South, ■)
Eaft, and Weft End -j
Winchelfea . . - -
Wintertonnefs

Yarmouth ....
York Fort ....
York, New ....
Youghall ....

Canaries

Dutchland -

Engbnd

Ditto

Ditto

Ditto

Ireland

France

Ditto

Ditto

Ireland

England

Ditto

Ditto

Ditto
Ditto
Ditto

New W.iles
United States
Ireland

Atlantic Ocean

German Ocean

Ditto ....

Ditto ....

Englifli Channel

Ditto ....

Weftern Ocean

Enghfli Channel

Bay of Biicay ...

Englifli Channel

St. George's Channel

Englifli ClKinnel

German Ocean

Enghfli Channel

Ditto ....

German Ocean

Ditto ....

Hudlon's Bay -

Atlantic Ocean

St. George's Channel

11. M.

3 0
7 3°
I 30
3 0 '
6 0

5 '5

5 30

10 30

3 45

4 30

6 30

7 0
3 0

0 0
0 45
9 0
9 45
9 10

3 0

4 30

The following times ferve for coafts of coniiderable ex-
tent, and nearly for the places on thofe coafts ; w'a. Fin-

mark, or N.N.W coaft of Lapland, l** 30"

.Jutland ifles.

o'^o"; Friefland coaft, y'' 30"" ; Zealand coaft, i'' 30"
Flanders coaft, o'' o™ ; Picardy and Normandy coafts,
jph jQm . Bifcay, Gallician, and Portugal coafts, 3'' o"' ;
Irifli weft coaft, 3'' o"" ; Irifli fouth coaft, 5'^ 15" ; Africa
■weft coaft, 3'' o™ ; America weft coaft, 3'' o"" ; America
eaft coaft, 4'' 30™.

The ufe of the preceding table is to find the time of
high-water at any of the places contained in it : for this
purpofe, find the time of the moon's fouthing on a given
day (fee Moon) ; and then add the time which the moon has
pafted the meridian on the full and change days, to make
high-water at that place ; and the fum fliews the time of
high-water on the given day.

See on the fubjett of this article, Newton Princ. Math,
lib. iii. prop. 24. and De Syftem. Mundi, feft. 38-54.
Apud Opera Ed. Horfley, torn. iii. p. 25, &c. p. 203,
&c. Maclaurin's Account of fir I. Newton's Difcoveries,
book iv. ch 7. Fergufon's Aftron. ch. xvii. Robert-
fon's Navig. book vi. feft. vii. viii. ix. Young's Lec-
tures.

TiDE-Z)/Vr/, the name of an inftrument contrived by Mr.
Fergufon, for exhibiting and determining the ftate of the
tides. It is reprefented in Plate IV. Dialling, Jig. 36.
and the external parts of it confift of i. An eight-fided
box, on the top of which, at the corners, are ihewn the
phaies of the moon at the oftants, quarters, and full.
Within thefe is a circle of 29^ equal parts, which are the
(lays of the moon's age reckoned from the fun at new
moon, round to the fun again. Within this circle is one of
twenty-four hours, divided into their halves and quarters.
2. A moving elliptical plate, painted blue, to fliew the
rifing of the tides under and oppofite to the moon, with the
v.ords high-iuater, tide-falling, low-water, tide-rijmg, marked
r.pon it. To one end of this plate is fixed the moon M by
the wire W, which goes along with it. 3. Above this
elliptical plate is a round one, with the points of the cora-
pafs upoa it, and alfo the names of above two hundred

places in the large machine (but only thirty-two in the
figure, to avoid confufion ) fet over thofe points on which
the moon bears when flie raifes the tides to the greateft
heights at thefe places, twice in every lunar day ; and to
the north and fouth points of this plate are fixed two in-
dices I and K, which fliew the times of high-water, in the
hour-circle, at all thefe places. 4. Below the elliptical plate
are four fmall plates, two of which projeft out from below
its ends at new and full moon ; and fo, by lengthening the
eUipfe, ftiew the fpring-tides : the other two of thefe fmall
plates appear at low-water when the moon is in her quadra-
tures, or at the fides of the elliptic plate, to fliew the neap-
tides. When any two of thefe fmall plates appear, tlie
other two are hid ; and when the moon is in her oftants,
they all difappear. Within the box are a few wheels foi-
performing thefe motions by the handle H. Turn the
handle till the moon, M, comes to any given day of her age
in the circle of 29^ equal parts, and the moon's wire W will
interfeft the time of her coming to the meridian on that
day, in the hour-circle : the XII under the fun being mid-
day, and the oppofite XII mid-night: then looking for
the name of any given place on the round plate (which
makes 295 rotations, whilft the moon M makes only one
revolution from the fun to the fun again) turn the handle
till that place comes to the word high-water under the
moon, and the index which falls among the forenoon hours
will fliew the time of high-water at tliat place in the fore-
noon of the given day : then turn the plate half round, till
the fame place comes to the oppofite liigh-water mark, and
the index will fliew the time of high-water in the afternoon
at that place. And thus, as all the different places come
fuccefiively under and oppofite to the moon, the indices
fhew the times of high-water at them in both parts of the
day ; and when the fame places come to tlie low-water
marks, the indices fliew the times of low-water. For about
three days before and after tlie times of new and full moon,
the two fmall plates come out a little way from below the
high-water marks on the elliptical plate, to Ihew that the
tides rife ftill higher about thefe times : about the quarters,
the other two plates come out a little from under the low-
4 L 2 water

T I D

watfr mirks toward the fun, and on llie oppofite fide, (hew-
n,< thit th," tidc-8 of flcKHl rife not then fo Ingh, nor do tht-
tidc, of ebb fall fo low, as at other times. For the dcfcr.p-
tion of the infidc work of this machine, and the method ot
conftruding it, fee Fergufon's Aftron. p. 297.

TinE-Gatf. See Gage.

TiDK-Gatet are the lower gates of a lock open to a tide-
way : thefe are alfo placed at the mouths of drains.

"tlDK-Afill, in Rural Economy and Agriculture, an ufeful
fort of mill, the moving power of which is formed by run-
ning a dam acrois an inlet where tide-water comes m, lo
31 to leave a narrow padage open for placing it in on one
fide. It alfo fignifies a mill for raifing and clearing lands
from tide-water in fen fituations, and where injury is
done by the overflowing of the tides. See Watering of
Land.

Tide-mills may moftly be formed without producing any
obftriidion or hindrance to agriculture.

TlDK-l^ailcri, or TiJc--Men, certain officers belonging
to the cuftom-houfe, appointed to watch or attend on
ftiips coming from abroad, to fee that nothing be landed till
the culloms be p;Jd.

They are thus called, becaufe they go aboard the (hips at
their arrival in the mouth of the Thames, and come up with
the tide.

TIDENSDORF, in Geography, a town of PrufTia, in
the province of Ermeland ; 4 miles S. of Frauenburg.

TIDER, or Ner, a fmall ifland in the Atlantic, near the
coaft of Africa. N. lat. 19° 30'.

TIDESWELL, a fmall market -town in the hundred of
High Peak, and county of Derby, England ; is fituated in
a valley among bleak hills, 32 miles N.N.W. from the
county-town, and 160 miles N.W. by N. from London.
The town is reported to have received its name from an
ebbing and flowing well, now hardly remembered, as it has
long ceafed to flow. The church, which was eret\ed in
the fourteenth century, is a handfome edifice of the con-
ventual form, with a neat tower at the weft end, terminated
by eight pinnacles ; thofe at the angles rifing from ofta-
gonal bafes, and being much higher than the intermediate
ones. In the chancel is a fmall ftone commemorative of
John Foljambe, who died in 1358, and is faid to have con-
tributed much towards the building of the church. A
raifed tomb perpetuates the name of Sampfon Meurill, who
died in 1462, and who, in the courfe of two years, was en-
gaged in eleven battles in France. Among other monu-
ments of ancient date, is one to the memory of a native of
this town, Robert Purfglove, prior of Gilburn priory, who
obtained a penfion from Henry VHI. for his obfequious
compHance with that monarch's wilhcs, in not only fur-
rendering his own houfe, but alfo afting as a commif-
fioner to procure the furrender of others. In queen Mary's
reign he was appointed archdeacon of Nottingham, and
fuffragan bifliop of Hull ; but on the acccflion of Ehza-
beth, he was deprived of all his fpiritualities, and retired to
Tidefwell, where, having founded a grammar-fchool, and an
hofpital for twelve poor people, he died in 1579. By the
population return of the year 181 1, the inhabitants of this
panfh are ftated to be 1219, who are chiefly fupported by
the mining bufinefs ; the number of houfes, which are moftly
fcattered on the oppofite banks of a rivulet, was eftimated
at 283. A weekly market is held on Wednefdays ; and
here are three annual fairs.

In the vicinity of Tidefwell is the fequeftered retreat of
Monfal-Dale, peculiariy eminent for pifturefque beauty.
Near the head of the Dale, the rocks iul out en the fouth

TIE

fide, like the immenfe towers of a ftrong fortrefs. Lower
down, the crags foften into verdure, the dale expands, and
the eye dwells enraptured on the rich profpeft that prefents
itfclf. The back-ground is formed by a fteep precipice,
variegated by Ihort herbage and brufliwood, with occa-
fionally a ftarting rock breaking its continuity of furface.
On the fummit of an eminence called the Great Finn, was a
large barrow, about 160 feet in circumference, chiefly com-
pofed of broken maftes of limeftone, to obtain which the
barrow was deftroyed about the year 1795. Within this
tumulus various Ikeletons were difcovered, two of them of
gigantic fize, with feveral urns, and other ancient memo-
rials ; among which were two arrow-heads of flint, whence
the barrow is fuppofed to have been of very remote anti-
quity ; for, as the learned author of " Nenia Britannica"
obferves, " flint arrow-heads are evidences of a people not
in the ufe of malleable metal ; and it therefore implies,
wherever thefe arms are found in barrows, they are incon-
teftibly the relics of a primitive barbarous people, and pre-
ceding the era of thofe barrows in which brafs or iron arms
are found." It is worthy of note, that, excepting on the
fide next the precipice, the fummit of the Great Finn is
furrounded by a double ditch, with a vallum to each : the
diftance between the banks is 160 yards.

Near the hamlet of Wormhill, in this parifli, is a romantic
and deep glen or dale, where the river Wye flows beneath
a ftupendous mafs of rock, called Chee-Tor. This mafs of
freeftone rifes about 300 feet above the level of the river,
and conftitutes a moft impofing and fingular feature. At a
fmall hamlet called Tunfted, in the liberty of Wormhill,
was born James Brindley, juftly famed for his fuccefsful
efforts in planning and executing canals. See Brikdley. —
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. iii. Derbyfhire ; by
J. Britton and E. W. Brayley. Davies's Hiftorical and
Defcriptive Account of Derbyfhire, 8vo. 181 1.

TIDEWA, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland ; 62
miles N.E. of Uddevalla.

TIDLA, a river of Sweden, which runs into the
Wenner lake, near Marieftadt, in the province of Weft
Gothland.

TIDON, a town on the eaft coaft of the ifland of Celebes,
in the bay of Gunong Tellu. N. lat. o"^ 3'. E. long.
120° 38'.

TIDOR, or TiDORE, an ifland in the Eafl Indian
fea, and one of thofe called Moluccas, fituated near the
weft coaft of the ifland of Gilolo, between Ternate and
Timor ; about ten leagues in circumference, and fo called
from its capital, though named Tadura, or Daco, by the
natives. It abounds in fpices, efpecially cloves. The
Dutch have feveral forts, but the ifland is governed by a
king, who poffeffes likewife fome territory on the ifland of
Gilolo ; 15 miles S.E. of Ternate. N. lat. 0° 42'.
E. long. 127° 19'.

TIDSI, a river of Morocco, which difcharges itfelf into
the ocean a few miles S. of the Tegrewelt, or Cape
Offam.

TIEBAS, a town of Spain, in the province of Navarre ;
5 miles S.E. of Pamplona.

TIEDEMAN, Dieterich, in Biography, a philofo-
phical writer, was born April 1748, at Bremervorde, in the
duchy of Bremen, and educated in the fchool of his native
place in the Greek and Latin languages, in which he made
very confiderable proficiency. Devoting himfclf to the
church, he removed to the fchool of Verden, and from
thence to the Athenaeum at Bremen, where he formed an
intimate friendfhip with Meiners, afterwards profeffor at

Gottingen.

T 1 E

T I E

Gottingcn. In 1767 he fettled at Gottingen, and here he
renounced the ftudy of theology, becaufe he difapproved
tlie fyftem there taught, and applied to matheniatics, claf-
lical literature, and pliilofophy. In the winter of 1769 he
fixed iiis refidcnce in Livonia, as tutor to a nobleman of that
country ; and whilll he was there, he publilhed at Riga, in
1772, his " Elfay on the Origin of Language." After
vifiting his native place in the following year, he went to
Gottingen, and formed an acquaintance with the celebrated
Hcyne, who wrote a preface to his " Syftem of the Stoic
Philofophy," and perfuaded him to publiOi it. By the
recommendation of this learned friend, he was appointed
profeffor of ancient literature in the CaroUne college at
Caflel, of which office he took poflcffion in 1766. His in-
tervals of leifure were employed in the ihidy of philofophy
and its hiftory ; and alfo in preparing for the prefs his
" Inveltigation of Man," " The FirR Philofophcrs of
Greece, &c." and his " Spirit of Speculative Philofophy."
Upon the difTolution of the Caroline college in 1786, he oc-
cupied the chair of philofophy at Marpurg, and his ledtures
were very popular. He was an oppofer of Kant's philo-
fophy : and he indulged himfelf in ridiculing the extrava-
gant pretenfions or pious arrogance of the founders of
lects. Although his conftitution was robuft, he was car-
ried off by a fever and inflammation of the lungs, in May
1803, at the age of 55. As a literary charadler, he was
intimately converfant with the Uterature of Greece and
Rome, and with all the fyftems of ancient and modern phi-
lofophy, as well as the manners and cuftoms of ancient and
modern times. His extenfive erudition appears in his
" Argumenta Platonis," annexed to the edition of Plato,
printed at Deux-Ponts ; in his prize effay, entitled " Difpu-
tatio de Quseftione quae fuerit magicarum artium origo,"
and in various other differtations. In philofophy he was
in early life a dogmatift, and in the latter period of his life
inclined to fcepticifm. His works, which, befides thofe
already mentioned, were numerous, and relate chiefly to the
hiftory of philofophy, and its different fyftems, afford ample
evidence of his affiduity and labour. Monthly Magazine.
Gen. Biog.

TIEFENSEE, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, on a
lake of the fame name ; 20 miles S. of Brandenburg.

TIEFF, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Barten-
land ; 7 miles S.E. of Angerburg.

TIEFFENAW, a town of Pruffian Pomereha ; 15
miles S. of Marienburg.

TIELLEN-HEAD, a cape of the county of Donegal,
on the weft coaft of Ireland. N. lat. 54° 41'. W.
long. 8° 40'.

TIEM, a townof Afia, in the kingdom of Laos, on the
Mecom ; 90 miles S.S.E. of Lantchan.

TIEN, or Lien, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
Quang-tong ; 960 miles S. of Peking. N. lat. 24° 50'.

E. long. 111° 49' Alfo, a town of Corea ; 25 miles

N.N.E. of King-ki-tao. — Alfo, a city of China, of the
fecond rank, in Quang-fi, on the north fide of the Pofoi :
J 120 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 23° 46'. E. long.
106° 19'.

TIEN-CHAN, a town of Corea ; 53 miles W.N.W. of
Han-tcheou.

TIENEN. See Tirlemont.

TIENGEN, or Thiengen, or Thungen, a town of
Germany, in the principality of Klettgau, on the Wutach,
formerly, with its diftrift, conftituting a lordfhip ; 29 miles
E. of Balo. N. lat. 47° 42'. E. long. 8° 17'.

TIENHOVEN, a town of HoUand, on the Leek ;

6 miles S. of Schoouhoven. — Alfo, a town of Utrecht ;

7 miles N. of Utrecht.

TIEN-SING, a great port of China, on the river Pci-ho.
Its Chincfe name literally fignifies " heavenly fpot ;" and in
the time of Marco Paolo, when it is fuppofed to have been
much larger than at prcfent, it was called " Citta Celefte :"
and it is faid to have a claim on this appellation from its
fituation in a genial climate, fertile foil, dry air, and ferenc
fl<y. It is the general emporium for the northern pro-
vinces of China, and is built at the confluence of two rivers,
from which it rifes in a gentle flope. The palace of the
governor ftands on a projetiing point, commanding a broad
bafon, or cxpanfe of water, produced by the union of
the rivers, and almoft covered with vefl'els of different
iizes. Thcfc two rivers are the Pei-ho and the Yun-
leang-ho, or grain-bearing river, from the quantities of
wheat conveyed upon it from the province of Shan-fee,
and fent up by the Pei-ho to the neighbourhood of Peking.
Over thefe rivers, where they unite, is a bridge of boats :
and along the quays were fome temples and other handfome
edifices, but the reft confifted chiefly of (hops for the retail
of goods, and alfo warehoufes, together with yards, and
magazines for maritime ftores. The houfes at Tien-fing
are chiefly built of brick, of a leaden-blue colour. Few
are red : the pooreft are pale brown. Many of the houfes
are two ftories high.

TIEN-TCHA, or Netu Gibraltar, a mountain of Cochin-
china, which forms the harbour of Turon ; which fee.

TIENTONG, a town of Siam ; 350 miles N.N.W. of
Juthia.

TIEN-TSANG, a town of Thibet ; 268 mUes E.S.E.
of Hami.

TIEPOLO, Giovanni Batista, in Biography, was
one of the laft of the eminent Venetian painters. He was
born at Venice in 1697, and was a fcholar of G. Lazza-
rini ; but he afterwards ftudied the works of P. Veronefe.
He poffeffed a quick invention, and great freedom of hand,
and was admirably qualified for the execution of large
frefco works upon ceilings, &c. ; where great facility of
handling, and richnefs of colouring, will often apologize
for the want of higher qualities, particularly in allegoric
or grotefque fubjefts. Tiepolo was employed in many of
the palaces in Italy, but moft honoured by the employment
he received from the king of Spain, who engaged him to
adorn his palace at Madrid. He died at Madrid in 1770,
at the age of 73. He etched many of his own defigns
with great neatnefs and tafte.

TIER, in Sea Language, the name of the feveral ranges
of guns mounted on one fide of a ftiip's deck ; which, ac-
cording as they are placed on the lower, middle, or upper
decks, are called the lower, middle, or upper tier.

Tier of the Cable, denotes a range of the fakes or wind-
ings of the cable, which are laid within one another in an
horizontal pofirion, fo as that the laft becomes the inner-
moft.

Tier Cable, is the hollow fpace in the middle of a cable,
when it is coiled.

Tier, in Organ-Building, is ufed to diftinguifh the differ-
ent ranks or ranges of pipes (as a tier of guns in men of
war) in the front of the inftrument, and even in the interior of
the cafe, when the compound Hops have feveral ranks of
pipes, as the fefquialter, furniture, and cornet.

TIERBY, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Halland ; 6 miles S.E. of Helmftadt.

TIERCE', a town of France, in the department of the
Mayne and Loire ; 3 miles S. of Chateauneuf.

Tierce, or Teirce, in Commerce, a meafure of liquid
II things,

T 1 E

things a< winr, oil, &c. containing the third part of a pipe,
or forty-two callons. StoMKAsunB.

Thr tierce i» alfo a wisrht by which prov.l.ons arc fold
iu Ireland. The tierces, barrels, and firkms are not tared,
but the pieces in each calk muft be of the following weight
and number :

ll».

lbs.

BtiJ. — Navy 304 ptr tierce, being 38 pieces of 8 each.

India 336 ditto - 42 - 8

Mofs 304 ditto .38-8

Ditto zoo ptr barrel - 25 - 8

Ditto loo/frfirkin - 25 - 4

ytr/.— India 3 1 8 /it tierce - 53 - ^

Navy 320 ditto - 80 - 4

Army 208 /.-r barrel - 52 - 4

Mefs 200 ditto .50-4

Ditto ICO /nrr firkin - 25 - 4

Tierce, in Mufic, a 3d. The higlieft Hop in an organ,
called the tierce, is a major 3d above tlie 15th, every found
being a 17th above the diapafon. See Third.

TlERCH dt PkarJie, in French Mvfic, and indeed all choral
mufic of old maftcrs in a minor key, is terminated with a ftiarp
3d, which the French now call lierce de Picaid'u, on ac-
count of the great number of cathedrals in that province,
where it continues Hill in ufc.

Padre Martini (Saggio di Contrap. parte prima, 23.)
recommends the terminating minor movements with a fharp
3d; a praftice which Rouffeau (Dift. de Muf.) cen-
fures as Gothic, and a proof of bad tafte. If the firft of
thefe excellent writers wifhcd only to preferve its ufe in the
church, and the fecond to banilh it elfewhere, they were
both right, however their opinions may feem to clafh. The
learned author of the Saggio di Cantrappunto, who was
£0 perfeftly acquainted with all the beauties and effefts of
choral mufic, is certainly more to be relied on in whatever
concerns it, than the animated author of the Diftionnaire
de Mufiquc ; who, with the moft refined tafte and exalted
views with refpeft to dramatic compofitions, had n?ither
time nor opportunity fufficiently to explore the myfteries of
canto fermo, or to become a very profound contrapuntift.
For our own part, though we never wi(h to hear a fong or
glee in a minor key, and with a (harp 3d ; yet there is
fomething fo folemn and grateful in thefe terminations of
ecclefiaftical compofitions; that we fliould be very forry if
the praftice were not continued. And if we confider the
relation and compofition of the feveral flops in an organ, we
fliall find, that as every fingle key in the chorus of that in-
ftrument hai a complete chord with a fharp 3d to it, when
we dwell on a chord with a flat 3d, while the tierce,
comet, fefquialtcr, and fometimes the furniture, are found-
ing the (harp 3d, it affords an additional reafon for the
origin and continuance of the praftice, befides the peculiar
properties of tonal modulation.

Tierce, in Gaming, a fequence of three cards of the
fame colour.

TiEiiCE, in Fencing. Sec Guard and Thrust.

Tierce Order. See Third Order.

Tierce Point. See Third Point.

TIERCED, Tierce, in Heraldry, denotes the fhield to
be divi4ed by any of the partition lines, party, coupy,
tranchy, or taiUy, into three equal parts, of different co-
loiurs or metals.

If the chief and bafe be of the fame colour when di-
vided by afeflc, they blazon it by expreffiiig the colour,

and mtnuoiung the feiTc ; gthcrwifc, they fay, ji is tkret

T I F

injejfe, and mention each of the colours, or tierce in pale, if
fo divided in pale.

TIERCEL, in Falconry, a name given to a male hawk,
as being a third part lefs in fize than the female.

TIERCELET.' See Tassel.

TIERDILL, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Vifiapour ; 20 miles W. of Galgala.

TIERPIED, a'town of France, in the department of
the Channel ; 3 miles E. of Avranchcs.
TIERRA. See Terra.

TiEHRA Bomla, a fmall idand near the coafl of South
America, at the entrance of the harbour of Carthagena ;
where, in 174 1, the Englifh erefted a battery.

TIERY, a town of S^veden, in the province of Up-
land ; 30 miles N. of Upfal.

TIES, aboard a (hip, are thofe ropes by which the yards
hang ; and when the haliards are drained to hoife the yards,
thefe ties carry them up.

TIESSERBACH, in Geography, a river of Wurtem-
berg, which runs into the Neckar, near Nurtingen.

TIETAR, a river of Spain, wliich runs into the Tagus,
near Talavan, in Eftremadura.

TIE-TCHEOU, a town of Chinefe Tartary, in the
country of Kokonor ; 688 miles S.E. of Hami. N. lat.
33° 56'. E. long. 102° 54'.

TIETE, or Anhembi, a river of Brafil, which runs
into the Parana.

TIFACOUM, a word ufed by fome of the chemical
writers to exprefs quickfilver.

TIFATA Mons, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Italy, in Campania, near Capua. The table of Peutinger
has placed here two temples, one defignated by the words
" Ad Dianam," the other by thofe of " Jovis Tifationus."

TiFATA, a town of Italy, in Latium. Phny.

TIFATUM, a word ufed by fome of the chemical
writers to exprefs fulphur.

TIFER, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Stiria ;
3 miles S. of Cilley.

TIFERNUM, or TiFERNUS, in Ancient Geography, a
river of Italy, in Samnium.

TiFERNUM Aletaurum, a town of Italy, in Samnium.
Livy.

TiFERNUM Tiberinum, or Tifernum of the Tiler, Citta di
Cajlello, a town of Italy, in Umbria, to the N.W. towards
the banks of the river Tiber. It was municipal.

TIFESELT, in Geography, a town of Fez; 12 miles
N.E. of Sallee.

TIFFAUGES, a town of France, in the department
of the Vendee ; 9 miles E. of Montaigu.

TIFFE de Mer, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by
count Marfigli to a fpecies of fea-plant, as he fuppofes it to
be, commonly but erroneoufly reckoned among the fpunges,
and called by authors a branched fpunge. This author has
called it by this name from its refemblance to the heads of the
typha paluflris, or cat's tail, when ripe in the month of Sep-
tember.

The fpunges muft be of a lax and cavernous texture ;
but this fubftauce is fmooth and firm, and has no inequalities
on its furface, excepting a few (hort hairs, which give it a
velvety look, when firft taken out of the water. It is a
very elegant and beautiful fubftance ; it grows to two feet
in height, and is very elegantly branched ; it grows on
rocks and ftones, and, when firit taken out of the fea, is
fsU of a vifcous water, as yellow as the yolk of an egg ;
but when this water is prefTed out, and the fubftance dries,
it lofes its yellow, and becomes of a du(ky-brown colour : it
is very toi'^h aad firm while in the -ivaterj but when dry it

ufjally

T I G

T I G

ufually breaks of itfclf into little pieces, and may be crum-
bled to powder between the fingers. This is a very ftrong
proof, among others, of its not being of the nature of tlie
(punge.

when viewed by the microfcope, the whole furface is
toiind to be covered with extremely fnic and llender hairs ;
and, among thcfe, there is an infinity of httle apertures,
through which the fea-water makes its way.

When a branch of it is cut tranfverfely, there are feen a
number of long and fine canals, by means of which the water,
received at thefe fuperficial apertures, is conveyed to its
whole fubftance. Marfig. Hill, de la Mer, p. 82.

Subllances of this kind are now known to be of animal
and not of vegetable origin. See Coral.

TIFFENETH, in Geography, a town of Pruflla, in the
province of Natangen ; 10 miles S. of Brandenburg.

TIFFESCH, or TiFAS, anciently Thevejle, a town of
Algiers ; 40 miles S. of Bona. N. lat. 36° 20'. E. long.

TIFLISBERG, a mountain of Switzerland, between
the cantons of Uri and Unterwalden.

TIGA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in Mau-
ritania Casfariaiia, near the coall of the Atlantic. Strabo.

TiGA, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian
'ea, near the north-weft coaft of the ifland of Borneo.
N. lat. 6' 25'. E. long. 1 12'' 14'.

TIGAON, an ifland in the Indian fea, near the north-
weft coaft of the ifland of Borneo. N. lat. 6"^ lo'. E. '
long. 128" 48'.

TIGARA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in
the interior of Mauritania Csfariana. Ptol.

TIGAREA, in Botany, a barbarous or ai-bitrary name,

of which its publiflier Aublet has given no explanation

Aubl. Guian. 917. Juft". 339. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 826. —
Schreber admitted the genus, under the name of Rbinium,
in his Gen. 701, but in his Addenda to that work, 833, re-
duced it to Tetracera ; fee that article. Mr. Purfti, how-
ever, has reftored the genus and the name, in his Flora
America Septentrionalis^ 333, where he has, not without fome
doubt, referred hither a very curious new flirub, found in the
meadows of the Rocky-mountains, and on the Columbia
river, by the name of T. tridentata, t. 15. This has crowded,
wedge-fhaped, hoary, three-toothed leaves, and folitary, ter-
minal, yeAovi Jloiuers, the fize of hawthorn-bloffoms. That
it is very diftinft in genus from Aublet's Tigarea we have no
doubt, being very nearly akin to the Rubus japonicus of
Linnsus, Corchorus japonicus of Thunberg, as has lately
teen pointed out by M. De CandoUe, in a paper rfead be-
fore the Linnaean Society. But it feems to us that the genua
of neither of thefe flirubs can as yet be determined, for want
of perfeft fruit.

TIGAUDA, in Ancient Geography, a municipal town
of Africa, in Mauritania Cxfariana, upon the route from
Rufucurrum to Cala, between Caftellum Tingitanum and
Oppidum Novum. Anton. Itin.

TiGE, in Architedure, a French term for the ftiaft or
fuft of a column, comprehended between the aftragal and
the capital.

TIGEGUACU, in Ornithology, the name of a fmall Bra-
filian bird, of the fize of a fparrow, and with a ridged and
triangular bill, in which it refembles the mouche-roUe ; its
eyes are of a fine blue, and its legs and feet yellow ; it is all
over of a deep black, but that it has a lai-ge blood-red fpot
on the top of its head ; its tail is fliort and black.

TIGELLIUS, in Biography, a mufician, born in Sar-
dinia, grandfon of Phamea, a mufician in great favour at
Reme in the time of Julius Csefar. Horace has handed him

9

down to pofterity as a mercilefs fpendthrift, and an egregious
coxcomb.

" Ambubajarum collegia Pharmacopolx

Mendici, Mimx, Balatrones, iioc genus omne
Ma-ftum, ac folicitum eft cantoris morte Tigelli ;
Quippc benignus erat." — Sat. lib. i. 2.

Tigellius was not only much in Tavour with Julius Caefar,
but afterwards with Cleopatra and Auguftus : he was an
able mufician, an ingenious buffoon, and fubtle courtier.
What Horace has faid of his caprice, has often been applied,
and we fear will ever continue to be applied, to muficians of
a fimilar difpofition.

" Omnibus hoc vitium ut cantoribus'j%iter amicos
Ut nunquam inducant animum cantare rogati ;
Injuffi nunquam defiftant." — Sat. lib. i. 3.

TIGENHAGEN, in Geography, a town of Prndiai.
Pomerelia ; 1 2 miles N. of Marienburg.

TIGENWIT, a town of Africa, in Negroland ; 45
miles N. of Arguin.

TIGER, a fmall ifland in the Spanifli Main, near the
coaft of Darien. N. lat. 8° 35'. W. long. 77° 30'.

Tiger, Tigris, in the Linnaean fyftem of Zoology, is a
fpecies of cat, or Felis Tigris ; which fee.

The tiger (formed of '\^ }, fagitla, a dart, whence "l^Jlfl)
has its name from its fuppofed fwiftnefs. See tlie article
Felis Tigris.

Tiger, American. See Felis Onca.

TiGER-Cal. See Felis Capenfts.

Tiger, Hunting, or Leopard. See Felis Leopardus.

Tiger, M-an. See Mantegar.

TiGER-Shell, a name given to the red voluta, with large
white fpots.

In the Linnaean fyftem, the tiger-ftiell is a fpecies of the
cyprsea. See Shells.

TIGGREE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Sumbul ; 17 miles S. of Nidjibabad.

TIGH, in our Old Writers, a clofe or inclofure meu-
tioned in ancient charters, and is ftill ufed in Kent in the
fame fenfe.

TIGHMAN's Island, in Geography, a fmall ifland in
the Chefapeak. N. lat. 38° 48'. E. long. 76° 21'.

TIGHT, in Sea Language, exprefles the quality by
which a velfel refifts the penetration of any fluid, whether
comprefTing its furface, or contained within it. Hsnce a
ftiip is faid to be tight, when her planks are fo compact and
folid, as to prevent the entrance of the water in which ftie is
immerfed ; and a caflc is called tight, whea the ftaves are fo
clofe, that none of the liquid contained in it can iflue through
or between them. In both fenfesi tight is oppofed to leaky.
Falconer.

TIGILLUM, a word ufed by fome chemifts to exprefs
the tile with which they cover the mouth of their crucibles ;
and, by others, for the crucible itfelf.

TIGILSKOI, in Geography, a town of Kamlfchatka ;
80 miles W. of Ukinflioi. N. lat. 57° 20'. E. long,

157° 44'-

TIGINE. SeeBENDER.

TIGIS Herba, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa,
in the interior of Mauritania Ca;fariana, near a river, and S.
of Icofium. In the Itin. of Anton, it is marked on the
route from Rufucurrum to Scalda:.

TIGLIUM, in Botany. See PlNEi Nuclei, &c.

TIGNALE, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cor-
fica : ■?o miles S.E- of Corte.

TIGNARES,

r 1 G

TIGNARES, a town of Brafil, and chief pla«e in tlie
captainfttip of Rio Grande.

TIGNES. a town of France, in the department of
Mont Blanc ; 3 miles S.E. of St. Maurice.

TIGR.'\, in jlnciitt Geography, a town of Lower Moe-
fia, on the route from Viminiacum to Nicomedia, between
Exantaprillis and Appiaria. Anton. Itin.

TIGRAH, in Geograbhs, a town of Hindooftan, in Ba-
har ; 40 miles E.S.E. of Hajypour. N. lat. 25° 28'. E.

long. 86' 7'. r , r •

TIGRANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
the interior of Media. Ptol.

TIGRANAAMA, a town of Afia, in the Greater Ar-
mcnia, and one of thofe which were fituated to the E. of
the foarces of the^igris. Ptol.

TIGRANES, the Great, in Biography, king of Ar-
menia, aftjr having been delivered by his father as a hoftage
to the Parthians, was liberated and alTiimcd the crown about
the year B.C. 93. Having formed an alliance with Mithri-
ditcs, king of Pontus, againd the Romans, he married
Cleopatra, daughter of that prince ; and, agreeably to the
terms of his alliance, he' reduced Cappadocia, and caufed
Ariarathes, the fon of Mithridates, to occupy tlic throne
inftead of Ariobarzanes, who was fupported by the Romans.
Soon after this event, Tigrancs was offered the crown of
Syria, and accepted it B.C. 83 ; and when he had taken
pofTeflion of the kingdom, governed it for many years by a
lieutenant. He then invaded Leffer Armenia, and com-
pletely ruined it in the courfe of one campaign. Having
made various other conquells, he founded the city of Ti-
granocerta, on the fpot in Armenia where he had received
the crown. He afterwards joined Mithridates, his father-in-
law, in a war againit the Romans ; but when Mithridates,
•ifter having been defeated by LucuUus, took refuge in Ar-
menia^Jie was coldly received by Tigranes, who granted him
a caftle for his refidence, with a royal allowance. By a
feries of fubfequent adventures, which proved fuccefsful,
Tigranes was fo elated, that he affumed the title of king
of kings, and exafted from all who approached him
tokens of the mod humiliating reverence. A change how-
ever in his fituation was rapidly approaching ; for Lu-
cuUus, the Roman general, having reduced the kingdom
of Po'itus, availed himfelf of a preconcerted circumftance
for marching in a holUle manner into Armenia, and laid
fiege to Tigranocerta. Tigranes advanced to its relief;
but meeting with LucuUus at the head of a fmall army,
an engagement enfued, the refult of which was the pu-
fiUanimous flight of Tigranes, and the difperfion of his
numerous army ; and though he received confiderable
fuccour from Mithridates, and levied frefh troops, he
could not prevent the furrender of Tigranocerta to Lu-
cuUus ; and this furrender was foUowed by a fignal defeat
of the united forces of Mithridates and Tigranes ; upon
which the latter prince withdrew to the remoteft part of his
dominions. When Pompey fucceeded LucuUus in the com-
mand of the Roman army, Mithridates and Tigranes,
availing themfelves of an interval of inaction, recovered Ar-
menia and a great part of Pontus ; but their fuccefs was in-
terrupted by the rebeUion of the fon of Tigranes, who took
up arms againft his father ; but being defeated, he fought
refuge in Parthia, and perfuaded Phraates, the fovereign of
that country, to declare war againft the Armenians. Phraates,
with a numerous army under his command, compelled Ti-
granes to withdraw to the mountains, and befieged his ca-
pital Artaxata. The younger Tigranes being left in com-
mand of the Parthian army, was defeated by his father, who
raifed the fiege of Artaxata. Tigranes afterwards joined

TIG

the Romans, anJ condufted Pompey into Armenia againll
his father. Unable to refift this invafion, he determined to
furrender himfelf to Pompey, and to confide in his gene-
rofity. Upon being introduced to the prefence of the Ro-
man general, he took off his diadem, and proftrated himfelf
at Pompey's feet. Pompey raifed him, and replaced the
roval diadem ; and in compromifing the difpute between
the father and fon, reftored to the former the kingdom of
Armenia, and the greateft part of Mefopotamia, but im-
pofed upon him a fine of 6000 talents for making war upon
the Roman people. He was alfo obliged to refign the crown
of Syria, which he had held for eighteen years, and likewife
the provinces of Cappadocia and Cilicia. From this time
Tigranes was received as a friend and ally of the Roman
people, and by maintaining their friendfhip, he was enabled
to retain his dominions in peace to the end of his bfe, which
terminated in the eighty-fifth year of his age. Anc. Un.
Hift.

TIGRANOCERTA, Sered, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Afia, in Greater Armenia, at fome diitance to the
left of the Tigris, on the river Nicephorius, and N.W. of
its mouth in the Tigris. This town was built by Tigranes,
in the time of the Mitliridatic war. According to Plutarch,
it was large, liandfome, populous, powerful, and rich.
Tacitus reports that Tigranocerta was fituated on an emi-
nence, nearly furroundcd by the Nicephorius, and that it
was well fortified and garrifoned.

. TIGRE, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Pacific ocean,
at the entrance into AmapaUa bay. N. lat. 13° 10'. W.
long. 88° 44'.

TiGRE, a province of Abyffinia, about 200 miles in
length, and 120 in breadth. What in a fpecial manner
makes the riches of Tigre, is, that it lies neareft the market,
which is Arabia ; and all the merchandize deftined to crofs
the Red fea muft pafs through this province, fo that the
governor has the choice of all commodities wherewith to
make his market. The ftrongeft male, the mod beautiful
female, the pureft gold, the largeft teeth of ivory, all muft
pafs through his hand.

TIG RID I A, in Botany, the Flos Tigridis of old authors,
fo caUed from its beautifully fpotted corolla, refembhng the
fliin of a tiger, or rather of a leopard or lynx. This fine
Mexican plant, being known to fyftematic botanifts from
early engravings only, did not find a place in their arrange-
ments,~ till Mutis fent a drawing of it to Linnsus, under
the name of Pavonia, in honour of one of his ableft pupils,
Pavon, as appears by his letters ; and not, as fome have fup-
pofed, becaufe of any relemblance in the fpots of the flower
to a peacock's tail. Being judged a Ferraria, it was re-
ferred to that genus in the Supplementum ; but Juffieu, and
after him Mr. Gawler, has rellored the genus of Mutis,
under the above name, there being another Pavonw, which
the reader may fee in its proper place. — Juff. Gen. 57.
Gawler, (now Ker Bellenden,) in Sims and Kon. Ann. of
Bot. V. I. 246. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 137. (Ferraria;
Lamarck lUuftr. t. 569.) — Clafs and order, Monadelphta
Triandria. Nat. Ord. Enjatte, Linn. Gawler. Irides,
Juff.

Gen. Ch. Common Sheath two-edged, of two compreffed
pointed valves ; partial ones fmaller, two-ranked, alternate,
fingle-fiowered. Perianth none. Cor. fuperior, regular, of
fix petals ; the three outermoll ovate-oblong, acute, con-
cave at the bafe ; {lightly contrafted towards the middle :
three innermoil much fmaller, oblong-fiddle-fhaped, pointed,
convex,^ recurved, haftate at the bafe. Stam. Filaments
three, firmly united into a triangular, abrupt, ere£l column,
longer than the inner petals ; anthers feflile at the top of the

column,

TIG

T I G

column, ereft, linear-oblong, acute, converging at the
points, burfting externally. Pill. Germen oblong, abrupt,
with three rounded angles ; ftyle thread-thaped, rather
longer than the column of the ftamens ; ftignias three, flen-
tlcr, acute, deeply divided. Peric. Capfule oblong, bluntly
triangular, abrupt and fcarred at the top, of three cells and
three valves, the partitions from the centre of each valve.
Seeds numerous, nearly globofe, ranged in a double row in
each cell, fomewhat angular from mutual preflure.

EfT. Cli. Common Sheath of two leaves. Calyx none.
Petals fix ; the three inner ones fmalleft, fiddlc-rtiapcd,
pointed. Stigmas linear, deeply cloven. Capfule of three
cells, inferior.

I. T. Pavonia. Mexican Tiger-flower. Redout. JLiHac.
t. 5. Gawler n. i. Ait. n. i. { Ferraria pavonia ; Linn.
Suppl. 407. Willd. Sp. PL V. 3. 581. Cavan. Difl". 342.
t. 189. f. I. Andr. Repof. t. 178. F. Tigridia ; Curt.
Mag. t. 532. Ocoloxochitl, feu Flore Tigris ; Hernand.
Mex. 276. Tigridis flos ; Dodon. Pempt. 693. Ger. Em.
122.) — Native of Mexico and Peru. Said to have been
firft introduced into the gardens of this country, about the
year 1796, by Ellis Hodgfon, efq. of Everton, near Li-
verpool, who liberally communicated it to the nurferymen
about London, fo that now few ornamental flowers are more
eafily obtainable. If treated as a greenhoufe plant, like the
Cape bulbs, the Tigridia flowers in fpring, ripening abun-
dance of feeds. If planted in the open ground in March
or April, the more dry or fandy the foil the better, it will
bloflbm in fucceffion through the autumn, at the end of
which the bulbs fliould be taken up, carefully dried, freed
from their very fucculent fibres, and preferved from frofl; till
the following fpring. Though each flower lafts but one
day, as every plant bears feveral, a plentiful fucceffion may
readily be had. The root is an ovate bulb, which is eatable
when roafted, tailing like a chefnut ; from its bafe are fent
down feveral long, perpendicular, tapering, very juicy,
downy fibres. Stem two or three feet high, ereft, round,
leafy, fomewhat branched. Leaves feveral, ereft, fword-
fhaped, many -ribbed, plaited, fmooth, a foot long. Floiver
inodorous, three or four inches broad, fo fplendidly varie-
gated with fcarlet, crimfon, purple and yellow, that no de-
fcription can do it jullice. The ends of the larger petals are
fcarlet ; their middle yellow ; their bafe, like the whole fur-
face of the fmaller ones, richly fpotted. Stamens and pijlil
red. It increafes by bulbous offsets, as well as by feeds.

TIGRINI, Orazio, in Biography, a canon of Arezzo,
who publilhed at Venice, in 1588, a Mufical Compendium ;
" Compendio della Mufica," which he dedicated to Zarlino,
from whom he received a letter of thanks for the laurel-crown
with which he had bound his brows ; which letter is prefixed
to the work, vfith complimentary verfes innumerable from
other friends. This Compendium is not only well digefted
by the author, but rendered more clear and pleafant m the
perufal, by the printer, who has made ufe of large Roman
types, inftead of Italic, in which moft of the books that
were publilhed in Italy, before the prefent century, were
printed. This author is the firft, in our recoUeftion, who
has cenfured the impropriety and abfurdity of compofing
mufic for the church upon the fubjeft of old and vulgar
ballad tunes. The cadences which he has given in three,
four, five, and fix parts, and which are good examples of ec-
clefiaftical counterpoint, have been almoft all ufed by Mor-
ley, without oncementioningTigrini's name,either in the text
or catalogue of authors whom he has cited. Zarlino, who had
adopted the four new ecclefiaftical tones propofed by Gla-
reanus, was followed by Tigrini, with whom they feem to
have ftopped : as no more than the eight ancient tones ap-

VoL. XXXV.

pear afterwards to have been acknowledged by orthodox ec-
clefiaftical compofcrs ; and Zarlino himfelf, in the lail edi-
tions of his works, rclinquifticd the idea of twelve modes : as
no new harmony or modulation was furniftied by the addi-
tional four to thecontrapuntift, without violating the ancient
rules of canto-fcrmo, which confine all its melody to the dif-
ferent fpeciesof oftave. It appears from tiiis Compendium,
that covtrapunio alia mente, or extemporary difcant upon
a plain-fong, was ftill praftifed in the churches of Italy.

TIGRIS, in Ancient and Modern Geography, a large river
of Afia, which has its fourcc in the mountains of Greater Ar-
menia, about 15 miles S. of the fources of the Euphrates,
and purfues nearly a regular courfc S.E., until its junftion
with that river at Korna, jo miles above Baftbra. Formerly
thefe rivers difchargcd thcmfelvcs feparately into the Perfian
gulf ; but they now fall into the fea by a common canal,
about 70 miles S. of BafTora. In the time of Phny their
feparate beds might be feen. According to the fame author,
it was named " Deglito," from its fource to mount Taurus,
which it traverfed ; and from the place of its difcharge on the
other fide of the mountain, to the fea or Perfian gulf, it was
called Tigris. This author fays that it parted through the
lake of Arethufa, without mixing its waters with thofe
of the lake. Strabo and Arrian denominated the mouth of
the Tigris " Pafitigris," and Pliny gives this name to that
part of the river which feparated into two arms, that, after
enclofing an ifland, joined again, and fell into the fame bed.
Mofes (Gen. ii. 14.) calls this river, as it has been fuppofed,
Hiddekel. The cavern of mount Taurus, through which it
is faid to have pafFed, was called " Zoroanda ;" and as a proof
that it was the fame river which entered the cavern and
pafled out of it, any fubftance thrown into the river on one
fide of the mountain was difcharged by it on the other.

The ancient Perfians called this river " Teer," the arrow,
from the rapidity of its current ; and it is aow called " De-
gila," and " Shat-Bagdad," the river of Bagdad. The
united rivers of the Tigris and Euphrates are denominated
" Shat-ul-Arab ;" which fee.

The Tigris, though a far lefs noble ftream than the Eu-
phrates, is one of the moft celebrated rivers in hiftory ; and
many famous cities have, at different periods, decorated its
banks ; among which we may reckon, in ancient times,
thofe of Nineveh, Seleucia, Ctefiphon ; and in fubfequent
periods, thofe of Bagdad, Moful, Diarbekir, &c.

This river is navigable for boats of twenty or thirty tons
burthen as far as the mouth of the Odorneh, but no farther ;
and the commerce of Moful is confequently carried on by
rafts, fupported by inflated fheep-fkins. The rafts are
floated down the river, and when arrived at Bagdad, the
wood of which they are compofed is fold without a lofs, and
the Ikins conveyed back to Moful by camels. The Ti-
gris is, on an average, between Bagdad and Korna, about
200 yards wide. The banks are iteep, and, for the moft
part, overgrown with brufti-wood, the haunt of lions and
other wild beafts. The Tigris rifes twrice in the year ; the
firft and great rife is in April, and is caufed by the melting
of the fnows in the mountains of Armenia ; and the other is
in November, produced by the periodical rains. A boat,
with a fair wind, will fometimes pafs from Bagdad to BafTora
in fix days, but the common paflfage is from eight to ten.

The banks of the Tigris, from Tauka-Kefra to Korna,
cannot boaft of a fingle village, or even habitation, with the
exception of Koot, a miferable place, containing 40 or 50
mud-huts. The city of Wafith, repeatedly mentioned in
the Arabian hiftories, is no longer a place of any confe-
quence ; it ftands on the banks of the Hye, or great canal.
From Korna to the neighbourhood of Baftbra, Baflara or

4 M Bafra,

T T J

Bafra, thrrr i, littV or ..o ...lfvat,on ; bi.t from tl>'n« th.
country- b..rJ.ring on the b.nks of the nver ,s covered «.th
phn.a?ion. of d:.U-trccs. wh,.h continue w.thoot interrup-
tion, almoft to the mouth of the Shat-ul-Arab.

Tu;K.. Fen., a fountain of Afia. >n the mounta ns S. of
Maxo.-ne. which forn.e.l a llrc-am that ran towards the S.L.
and difcharged itf.lf into the lake Arethufa.

Ti<;ri.s. m Gt.,n^l>y, a river of Chnia, between Canton
and the fea, fo called by Europeans.

TiOKis, in 'Aoolosy. See Ff.i.is Tigris.

TIGUAZALPA, in Gfography, a town of Mexico, in
the province of Nicaragua, on a river which runs mto
Amapalla bay ; 80 mileslJ. of Leon. N.lat. .3^50. W .

long. 87* 36'. , ,. r f T

TIGUILLACA, a town of Peru, in the diocele ot l.a

Paz; 10 miles N. of Puno. r o 1

TIGURINI, in /Indcnl Gfography, a people ot traul,
♦•ho cftablifhed themfclvcsin a canton of the Helvetians, and
who joined the Cimbri when they made an attempt to pals

into Italv. , , r 1 • i,

TIGURINUS Pagus, one of the four cantons which
compofed the Helvetic confederacy ; fuppofed to be Zu-
rich. . T ■ XT 17 r
TIGUTIA, a place of Italy, in Liguria, N.t.. ot

Monilia.

TIGY, in Geography, a town of France, m the depart-
ment of the Loiret ; 12 miles S.E. of Orleans.

TIHAN, a town of Hungary ; 20 miles S.W. of Stul-
weifenburg.

TIHOE, a bay on the S. coaft of the ifland of Bouro.
S. lat. 3°44'. E. long. 126=27'.

TIHOL, in Natural Hijlory, a name given by the people
of the Philippine idands to a fpccies of crane very frequent
among them, and remarkable for its fize, being taller than
a man when it Hands ercd, and holds up its neck. They
call it alfo fometimcs t'lpul.

TUB, El, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Chufiftan, on the Ahuaz river ; 70 miles N.W. of
Tollar.

TI.IEGUACU-PAROARA, mOmithology, the name
of a Brafilian bird, of the fize of a lark ; it has a fhort and
thick beak, brown above and whitilh below ; its head,
throat, fides, and the lower part of its neck, are of a fine
ycUow, variegated with red in the female, and all over of a
perfcft blood-red in the male ; the upper part of the neck,
and the whole. back, are grey, with a mixture of brown;
the wings are brown, tipped with white ; the tail is of the
fame colour ; and the fides of the neck, the breaft, belly,
and thighs, are white. Marggrave's Hift. Brafil.

TIJEPIRANGA, the name of a Brafilian bird of the
fparrow kind. It is a little larger than the lark ; its whole
body, neck, and head, are of a very fine red or blood colour,
and its wings and tail black.

There is another fpecies alfo of this bird, which is of the
fize of a fparrow, and is of a bluei(h-grey on the back,
■n'hite on the belly, and of a fea-green on the wings ; the
legs of this are of a pale grey. Marggrave's Hift. Brafil.
TIJOLA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Grenada ; 5 miles S.W. of Purchena.

TIJOUCA, a cultivated valley of the Brazils, in the
vicinity of Rio de Janeiro, fituated, as it were, in the bot-
tom of a funnel, being furrounded on all fides by mountains,
excepting to the fouthward, where a fmall opening admits
an arm of the fea. The valley is watered by a clear ftream,
precipitated down a deep and broad rock of granite, form-
ing a magnificent cafcade. The foil requires httle labour
of cultivation: indigo, manioc, coffee, cacao or chocolate

T I L

trees, fugar-canes, plantains, and orange and lime-trees grow^
iiig proinifciioudy, and fome fpontaneoufly, in the fpace of
twenty fquare yards. Coffee and indigo claim the chief at-
tention. The temperature of the valley is very hot, on ac-
count of its confined fituation and the reflcftion of the
mountains. Fahrenheit's thermometer in the fhade about
four in the afternoon flood at 88°. Staunton's Emb. to
China, vol. i.

TIIZ, or Tiz, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Mecran, at the mouth of the Kurene ; 75 miles S. of
Kidge. N. lat. 25° 25'. E. long. 60° 24'.

TIKAX, a town of Mexico, in Yucatan ; 68 miles S.
of Merlda.

TIKE, the Zetland name for an otter, of which there
are many to be found about that illand. Phil. Tranf.
N° 473. feft. 8.

TiKK is alfo ufed for a fmall bullock or heifer, for a par-
ticular fort of worm, and in Scotland for a dog.

TIKIOB, in Geography, a town of Denmark, in the
ifland of Zealand ; 4 miles S.W. of Helfingoer.

TIKITHOCKTHOCK, a fettlement on the E. coaft
of Labrador. N. lat. 56° 15'. W. long. 60° 5'.

TIKOO, a town of Bengal; 30 miles S.W. of Ram-
gur. N. lat. 23° 29'. W. long. 84° 55'.

TIKOTSCHIN, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 24
miles N. of Bilelk.

TIL, a town of Perfia, in the province of Adirbcitzan ;
60 miles N.W. of Tauris.

TILA Navi, one of the Lipari iflands ; 6 miles S.S.W.
of Stromboli.

TILAMUNGALUM, a town of Hindooftan, in My-
fore ; 5 miles S. of Ouffoor.

TILBORG, a town of Brabant, celebrated for its ma-
nufafture of cloth ; 10 miles S. of Bois-le-Duc.

TILBURREAH, a town of Bengal ; 30 miles N.N.E.
of Doefa.

TILBURY, a townlhip of Upper Canada, near lake
St. Clair.

Tilbury, Weft, a village and parifli in the hundred of
Barftable, and county of Eflex, England ; is fituated 24
miles S. by W. from Chelmsford, and 27 E. by S. from
London. It appears to have been an epifcopal feat of
Cedda, bifhop of the Eaft Saxons, who in the 7th cen-
tury propagated the Chriftian religion in this county, and
built churches in feveral places, but " efpecially," as Bede
reports, " in the city, which, in the language of the Saxons,
is called Ythanceftre ; and alfo in that which is named Til-
laburgh (the firft of which places is on the banks of the river
Pant, the other on the banks of the Thames), where gather-
ing a flock of fervants of Chrift, he taught them to obferve
the difcipline of a regular life, as far as thofe rude people
were then capable." Ythancefi;re is fuppofed to have flood
at the mouth of the river Pant, or Blackwater, but has been
entirely engulphed by the fea. Tilbury is now only a fmall
village, containing, as the return of the year 181 1 ftates, 44
houfes and 1 1 7 inhabitants. A medicinal fpring was difcovered
here in the year 1727, of great efficacy in cafes of haemorrhage,
fcurvy, and fome other diforders. (See Tilbvry -Water.)
The marflies in this, and the contiguous pariflies, are chiefly
rented by the grazing butchers of London, who generally
ftock them with Lincolnfliire and Leicefterfliire wethers,
which are fent hither about Michaelmas, and feed till Chriil-
mas, when they are conveyed to the metropolis for fale.

On the banks of the Thames, in this parifli, is Til-
bury-Fort, originally built as a kind of block-houfe by
Henry VIII., but enlarged into a regular fortification by
Charles II., after the Dutch had failed up the river in the

year

T I L

T I L

year 1667, and burnt three Englifli men of war at Chatham.
Various additions have been fince made ; and it is now
llrongly garrifoned, and defended by a great number of
guns. Some traces of the camp formed here to oppofe the
threatened invafion of the Spanidi armada, in the time of
Ehzabcth, are yet vifible. — Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. V. Ellex ; by J. Dritton and E. W. Braylcy.

TiLBURY-ZFirtf;-, in Medicine, is an acidulous or faline
water, iffuing from a fpring fituated near a farm-houfc at
Well Tilbury, neai- Tilbury-Fort, in Eflex. This water is
of a ftravv-colour, foft and fmooth to the talle, but leaving,
after agitation in the mouih, a fmall degree of ronghnefs on
the tongue ; it throws up a fcum variegated with feveral
colours, which feels greafy ; and effervefces with fpirit of
vitriol ; it mixes fmooth with milk, but curdles with foap ;
when boiled, it turns milky, but is lined by a fourth part
of mountain-wine, and by acids ; it operates chiefly by urine,
though it is fomewhat purgative, and increafes perfpiration.
This water is elleemed for removing glandular obftruftions,
and hence is alfo recommended in fcurvies and cutaneous
difeafes ; it is good in bloody fluxes, purgings, and the
like : in diforders of the ftomach arifmg from acidity, in
the gravel, fluor albus, and immoderate flux of the menfes.
As a diuretic, it is beneficial in dropfical complaints. It
gently warms the itomach, flrengthens the appetite, and
promotes digefl;ion. The ufual dofe is a quart a-day. This
water is fuppofed to owe its virtue to a native alkaline fait,
which may be obtained from it by evaporation, and to its
fixed air, which, however, being very volatile, foon exhales
when the water is heated or ftands for fome time expofed.
EUiot's Account of Mineral Waters, &c. p. 220.

TILCARA, in Geography, a town of South America,
in the province of Tucuman ; 32 miles N.N.W. of St. Sal-
vador de Jugui.

TILDIZ Daghi, a mountain of Afiatic Turkey; 10
miles S. of Tocat.
TILE. See Tyle.

Tiles, Draining, in Agriculture, fuch as are made of par-
ticular forms and dimenfions, for the purpofe of draining
and taking away the water that fl; agnates in or upon land.
They are faid to conftitute a very neat and convenient, as
well as cheap and beneficial material for this ufe in a great
many cafes, efpecially as they are exempt from the common
duties on ordinary tiles and bricks. They have the ad-
vantage too of being capable of being laid with much faci-
lity and difpatch, and of requiring lefs cutting than in the
methods ufually had recourfe to in the common praftice of
freeing land from wetnefs. They are made and employed
in fome diftrifts, as Chediire, &c. with complete fuccefs and
much utihty.

Tii.K-Earth, that fort of earthy material of the ftrong
clayey kind which is ufed in the making of tiles. It is alfo
a term in farming which is fometimes employed to fignify a
ftrong, ftifF, ftubborn fort of land or foil that cannot be
brought into cultivation, and be managed without very
great labour, trouble, and expence, but wliich, when once
reduced and got into order, is, in fome cafes, very produc-
tive and lafting in its returns.

Vaft flirength of men and teams is often requifite in
working fuch lands as farms, as they cannot be effediually
improved and got into a proper flate, except by the apph-
cation and incorporation of large quantities of diff^erent
proper rich earthy and other fuitable fubftances.

The farmer Ihould always calculate well before engaging
farms confifting greatly of this fort of land or foil.

The general opinion among the moft attentive and dili-
gent farmers in the county of £(fex is, that even the

pallure lands upon the wet, cold, tile-earth bottoms, Ihould
be kept under the plough two or lluve years in twenty, ill
order to render them in the moil fuitable and produdtive
rtate.

Tile, or Tyk, in Affaymg, a fmall flat piece of dried
earth, ufed to cover the veflels in which metals are in fufion.

Tliefe are made of a mixture of clay and faiid, or powder
of flints, or broken crucibles, made into a pafte, and fpread
thin with a rolling-pin, on a table or flat ilone. From thefe
cakes or plates, pieces are to be cut with a knife, to the
ftiapc and fize of tiie mouths of the vcffels to be clofed. It
is bell then to pare away the borders of the under furface
of the piece thus cut ofF, that this furface may immediately
touch all the way the edge of the mouth of the vcflel, leav-
ing a prominent rim, by whicli means the tile fits clofe upon
the vcffel, and is not fo eafily difplaced by accidents, as a
touch of the poker, or of the coals put on to mend the fire,
as it otherwife would be. Finally, put on the middle of
the outer furface a fmall bit of the fame matter, which
ferves as a kind of handle, by means of which it may be
conveniently managed by the tongs, and eafily taken off and
put on again at pleafure. Cramer, Art. All. p. 66.

TILENUS, Daniki., in Biography, a dodor and pro-
felTor of theology at Sedan, in France, was born in Silefia,
in 1563, and was the ilrll foreigner who wrote againft Ar-
minius, though he afterwards changed his opinion and fup-
ported the dodlrine of that theologian. He alfo took part
in a violent controverfy with Du Moulin. A reconciliation
was attempted between the diiputants, in which the eleftor
palatine, the duke de Bouillac, and king James I. of Eng-
land, interpofed ; and a national fynod of the French churches
was held for this purpofe at Tonneins in 16 14. The attempt
to produce a pacification failed ; and Tilenus was deprived
of his profeflbrftiip in 1619 or 1620. He then removed to
Paris, and afterwards maintained for five days, at Orleans,
a difputation with John Cameron on grace and free-will.
In a letter addrefled to the people of Scotland, he accufcd
the Prefbyterians of introducing too many changes in the
form of their religion, and praifed the people of England
for admiring epifcopacy. King James I. caufed this letter
to be printed, and invited the author to England, with an
offer of a penfion. Tilenus accepted the off^er ; but return-
iiig to France in order to arrange his affairs, an outcry was
in the meanwhile raifed againft him in England, and he
therefore determined to remain at Paris, where he died in
1633. He was the author of many works in Latin and
French, which it is needlefs to recite. Gen. Biog.

TILGUN, la Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
Caramania ; 36 miles E.N.E. of Akfhehr.

TILHARA, a town of Hindooilan, in Rohilcund ; 30
miles S.S.E. of Bereilly.

TILIA, in Botany, the Lime-tree, or Linden-tree, an
ancient Latin name, whofe origin may perhaps be found in
the Greek rAiXix, the Elm ; but on this fubjecl nothing cer-
tain, nor indeed very plaufible, has been made out by ety-
mologift^s. — Linn. Gen. 267. Schreb. 355. Willd. Sp.
PI. V. 2. 1 161. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew.
v. 3. 299. Venten. in Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. I.
207. Sm. Fl. Brit. 571. Prodr. Fl. Grxc. Sibth. V. 1. 362.
Purfli 362. Jufl". 292. Tourn. t. 381. Lamarck Illuftr.

t. 467. Ga;rtn. t. 1 13 Clafs and order, Polyandria Moiw-

gynia. Nat. Ord. Columtiifcrtz, I^inn. Ti/iaccit, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five
deep, concave, coloured, deciduous fegments, about as large
as the corolla. Cor. Petals five, alternate with the calyx,
oblong, obtufe, crenate at the fummit. Neftary a fcale at
the bafc of each petal, not univerfal. Slam. Filaments nu-
4 M 2 mcrous,

TILIA.

m.rous thrcad-(hapc<l, the Ifnjrtf. of the corolla ; anthers
of .w.. nearly orb.cular Jivancated lobes, burftmg outwards.
PiU. Germon fiiperior. roundilh ; ftyle thread-niaped, the
length of the Ibmens ; lliRma obtufe. with five angles.
P^k. Capfule globofe. angular, coriaceous or membranous,
burfting tardily at the bafe, of five valves and five cells.
St<dj folitary, roundifh.

Obf. Two or three of the ceUs are generally abortive
and obliterated. The neftary feems confined to the Ame-
rican fpecies. „

EfT. Ch. Calyx in five deep fegments, deciduous. Pe-
tals five. Capfule fupcrior, roundilh, angular, of five cells,
and five >-alves.

An important genus, of ufcful, as well as ornamental,
hardy deciduous trees. The bark fcrves for cordage, and
for thofe very fer\-iccable mats, manufaftured in Ruflia, to
well known to our gardeners, and fo ufeful for packing.
The fmooth, foft, white, clofe-graincd wood is efteemed by
carvers, and was preferred by the inimitable Gibbons, for
thofe feftoons of flowers, fruit, dead game, &c. with which
his free and expeditious hand adorned moft of the great
houfes in England. The leaves are fometimes given to
cattle in feafons of fcarcity in the North. The whole plant
abounds with mucilage, and the fap is reported to afford
fome fugar. Notlung is more delicioudy fragrant than the
Bowers of the whole genus, which bees frequent in great
numbers, as they yield plenty of honey.

Sedion 1. Flowers luithout the fcaly ncaaries. European
fpecies.

1. T. europtea. Common Smooth Lime-tree. Linn. Sp.
PI. 733. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. I. Fl. Brit. n. I. Engl.
Bot. t. 610. Fl. Dan. t. 553. (T. platyphyllos ; Scop.
Carn. v. I. 373 ? Venten. n. 2. T. vulgaris platyphyllos ;
Bauh. Hift. V. I. p. 2. 133. Rail Syn. ed. 2. 316. T. fce-
mina; Ger. Em. 1483.) — Neftaries none. Capfule coria-
ceous. Leaves heart-lhaped, undivided ; fmooth and fome-
what glaucous beneath, with the branching of their veins
woolly. Branches and footllalks fmooth. — Native of woods
and the borders of meadows, or the (lopes of hills, in various
parts of Europe, from Sweden to Greece, flowering early
in July. A tall upright tree, with fmooth, fpreading, round
braiuhes, green when tender, afterwards brown. Leaves
alternate, on longirti flalks, pointed, (harply ferrated, almoft
orbicular, about three inches in diameter, entire at the bafe,
and their fides rather unequal or oblique in that part : their
upper furface of a full bright green, quite fmooth : under
paler, fomewhat glaucous, with a yellowi(h prominent mid-
rib, and fevcral other ribs, either oppofite from the central
one, or radiating from the bafe, fubdivided, connefted by
parallel tranfverie veins, all fmooth as well as the furface of
the leaf, except at the bafe of each fide-rib, where is a
fmall, depreffed, axillary, fringe -like tuft of hairs. Stipulas
none. Flower-Jlalks axillary, folitary, fliorter than the leaves,
fmooth, flender, each bearing an irregular umbel or cyme of
yellowi(h_/7oTOfrj, and very remarkable for a large, folitary,
oblong, obtufe, entire, veiny bradea, of a pale greenilh hue,
and fmooth furface, united firmly to the ftalk, and falling
off with it. The germen is very woolly. Capfule obovate,
or angular, efpecially when it ripens more than one feed,
which is not often the cafe. The Joiuers are delightfully
fragrant, efpecially at night. This is the kind of Lime
moil ufually planted for avenues, nor can any thing be more
defirable for that purpofe. It appears to have taken place
of our more ancient elms in king William's time, when alfo
it was equally popular in France. The branches naturally
feather down to the ground, but will bear clipping without
injury. The leaves fall perhaps the firft of all our native

trees, efpecially in the fquares of London, where the Lime
nevcrthelefs bears the fmoky atmofphere tolerably well.
Whether the T. ulmifolia, femine hexagono of Meirett, men-
tioned by Dillenius in his edition of Ray's Synopfts, 473, be-
a variety of this, with more perfeft fruit, or of any other
fpecies, we have no means of determining.

2. T. coraUlna. Red-twigged Downy Lime-tree. (T.
europxa B ; Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. I. v. 2. 229. ed. 2. n. i.
y ; Fl. Brit. n. I. T. grandifoha ; Ehrh. Arb. n. 8. T.
foliis moUit^r hirfutis, viminibus rubris, fruftu tetragono ;
Raii Syn. ed. 2. 316.) — Neftaries none. Capfule coria-
ceous. Leaves heart-fhaped, undivided ; downy beneath,
with the branching of their veins woolly. Branches and
footftalks downy. — Native of various parts of Europe.
Plentiful in Stoken-church woods, Oxfordlhire, where it
was firft noticed by Bobart, and where its (hining red
twigs are very confpicuous. This charafter, however, is
not invariable. We have the fame fpecies in Norfolk with
brown twigs, and it feems to be often planted indifferently
with the former. They have not yet been feparated as
fpecies, nor did Ehrhart, in publiffiing the prefent under the
appellation of grandifella, mean any thing further than to
diftinguilh it, in common with the foregoing, from his par-
■vifolie, hereafter defcribed. We therefore prefer an older
and lefs ambiguous name. Profeffor Mertens, who has
ftudied thefe trees in Germany, obferves that eoraUina
flowers a fortnight earlier than europeta. As to their fpecific
difference, it appears chiefly to depend on the fine foft
hairs, which clothe the backs of the leaves, and efpecially
cover their ribs, fringing their minuteft veins in a delicate
and regular manner. Thefe hairs are condenfed into little
axillai-y tufts, at the origin of each principal vein. In the
inflorefcence or f.owers we perceive no material difference.
The capfule has four or five angles. The famous old Lime
in the church-yard of ZedHtz near Guttenberg, in Bohemia,
which is faid to have borne hooded leaves, fince a parcel of
monks were hanged upon it, proves, by an authentic fpe-
cimen font us by profeffor Jacquin, to be this fpecies,
not the foregoing.

3. T. parinfolia. Small-leaved Lime-tree. Ehrh. Arb.
n. 36. PI. Off. n. 1 25. Sm. Engl. Bot. 1. 1 705. Ait. n. 2.
" Schkuhr Handb. v. 2. 72. t. 141." (T. microphylla ;
Venten. n. I. Sav. Etruic. v. 1. 152. T. europsea ;3 ;
Fl. Brit. n. I. T. ulmifolia; Scop. Carn. v. i. 374. T.
fylveftris ; Trag. Hifl:. nil. T. folio minore ; Bauh.
Hift. V. I. p. 2. 137. Raii Syn. ed. 2. 316. T. bohemica,
&c. ; Till. Pif. 165. t. 49. f. 3.) — Neftaries none. Cap-
fule roundifh, very thin. Leaves heart-fliaped, ffiarply fer-
rated, fomewhat lobed ; fmooth and glaucous beneath,
with denfe, axillary or fcattered, tufts of hair. — Native of
Germany, Carniola, Switzerland, Italy, France, and
England. Ray fay-s it frequently occurs in Effex and
Suffex, as well as Lincolnfliire and elfewhere. It flowers a
month later than even the firft. fpecies, not being in full
perfeftion before Auguft. The leaves are but about half
the fize of either of the foregoing, their ferratures fliarper,
tufts of axillary hair larger, and often accompanied by large
hairy blotches. Fooiflalks flender, and often of a longer
proportion, quite fmooth. Flowers fmaller, imelling like
a Honeyfuckle. Capfule fmall, roundifh, fcarcely angular,
rarely perfefting more than one feed, its coat thin and
tender compared with either of the former fpecies, on
which circumftance M. Ventenat chiefly founded its dif-
tinftive charafter. We do not find that part fo unlike
them in firmnefs, as in thicknefs ; but we have no doubt of
the fpecies being perfeftly diftiiic^. Bv planting this in-
termixed with the others about houfes, in avenues, &c. a

longer

TILIA.

longer lucceflSon oF fragrance from their blofToms might be
obtained.

Sect. 2. Flowers tv'ith fcaly nedarles. American fpc-
cies.

4. T. americana. Broad-leaved Lime-tree. Linn. Sp.
PI. 733. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 3. (T. glabra ; Vcntcn.
n. 3. " Mem. de I'Inftit. v. 4. 9. t. 2." Purdi n. i.
T. canadenfis ; Michaux Boreal. -Amcr. v. i. 306.) — Nec-
taries prefent. Leaves orbicular-heartfliaped, abrupt with
a point, (harply fcrrated ; their veins minutely hairy be-
neath. Petals abrupt, crenate. Capfulc ovate, fomewhat
ribbed. In the woods of Canada and the northern United
States, and on the mountains, as far as South Carolina,
flowering in May and June. It is known by the name of
Lime-tree or Line-tree, Bafs-wood, or Spoon-wood, and is
both ufeful and ornamental. Purjh. Kalm firft made tlic
plant known to Linnxus, and it was fuppofed by them to
be the only American fpecies of Til'ia. T\\(:Jlem is faid to be
eighty feet high. The branches are brown, fmooth. Leaves
larger than any of our European fpecies, and of a more
orbicular or rather elliptical form, abrupt rather than heart-
fhaped at their bafe ; of a fine green above, turning red in
•lutumn ; much paler beneath ; finely veined and fmooth on
both fides, except that all their veins are minutely hairy
(not fringed \\\ieT.coraUlna) beneath, and even the fmaller
ones, as well as the larger, are furnifhed with little axillary
liairy tufts. Flowers corymbofe ; their common ftalk about
twice the length of the footftalks. Petals, according to
Ventenat, abrupt, and toothed towards the end. We have
not examined the flowers.

5. T. laxijlora. Panicled Lime-tree. Michaux Boreal.-
Amer. v. i. 306. Pnrfli n. 2. — " Leaves heart-ihaped,
taper-pointed, Iparingly toothed, membranous, fmooth.
Panicles loofe. Petals emarginate, fhorter than the ftyle.
Capfule globofe." — Near the fea-coaft, from Maryland to
Georgia, flowering in May and June. A very diftindl
tpecies, though generally confounded with the foregoing
one. Pi'rjb.

6. T. pubefcens. Hoary Lime-tree. Ait. n. 4. Willd.
n. 3. Venten. n. 4. " Mem. de I'Inft. v. 4. 10. t. 3."

Purfh n. 3 Neftaries prefent. Leaves heart-fhaped,

pointed, coarfely ferrated ; abrupt and unequal at the bafe ;
downy beneath. Panicles forked, compound. Petals
;icute; — In clofe copfes, and on the banks of rivers, from
Virginia to Georgia, flowering from May to July. Purjli.
Its thinner-leaved variety was long ago brought from Loui-
llana to the Paris gardens, and JufGeu gave it the name of
:iniltiflora, which is very apt, but has never been publiflied
till lately. Catefby is reported to have introduced this fpe-
cies into England before the year 1726. If our memory
does not deceive us, it is to be met with at Bulftrode, and
in other old plantations, and the flowers are more highly
fragrant than any others of the genus. Its growth is faid
not to be fo lofty as that of T. americana. The leaves are
fmaller, obliquely heart-fhaped, with very broad and pointed
icrratures ; their under fide extremely foft to the touch, but
not white, though paler than the upper, and fomewhat
hoary. There are fcarcely any axillary tufts of hair to the
veins, except on the older denudated leaves. Flower-Jlalks
twice as long as \he footjlalis, branched at the top into a
forked, fpreading, downy panicle of numerous f.owers.
The petals are rather pointed, as Ventenat defcribes them ;
and not emarginate, as in his and Purfh's fpecific definition.
We readily concur with thcfe authors, that the Louifiana
Kee, called multijlora, is a mere variety, and but a flight
one. Our defcription elf the injlnrejcence and fotuers is
taken from this variety. It is hardly necelFary to mention

that all thefe American Lime-trees bear the fame peculiar
fort of bradea as thofe of Europe.

7. T. alba. Wliite Lime-tree. Ait. n. 5. Willd. n. 4.
" Waldil. et Kitaib. Hung, t.3." Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr.
V. 3. 18. t. 283. (T. rotundifolia ; Venten. n. 5. "Mem.
de I'Infl. V. 4. 12. t. 4.") — Neftaries prefent. Leaves
deeply heart-fliaped, obfcurely lobed, (harply ferrated ;

downy and white beneath Native of woods in Hungary.

Willdenow. Found by Bruguiere and Olivier near Conflan-
tinople. Ventenat. It was erroneoufly reported by our gar-
deners to come from America, as every new plant, at one
period, was fuppofed to do. More recently, every novelty
has been attributed to Botany Bay. — This is a hardy tree in
England, but does not flourifh fo well as any of the pre-
ceding. The deep, and more even, heai-t-fhaped figure of
the leaves, and their fnow-white under furface, readily cha-
rafterize this fpecies. Its light-yellow, cymofe or panicled

Jlowers are faid to have the fcent of a jonquil!.

8. T. heterophylla. Various-leaved Lime-tree. Venten.
n. 6. " Mem. de I'Inft. v. 4. 16. t. 5." Purfh n. 4. (T.
alba; Sm. Inf. of Georgia, v. i. 21. t. 11 ?) — " Leaves
ovate, (harply ferrated ; white and downy beneath ; either
heart-fhaped, or obhqutly, or equally, abrupt, at the bafe.
Capfulc globofe, obfcurely ribbed." — On the banks of the
Ohio and Miififlippi, flowering in June. A very hand-
fome and defirable ornamental tree. Purjli. Ventenat fays
it is diftinguifhed from the laft by many charafters. The
young branches, and buds, are fmooth, of a purple colour
inclining to black. Leaves delicately ferrated, pointed, with
tufts of reddifh axillary hairs to the veins. Flower-Jlalhs
almoft as long as the leaves, being thrice the length of T.
alba. We have feen no fpeeimen of this fpecies, but it has
probably been introduced into the gardens by fome of our
colleftors from America. It is extremely likely to be the
Warhew of Mr. Abbot, in our Infefts of Georgia, t. II.;
which from the above-mentioned error of the gardeners re-
fpefting T. alba, we fuppofed could be no other than that
fpecies, now known not to grow in America. The War-
hew is faid to be very like the European Lime-tree, except
being always a low bufh or fiirub. Mr. Abbot's figure
anfwers fo well to Ventenat's and Purfli's definitions, as to
leave fcarcely a doubt on the fubjeft, except only that the
latter fpeaks of T. heterophylla as an ornamental tree. It
may attain a greater fize in one part of the country than in
another.

We feel much regret in rejcfting our late efteemed cor-
refpondent M. Ventenat's fuppofed improvements in the
nomenclature of the fpecies of Tilia. But befides their ap-
pearing to us uniformly for the worfe, as ufual in all fuch
alterations that ever came in our way, we greatly prefer efta-
blifhed names ; which though occafionally erroneous or am-
biguous, have generally acquired aflbciations that compen-
fate for any defefts.

Tilia, in Gardening, contains plants of the ornamen-
tal tree kind, among which the fpecies moftly cultivated are,
the European lime-tree (T. europaea) ; the broad-leaved
American lime-tree (T. americana) ; the pubefcent Ca-
rolina lime-tree (T. pubefcens) ; and the white lime-tree
(T. alba).

The firft fort, though httle ufed, is a handfome tree, hav-
ing a fmooth taper ftraight trunk, and the branches forming
a beautiful cone. The foliage alfo is fmooth and elegant :
it grows to a very large fize, and affords good (hade : it
makes a fine detached objeft in parks and open lawns,
jjlnnted fingly : the branches are fo tough as feldom to be
broken by the winds, and the (lowers have a delightful fra-
grance : the wood is foft, but capable of being turned into

light .

T I T.

liffht bowls and dia.fs, &c. TIkic are f.-vcral varieties of
itV as the narrow -leaved, the broad-leaved, the elm-leaved,
the red.t«-iL'K'^-d, the fmooth fmall-leaved, the f.noot i
largf-leaved, the foft hairy-leaved, the wniikled-lcavcd,
aiid the llripi-d-leaved.

Culture Thefe trees may be increafod by feeds, layers,

and cuttings. The feed, when ripe in the autumn, (liould
be beaten down, keeping the groen-twigged and red-
twigged forts feparate; and be fown foon after, or pre-
fco'ed dry and found till fpring ; fowiiig it in a bed or
border of common earth; previoufly digging the ground,
and diWding it into four-feet wide beds ; drawing the earth
off the furfacc evenly, about an inch deep, into the alleys ;
then fowing the feeds thinly, touching them lightly down
into the earth with the back of the fpade, diredly earthing
them over to the above depth.

When they come up in the fpring, the beds fliould be
kept clean from weeds, giving moderate waterings in dry
weather, to forward the plants in growth as much as pofTible,
in order to be fit for planting out in nurfcry-rows by the au-
tonrn or fpring following ; though, if they have (hot rather
wyakly, they (hould ftand another year, then be planted out
in rows two feet and a half afiindcr, by eighteen inches dif-
tance in the lines, to remain three or four years or more to
acquire a propir fize for the purpofes intended, trimming
off the large fidc-branches from the lower part of the ftem
occafionallv, to encourage their afpiring more expeditioufly
at top, which fhould be fuffered to remain entire : thefe
trees, when raifed from feed, generally affume a more hand-
fome and expeditious growth than fuch as are raifed from
layers and cuttings. When they are from about five or fix
to eight or ten feet high, they are of proper fize for final
planting out ; though, when defigned as foreft -trees for
timber, it is advifable to plant them finally while they are
young, as not more than from three or four to five or fix
feet high.

They are all raifed readily by the layer method ; and for
this purpofe proper ftools muft be prepared, and the yoimg
(hoots of a year or two old are the proper parts for being
laid down, which (hould be performed in autumn or winter,
by flit-laying, (hortening the tops of each layer within a
little of the ground : they are moftly rooted by the autumn
following, and fit to plant out in nurfery-rows, being then
managed as the feedlings.

When cuttings are emphiyed, the ftrong young (hoots of
the year (hould be chofen in autumn or fpring, and planted
in a moid good foil ; or any fcarce forts may be planted
fcveral together in pots, and plunged in a hot -bed, as they
more readily ilrike root in that way.

Thefe two lalt methods are the proper ones for raifing
the varieties with certainty.

Thefe trees are of a quick handfome growth, and fucceed
in almoft any foil and cxpofure. They are fome of them
employed for their fine appearance, others for the exquifitely
fweet fmell of their flowers, and moft of them for the ufe
of their wood. The plants of them are alfo occafionally made
ufe of in forming hedges in particular fituations, but they
are not by any means well calculated for this purpofe.

As timber trees, their wood is found highly valuable on
account of its (oftnefs, lightnefs, and toughnefs, for the mak-
ing of various forts of houfehold utenfils, as bowls, bafons,
&c. as well as for dilferent purpofes in the bufinefs of carv-
ing, gilding, turning, fpinning, &c.

All thefe trees afford ornament and variety among other
deciduous trees in the (hrubbery, plantations, &c.

riLIACE^, in Botany, a natural order of plants, the
feventy-ninth in Jufficu's fyftem, or the nineteenth of his thir-

T I L

teenth clafs, of which Tilia, the Lime-tree, is an example.
See GeRania for the full charafters of this thirteenth
clafs. Thofe of the order in queftiou are thus given.

Calyx either of many leaves, or in many deep fegments.
Petals definite, dillinft, (wanting in Sloanea,) alternate with
the fegments or leaves of the calyx, and for the moll part
agreeing with them in number. Stamens generally indefinite
in number, and diftindt. Geimen fimple. Style frequently
folitary, rarely either multiplied, or wanting. Stigma either
fimple or divided. Fruit in fome inllances pulpy, in others
capfular, moftly with feveral cells, having one or many
feeds in each, the partitions from the centre of each valve.
Corciilum of the feed flat, furrounded by a fltfliy albumen.
Stem arboreous or (hrubby ; rarely herbaceous. Leaves al-
ternate, fimple, accompanied by ilipulas.

Seftion I. Stamens dtjinite in number, more or lefs eom-
hined in their lower part, or at the very bafe. Thefe are
termed by JuffiiHi " doubtful Tdiacen:." They confill of
Wahheria, Hermannia, and Mahernia,

Se6t. 2. Stamens diJlinB, mojily indejinite. Fruit of many
cells. Genuine Tiliacea.

Antichorus ; Corchorus ; Heliocarpus ; Triumfetia ; Spar-
mannia ; Sloanea; Apeiba of Aublet, which is Aubletia of
Schreber ; Muntingia ; Flacourtia of L'Heritier ; Qncoba
of Forfliall, Lamarck Illuftr. t. 47 1 ; Stuartia ; Grcwia ;
and Tdia.

Seft. 3. Stamens diJlinS, indefinite. Fruit of one cell.
Genera allied to Tiliacea.

Bisa ; Laetia ; and Banara of Aublet and Schreber.

The author hints that this order might poffibly, witli pro-
priety, receive a reinforcement of feveral polypetalous poly-
androus genera, at prefent not well underftood, and there-
fore annexed to other orders, among fubjedls that remain in
doubt. He names Soramia of Aublet (fee Mappia) ; Ca-
itnea of the fame (fee Doliocarpus) ; Cleyera of Thun-
berg (fee Ternstkoemia) ; Vallea of Lnmasus ; Dicera
of Forfler (fee El^eocarpus) ; Caraipa, Mahurea (fee
Bonnetia), Houmiria (fee Myrodenduum), Vanlanea
(fee Lemniscia), all of Aublet; and Trilix of Lmnsus.
The reader will be able to form his own opinion on thefe
matters, by turning to thefe articles in their proper places,
many of the genera and their affinities havmg become better
known fince the publication of Juffieu's work.

The charafters of his Tiliaceii: are hardly to be diftinguiflied
from thofe of his next order Cifti, the principal ditterence
confifting in the ftraight corculum, and more copious albumen,
of the former.

TILLABARUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Africa Propria, upon the route from Tacaps to the Greater
Leptis, between Thebelamum and Adaugmagdum. Anton.
Itin.

TILLjEA,in Botany, was dedicated by Micheli ( followed
by Linnaeus) to the honour of his friend and fellow-labourer
Michael Angelo Tilh, who publilhed a fplendid and rich
catalogue of the garden of Pifa, of which he had the care,
in 1723. He was a member of the Royal Society of
London, as well as of the Botanical Society of Florence,
and correfponded with the chief botanifts of his time, in
England, Holland, and elfewhere. He travelled to Con-

fl:antinople and Tunis Linn. Gen. 68. Schreb. 93. Willd.

Sp. PI. V. I. 720. Mart. Mill. Dift. V. 4. A'it. Hort.
Kew. V. I. 282. Sm. Fl. Brit. 201. Mich. Nov. Gen. 22.
t. 20. JuflT. 307. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 90. Gasrtn. t. 1 12.
— Clafs and order, Tetrandria Teiragynia. Nat. Ord. Suc-
cxdentx, Linn. Semper-uivie, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, in four deep, flat,
ovate, large fegments. Cor. Petals four, ovate, acute, flat,

rather

T I L

T 1 L

rather fmallcr than the calyx. S/am. Filamrnts four,
fimple, {horter than the corolla ; anthers fmall, roundifli.
Pijl. Gi-Tinens four ; ftylc limple ; (Hpjmas obtufc. Peric.
Capfules four, oblong-, pointed, reflexed, the length of the
calyx, burlUng longitudinally along the upper edge into
two valves, with one cell. Seeds two, or many more, in
each cell, ovate.

Obf. T. mufcofa has the parts of fruftification ufually in
threes, not fours. Gsertner difcovered its flowers to be
fometimes even five-clcft. He juftly remarks, that fuch
differences of number are in this natural order of little
importance, and that TilLta differs from Crajfuhi in nothing
but the want of neftariferous fcalcs below the germens.

Elf. Ch. Calyx in three, four, or five fegments. Petals
as many. Neftaries none. Capfules three, four, or five,
burfting inwards. Seeds feveral in eacli capfule.

1. T. aqttaUca. Water Swedifh Tillya. Linn. Sp. PI.
l86. Fl. Suec. 54- Willd. n. i. Ehrh. Phytoph. n. 14.
Schkuhr in Uft. Annal. fafc. 12. 6. t. i. — Stem ereft.
Leaves linear, acute. Flowers nearly feffile.^ — Native of
watery places in Lulean Lapland ; as well as near Upfal^
where water has ilagnatcd, in hilly fpots. Ltnn<eus. A
delicate, fmooth, annual plant, two or three inches high,
fomewhat like Montia fontana, but much more (lender,
growing in denfe tufts, fimple or branched. Leaves op-
pofite, ftalked, narrow, acute, entire, a third of an
inch long. Flowers either axiUary and lateral, or in the
forks of the ftem, folitary, fmall, white, on very fhort
llalks. The whole hcrl is fucculent and pellucid.

2. T. projlrata. Proftrate German Tilla5a. Schkuhr in
Uft. Annal. fafc. 12. 6. Willd. n. 2. (T. aquatica ;
Schkuhr in Ufl. Annal. fafc. 2. 21. t. 3.) — Stem proflrate.
Leaves lanceolate. Flowers on fhort ftalks. — Native of moift
ground in Germany. Annual, differing from the foregoing
in having many proftrate_y?f;Hj from one root, broader leaves,
which are nearly cylindrical, and rather longer Jlo-wer-Jlalks .
Seeds eight in each eapfide. Srhkuhr.

3. T. r.iUhwh,. Stalked French Tillsea. Willd. n. 3.
(Sedum minimum annuum, flore rofeo tetrapetalo ; Vaill.
Parif. 182. t. 10. f. 2.) — Stem ereft, much branched.
Leaves ovate, clafping the ftem, fhorter than the flower-
ftalks. — Native of France. Obferved by Vaillant, in the
forcft of Fontainebleau, where water has ftagnated in winter,
flowering from May to Auguft. Root annual, of a few
fmall tufted white fibres. Stem an inch or two high, re-
peatedly branched, fcarcely forked, purplifh. Leaves in
pairs crolTnig each other, very thick, pointed, gibbous
underneath, dark green, about two lines long. Petals four,
rofe-coloured, with a dark-coloured mid-rib. Seeds nume-
rous, black, very minute. — The broader thicker leaves, and
the much longer jlower-jlalks, render this very diftinft, as
Willdenow obferves, from T. aquatica.

4. T. pedunctdaris. Long-ftalked Brazil Tillaea. — Stem
ereft. Leaves lanceolate, acute. Flower-ftalks often twice
the length of the leaves. Capfules abrupt. — Gathered by
Commerfon, in marfhy fpots that had been overflowed, at
Monte Video. This grows in tufts, and has very much the
habit of T. aquatica, for which pofTibly it may have been
taken. There appears neverthelefs much difference between
them. The whole herb, in the prefent inftance is red, and
the Jloivers rofe-coloured, growing on long Jlalis, which,
though indeed variable, are never lefs than half the length
of the leaves, and often twice their length. The fhape of
the leaves agrees with aquatica ; but the capfules when ex-
panded are more abrupt, and even inverfely heart-fhaped.

5. T. mufcofa. Moffy Tillxa. Linn. Sp. PI. 186.
Willd. n. 8. Fl. Bnt. n. i. Engl. Bot. t. 116. Rofe's

Elcm. ap|)end. 448. t. 2. f. 2. (T. mufcofa aiuuia per-
foliat.i, flore albo ; Mich. Gen. 22. t. 20. Sempcrvivum
omnium minimum rcpcns mufcofum, polygon! facie ; Boct.
Muf. 36. t. 22. Polygonum mufcofum minim?im j Bocc.
Sic. 56. t. 29.)

/S. Craffnla mufcofa ; Linn. Sp. PI. 405. ' Am. Acad,
v. 6. 86. Willd. Sp. PI. v. I. 1557. Thunb. Prodr. 54.
See CuAssuLA, n. 40. (Ficoides africana annua minima
mufcofa; Herm. Parad. 170.)

Stems procumbent, branched. Leaves obtufc. Flowers

moftly three-cleft. Calyx and petals taper-pointed

Native of fandy barren ground in the more temperate parts
of Europe, flowering in fummer. Abundant on fandy
heaths near Norwich, Bury, Brandon, &c. The variety $
is brought from Africa, from Lima, and even from New
South Wales. We can find no difference in the dried
fpecimens, except their being larger than our's, with fome-
what of a glaucous hue, and thttjlotuers partly flalked, more
numerous, and all, as far as can be examined, five-cleft and
pent.-indrous, juft like Gartner's pl.atc of 7'. mufcofa. The
Britifh fpecimens of the mufcofa are from one to two inches
high, ftrongly tinged with a blood-red, afcending, branched,
with a fibrous annual root. Leaves elliptical, thick, obtufe,
fomewhat channelled above ; clafping their ftem at tiieir
bafe. Floivers moftly three-cleft, feffde ; their petals white,
with a taper red point, lefs than the calyx. Seeds only two
in each capfule.

We fcruple to retain in this genus four other fpecies
admitted by Willdenow. The firft is T. capenjis, Linn.
Suppl. 129. Willd. n. 4 ; evidently, as Thunberg calls
it, a Crajfula, by its purple triangular neftaries, though,
on account of its fo ur-cleft _/?oit)frj, made a TdUa by Lin-
naeus and Willdenow.

T. perfoliata, Linn. Suppl. 1 29. Willd. n. j ; T. um-
bellata, Willd. n. 6 ; and T. decumbens, Willd. n. 7 ; all
referred to Crajfula by Thunberg, have none of them fallen
under our infpeftion ; but as Willdenow avows having
been guided by number, we have no fcruple in removing
them hence.

So alfo Crajfula mofchata, Fori^. Magell. 16; gathered
by that author, as well as by Commerfon, Menzies, Banks,
and Solander, at Staten land, is moft certainly a Crajfula,
becaufe of its neftaries ; though, on account of its four-
cleft Jloivers, it has been taken by fome great botanifts for
a Tillxa.

TILLAGE, in Agriculture, the praftice of tilling or
cultivating land, efpecially of the arable kind, or the means
of bringing it into a ftate of preparation for the growth
of different forts of arable crops.

Of all the arts, fays Vattel, tillage, or agriculture, is the
moft ufeful and neceffary. It is the nurfing-father of the
ftate. It forms the fureft refource and the moft folid funds
of riches and commerce, for people who enjoy a happy
climate. This objeft, therefore, deferves the utmoft atten-
tion of government : and it ought carefully to avoid every
thing capable of difcouraging the hufliandman, or of divert-
ing him from the labours of agriculture. Thofe taxes,
thofe exceftive and ill-proportioned impofitions, the burthen
of which falls almoft entirely on the cultivators ; and the
vexations they fuffer from the commilTioners who levy them,
take from the unhappy peafant the means of cultivating the
earth, and depopulate the country. Spain is the moft fer-
tile and the worrt cultiv.ited country in Europe. The church
poffeffes too much land, and the undertakers of the royal
magazines, who are authorized to purchafe, at a low price,
all the corn they find in the poffeflion of a peafant,
above what is neceffary for the fubfiftence of himfelf and

his

TILLAGE.

his fimily, lagrt-ally ailcourage tli.- hu/baiiJman, that he
fows no more corn than is ncceffary for the fupport of his
own ho.fchold. Whence frequently anfes the greateft
fcarcity i" • country capable of feeding its neighbours.

Another abufe injurious to agriculture is, the contempt
caft upon the hufbaiidmaii. The inhabitants of cities, even
th- moll fervilc arliils and the moll lazy citizens, confidcr
him that cultivates the earth with a difdainful eye ; they
humble and difcouraf'e him. They dare to defpife a pro-
fcffion that feeds the human race ; the natural employment
of man. A little infignificant mechanic places far beneath
him the beloved employment of the firft confuls and dic-
tators of Rome. China has wifely prevented this abufe ;
ai^riculture is there held in honour, and to prcferve this
happy manner of thinking, every year, on a folemn day, the
emperor himfclf, followed by his wliole court, fcts his hand
to the plough, and fows a fmall piece of land. Hence
China is the bell cultivated country in the world : it nou-
riflies an innumerable multitude of people, that at firll
appears to the traveller too great for the fpace they poflefs.
BeCdes, tlie cultivation of tlie foil is an obligation impofed
by nature on mankind.

The moft proper forts of foils for the purpofes of tillage-
cultivation, are all tliofe of the more dry and friable kinds,
whether the depth of earth or mould, or what is often
termed ftaple in them, be only flight or confiderable ; as
under different circumftances thefe differences fit them for
the produAion of different forts of crops, the methods of
cultivation in which are fully explained under their different
proper heads.

In this view, all the various denominations of light foils,
fuch, for inftance, as gravels, fands, light chalks, and thin
loamy lands, are well adapted, in moft cafes, to the pur-
pofes of tillage, from their being, in general, pretty well
fuited to the various forts of grain, as well as to the raifing
of fuch green and root-crops as are neceffary in the fup-
port and management of different kinds of live-ftock. The
more deep, loamy, chalky, and gravelly forts of land, where
they can be kept fufficiently dry, and in a proper ftate,
during the winter feafon, may likewife, in many cafes, be
well employed in tillage-cultivation, and efpecially when
they do not produce and afford an abundant and ufeful
fort of herbage for the keeping of animals, or other ufes.
All the lands of the fward-kind, or in the ftate of grafs,
which are liable to be infefted with the mofs-plant, or to
become over-run with a moffy covering, may, in common
too, be managed under the tillage-fyftem with much advan-
tage, and better than in fuch a (late of grafs.

In fome cafes, lands may be fuited to convertible tillage,
or alternately that of grain and grafs, with vaft benefit to the
farmer. It has been remarked on this fort of tillage by a
late writer, that land may in this way often be turned to
better account by ploughing and tilling it eight or ten
years, and then laying it down to grafs, in order to take
up another part or portion, than by the common method,
but efpecially where the land is fubjctt to ant-hills ; as the
paring and burning deftroys all fuch hills, and fuch land
is fure to bring abundant crops of corn. And that there
are very few fituations that have dry land and foil fit for the
plough, but what would bring more profit under tillage
than by lying in the ftate of old grafs ; for when fuch
good land as this is well laid down to grafs, with plenty
of good proper fteds, after a courfc of tillage, an acre of it
will keep as much ftock as four acres would which were
produced in the natural way, and this is what makes its
great value. Such tillage-land as this, it is faid, is worth
more money than the fincft grafs-land 'in the kingdom ; as,
8

on the fine marftics fo much boafted of, the earliefl of the
fummer-ftock comes to market at the VC17 time when all
forts of vegetables are in plenty, fuch as peas, beans, and
many others, and when meat confequcntly is fure to fall in
price ; and great numbers of grafs-fed beafts, or cattle and
ftieep, come together. Befides, the very beft grafs-lands
fend only two flieep in the two early months of April
and May from an acre ; but the beft tillage-land will fend
ten from an acre, and have them ready any time in the
vrinter, when meat is the deareft. Thus, it is contended
that ten acres of turnips will fend one hundred (heep in the
deareft time to the market, but that it will take fifty acres
of the beft land in grafs, to fend the fame number to the
market.

It is therefore concluded that, in this way, the tillage-
farmer fends three hundred acres of corn to market, and as
many fat Ihcep befides, acre for acre, as the belt grazing-
land ; and that by ftill other improved metiiods of manage-
ment, as that of the culture of flax for the ufe of the feed
in fattening live-ftock, and fome others of a fimilar defcrip-
tion, the tillage-farmer may derive greater profit than by
the turnip praftice, from the large quantity of winter-
fattened animals, and the vaft fupply of dung or manure
which is thus raifed and provided.

Although the neceffity of good tillage in the preparation
of land for cropping be now pretty well underftood by the
praftical farmer, and has been inculcated occafionally under
different heads in the prefent work, it requires to be well
explained in fome of its proceffes. It has indeed been ob-
ferved in the Agricultural Survey of the County of Here-
ford, after noticing that the Romans were convinced of the
good effefts of this fort of preparation, as Pliny has re-
marked the advantages of frequent ploughing and turning
over the foil in Tufcany ; and that, in this country, Evelyn
fuggefted its power of fo altering a foil from its former
nature, as to render the hardeft and harlheft as well as moft
uncivil clay obfequious to the hufbandman ; that tillage alfo
deftroys weeds, and reduces the earth to fmall particles,
rendering it fufficiently loofe and porous to admit of the
eafy growth and extenfion of the roots and fibres of the
grain to be cultivated in or upon it. And that the fpade is
well adapted to thefe purpofes, becaufe it moves the grouiid
eight or ten inches deep, turns it upfide down, and covers
the weeds with a quantity of earth, under which they rot,
and contribute towards its fertilization and improvement ;
and that this mode is founded on the juft idea or notion of
the Flemings, that a farm (hould refemble a garden as
nearly as poffible. But that as the fpade method is much
too tedious and laborious, as well as too expenfive, to be
praftifed on the larger fcale of a farm, the plough is there-
fore fubftituted, as cheaper and more expeditious, but that,
in general, it does not ftir the earth fo deeply, and often
moves it in large bodies or maffes, without fufficiently
breaking it into pieces. In order to remedy this incon-r
venience, the celebrated Mr. Tull, it is faid, recommended
a plough of his own invention, which had four coulters
inftead of one, and thus divided the earth raifed by the
(hares into feveral narrow (lips ; but the refiftance occa-
fioned by the additional coulters was found to require a
greater ftrength in horfes than the profits of the experiment
and work would warrant. It was, however, afterwards af-
certained by a diftinguifhed foreigner, M. de Chateauvieux,
that the breadth of the furrow Ihould be proportioned to
the ftiffnefs of the foil or land ; and that thus the refiftance
may be regulated on all kinds of land or foil. But the
operation of repeated crofs-ploughing, and the ufe of other
tools, as now generally praftifed, aided a? they arc by full

cxpofure

TILLAGE.

expofure to froft, rain, &c. fo efFoftually break down the
hardcil foils, that other meafures are, it is thought, ren-
dered Icfs iieceflary. Since the above was written, how-
ever, many ufeful inftruments have been formed, by which
tillage-cultivation is not only rendered more cffeftive, but
more eafy and expeditious, as may be feen by the defcrip-
tions which have been given of them under their different
proper heads. See Dkag, Scarifier, Scuffler, Spike-
Roller, &c.

M. Duhamel has fince too obferved in his " Elements of
Agriculture," that fome believe it is more advantageous to
iucreafe the fertility of land by frequent ploughing and
other means than by manure ; becaufe, in general, only a
certain quantity of nupure can be procured ; as twenty acres
of land will, in common cafes, fcarcely produce as much
manure as is neceffary for five ; whereas the particles of the
earth may be divided and fubdivided almoil to infinity.
The aids, therefore, which are derived from manure, mull,
it is fuppofed, be limited, wbilft no bounds can be fct to the
benefits that may accrue from ploughing or breaking down
and reducin'g the parts of the foil. This appears, the writer
thinks, to be over-rating the advantages of breaking the foil
down in other ways ; but, it is certain, that when the
particles of land or foil adhere fo clofely together as to im-
pede the extenfion of the roots of plants, in fearch of the
food and nourilhment they require, the plants themfelves
cannot grow with proper vigour, or yield a proper pro-
duce. This is therefore to be corrected by frequent plough-
ings, &c. And that, laftly, repeated ploughings and other
fuch means enable the land to receive and retain all the
benefits to be derited from the floating vapours and dews
of the atmofphere, which falling on hard ground, where it
cannot readily penetrate, is quickly exhaled by the next
day's fun and wind.

Notwithftanding thefe remarks, it may, however, be no-
ticed, that no tillage or breaking down of the parts of the
foil, though ever fo complete and effeftual, can wholly fup-
ply the place of manure, although it may greatly contribute,
in different inftances, to affift. its fertiUty.

Thefe are fome of the more general and partisular ways
in which tillage becomes fo effential and effedual in pro-
moting the fertility and improvement of land ; but there
are a few others, the proceffes of which may be feen under
their proper heads.

In the tillage-cultivation for mod forts of crops of the
grain or corn kinds, as well as fome others, it becomes ef-
lentially necefiary that the foil fiiould be reduced to a very
confiderable degree of finenefs, or what is frequently termed
tilth by writers on hulbandry ; as, where this is not the cafe,
they can neither be fo well provided with food or nourifh-
ment, nor be kept fo perfeftly and fo fufficiently clean and
fi-ee from weedy matters. There are other reafons too that
require, at leaft, the more fuperficial parts of the foils to be
in a fine condition of tillage for the receiving of fuch crops,
which are thofe of the young tender roots of the new rifing
plants being thereby rendered more capable of fixing them-
felves perfectly in the mould \\ hich is produced, and of their
drawing from it a more regular fupply of food, in confe-
quence of the more equal diffufion of moifture and other
lubftances through it, which muft neceflarily take place.
Befides, it is favourable in other ways, as by fuch tillage
the feed-corn is not only more capable of being perfeftly
but equally covered, in confequence of which the vegetation
and growth of the young plants of it are more equal and
expeditious.

But befides the ftate and condition of the foil or land in
regard to tilth, it (hould be in a fuitable fituation in refpeft
Vol. XXXV,

to drynefs ; as where there is too great a degree of moifture
in it, the tillage can neither be performed in a proper man-
ner, nor the feed-corn be gut in without the danger of fuf-
taining injury by becoming rotten before the vogetati\'B pro-
cefs takes place, as not unfrequently happens to pea and
other garden crops, when put into the foil during the moilt
winter months : and where, on the contrary, the land is in
too dry a Hate, the tiUage is improper to be effcAed, as
caufing too much exhalation, by whicii the feed-corn, when
put in at fach periods, may be much injured by the want of
that moifture which is necefiary for perfeft vegetation.
Under the laft circumft:ance too, it may be rtore liable to
be defl:royed by worms, grubs, and other infefts. On
thefe accounts the arable farmer fliould, of courfe, be
equally attentive to the tillage preparation of the foil, and
the condition in which it may be cropped to the greateft
advantage, and with the greateft chance of fuccefs.

The writer of the " Elements of Agricultural Chemiftry"
ftates, that in all cafes of tillage, the feeds ftiould be put in
fo as to be fully expofed to the influence of the air. And
that one caufe of the unproduftivenefs of cold clayey ad-
hefive foils is, that the feed becornes coated with matter
impermeable to air. All immediate tillage, for putting in
crops, fiiould confequently be performed as much as pof-
fible in fuitably dry weather on fuch forts of land.

In iandy foils, he fays, the earth is always fufficiently pene-
trable by the atmofphere ; but in clayey foils there can
fcarcely be too great a mechanical divifion of the parts in
the procefs of tillage.

In general, the beft and moft effeftual method of break-
ing down and bringing land into the ftate of proper tillage,
is by the ufe of the plough and diff^erent other implements
of the harrow kind, fuch as thofe which have been noticed
above, fuited to the intention of the cultivator, and the pe-
culiar nature of the land or foil. The tillage with the
plough fhould conftantly be performed according to the
nature of the foil, and that of the crop which is to be fown
or fet, and the operations whish are afterwards to be executed
upon it. But to whatever depth this may be proper to be
done, it is of much confequence to have it performed in an
exaft and effeftual manner ; as on this not unfrequently de-
pends the difference between a good and bad crop, as well
as that between the animals employed in the labour moving
with eafe and with difficulty. The repetitions in the tillage
of this fort muft be conftantly regulated by the quahty and
circumftances of the land and the deligns of the farmer, as
fome forts and cafes of land require much'more tillage than
others. This point is moft decidedly evinced in the Agri-
cultural Survey of the County of Gloucefter. On the
Cotfwolds, it is the praftice, the writer remarks, to fow
their crops on one ploughing, experience having proved that
frequent ploughings or tillage on thefe light foils, weaken
the ftaple of the land, and are produftive of injury.

On the ftrong lands or foils of tlic county of Elfex, the
moft intelligent and fuccefsful praftical farmers, it is faid,
are thofe who are the moft careful in the repetition of tillage
of the plough kind, to which they conftantly attribute
great powers and effcfts. The ftrong heavy lands have it
eight or more times in many cafes, even for barley or oats ;
and on thofe which are lefs fo, the general fyftem of tillage
is moftly four or five times for the different f;dlow crops.
In this laft intention, it is not unufual to commence the firft
tillage ploughing towards November, continuing it nearly
or quite to the end of March, after barley fowing ; and if
at the firft period of fuch tillage the ridges be laid a little
round, fo as to be water-fhot, and after that well water-fur-
rowed, the tillage is greatly promoted. The land h moftly

4 N firft

TILLAGE.

firft broken up into riJges of eight or twelve nine-inch fur-
rinv» ; then iiod'cd, and the tillajjo given in different ways
very often during the funinier feafon, carcfuUy turning up
andexpoling every time a different furface, as much as poi-
fible, to the fun and air : before harvcft it is got up on four-
furrow ridges, wlicn, after that feafon is over, it has agam
immrdiatcly another tillage ploughing ; and if the wcajhcr bS
futtable, it is done twice, leaving it upon the ridge for the
enfuing winter : the later the lall tillage furrow is given the
bi-tter, in thi-, diftrid, for preventing the black grafs-vveed
getting up ; after wliicli the whole is well water-furrowed
for taking off any water that may be upon it : by thefe
means the land is much earlier got upon in the fpring
feafon than could otherwife be done, and in confequence,
wlu-n the tillage for barley is performed, fuch ftiff tenacious
lands break down into the finefl tilth it is almoil poffible to
conceive.

In executing the work of tillage on ridges for wheat, or
any other fort of crop, great attention is here beftowed on
tuniing the furrows well, drawing them ilraight, making
them Sike In fize, and lapping them with fuch regularity
on to each other, that the liarrow tools cannot fail to lay
hold of them all with facihty ; the (hutting-up furrow more
efpecially is drawn with perfedl flraightnefi, exadlly turned,
fwept out with cleannefs, and at the fame time the fpace
between the ridges not left in too wide a ftate.

But notwithilanding this great and frequent tillage, in
fome places they do not venture in the feed on the autumnal
furrow, but give a fpring plough tillage, though perhaps
fome other tool of the tillage kind might anfwer better in
many cafes, and be far more expeditious.

The mod proper and fuitablc depths of tillage for differ-
ent forts of foils, have probably not yet been well afcer-
taincd ; but fuch as have a good ftrong ftaple, require much
more deep tillage than thofe of the light kind. Whether
flat -work tillage, as praftifed in Norfolk, or that of feather-
edged, as employed in Effex, has the advantage, is not pro-
perly decided, but probably each may have a luperiority on
different forts of land : the great point of importance is that
of allowing the covering of the feed well.

The plan of tillage given below has been advifed in the
Correfted Agricultural Survey of the County of Salop, for
the lighter forts of friable lands, on a farm of four hundred
acres : firft, the wheat ftubble is to be harrowed by drawing
the harrows one way, which lays the ftubble ; and by re-
turning back along the fame ftroke, they draw the greater
part of that which was gathered by the harrows ; and a
proper perfon foUowing them with a fork, unloads them,
and lays the ftubble in heaps, to be difpofed of as direfted
below.

This ftubble ground has the tillage of ploughing from the
middle of November to the end of the following month ;
about the beginning of March it has that of crois-plough-
ijig given it, and when dry, well harrowed ; and when the
weather is fuitable, much of the couch-grafs is got out of
it and burnt ; but when not fo, it is, in this way, checked
in its growth during the feed-time, and the bufinefs is more
eafdy performed ; which is to be done in the month of May
and the two fuccecding ones, in which the fallow lands have
the tillage of three ploughings and fuflicicnt harrowings to
prepare them for turnips, for which eight cubic yards of
reduced dung, or feventy-two bufhcls of clod-lime, are laid
upon the acre ; which are ploughed in at the laft tillage-
furrow, though fooner, it is thought, would be better, if
the dung be reduced enough by that time, or the land be fo
clean as not to require much harrowing. Turnip-feed, one
pound to the acre, is then fown from 8ic 7th of June to the
10

14th of the following month, the plant being twice hoed ;
the average produce is from 2/. to 2/. 15/.

As the fame land becomes cleared of its crop of turnips,
it has the tillage of ploughing and harrowing, preparatively
for a crop of barley : and being again tilled, by being
ploughed up in butts or lands five yards in width, from the
latter end of March to the latter end of the following month,
is fowed with three and a half ftatute bufhels of barley,
fourteen pounds of common red clover-feed, and one peck
of fine rye-grafs-feed to each acre : the average produce is
about forty buftiels, of the ftatute kind, of barley to the
acre.

The young clover which is not eaten between December
and May, in the part which is mowed, on an average pro-
duces about two waggon-loads, or a ton and a half to the
acre. In the fucceeding month of Oftober, it is ploughed
in the tillage of nine-inch furrows and fix inches deep, and
fowed with two and a half bufhels of wheat : the produce
about feventeen buftiels the acre.

The turnip-crop is generally difpofed of fomewhat in this
manner : firft, by drawing home thofe under the hedges, at
the beginning of November, and fome of the largelt over
the reft of the field, taking- all up where the horfes and carts
are to pafs. When the tops and fmall roots are cut off, they
carry them home, and place them in heaps of about twelve
cart-loads each, in the form of the cone of a wheat-rick,
covering them a foot thick with ftraw and thatch. Thefe
ferve as a refource in time of froft and fnow, for the beafts
that are ftall-fed, of which there are generally twenty yeai'ly;
and a man and boy, with one horfe and cart, fupply them ;
leaving ultimately in the fields as many turnips to be eaten
off upon the land by flieep, as to enfure fertility enough for
the crops of barley, &c. as the barley, being too rank, com-
monly fpoils the young clover growing with it. Another
advantage in this plan of tillage, which is obtained by ftall-
feeding with turnips, is the making a large quantity of
ftraw into manure at home ; which is the beft ufe that can
be made of it, as ftraw-food is not an improver of cattle-
ftock.

This method of tillage or cultivation for dry lands, is
recommended to thofe wlio have been in the pratlice or cuf-
tom of long tillages, and without the ufe of general turnip-
ing, to be continued for fo long as two courfes of tillage,
that is, eight years ; by which time their land will be clean,
and more fit for what is conceived to be a more beneficial
mode of husbandry, and which mode is now, it is faid, pur-
fued ; namely, firft turnips, managed and manured for as
above ; fecond, barley ; third, peafe, in rows one foot
afunder, hand-hoed and weeded ; fourth, barley, with ten
pounds of common clover,four poundsof white Dutch clover-
feed, two pounds of trefoil-feed, and one peck of fine rye-
grafs-feed, eight cubic yards of rotten dung, or feventy-two-
buftiels of ftone-lime laid upon tlie young clover in Novem-
ber ; fifth year, mow or graze the land ; the fixth, graze
until Oftober ; and the feventh, give a plough tillage, and
fow with wheat as before ; the land mucked for turnips, and
lime or compoft of lime, and earth or mud, &c. laid on the
young clover in the autumn. This is believed to be a more
profitable courfe of tillage, after land has been got into
order, than that which was previoufly praflifed, affording
a greater change, and thereby obviating the failure both of
turnips and clover, and occafioning more grafs-land, which
for many years has there exceeded the tillage in point of
profit.

As an improvement of wheat -lands, or mixed foils upon
clay, the mode of tillage direfted below is advifed to be
pradifed.

The

TILLAGE.

Tlie turf or other land being well ploughed or tilled, and
laid dry before Chriftmas, in the following month of April
fow the land with four and a half ilatute bufhels of oats,
plough and lay it dry in the autumn, and in the month of May
and the two following ones, give it-three good tillage plough-
ings and harrowings, with lonie rollings, &c. fo as to reduce
it well ; being thus drawn up and laid dry, it may continue
in that Hate to tiie middle of September ; though made both
fine and clean, it fometimes gets an adhefivc and binding
quality, and confequently works lumpy, and therefore has
the texture and quality which the farmer, by millake, is
afraid of lofmg by making his land clean. It is, however, it
is faid, in the three above months, when the fun is powerful,
that land is to be cleaned by tillage : a ploughing in Auguft
is feldom of much worth.

If manured with lime, lay eighty bulhels upon the acre ;
if with dung, ten cubical yards to each acre, either ploughed
under at the July tillage ploughing, or before. From the
20th of September to the loth of the fucceeding month,
fow wheat nine ftatute pecks to the acre, after having
foaked the fame not more than eight hours in mild brine,
and dried it with lime, to prevent the fmut. The next au-
tumn plough the corn ftubble, and at the end of March plant
beans or peafe in rows one foot afunder, hand-hoe and weed
them. Plough in the autumn, and fow oats in the fpring,
and lay down with ten pounds of red clover-feed, four pounds
of white Dutch clover-feed, and one peck of rye-grafs-feed
to each acre. Manure the land in feeds in the autumn, and
let it lie in fward two or three years, as it may be required.
At the next breaking up, plant the land with beans, hand-
hoe and weed them ; the enfuing autumn fow it with wheat,
then with beans in rows, hand-hoe and weed that crop ; then
put in oats and lay down with feeds, as before. In lieu of
one of the hoeing crops, if the land be not too wet, pota-
toes may be planted, which would be found very profitable
to the wheat-land farmer ; being very ufeful food for feed-
ing or milking cows in the winter feafon. The farmer
fhould fallow for the tirfl crop in one tillage, and hoe the
next, and fo proceed alternately ; the fummer fun to wheat-
lands being certainly ufeful, and alfo the manuring with dung
or lime in an alternate manner. Where marie is to be pro-
cured at convenient diftances, nothing turns to more profit ;
upon ODen foils, with either clay or dry bottoms, marie laid
upon the fward in the autumn, and to lie one year, is com-
monly the beft praftice, efpecially if the marie be not per-
feftly good. Lime is fure to pay well the next tillage
courfe.

On this mode of tillage it is, however, remarked, that good
farmers, on light foils, will entertain the plan here prefcribcd
with fome caution, and that their apprehenfions of a crop of
couch will often outweigh their hopes of a crop of clover.
That peafe are precarious ; one week's hot weather v^hilft
in blow is often fatal to the crop.

It is added too, on the authority of Mr. Harries, after
noticing the infufficiency of fome fallow tillage lands, that
there are many aftive farmers who begin the tillage on their
fallows in January, and by repeated ploughings, harrowings,
and roUings, bnng them into very good order for wheat.
Others graze the lecond year's clover until about the middle
of the fummer, and fometimes mow it at that time : if the
foil be dry and the fummer favourable, they bring it into
very good tillage order by feed-time. It would, however,
it is thought, be better tillage hulbandry to raife a crop of
turnips on fuch lands, after wheat or barley. If this was
done, at leaft in every courfe of tillage, a good crop of wheat
would be grown upon clover lays, upon one tillage plough-
ing, at a light expence. It is- frequently his cuftora to break

up his clover lays of the firft or fccond year, if they are
tolerably clean, upon one ploughuig, putting upon the
plough a cutting tool or inftrument, which is there termed
a^ajr orjliiy, that cuts or pares off the furface turf, and lays
it in the bottom of the furrow. Lately, a clover lay was
worked with this inftrument upon the plough, and after the
feed was harrowed in, fcarcely any of the furface turfy
matter came upon the ploughed furface, the field looking as
well, and appearing as clean, as though it had been fown
upon fallow tillage.

Some, however, on hollow lands, do not approve of this
Ikimming or paring tillage ; as dicing the furface of fuch
foils they confider much worfe than turning it over in the
ordinary manner, and letting the furface vegetable matters
be laid into the furrows in a fort of diagonal pofition,
though fome of them (liould even appear out in the feams.
The notion is notwithilanding probably erroneous, as fuch
furface produce is always, in tome way or other, to be rotted
and got rid ctf, as in every mode of tillage it is ploughed in
or under, and the main point is how to get the moft fpeedily
and completely quit of it, and to render it the moft ufeful
to the crop which is to be put in. Thefe are certainly the
beft and moft fully accompliftied by taking it wholly off by
fuch a cutting apparatus, and placing it at the bottoms-of the
furrows, which mull alfo Iclfen the hollownefs of tlie land
at the fame time.

In the breaking-up tillage of old grafs-lands, it muft be
executed in a manner fuitable to the nature, ftate, and quality
of the foil, whatever that may be, reducing and breaking the
turfy fward well and carefully down, and clearing it effec-
tually from infedls and vermin of all forts by proper crops,
fuch as thofe of the pea, bean, teafel, and other fimilar kinds,
before the introduftion of thofe of the grain fort. In this
way, the lands will not only be the beft wrought into a pro-
per ftate of tillage, but the corn-crops the moft efFeftually
fecured from the danger of worms, grubs, and other noxious
vermin.

It has been remarked by the writer of theCorrefted Agri-
cultural Surveyof the County of Norfolk, that for the laft four
or five-and-thirty years that he has examined Weft Norfolk
with the eye of a farmer, the change in the tillage fyftem,
which has taken place in that vaft arable diftrift, has notheen
great. At the early part of that period, the tillage courfe
was, it is faid, firft, turnips ; fecond, barley ; third, graffes
for two, or, in a few cafes, three years ; fourth, white corn :
on the better foils, wheat ; on others rye, &c. The only
material change that has occurred, has been, it is thought, in
the graftes : the variation, which, it is believed, firft took
place from forty to fifty years ago, was (hortening the
duration from three years to two ; in both cafes giving what
may be called a fort of baftard fallow the laft year, by means
of a half-ploughing, foon after the middle of the fummer.
Above thirty years ago, the writer, it is faid, contended,
both in print and in converfation, againft it, but was held
cheap for entertaining any doubts of the propriety of the
practice. He has lived, however, it is obferved, to fee this
change alfo in a great meafure take place amongft the beft
farmers, who now give only one ploughing for the winter
corn, whether wheat or tares ; or in the fpring for peafe.
That it is an improvement cannot be queftioned, it is thought.
The argument for it, founded on the invention ol the drill-
roller, and on the introduftion of the drill-plough, is good,
it is faid, but not fingular, as the practice of dibbling is like-
wife far more adapted to a whole than to a broken furrow ;
and for broad-caft common fowing, if we arc able to cover
the feed by harrowing on ftiff foils, once ploughed, alTurcdly
the fame pradlicc might be better followed on fand. The
4N 2 other

T 1 L

othfr reofon for thr former fylU-m, fpcar-grafs getting
i-hend i:. . !.n-r,ij quite inadmifTiblc, it is thought ; as he mull
c„ti, ' ith Mr. Overman, a large tillage cultivator

in il. that no weeds, the feeds ot which are not

cirried by tlic wind, wiU be found if. a layer, if they were

not left there. ■ • ■ i

1 1 is contended likewifc, that the v.iriations which have
taken place in the tillage crops put in upon layers, arc neither
great, nor are thev peculiar to ti.e above county ; the prin-
cipal one is tliat of taking pcafe on the fl.ig, and then the
wheat, and others, an admirable fyllem, which, it is faid,
has long been pneHfed bv good farmers in Suffolk, and, it
is believed, Hill earlier in Kent. That Mr. Purdis's mode
of fubllituting t.ires holds on the fame principle. Confider-
ing the very great life and value of white pea-llraw, well got,
as (hccp food, which is no where belter undcrftood than in
Kent, it is thought there is no tillage hufoandry better
adapted to a iheep-farm, than this ot pcafe or tares pre-
ceding the wheat crop.

But it is tiiought that a very great and important change
has taken place in the application of tillage crops to fhecp
inftead of bullocks and co;vs. Formerly the farmers con-
fumed ijiiich of tlieir ftraw by cattle ; now the beft of them
have it all trod into manure. Sheep arc the main grazing
ftock, and no more cattle kept than for treading, not eating
ftraw while feeding on oil-cake and other fuch food. This
is, it is contended, a very important change, which has had
confiderable effect, and which has depended not a little on
the introdudlion of South Down fheep. Yet ftill, it is con-
ceived, that the grand object in the whole tillage fyftem,
is the fingular fleadinefs with which the farmers of Weft
Norfolk have adhered to the well-grounded antipathy to the
takmg of two crops of white corn in fucceffion : this is
talked of elfcwhere, it is faid, but no whei-e fo fteadily ad-
hered to as in this diftrift. It is this maxim, it is faid,
wliich has preferved the effeiSt of their marie on thin-flfinned
lands of the wheat kind in fuch a manner, that the diftrift
continues highly produftive, under an almoft regularly in-
creafing rent for more than fixty years, or three leafes of
twenty-one years each ; and by means of which great trafts
have been marh:d a fecond, and even a third time with much
advantage. This tillage fyftem, it is fuppofed, has been that
to which the title of Norfolk hufbandry has been long, and
1^ now peculiarly appropriated ; and by no means that of
the management of the very rich diftrift of Eaft Norfolk,
where the foil is naturally among the finefl in the kingdom,
and confequently where the merit of the farmer muft be of
an inferior ftamp ; barley there, it is faid, very generally
follows wheat ; an incorreft tillage hufbandry, deferving no
praife, but condemnation. The celebrity of the county in
general was not heard of, it is faid, until the vaft improve-
ments of heaths, wafles, fheep-walks, and warrens, by enclo-
fure, and marling took place in confequence of the exertions
of Mr. Allen, of Lyng-Houfe, lord Townfhend, and Mr.
Morley, who were in the firlt thirty years of the preced-
ing century. They were happily, it is faid, imitated by
many others ; an excellent fyftem of tillage management
introduced, and fuch improvements wrought, that eftates and
lands which were heretofore too infigniticaht to be known,
became objefts of public attention in the capital. The fame
of Norfolk, it is 'cmirked, gradually expanded, and the
h-jfoandry of the county was celebrated heforc Eaft Norfolk
was heard of beyond the convcrfation of Norwicli and Yar-
inoiith. It is, huwevsr, afferted, that without a continuance
T^'^ft"^?"^c^'"^^^ management and perfevering exertions,
\V elt Norfolk would even again become the refidence of
poverty and rabbits. But let the meadows be improved;

T 1 L

irrigation be prattifed wherever it is applicable ; the remain-
ing wafles cultivated ; and this diflriA will, it is maintained,
become a garden. Such are the utility and importance of
good tillage and other fy ftems in the cultivation and improve-
ment of land.

In concluding, it may be ftated from the Correfted Agri-
cultural Report of the County of Hereford, that the im-
portance of the tillage farmer cannot be difputed ; and yet
tiiat perhaps no branch of the art of hufbandry is clogged
with fo many obftacles and impediments to its improvement
and fuccefs. The advantages of the grazing fyftem over
that of tillage-cultivation, hold out a great inducement to
the farmer to convert his tillage land into pafture, the imme-
diate effeft of which muft be felt in the reduced quantity
and increafed price of grain of every defcription. And un-
fortunately, this is not the only obftacle or hindrance to the
tillage farmer ; 1;he tax on horfes ufed in agriculture operates
alfo againft the proper tillage culture of the ground. It
was probably fuppofed, it is faid, by the framers of this
duty, that the number of horfes would thus be diminifhed,
and that of oxen increafed ; but it ftipuld be recoUefted
that oxen, valuable as they fometimcs are as auxiliaries, can
never be made the fubjlitute of horfes for tillage ; their con-
ftitution and habits will not admit of it ; and the fhoe vdth
which they are occafionally furnifhed, affords but an im-
perfeft protection to the foot on hard lands or ftony
roads. See Team.

No check, but every encouragement, fhould certainly be
given to tillage, or the means of raifing and providing the
bread-corn for the increafing population of the country. See
Supply and Confumption.

Tillage Farm, that fort of farm which is, for the moft
part, cultivated under the arable or tillage fyftem, or that
by means of the plough. See Farm.

TILLANDSIA, in Botany, was fo named by Linnseus,
in memory of an early Swedifh botanift. Dr. Elias Til-lands,
profefTor of phyfic at Abo, who died in 1692, aged 52,
after having publifhed in 1683 an oftavo alphabetical cata-
logue, in Latin and Swedifh, of the wild, as well as culti-
vated, plants of the neighbourhood of his refidence. This
little volume was accompanied, or foon followed, by another,
confifting of rude, but often expreffive, wooden cuts, of 158
plants, mentioned in the foregoing catalogue. It is a defeft
in thefe cuts that they are not always original ; an inftance
of which occurred to the writer of the prefent article, while
preparing a critical difTertation on fome Britifh fpecies of
Hieracium, fee Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 9. 232. The Pilofella,
t. 14. of Tillands proving a copy of Tabernaemontanus,
rendered his work of no authority in an important point ;
though fuch a defeft was not previoufly known, even to his
learned countryman the late Mr. Dryander ; and the book
funk immediately in his eftimation, except as a rarity. — A
curious reafon for the name of Tillandjia, as applied to the
genus of which we are about to fpeak, is given by Linnseus
himielf, in his Pralediones in Ordines Nat-urales Plantarum,
publilhed by Gifeke, p. 291. " Tillandfiis cannot bear
water, and therefore I have given this name to the genus,
from a profefTor at Abo, who in his youth having an unpro-
pitious pafTage from Stockholm to that place, no fooner fet
iiis foot on fhorc, than he vowed never again to venture him-
felf upon tl\e fea. He changed his original name to Til-
lands, which means on, or by, land; and when he had fubfe-
quently occafion to return to Sweden, he preferred a cir-
cuitous journey of 200 Swedifh miles through Lapland, to
avoid going eight miles by fea." This circumftance is alfo
alluded to in the Tour in Lapland, publilhed from the JQUl-nal
of Linnxus in 181 1, v. 1. 43. One of the moft invidioiis

cenfors

TILLANDSIA.

cenfors of this great botaiiilt has declared that he would
" excufe a thoufand of his faults for the fake ot the above
name alone." — Linn. Gen. 158. Schreb. 212. WiUd.
Sp. PI. V. 2. II. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 4. Ait. Hort.
Kew. V. 2. 203. Purfh 217. JufT. 50. Lamarck Did.
V. I. 616. V. 7. 666. Illullr. t. 224. (Caraguata ; Plum.
Gen. 10. t. 33. Renalmia; ibid. 37. t. 38.) — Clafs and
order, Hexandria Monogynia. Nat. Oi"d. Coronaria:, Linn.
BrotneliiT, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, oblong,
ere£l, j)ermancnt, in three oblong-lanceolate, pointed feg-
ments. Cor, of one petal, tubular ; tube long, inflated ;
limb fmall, ereft, in three obtufe fegments. Slam. Fila-
ments fix, linear, inferted into the tube of the corolla, and of
the fame length ; anthers acute, incumbent, in the throat of
the tube. PiJ}. Gcrmen fuperior, oblong, tapering at each
end ; ftyle thread-fliaped, the length of thu llamens ; lligma
three-cleft, obtufe. Perk. Capfule elongated, bluntly trian-
gular, pointed, fcarcely fcparated into more than one cell,
of thiee valves. Seeds feveral, cyliudi-ical, each fupported
on a long flalk of aggregate fibres, becoming a feathery
wing.

Efl". Ch. Calyx inferior, three-cleft, permanent. Corolla
tubular, three-cleft. Capfule with tlu-ee valves. Seeds on
a feathery wing.

I. T. iitrkulata. Bottle Tillandfia. Linn. Sp. PI. 409.
Willd. n. I. Ait. n. I. (Vifcumcaryophylloides maximum,
llore tripetalo pallide luteo, femine filamcntolo ; Sloane
Jam. V. u 188.) — Leaves linear, channelled, recurved;

dilated and inflated at the bafe. Stem clofely panicled

Found on the branches of large trees in Jamaica, where it is
known by the name of Wild Pine. Sloane obferves that the
long, tough, fmooth fibres of the root, which is perennial, do
not infinuate- themfelves into the , bark or wood, to draw
nourifliment from thence, but merely grafp the branch,
fixing themfelves fij-mly to the bark for fiipport. Stem
folitary, round, fmooth, leafy, three or four feet high.
Leaves numerous, often a yard long, chaiuielled, entire,
tapering to a very flender point, recurved, ftriated ; paler-
beneath, and clothed with extremely minute chaffy fcales
like powder ; the radical ones greatly enlarged and tumid
at the bale, where they form a (ort of oval hollow velfel,
which holds a quantity of water, coUefted during the wet
feafon, from the rain trickling down the channels of the
leaves. In tliis it is faid that fmall aquatic animals fome-
times take refuge, while birds, and even men, are reported
to have hence derived a welcome fiipply of drink. The
•water feems deftined to fupport the plant during drought,
when it could otherwife obtain notliing by its roots ; but
this flender rtock is enough to preferve life, and indeed a
confiderable degree of luxuriance. The Jloivers are of a
pale greenifli-yellow, with purple anthers, and compofe a
clofe branched panicle. The long branching down which
accompanies each feed, and is inferted into its bafe, carries it
to a diftance, and readily clings to the rough barks of trees,
where the feed fpeedily vegetates. When the Jlem is
wounded, a clear white mucilaginous gum exudes. Sloane,

2. T. /errata. Serrated Tillandfia. Linn. Sp. PI. 409.
Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. (Caraguata clavata et fpicata,
j foliis fcrratis ; Plum. Ic. 63. t. 75. f. i.) — Leaves flat,
fmooth, witli fl:rong fpinous ferratures ; entire towards the
> bafe. Spike compound. Brafteas with fpinous teeth. —
Native of Jamaica. Brought to Kew, with the foregoing,
by captain Bligh, in 1793. This is a large ftout perennial
plant, with the afpeft of an Aloe, but not fo fuccnlent.
The leaves are two or three feet long, and two inches broad,
their upper part efpeeially bordered with hooked fpines ;

9

their under fide curiouliy and minutely dotted between the
numerous fine ribs. Stem and compound /pike bcfet with
broad, ovate, pointed braHeas, wliuf ■ fpines are more direft
and tooth-like; the under fide ribbed and dotted in the
manner of the leaves.

3. T. imgiilata. Tongue-leaved Tillandfia. Linn. Sp.
PI. 409. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 3. Jacq. Amer. 92. t. 62.
(Caraguata latifolia clavata; Plum. Ic. 63. t. 74. Vifcum
caryophylloides maximum, capitulis in fummitate conglo*
meratis ; Sloane .fani. v. i. 189. t. 120.) — Leaves flat,
foniewhat tongue-fliapcd, fmooth, entire, as well as the
crowded brafteas — Native of old tri es in th-' vail forefls of
Martinico, as well as of Jamaica, where it is faid to colleA
water, like the firil fpecies. In fizc it agrees with the
fecond, but the entire leaves, and the cIoL- leafy head or
fpike of fowers, abundantly dillinguifli that before us.
Jacquin fays the ^oiuers are yellow, inodorous, three inches
long.

4. T. tenuifolia. Slender-leaved Tillandfia. Linn. Sp.
PI. 410. Willd. n. 4. Swartz Ind. Occ. v. i. 591.
( Renalmia fpica multiplici, anguftifolia, Acre coeruleo ;
Plum. Ic. 234. t. 238. f. 2. Vifcum caryophylloides minus,
foliorum imis \-iridibus apicibus fubrubicundis, flore tripe-
talo purpureo, femine fihunentofo ; Sloane Jam. v. i. 190-
t. 122. f. I.) — Leaves linear-thread-lhapcd, channelled,
ereft, taper-pointed. Spikes alternate, imbricated. Flowers

two-ranked Paraiitical, like all the foregoing, on the

branches of trees in the Weft Indies. The Jlem is a foot
high, Cmple, entirely contealed by the broad flieaths of the
leaves which clothe it. The radical leaves arc very nume-
rous, above a fpan long, very flender, refembling thofe of
fome long-leaved kinds of Pttius, but irujre tapering and
channelled ; moderately dilated, fheathing, downy and rufty,
at the bafe. Thofe of the flem are much fliorter, and
almoft fetaceous, though their bafe is ftill broader. Spiies
three or four, alternate, feflile, imperfedlly two-ranked, lan-
ceolate, an inch long, proceeding from broad flieathing
braHeas. Floiuers imbricated in two rows, blue. Linnceus
quotes by miflake a fynonym of Jacquin, belonging to the
following.

5. T.Jlexuofa. Zigzag Tillandfia. Swartz Ind. Occ.
590. Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. 4. (T. tenuifoha ; Jacq.
Amer. 92. t. 63.) — Leaves Unear-lanceolate, channelled, re-
curved. Spikes lax, zigzag. Flowers two-ranked, difl;ant.
— On trees near the fea in Jamaica, as well as near Cartha-
gena in South America. Extremely unlike the laft. The
leaves are very broad and concave in their lower part, con-
voluted about the bafe of the ftem, green, elegantly marked
with broad', whitifli, minutely fcaly, tranfverfe Itripes ; their
points recurved in all direftions. Stem twice as tall as the
leaves, being two or three feet high, nioftly fubdivided in the
upper part, invellcd with clofe red flieaths, and terminating
in two or three long, lax, zigzag /plies, with triangular
ftalks. Flvj-'crs about an inch or more afunder. Calyx
coloured, near an inch long. Corolla ftill longer, with
reflexed fegments, at firft blue, then red, as we prefume
from Dr. Swartz's defcription and the analogy of T,Jlr\8a
hereafter defcribed. Cap/ule long, of three cells, the valves
black and fliining on the infide.

6. T./etacea. Setaceous Tillandfia. Swartz Ind. Occ.
593. Willd. n. 6. — Leaves linear-thread-ftiaped, recurved,
nearly fmooth. Spike fimple, with two-ranked imbricated
Ihcaths. — Found on trees in Jamaica. Stem a foot or more
in height, round, nearly upright, clothed with alternate,
broad, briftle-pointed (heatlis. Radical leaves nearly equal
in length to the Hem, numerous, fheathing at the bafe,
greyifti, rigid, fomewhat mealy as it were, with very minute

fcales.

TILLANDSIA.

icilf s. Sfile tonniiial, folitiiry, ovato-laiiceolate. Flowers
altcriute. Moft lik.- T. tcnuifolia, n. 4, but difleriiig in its
rfcurvfd lejvt:, and limpU- L>\'A^xy fpde.

7. T. l>ar,uuldta. P^iil.l<-d Tillaiidfia. Linn. Sp. PI.
410. WiUd. n. 7. Llnurck v. 1. n. 6. ( Rcnalmia ra-
moliliima, Horlbus variepatis et circinatis ; Plum. Ic. 233.

1. 2^;.) Radical leaves very (liort, lanceolate. Stem

panicled, twice compound. Spikes crcft. Segments of
llw: corolla linear, Ipiral. — Native of" South America. We
kno-w nothing of this fpecies but from Plumier, wliofe iigure
rfprefents numerous, crowded, ered\, concave radical leaves,
and a Jlem alternately branched from the very bottom,
with two-ranked reclining branches, laden with afcend-
ing ftiies. A copy, in our pofleflion, of hie original
drawing fliews the fioiuers to be four inches long. —
We have no good authority for Browne's fynonym, cited
by authors, nor does it, if correft, throw any light upon this
very obfcure fpecies. Lamarck informs us, from Plumier's
manufcripts, that the jlcm is fometimes taller than a man ;
that the cctlyx is fpotted with green and purple ; corolla of
a violet blue, dotted with purple, its long narrow fegmeiits
becoming fpiral as they expand. This is the circumftance
to which Plumier's definition alludes. His greatly reduced
plate is not fufficicntly exaS to explain it, and Linnaeus in-
accurately copied Joins iax jloribus, in which Willdenow, of
courfe, follows him without the lead enquiry.

8. 'T.fafcictilaia. Falciculated Tillandfia. Swartz Ind.
Occ. 586. Wind. n. 8. — " Leaves lanceolate-awlfhaped,
ereft, ftraight. Spikes lateral, two-ranked, imbricated."
— Found on trees in Jamaica, in thickets near the fea-fhore.
Stem one or two feet high, leafy, fimple. Radical leaves
broad, concave, and (heathing, at the bafe ; lanceolate and
tapering upward, very ilightly recurved ; downy exter-
nally ; thofe of the llem (horter, fomewhat imbricated, ovate,
with long awl-fliaped points. Spites alternate, lateral and
terminal, two-edged, an inch broad, with imbricated ovate
brathasy membranous at the margin. Flowers folitary.
Capfule an inch long. S-wartz. Lamarck's 7". clavata,
cited by Willdenow with a mark of doubt, belongs to
7". monojlachya, n. II, as evidently appears from Plumier's
fynonym, the figure belonging to which thefe writers over-
looked.

9. T. nutans. Nodding Tillandfia. Swartz Ind. Occ.
588. Willd. n. 9. Ait. n. 5. — " Leaves ovato-lanceolate,
membranous. Stem nearly naked. Spikes fubdivided,
drooping. Flowers feparate, ovate." — Native of branches
of trees on hills in Jamaica. Plant from one to two feet
high. Leaves all radical, tumid at the bafe, ftriated length-
wife, fmooth, much (horter than the Jlcm, which is round,
clothed with membranous (Inated fheathing fcales. Spikes
alternate, rather diftant, drooping, with angular Jlalks.
Flowers diftinft, near each other, but not imbricated.
Corolla white. Capjule roundifh-ovate. Stuartx.

\0- T.poly/lachya. Many-fpiked Tillandfia. Linn. Sp.
PI. 410. Willd. n. 10. ( Renalmia fpica multiplici, flore
alboj Plum. Gen. 37 ; alfo as Linnsus fuppofed, R. alia,
fpica multiplici, anguftifoha ; ibid. 37. Vifcum caryo-
phylloidcs anguftifohum, floribus ca;ruleis ; Cateft. Carol.
V. 2. 89. t. 89?)— " Stalk bearing imbricated lateral fpikes."
—Native of South America. We can make out nothing
further of this fpecies, nor how Linnaeus came to a know-
ledge of It, there being no fpecimen in his herbarium.
Swartz however appears to be acquainted with the plant ;
lee his remarks under n, 13. and 14.

"• T. monojlachya. Single -fpiked Tillandfia. Linn.
i)p. PI. 410. Willd. n. 1 1. (T. clavata ; Lamarck Dia.
V, I. n. 4, Renalmia clavatii, floribus niveis ; Plum. Ic,

233. t. 238. f. I. R. lion ramofa fquamata, et floribus iii*
veis ; Plum. Gen. 37.) — Leaves radical, linear, channelled,
recurved ; bro.id and fiieathing at the bafe. Stem fimple,
clothed with imbricated fcales. Spike fimple. Bradteas
ovate, concave. — N:^ive of the Welt Indies. Plumier ga-
thered it on old trees in Hifpaniola. The numerous radical
leaves fprcad widely in every direftion, being about a foot
long, and two inches broad, fo much recurved that their
points touch the branch on which the plant is fixed. Stem
from fifteen to eighteen inches high, ereft, round, firm, quite
fimple, as well as its fpike. BraSleas white, ftreaked or
dotted with red. Corolla fnow-white ; its limb in three
deep ovate fegments.

1 2. T. pruinoja. Frofted Broad-leaved Tillandfia. Swart/
Ind. Occ. 594. Willd. n. 12. — Leaves lanceolate, taper-
pointed, recurved, clothed with fhaggy fcales. Spike
funple, with imbricated, pointlefs, downy brafteas — Found
on the arms and Hems of aged trees in Jamaica, as well as
in Brafil. Stem a foot or more in height, fimple, leafy. Ra-
dical leantes a foot long, fpreading varioufly, near an inch
broad at the bottom, but foon contrafted into a long taper
point, flat, denfely clothed all over with ftiaggy, torn,
peltate, fhining fcales, the marginal ones flat, inbricatcd, and
much dilated ; Jlcm-leaves much fhorter and narrower. Spike
terminal, folitary, fimple, an inch long, ovate. Braileas
ovate, bluntifli, concave. Corolla blue, longer than the
brafteas. Capjulc oblong, triangular, fmooth.

13. T. canejcens. Hoary Tillandfia. Swartz Ind. Occ.

595. Willd. n. 13 " Radical leaves linear, ereft, hoary,

as tall as the ftem. Spikes about three, terminal," — Native
of Jamaica, on trees near the fea-ftiore. Perennial, about
a foot high, with (hort, fimple, curling, fibrous roots.
5/«;; fimple, leafy. Radical leaves \mbr\czteA, linear, rigid,'
whitith or hoary ; with very broad, ovate, concave, tumid,
membranous, (heathing bafes ; Jlem-leaves tapering, acute,
with more lax flieaths. Spihes ufually three, crowded at the
top of the ftem, feflile, ovate, acute, flattilh. Bradeas
two-ranked, imbricated, ovato-lanceolate, fmooth. Corolla
red, with long fegments. Nearly related to T. pohjlachya,
but that fpecies is taller, with recurved, zigzag, fmooth
leaves, and numerous, fcattered, lanceolate ^/rj. Sitfartz.

14. T. angujlijolia. Narrow and long-leaved Tillandfia.
Swartz Ind. {3cc. 596. Willd. n. 14. — " Leaves linear-
lanceolate, nearly ercft, fmootli, taller than the fl;em. Spikes
fomewhat clullered." — Found on the trunks and branches
of trees, in Jamaica and Hifpaniola. Perennial. Stem
two feet high, nearly upright, fimple, leafy. Leaves all
imbricated, broad and (heathing at the bafe, lanceolate,
narrow towards the end, fl;raight, fti-iated ; the (heaths of
the radical ones broadeft, and rather inflated. Spiies nu-
merous, fcattered, fomewhat cluftered, alternate, feparated
by leafy (heaths, imperfeftly imbricated, compreffed, lan-
ceolate, many-flowered, an inch and half long. Flowers
two-ranked. BraSeas imbricated, equitant, ovate, pointed,
keeled, ftriated, fmooth. Capjules elongated, pointed, tri-
angular, fmooth, extending beyond the braBeas. This
likewife is cautioufly to be diftinguiflied from T. polyjlaehya,
by having more upright leaves, longer than the Jlem, and the

Jpiies feparated by h^y /heaths. Swartx. Nothing is men-
tioned refpefting the colour of the Jloiuers.

IS- T.Jriaa. Frofted Stifi"-leaved Tillandfia. Gawler
in Curt. Mag. t. 1529. Ait. Epit. 375. Banks Ic. Ined.
— Leaves chiefly radical, linear-lanceolate, channelled, re-
curved, minutely fcaly at the back. Stem fimple. Spike
folitary. Brafteas ovate, concave, imbricated, glaucous,
fmooth — Found by Dr. Solander, on trees near Rio Janeiro,
in Brafil. Said to have been introduced into the European

ftoves,

TILLANDSIA.

ilovts, by lady Ncale, about the year 1799. The root is
fomewhat tuberous, with many tough fniootli fibres. Stem
about fix inches high, furrouiided, and ahnoll concealed, by
the denic tuft of very numerous radical haves, which are
foraetimes all curved to one fide, five or fix inches long, pale
green, frofted, as it were, with hoary fcaly pubefcence,
thickeft towards the bafe. SpHe three inches long, fimple,
many -flowered, with beautiful large wlrite braBeas, tinged
and tipped with rofe-colour ; the lower ones ending in leafy
points. Calyx of the colour of the bradeas, but hardly fo
long. Corolla with obtule, cmarginate, convolute feg-
ments, at firft of a rich deep blue, but finally changing to a
deep red. Capfuh- dark brown, an inch long. This is, no
doubt, very different from 2". manojlachyci, though Linnsus's
account of that fpecies maybe, as julUy hinted in the Bot.
Mag., incomplete. T. JlriBa flowers in November. It is
faid to live and bloflTom when fulpcnded by a thread in a warm
room. Few plants are more elegant or fingular.

16. T. recurvata. Recurved-leaved Tillandfia. Linn.
Sp. PI. 410. Willd. n. 15. Ait. n. 6. Purlh n. i. Swartz
Obf. 121. (Vifcum caryophylloides minus, foliis pruinx
inftar candicantibus, flore tripctalo purpureo, femine fila-
mentofo ; Sloane Jam. v. i. 190. t. 121. f. i.) — Leaves ra-
dical, awl-fliaped, fcaly, recurved. Stalks naked, two-
flowered — Native of the trunks of old rotten trees, in Ja-
maica and the Brafils, as well as in Florida and Georgia,
growing in denfe tufts. The Jlems are very fliort, clothed
with crowded, fpreading, recurved, (heathing /ra-ucj-, two or
three inches long, downy with minute hoary fcales. Stalks
terminal, folitary, four inches high, (lender, round, naked
and fmooth, each bearing at the top two upright Jlowers,
enveloped in a pair of flieatliing, furrowed, dotted bradeas.
Segments of the corolla blue, obtufe, fcarcely extending be-
yond the calyx. Anthers yellow. Capfule an inch long,
flender, brown and fliining, enveloped in the pale fegments
of the permanent calyx, which are as long, and nearly as
broad, as the valves. — Sloane fays it draws its nourifhment
from rain water, falling into the cavity made by the
leaves.

17. T. ufneoitles. Long-mofs Tillandfia. Liun. Sp. PI.
411. Willd. n. 16. Purfh n. 2. (Vifcum caryophylloides
tenuifiimum, e ramulis arborum mufci in modum dependens,
foliis pruinse inftar candicantibus, flore tripctalo, femine fila-
mentofo ; Sloane Jam. v. i. 191. t. 122. f. 2, 3. Cufcuta
ramis arborum innafcens, &c.; Pluk. Phyt. t. 26. f. 5 ;
alfo f. 6.) — Stem much branched, thread-fliaped, twilled,

minutely fcaly, as well as the awl-fliaped channelled leaves

Native of fliady woods from Virginia to Florida, as alfo of
the Weft Indies and the Brafils, flowering in July. The
long wiry conturted_y?^m^ creep over the ftems and branches
of old trees, and even along a rope or hair line, if put in their
way, the roots fcarcely fixing themfelves, or deriving any fuf-
tenance, from either. The Jloivers are, according to Mr.
Purfli, of a yellowifli-green. When the hoary ftiaggy coat
of the plant is feparated by beating or rubbing, the remains
of the ftems look like a mafs of curling black horfe-hair, and
ferve, like that, to ftuff mattreffes, &c. In this denudated
ftate the ftems are reprefented, along with the perfedl plant,
by Sloane as well as Plukenet.

M. Poiret, in Lamarck Dift. v. 7. 666 — 673, has greatly
enriched this genus, not only with all the fpecies pubhfhed by
Dr. Swartz, and which we likewife have adopted, but alfo
with ten befides, adopted from the Flora Peruviana of Ruiz
and Pavon. That our work may not be incomplete, we ftiall
briefly mention thefe in the order in which M. Poiret has ar-
ranged them, trufting to him for the references, which we
have not the means of confulting. He introduces them all,

except the laft, between tiie angiiflifolia, our n. 14, ayd rc^
curxiala, n. 16.

18. T. tetranlha. Four-flowered Tillandfia. Poiret
n. 9. Fl. Peruv. v. 3. 39. t. 265 — Leaves radical, lan-
ceolate, imbricated ; recurved at the point. Stem ereft.

Stalks reflexed, four-flowered Grows on trees and rocks

in the forells of the Andes, flowering in July and Auguft.
— Root of many fibres. Leaves radical, large, fpotted with
red. Stems fohtary, rather longer than the leaves, zigzag,
clothed with oval, pointed, clofe, fcaly bradeas, of a
purpliih rofe-colour ; the upper ones fpreading almoft hori-
zontally, each of the latter bearing an axillary y/a//, fiip-
porting four, nearly feflTile, Jloivers. Calyx yellow, coria-
ceous. Corolla violet.

19. T. maculata. Spotted-leaved Tillandfia. Poiret
n. 10. Fl. Peruv. v. 3. 40. t. 267 — Leaves radical, lan-
ceolate-fword-fliaped, Ihining ; revolute at the point. Pa-
nicle alternately branched. Spikes nearly fimple, manv-
flowercd — Native of rocks and trees, in the middle of the
great forefts of the Andes, flowering from July to Septem-
ber. The leaves are channelled, poliftied on both fides, co-
vered with red or purpliih fpots. Every part of the plant
is often red. Stems three feet high, fimple, jointed, witli
an oval fcale, or bra&ea, at each joint. Panicle terminal,
eighteen inches long, red, compofed of alternate, nearly
fimple, fpikes, furnilhed with numerous, oval-lanceolate,
pointed braSeas, reddifli as well as the calyx. Corolla violet,
fmall.

20. T. rubra. Red Tillandfia. Poiret n. 1 1 . Fl.
Peruv. v. 3. 40. t. 266 — Leaves radical, fword-fhaped,
fomewhat pointed. Panicle fimple, fpikes undivided Na-
tive of rocks in Peru, flowering in March and April. The
leaves are about two feet long, fpreading or recurved ; of a
fliining green above ; filvery white beneath. Stems folitary,
ereft, two or three feet high ; clothed with flieathing fcales
below ; terminating in a ftraight reddifli panicle, compofed
of many fimple, alternate, oblong, lanceolate, divaricating

J'pikes. Bradeas red, pointed, keeled, an inch in length.
Flowers imbricated, feffile. Calyx yellowi(h-red» Corolla
fmall, violet, with reflexed fegments.

21. T. parvijlora. Small-flowered Tillandfia. Poiret
n. 12. Fl. Peruv. v. 3. 41. t. 269. — Leaves radical, awl-
ftiaped, greatly dilated at the bafe. Panicle fimple. Spikes
from three to feven. Flowers two-ranked. — On rocks in the
forefts of the Andes, flowering from Auguft to 0£lober.
Leaves very numerous, from fix to nine inches long, chan-
nelled, fpreading, whitifli, clothed with a multitude of mealy
fcales. Stims a foot high, flender, fimple, purpliih, with
diftant, awl-fliaped, channelled, whitifli, (honjlem-leaves, and
oval whitifli bradeas. Flowers fmall, white, alternate, on
zigzag partial Ilalks. Capfule almoft eight times as long as
the calyx.

22. T. biflora. Two-flowered Tillandfia. Poiret n. 13.
Fl. Peruv. v. 3. 41. t. 268. — Leaves fword-fliaped, acute.
Stem racemofe. Flowers in pairs. — Found on the Andes,
flowering in Auguft and September. This fpecies is often
proliferous. Leaves nearly equal, ftraight, fpreading,
ftriated. Stems folitary, fimple, eighteen inches high, covered
with lanceolate ic?AjJlieaths, or Jlem-leaves, and terminating
in a fimple clujler, fix inches long. Flowers on fliort ftalks,
in alternate pairs, furnilhed with elongated, lanceolate,
ftriated bradeas, recurved and pale green at their extremity.
Capfules yellowifh, an inch long.

23. T. purpurea. Rofe-coloured Tillandfia. Poiret
n. 14. Fl. Peruv. V. 3. 41. t. 270. — Leaves fword-ftiaped,
tapering, channelled, recurved, clothed with mealy fcales.
Panicle of many fpikes. Flowers two-ranked. — Found on

little

T I L

little hills about Lima, and w. otlicr faiidy or (lony fituations
in Peru, flowcnng in Juiii; and July. The perennial root
throws out many pr«(lratc trailing /*oo//. Leuvis fprcading,
lix to nine inches long, whitifh. Stftns folitary, afoot high,
timple, clothed with long awl-fhapcdj/Zarf/^J. Panicle rofe-
colourcd, of from five to nine alternate A/7-«, with oval, con-
cave, whitiftv braatiu. Flo'u-frs felTae, with rofe-coloured
traSfot and cjfyx. Corolla dark purple, with a white tube.
Capfule pale ; deep purple within.

24, T. hrfliintha. Seven-flowered Tillandlia. Fl. Pcruv.
V. 3. 21. (T. hcptandra ; Poiret. n. 15.) — Leaves radical,
fword-lhaped, tapering, very acute. Spike folitary, fimple,

of about fcven flowers Native of rocks and trees, among

precipices, in Peru, flowering from June to Auguft. Leaves
whitifli, and rather downy. Stem near a foot high, quite
fimplc, fcaly. F/oarrj feflile, in two ranks, with lanceolate
violet -coloured brnfleas. Corolla white, tipped with violet.
We prefume that M. Poiret has erred in his fpecific name.

i^.T.feJiliftora. Seffile-floweredTillandfia. Poiret n. 16.
Fl. Peruv. V. 3. 42. t. 271. — Leaves radical, tongue-fliaped,
flat, obtufe. Spike folitary, fimplc — Native of Peru,
flowering in November and December. Root biennial.
Plant fmooth. Leaves eight or nine inclu;; long, and an
inch broad ; the outer ones gradually fmaller. Stems flender,
a foot high, jointed, clothed with obtufe Jlicaths. Spike fix
inches in length. Flowers alternate, folitary, each with an
oval, concave, acute braSea. Corolla of a violet purple on
the infide.

26. T. capillaris. Capillary Tillandfia. Poiret n. 17.

Fl. Peruv. V. 3. 42. t. 271. f. C Leaves linear-awlfliaped.

Stem forked. Stalks axillary, moftly fingle-flowered, ca-
pillary, fmooth, thrice as long as the leaves. — On rocks,
walls, and trees, in Peru, flowering in November and De-
cember. This fpccies is faid to be related in many refpefts
to the T. recurvata, n. 1 6, but differs in having forked_/?('OTj ;
more numerous and broader leaves, contracted at their bafe,
and not recurved ; capillary Jlotuer-Jlalhs ; and folitary
bradeas to each Jloiuer. (We would obferve that the laft
charaAcr is found in the recurvala.) The plant forms
denfe, leafy, whitifli, tufts, the leaves being clothed with
very minute mealy fcalcs. Stems about fix inches high,
forked foveral times, furnifhed with two-ranked, crowded,
imbricated, reflexcd, linear-awlfliaped leaves, ttriated at
their bafe, and half clafping the fl;cm. Stalks fl;raight, bear-
ing one or tvro Jlo-wers, with a folitary, ribbed, fmooth
braaea, and a leaf at their bafe. Calyx fcariofe, deep
violet. CoroZ/j white, hardly longer than the calyx. Anthers
yellow. Capfules linear, twice the length of the calyx,
dark violet within.

27. T. virefcens. Greenilh Tillandfia. Poiret n. 20.
Fl. Peruv. V. 3. 43. t. 270. f. B — Leaves linear-awlfliaped.
Stalks axillary, fingle-flowered, the length of the leaves,
with a fohtary convoluted braftea. — Native of rocks in
Peru, flowering in December and January. — A fmall fpecies,
forming denfe, proliferous, whitifli, warty tufts. Leaves
imbricated in two rows, reflexed at the point, ftriated at
the bafe. Flowers pale yellow. Capfule green, twice the
length of the calyx ; internally dark-purple.

TILLANJONG, in Geography, one of the Nicobar
iflands, in the Indian fea. N. lat. 8° 40'. E. long. 94° 9'.

1 ILLE, La, a river of France, which runs into the
Sa6ne, about 3 miles below Auxonne.

Till(:, a town of France, in the department of the Oife ;
3 miles N. of Beauvais.

TILLEE, a town of Bengal ; 28 miles N.W. of
Dacca.

TILLEMANS, Peter, in Biography, was born at

TIL

Antwerp in 1684, and vifited England in 1708, where he
attracted attention by his excellent copies from the pictures
of Courgognone and Teniers, of whofe works he prcferved
the freedom and fpirit. He alfo painted landfcapes with
fmall figures, views of gentlemen's feats, fea-ports, &c. and
met with very confiderable employment. The duke of De-
vonfliirc favoured him, and for him he painted a pifture of
Chatfworth, which gained him confiderable eclat. He
died here in 1734.

TILLEMONT, -Louls Sebastian le Nain de, a
French ecclefiaftical writer, was born at Paris in 1637 ;
and in the fchool of the Port-Royal, into which he was
admitted at the age of ten, he difcovered promifing talents
and a pious difpoiition. From early hfe he devoted himfclf
to the ftudy of ecclefiaftical antiquity, and made colleftions,
principally relatiijg to the firil fix centuries, with a view of
compofing a hift^ory of the church. Modefl: and diffident,
as well as learned, he deferred taking priefts' orders tiU his
40th year ; and having done this, he declined all preferment,
and retired firft to Port-Royal-des-Champs, and then to
Tillemont, near Viiicennes, profecuting his literary labours,,
and keeping in view his main objeft : he fubjefted himfelf
at the fame time to very rigid penitentiary difcipline. His
aufterities and intenfe application debilitated his confl:itutioil
to fuch a degree, that he died in 1698, at the age of 6 1
years.

The plan of his great work comprehended two parts,
vi%. the fecular and the ecclefiaftical hiltory of the period
of which he propofed to treat. Accordingly the firfl; part,
entitled " Memoires pour fervir a I'Hilloire Ecclefiaftique
des fix premiers Si^cles," was comprifed in 16 vols. 410.
of which four volumes were pubhflied in his life-time,
and twelve more after his death. The other part, entitled
" L'Hiftoire des Empereurs et des autres Princes qui ont
regne durant les fix premiers Si^cles de I'Eglife," confifts
of 6 vols. 4to. the laft being left in M.S. and not puUliflied
till 1738, finifhing with the emperor Anaftafius. Dupin,
though he difapproves the method of Tillemont, obferves,
that great inftruftion may be derived from his hiftory, efpe-
cially with refpeft to critical and chronological matters.
His ftyle merits no commendation. Gibbon, who often
quotes his Hiftory of the Emperors, and praifes his fcrupulous
accm-acy, finds frequent occafion to cenfure his bigotry,
and remarks, that " he never difmifles a virtuous emperor
without pronouncing his damnation." Moreri. Gen. Biog.

TILLENENSEE, in Geography, a lake of Pruffia, 8
miles W. of Lick.

TILLER, or TiLLAR, in Hujbandry, a little young tree,
left to grow till it be fellable.

Tiller is alfo a term ufed by farmers to fignify, that
the produce of the grain branches out into feveral ftalks ;
in which fenfe it denotes the fame thing with the Latin
word fruticare.

It has been fuggefted by the writer of the " Elements
of Agricultural Chemiftry," that in the tillering of corn,
that is, the produftion of new ftalks round the original
plume, there is every reafon to beheve that oxygen mull be
abforbed ; for the ftalk at which the tillering takes place,
aKvays contains fugar, and the fhoots arife from a par|
which is deprived of light. The drill-hu(handry is there-'
fore fuppofed to favour this procefs ; as loofe earth is
thrown by the hoeing round the ftalks ; and they are pre-
feryed from light, and yet fupplied with oxygen. The
writer has counted from forty to one hundred and twenty
ftalks produced from a grain of wheat, in a moderately
good crop of the drilled kind. And we are informed,
it is faid, by fir Kenelm Digby, in 1660, that there was"

T I L

T I L

in tlie pofll-fiiou of the fathers of the Cliiilliaii dodrinc at
Paris, a pl.iiit of barley, wliicli they, at that time, kept by
them as a curiofity, and which confifted of two hundred and
forty-nine ilalks Ipringing from one root, or i^rain ; and in
which they counted above eighteen thoufand grains, or
feeds of barley.

It is noticed, too, that the great increafe which takes
place in the tranfplantation of wheat, depends upon tlie
circumftance, that each layer tlirown out in tillering may
be removed, and treated as a diftiuft plant.

The following ftatement is given in the fifty-eighth vo-
lume of the Philofophical Tranfaftio::s, at p. 203 : Mr. C.
MiUer of Cambridge fowed fome wheat on tlie 2d of June,
1766 ; and on the 8th of Auguft, a plant was taken and
feparated into eighteen parts, and replanted ; thele plants
were again taken up, and divided in tiie months of Septem-
ber and Oitober, and planted out fepaiately to ftand the
■winter, which divifion produced fixty-feven plants. They
■were again taken up in March and April, and produced five
hundred plants: the number of ears thus formed from one
giain of wheat was twenty -one thoufand one hundred and
nine, which gave three pecks and three-quarters of corn,
that weighed 47lbs. 7 oz. ; and that were eflimated at five
hundred and leventy-fix thoufand eight hundred and forty
grains.

There is a number of fafts and cafes of the vaft increafe
of grain crops by tillering, fcattered tlirough the writings
on agriculture and hufbandry, which clearly (hew the great
utility and importance of it in the raifing of fuch crops.

Tiller of a Ship, a long piece of timber (which
fhould be ftraight-grained and free from knots) fitted into
the head of the rudder as a lever, to turn it from one fide
to the other, in order to fleer the fliip. Tliis term, or hich,
is ufed for the handle of a boat's rudder.

TlLLER-/io/>f, a kind of tackle, communicating with the
(hip's fide, and ufually compofed of untarred rope-yarn for
the purpofe of traverfing more readily through the blocks
or pullies : this tackle ferves to guide and affift the opera-
tions of the tiller, and in all large vefiels is wound about a
wheel, which afts upon it with the powers of a crane or
windlafs.

TILLERING, in Jgrlcuhure. See Tiller.

TILLEWALL, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in
Oberland ; 5 miles N.E. of Eylau.

TILLIE^RES, a town of France, in the department of
the Eure ; 6 miles N.E. of Verneuil.

TILLING, a town of Sweden, in the province of Up-
land ; 23 miles S.E. of Upfal.

TILLIUM, or TiLiUM, in Ancient Geography, a town
on the weftern coall of the ifle of Sardinia, between the
promontory Gorditanum and port Nymphaeus. Ptol.

TILLONGCHOOL, or Katchal, in Geography, one
of the Nicobar iflands, of a triangular form, about 36 miles
in circumference. N. lat. 7" 58'. E. long. 93^ 50'.

TILLOT, Le, a town of France, in the department of
the Vofges ; 12 miles S.E. of Plombieres.

TILLOTSON, John, in Biography, acelebrated Englifli
prelate, defcended from an ancient family in Chefhire, was
the fon of Robert Tillotfon, a clothier at Sowerby, in the
parifli of Halifax, Yorkfhire, where he was born in the
year 1630. Having been brought up in the principles of
his father, who was a Calviniftic puritan, and difcovering
an inclination to literature, he was entered in his 17th year
a penfioner of Clare-Hall, Cambridge. In 1651 he was
elefted fellow of his college, and took pupils, to whole
moral and religious inftruftion he was duly attentive. At
this time, he was in his fentiments Calviniftic, heard fuch

Vol. XXXV.

preachers, and ufed extemporaneous prayer. His views of
theology were enlarged loon after he left college in 1656,
by the perufal of Chillingworth's " Religion of Proteftants."
But retaining his attaclnnent to the Prefbytcrian form of
church government, he was received into the family of
Edmund Prideaux, attorney-general to the Protcftor, as chap-
lain and tutor to his fon. He attended the Savoy conference
in July 1661, aiid preached a fermon (the firft which he
preached) at tlieir morning exercife in Cripplegate, in the
month of September. Under the A A of Uniformity in 1662,
to which he fubmitted, lie became curate at Chefliunt, in
Hertfordlhire. In London he was much admired as a
preacher, and was chofen miiiiiler by one of the parifhes,
but declined accepting the office, becaufe the vacancy had
been occafioned by tlie refufal of Mr. Edm. Calamy to
comply with the Bartholomew Aft. From a reftory in
Suffolk, to which he was prefented, he removed to the office
of preacher to the fociety at Lincoln's Inn. In l664he
married the daughter of Dr. French, cauon of Chriftchurch,
by a filter of Oliver Cromwell ; and in j 665 he was ap-
pointed lefturer to the parifli of St. Laurence Jewry. His
reputation as a preacher was very confiderably increafed at
this time by his printed fermon, " On the Wifdom of being
religious." His controverfy on popery commenced with
the pubhcation of his " Rule of Faith," in anfwcr to a book
written by a convert to the Romifh church. The part he
took in a fcheme for comprehending difTcnters under the
eftablifhraent, evinced his refpetl for that defcription of
Chrillians and Proteftants. (See CoMrKEllENSlON.) In
1666 he took his degree of D.D., and in 1669 he was
made a king's chaplain, and was prefented to a prebend
of Canterbury. When king Charles, in 1672, ifi'ued a de-
claration for liberty of confcience, with a view of favouring
the Roman Catholics, the bifliops took the alarm, and
recommended to the clergy to preach againft popery.
The king was difpleufed, and Tillotfon, at a meeting of the
clergy convoked by the bifhop of London, fuggeiled the
following apology for their conduft : " That fince his ma-
jefty profefted the Proteftant rehgion, it would be an un-
precedented thing that he fhould forbid his clergy to preach
in defence of a faith which they believed, and which he
declared to be his own." Soon after this he preached
a fermon at Whitehall on the hazard of falvation in the
church of Rome ; and yet, offenfive as this fermon muft
have been, he was advanced, in 1672, to the deanery of
Canterbury, which was followed, in 1673, by a prefentation
to a prebend of St. Paul's. At this time he publifhed
Dr. Wilkins's " Principles of Natural Religion," with a
recommendatory preface ; and the author, who died in his
houfe, committed to him the difpofal of his papers. A
fimilar truft was rcpofed in him by Dr. Barrow. His
dread of popery induced him, in 1 680, to preach before the
king a fermon, afterwards publifhed by the royal command,
and entitled " The Proteftant Religion vindicated from the
Charge of Singulaiity and Novelty." In this fermon a
paragraph was introduced which incurred the charge of
intolerance. " I cannot think," fays he, " till I be better
informed, which I am ;Jways ready to be, that any pretence
of confcience warrants any man that is not extraordinarily
commiffioned, as the apofllcs and firft preachers of the
gofpel were, and cannot juftify tliat commiffion by miracles,
as they did, to affront the eitablifhed religion of a nation,
though it be falfe, and openly to draw men off from the
profeffion of il, in contempt of the magi Urate and the law.
All that perfons of a different religion can in fuch a cafe
reafonably pretend to is, to enjoy the private liberty and
exercife of their own confcience and religion, for vuhicli
4 O they

TILLOTSON.

llipy ought to be very thankful, and to forbear the open
makin(T of profelytes to their owi nligion, (though tliey
be never fo furc that they arc in the right.) till they have
either an extraordinary commiflion from God to that pur-
pofi-. or the providence of God make way for it by the
ixmiinion of the magillrate." The king flept while the
preacher delivered the fermon, but a nobleman at the clofe
of it faid to him, " It is a pity your majefty was adcep, for
wi- have had the rarcft piece of Hobbifm that ever you
heard in your life," to which Charles replied, " Oddsfifh,
then he (hall print it," which was the caufe of the order.
The paragraph was unworthy of Dr. Tillotfon, and gave
very general offence, both to the eflablifhed clergy
and PR-(bvtcrians. Tillotfon was an ardent promoter of
the Bill of Exchifion, nor would he concur in the addrefs
of the London clergy to the king on his declaration that
he could not confent to fuch a bill. In 1682 he took oc-
cafion to vindicate the charaftcr of Dr. Wilkins from the
afporfion of Anthony Wood, by a preface to a volume of
fermons, which he publilhed from the doftor's MSS. He
was alfo the editor, in 1683, of Dr. Barrow's fermons, in
^ vols. fol. It has been regretted as an inconliftency in
the charafter of Tillotfon, that when in company with
Burnet he attended lord RufTel preparatory to his execution,
thcv fliould urge this martyr to liberty to acknowledge the
abfolute unlawfulnefs of reiiftance, though they were foon
after decided friends to the revolution. By a " Difcourfe
againft Tranfubftantiation," and another " Againft Pur-
gatory," he commenced a prolonged controverly with the
Papifts. In 1685 he avowed himfelf a warm advocate for
:Ltfording charitable relief to the French refugees, on the
p'peal of the edift of Nantes ; and in reply to Dr. Beve-
ridge, the prebendary of Canterbury, who objected to read-
ing a brief for this purpofe, as contrary to the rubric, he
rcmonllrated, by faying, " Doftor, Doftor, charity is above
rubrics." After the fettlcment of the prince of Orange at
St. James's, he was inftrumental in perfuading the princefs
Anne, who confulted him, to acquiefce in giving up her
claim to the crown during the life of William, in cafe of
her fiftcr's dying before him. After the revolution, no
obftacle remained to the full gratification of his defires of
advancement, which, however, he profefTed to be very
limited. In 1689 he was appointed clerk of the clofet
to the king, and permitted to exchange the deanery of
Canterbury for that of St. Paul's. During archbifliop San-
croft's fufpenfion for refufing to take the oaths to the new
government. Dr. Tillotfon was appointed to exercife the
archiepifcopal jurifdiftion ; and it was then determined that
he (hould have pofTeffion of the fee. His whole conduft at
this time evinced his attachment to the principles of toleration
and civil liberty ; and he was aftive in his endeavours for
promoting a comprehenfion, though they ultimately proved
unfurcefsful. He alfo failed in introducing a new book of
Honulies ; and in a fermon preached before the queen,
againft the abfolute eternity of hell torments, he excited the
refentment and oppofition of the orthodox party. After
fome reluftance on his part, he was confecrated to the arch-
bifhopric of Canterbury in May 1 69 1, and alfo in a little
while fworn a member of tlie privy<ouncil. From this
time he became very obnoxious to the high-church zealots,
who attacked him in a variety of ways. Among other
charges againft him, one was his attachment to Socinian
prmciples, wliich feems to liave had no other foundation than
his rational defence of Chriftianity, and his fricndfhip and
inlercourfe with Locke, Limborch, and Lc Clerc; and for
repclhng which, he caufed to be republilhcd, in 1693, four
of his fermons " On the Divinity and Incarnation of our
.<' 8

Saviour." — " If this be Socinianifm, for a man to inquire
into the grounds and reafons of the Chriftian reli<;ion, and
to endeavour to give a rational account of it," fays he in
one of his pofthumous fermons, alluding to this charge,
and alfo to the charafter of Chiliingworth, " I know na
way but that all confiderate inquilitive men, that are above
fancy and enthufiafm, muft be either Socinians or Atheifts.'"
Dr. .lortin, in reference to this unfounded accufation, ob-
fcrves, " Tillotfon had made fome concclTions concerning
the Socinians, which never were, nor ever will be, forgiven
liim, and had broken an ancient and fundamental rule o^
theological controverfy : ' Allow not an adverfary to have
cither common fenfe, or common honetty.' " After an
examination of bi(hop Burnet's expofition of the thirty-nine
articles, which he fent him in MS., lie concludes hi-
eulogy on the bilhop's prudence and ability with obferving,
" The account given of Athanafius's creed feems to be no-
wife fatisfaftory ; I wifh we were well rid of it." The
archbifhop's afliduity and zeal in the duties of his exalted
ftation were highly exemplary and laudable ; and yet they
were not fufficient to filence the clamours of his enemies.
At length the period of his ufefulnefs terminated, in confe-
quence of a paralytic ftroke, which feized him, November
1694, '" "^h^ chapel of Whitehall, and which, on the fifth day,
proved fatal, in the 65th year of his age. His funeral, at
the church of St. Laurence Jewry, was attended by many
perfons of rank. He left a widow, but no children ; and
as he took no pains to accumulate property, his debts could
not have been paid, if the king had not remitted his firft-
fruits ; and the copy-right of his fermons was the only pro-
vifion which he left for his widow, to which a penfion, fet-
tled upon her by the crown, was added.

" The temper and charafter of Dr. Tillotfon," fays one
of his biographers, " were intitled to every encomium.
He was humble, open, and fincere, of kind and tender
affeftion, extremely bountiful in his charities, and forgiving
of injuries, in which lail virtue he was feverely tried. His
pubhc principles bore the ftamp of his difpofition ; they
were philanthropical, tolerant, and liberal ; and if he re-
tained fome predileftions for tjie feft in which he had been
educated, the chief profeffional fault with which he has been-
charged, candour will make due allowance for the effeft of
early habit. In fome points he was, perhaps, too compliant,
and was led into fome inconfiftencies ; but the times were
difiicult, and his intentions feem to have been always pure.
As a writer, he is principally remembered for his fermons,
which have long maintained a place amongfl the moft popular
compofitionsof that clafs in the Englifh language.. A folicK
volume, comprifing his " Rule of Faith," and fermons,
was printed in his life-time ; and after his death two more
folio volumes of fermons were publifhed by his chaplain.
Dr. Barker. Abroad, as well as at home, his works have
been held in high eftimation. The charafter given of them
by Le Clerc, in his " Bibhotheque Choifie," is as follows ;
" The archbifhop's merit was beyond any commendation
he could give. It confifted in the union of extraordinary
clearnefs of head, great penetration, an exquifite talent of
reafoning, a profound knowledge of genuine theology,
fohd piety, a moft Angular perfpicuity, and uuaffefted ele-
gance of ttyle ; with every other quality that could be
defired in a man of his order ; and whereas compofitions of
this kind are commonly mere rhetorical and popular decla-
mation, better to be heard from the pulpit than read in
print, his are for the moft part exaft djfFertations, capable
of bearing the teft of the moft rigorous examination."
Addifon confidered the fermons of Tillotfon as a ftandard
of purity of the Englifli language. Dryden acknowledges,

that

T I L

T 1 L

tliat if lie had any talent for Englifli profe, it was di-riveJ
from frequent perufal i)f Tillotfon's writings. Mr. Mel-
moth, however, in his " Fitzorbone's Letters," expreffes a
very different, and in our judgment a lefs juft, or to fay tlie
Icaft of it, a lefs candid opinion. He fpeaks of " liis words
as frequently ill chofen, and almoft always ill placed ; his
periods as tedious and unharmonious ; and his metaphors
as generally mean, and often ridiculous." Notwithlland-
ing thefe refledtions, Tillotfon's fcrnions, though furpafled by
the corredlnefs and elegance of modern compofitions in this
department, and lefs peruied than formerly, will not ceafe
to be regarded as a valuable part of Englifli literature.
Birch's Life of Archbiihop Tillotfon. Biog. Brit. Gen.
Biog.

TILLS, in ylgnctihure, a term lignifying tares or vetches
in many places, in both the northern and fouthern parts of
the kingdom.

TILLURAH, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 2 1
miles E.N.E. of Purneah. — Alfo, a town of Hindoollan, in
Bahar ; 22 miles S. of Patna. N. lat. 25° 14'. E. long.
85° 22'.

TILLY, a town of Canada, on the St. Laurence ; 10

miles S.W. of Quebec Alfo, a town of France, in the

department of the Meufe ; 9 miles S. of Verdun Alfo, a

town of France, in the department of the Eure ; 7 miles
S.E. of Grand Andelys. — Alfo, a town of France, in the
depa:rtment of the Sambre and Meufe ; 6 miles W. of
Gemblours. '

Tilly la Campagne, a town of France, in the department
of the Calvados ; 4 miles S.S.E. of Caen.

Tilly Verolle, a town of France, in the department of
the Calvados ; 9 miles W. of Caen.

Tilly Land, in /tgriculture, that fort which is, for the
mod part, conftituted and compofed of materials of the till
kind.

Thefe kinds of land, in their original ftates, are in gene-
ral of a very barren and unproduftive nature ; but when they
have been fully turned over by the plough or other means,
■well and effedlually wrought and reduced by other proper
tools, and their parts completely divided and expofed to the
alternate aftion of different agents, fuch as thofe of froft
and thaw, of drought, dews, and rain, with the many other
improving effefts of the atmofphere which furrounds them ;
and withal ftimulated, feparated in their parts, and enriched
by calcareous and other fuitable manures and fKbilances,
they become, in various inftances, of a far lefs ftrong and
ftubborn nature, and greatly more difpofed to the raifing of
good and plentiful crops upon them. They are commonly
much ameUorated and improved at firil by growing beans,
tares, and rape in fucceffion with wheat and other fuitable
forts of grain, having the green crops fo managed as to
ftand as clofe, thick, and fmothering as poflible on the land.
See Land and Soil. \

TILMUS, -11^,1X0;, a term ufed by fome of the medical
writers to exprefs the effeA of a fort of dehrium, in which
people pull the bed-cloaths, or pick out threads from the
flieets. This is ufually efteemed a dangerous fymptom.

TILNOR, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 60 miles
N.N.W. of Midnapour.

TILO-GRAMMUM, Ougli, or Ongli, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a town of India, fituated, according to Ptolemy,
to the right of the moll weftern arm of the Ganges, about
23° lat.

TILOTAMA, a nymph celebrated for her beauty in
the mythological and amatory poems of the Hindoos. She
appears to have been one of that numerous clafs of females,
who, under the name of Upfara, arofe from the churned

ocean, as defcribed under our article Kurmavataka : a
fable as prolific of poetical incident, and as often referred
to, as any in the whole range of invention. The chief of
thefe llpfaras, or water-nymphs, was lllienba, of whom
fome mention is made under her name in tliis work. They
are delcribed in numerous Hindoo poems with ijl the warmth
and fancy that may be predicated of " youlhfid poets when
tliey love ;" and in terms too glowing for readers beyond
the tropics. Under the name of another of thefe beauteous
damfels, Menaka, we have faid lomcthing of them. See
alfo Upsaua.

The name of the elegant nymph, the fubjeft of this ar-
ticle, occurs in an infcription on a copper-plate found in the
Deccan, bearing date A. D. 1359. The infcription is given
in the 9th volume of the Afiatic Rcfcarchcs, and records a
grant for pious purpofes. After much adulation of the
mother of the royal donor, it is faid that " by the charms
of her graceful gaiety flie obfcured Tilotama."

TILOUTTAH, in Geography, a town of Hindoollan,
in Bahar; 10 miles S.S.E. ot Saferam. N. lat. 24° 48'.
E. long. 84° 15'.

TILOX, in Ancient Geography, a promontory on the
northern coail of tlie ifland of Corfica, between the mouth
of the river Valerius and Ca:rix Littus.

TILPHOSS^UM, a fmaU country of Greece, in
Theffaly.

TILSIT, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the Lithu-
anian department, lai-ge, rich, and commercial. It obtained
the privileges of a city in the year 1552, though the caftle is
faid to have been Handing fo early as 1 289. The river Memel,
which runs along the N. fide of the town, opens to it a very
advantageous trade with Konigfberg, in corn, linfeed, butter,
and other provifions. Tilfit, properly fo called, confiffs of
two long ftreets, of a proportionate breadth, which are
called the German-ftreet and the High-ftreet, contiguous to
which are the fuburbs called the " Liberty." The number
of houfes in this city is about 600, and the inhabitants
amount to 7000 fouls. The ecclefiaftical buildings are an
evangelical or Lutheran German church, a Lithuanian
church, and a Calvinift or reformed church. Without the
town is a Lutheran chapel, and about an Enghfh mile from
it a Roman Cathohc chapel. The flat country about Tilfit,
which is about 16 miles in length, and as many in breadth,
is one of the moft fertile fpots in the whole kingdom : the
inhabitants of it breed great numbers of horned cattle, and
furnifh not only PrufQa, but hkewife other provinces, with
excellent butter and cheefe ; and the filheries in this place
are alfo confiderable. The horfes are large and llrong, but
clumfy. Barley is almoft the only grain fown in thefe parts,
which afford little or no wood. The marfh-land is, in fpring,
expofed to inundations by the overflowing of the rivers,
which often do great damage. In 1 807, it was taken by
the French ; foon after which a peace was made between
France, Ruffia, and Pruffia, called the " Peace of Tilfit ;
50 miles N.E. of Konigfberg. N. lat. 55° 8'. E. long.
22° 8'.

TILT. See Tournament.

Tilt, in Rural Economy, a term fignifying the arched or
other covering of a cart, waggon, or other carriage.

The hoops for fupporting the tilts in thefe cafes, may be
faftened upon the fides of the carriage-frames, after being
properly prepared and bent in a fort of half-circular man-
ner, in feveral different ways, but the faftening by means
of fcrews is probably the beft, where they are to remain
fixed.

TiVT-Boat, a boat covered with a tilt, /'. e. a cloth, or

tarpawling, fuftained by bails or hoops over the ftern, iov

4 O 2 the

T I L

the- (licltf riug of paffengers. Sucli arc fome of tliofe wliicli
tarry paflciigers botwct-u London and Gravcfend.

TiLt-I/ammrr, is a large and heavy hammer, adapted to
ho pnt Ml rapid motion by the power of a water-wheel or
lU'amH-ngiiie.

TIk- lilt-hammer is diftinguiflied from the lift-hammer,
or fiirge-hammer, by the manner in which it is lifted up
by the cogs of a wlieel which is turned by the mill.

The forjre-hammer is mounted on a centre of motion at
the extremity of the haft or helve of the liammer oppofite
to the head of the hammer, and the cogs of the wheel ope-
rate beneath the helve near the head, to lift or tofs up the
liammer againfl; a ftrong wooden fpriiig called ttie rabbit,
which is firmly fixed over the head of the liammer. This
fpring refleds the hammer down upon the anvil with greater
force and fmartnefs than the hammer would defcend by the
aftion of gravity alone. A lift forge-hammer is defcribed
under the ai-ticle Iron. See P/ale IV. Iron Manufadure.

The tilt-hammer is poifed on pivots or a centre of motion,
which is about the middle of the length of the helve, or
fometimes at two-thirds from the head. The cogs of the
wheel are made to aft on the tail of the helve beyond the
centre of motion, and they prefs down the end of the tail,
and thus caufe a correfpondent elevation of the head of the
hammer. Sometimes the fpring is placed over the head of
the hammer, the fame as a lift -hammer ; but more commonly,
the tail of the hammer is made to flrike againll a fixed floor ;
and when the head of the hammer is thrown up fuddenly,
the momentum given to it caufes the head to rife up after
the tail ftrikes the floor, and thus bends the helve, which by
its elafticity caufes the head of the hammer to defcend
fmartly upon the anvil.

The till-mills in the neighbourhood of Sheffield are very
fimple : they are worked by a fmall water-wheel, upon the
axis of which is a wheel with a great number of cogs, fixed
m its circumference. Thefa fuccefiively deprefs the tail of
the hammer, and raife its head : the hammer falls by its own
weight, aided by the fpring of the helve, upon the hot
metal. The fizc ot the water-wheel, and the number of
cogs in the wheel, are adapted to produce from three hundred
to four hundred ftrokes per minute.

This great number requires the water-wheel to move with
a velocity which is inconfiftent with the beft mode of apply-
ing the fall of water, becaufe it is well known that water,
as well as any other heavy body, can only defcend with a
certain fpecd. If, therefore, the floats of the wheel are re-
quired to tiu-n with a great rapidity, it is evident the pro-
portion of work the wheel will perform, will be but fmall in
proportion to the quantity of water expended. For this
reafoQ, it is found to be a great improvement in till-mills to
add cog-wheels which will give the hammers a fufficient
velocity, while the water-wheel turns at fuch a rate as is found
to produce the greateft power from a given quantity of
water.

A capital mill of this kind is delineated in PlateVlll.
Iron Manufaciure. It was made at the Carron iron-works
in Scotland, after defigns of the celebrated Mr. Smeaton.
It is adapted for forging iron into bars, and has three tilt-
hammers of different powers for different kinds of work.
Thefe hammers arc not made to ftrike fo quick as is ufual
in the Sheffield mills for the tilting and drawing out fteel
bars ; but by giving a greater number of cogs to the wheels,
the rcquifite rapidity may be obtained without increafing the
fpecd of the water-wheel. A capital mill was built at Shcf-
hcld about fix years ago, which is on Mr. Smcaton's plan,
except in the proportions of the wheels, and its performance
IS luperior to any of the other tilt mills.

T I L

A A, in the plan ^^. i. are the walls of the building;
B B the great water-wheel, which is of the kind called a
breaft-wheel. [Sec W ATER-lVheel.) It is 1 8 feet diameter
and 5 feet broad. The total defcent of the water which ac-
tuates it is 7 feet 2 inches, and it falls upon the float -boards
rather below the centre of the wheel, being retained againil
the floats by what is called the brcafting, that is, a fweep or
curved wall of mafonry, which is accurately adapted to the
float -boards of the wheel, and as clofe to them as is poffible,
to avoid touching.

The axis C of the water-wheel is carried through the
wall A, and on the extreme end of it is a large iron wheel
D, of 90 wooden teeth, 9 feet 6 inches diameter. This
turns a pinion E of 30 teeth, and 3 feet 2 inches diame-
ter. The pinion is fixed on one end of a cafl-iron axis
G G, whicli is made very large, for ftrength, and hollow
within, like a pipe. The gudgeons b and G are fixed into it
at each end, and upon theie gudgeons it revolves. F F is a
cafl:-iron fly-wheel, fixed on the axis clofe to the pinion ; it
is 12 feet diameter, and the rim 6 inches by 5. The
weight is very confiderable, and gives it a momentum to
regulate the motion of the whole mill, and equalize all irre-
gularities which arife from the facceffive aftions of the mill
to raife the three hammers, L, M, and N.

Each hammer has a feparate cog-wheel, K, I, and H, to
give it motion, which is eff^efted by the cogs of thefe wheels
atling upon the tail; of the hammers and preffing them down.
This is explained by the elevation^^. 2. where e is the iron
head of the hammer, / its centre of motion, and d the tail
or extreme end, upon which the cogs of the wheel aft, and
which is plated with iron on the upper fide, to prevent it
from wearing.

P is the anvil-block, which muft. be placed on a very firm
foundation, to refifl the inceflant fhocks to which it is fub-
jefted : the centre, f, or axis of the hammer, is fupported
in a call-iron frame, gh, called the hirft. When the cogs
of the wheel ftrike the toil of the hammer fuddenly down,
and raife the head, the lower fide of the tail of the hammer
ftrikes upon a fupport n, which afts to ftop the afcent of
the head of the hammer e, when it arrives at the defired
height ; but as the hammer is thrown up with a confiderable
velocity as well as force, the effort of the head e to con-
tinue its motion, after the tail ftrikes the ftop n, afts to
bend the helve L of the hammer, and the elafticity of the
helve recoils the hammer down upon the anvil with a re-
doubled force and velocity to that which it would acquire
from the aftion of gravity alone.

To obtain this aftion of recoil, the hirft gh muft be
held down as firmly as poffible ; and for this purpofe, four
ftrong iron bolts are carried down from the four angles of
the bottom plate h, and made faft to the folid bafis of ftone
R R, upon which the whole refts : upon this bafis are
placed four layers of timbers, i, h, /, m, which are laid one
upon another, and the timbers of each layer are laid crofs-
ways over the others. Each layer confifts of ievcral pieces
laid fide by fide, and they are flightly treenailed together,
to form a platform. Each platform is rather lefs than that
upon which it refts, fo as to form a pillar of folid timber ;
on the top of which the hirft-frame ^ ^ is placed, and
firmly held down by the four bolts, which defcend through
all the platforms, and have fecure faftenings in the folid
mafonry beneath.

The ftop n is fupported by a fimilar pillar, but fmaller,
and compofed of three layers : the upper piece n, which is
feen crolTways m Jig. 2, is about tliree feet long, and the
under fide is hollowed, fo that the piece bears only upon
the two ends, leaving a vacancy beneath it, which occafions

it

T 1 L

T I L

it to bcud or i"p)in,<r every time tlio tail (/of the hammer
llrik.L-s upon it, aiid this aids the rccoihng adlion very
much.

The axis on which the hammer moves is formed by a
niK^ of call-iron, through which the helve of the hammer
is put, and held fall by wedging round it. The ring has
a proicfting trunnion on each fide, ending in an obtufe
conical point, which is received in a focket firmly fixed in
the hirll -frame ^/; by fcrews and wedges, one of vi'hich is
fecn at ;•. Thefe two fockets arc thus capable of adjnft-
mcnt, fo as to make the hammer face fall flat upon the
anvil. The three wheels K, I, H, are of different fizes and
numbers of cogs to produce that velocity in each hammer
which is beft adapted for the work it is to perform : thus,
the wheel K for the great hammer has eight cogs, and there-
fore produces eight blows of the hammer for each revolu-
tion of the fly-wheel ; the wheel I for the middle hammer
has twelve cogs ; and the wheel H for the finall hammer
fixteen ; the latter will therefore make two llrokes for every
one of the great hammer. In fixing the three wheels upon
the great {liaft G H, care is taken that they fliall produce
the blows of the different hammers in a regular fuccefTion,
and equalize as much as poffible the force which the water-
wheel mufl exert. The wheels are fixed upon the {haft
by means of a wedging of hard wood, driven in all round ;
the wood, being capable of yielding a little to the fhocks
occafioned by the cogs meeting the tails of the hammers,
renders the concuffions lefe violent.

The following are the principal dimenfions :
The head of the great hammer, P, weighs 35cwt., and it
is intended to make 150 blows /tv minute: it is lifted 17
inches from the anvil at every blow.

The middle hammer, M, is 2cwt., and makes 225 blows
per minute: it is lifted 14 inches each time.

The fmall hammer, N, weighs ijcwt., and makes 300
tlows per minute : it is lifted only 1 2 inches.

To produce thefe velocities, the great axis G mtift make
l8|- turns ^fr minute ; and the cog-wheels E and D, being
in the proportion of one to three, the water-wheel mufl
make 65 revolutions fer minute ; the water-wheel being
18 feet diameter, its circumference will be 18 x 3.1416 =
56.54, or 56^ feet : this multiplied by 6.25 is about 353 feet
motion per minute, or divided by 60 = 5.9 feet motion ^cr
fecond for the circumference of the water-wheel.

The tilt-mills employed in the manufatlure of fleel, do
not have the great hammer P, but the largefl they ufe is
about the fize of that at M, and is adapted for welding
faggots of fleel to make fhear fleel : the other two hammers
are about the fize of N, and are made to work much
quicker, viz. from 350 to 400 blows j!ii?r minute. This is
very eafily iiccomplifhed by making the wheels E and F as
I to 4, inflead of i to 3, as fhewn in the drawing.

TILTH, in Agriculture, a term ufed to fignify the con-
dition of the earth or foil after the land has been ploughed
and broken down by the harrow or other tool of the fame
kind ; or the ftate and circumilances of the ground in regard
to tillage, or heart, as relating to manure. Thus we have a
good and iml tilth, as well as land in and out of tilth, in
works on agriculture.

TILTIL, in Geography, a town of Chili ; 30 miles S.E.
of Valparayfo.

TILTING 0/ Steel, the procefs by which bliflcred fleel,
or fleel in the raw flate, rs rendered duftilc and fit for the
purpofes of various manufaftures. Tilting confifls in ham-
mering or forging the fleel by a large hammer called a tilt.
See TlLT-Nanimer.

Steel is formed by two proceffes : one in which it is
made at once from pig or erude iron in the finery, nearly in

10

the fame manner as making bar-iioa : this is called natural
fleel. In the fecond procefs, malleable iron, in bars, is im-
bedded in charcoal or other carbonaceous matter, and ex-
pofed to a confidcrable heat, till the carbon is thought to
have penetrated fufficiently into the iron to have changed it
into fleel. This is called converting the iron by cement-
ation with charcoal ; and the furnace in which the operation
is performed is called a converting furnace.

The objeiil of this procefs of cementation, is to impreg-
nate the iron with a certain quantity of carbon, to be derived
from the charcoal : like many other fimple opcratioiis, iL
requires great care and nicety to perform it properly, when
put in pradtice on a large fcale. The iron mufl be expofed
to the aftion of an intenfe heat in contadl with carbon (but
defended from the accefs of oxygen), until the iron imbibes
a portion of carbon and becomes fleel.

The quantity of carbon which mufl be combined with
iron to produce fleel, admits of confiderable latitude, and
tlie qualities of the fleel vary in the fame proportion : with
too little carbon, fleel will be foft ; and not fufficiently hard
when it has been fuddenly cooled by plunging in water. It
has a rough and fomewhat fibrous frafturc, and in general
may be faid to pofFefs many of the qualities of malleable
iron. On the other hand, in proportion as the quantity of
carbon is diminifhed, an over-cemented fleel, containing an
excefs of carbon, is brittle, eafily fufible, exceffively hard
after being fuddenly cooled, and is hable to crack on the
fudden change of temperature from hot to cold. All thefe
properties are an approach to crude iron.

The received opinion refpedting fleel and the beft caft-
iron is, that they have the fame conftitiient parts, but in dif-
ferent proportions ; the former containing a fmaller propor-
tion of carbon than the latter. All the crude or cafl-iron of
commerce contains oxygen in greater or lefs proportion, but
the beft fleel is fuppofed- to be nearly free from this. Mr.
David Mufhet, whofe great praftical and theoretical know-
ledge entitles his opinion to the greatcft refpeft, fuppofes
that the carbon contained in caft-iron and in fteel, exifls in
very different ftates ; and that fteel is a combination of iron
with pure carbon, fimilar to the diamond, but that crude
iron, is iron containing the oxyd of carbon, which is char-
coal. This opinion he founded upon the refult of a very
numerous feries of experiments, many of which he com-
municated to the Philofophical Magazine, vol. xiii. He
found that a piece of Swedifh bar-iron, weighing 885
grains, introduced into a Stourbridge clay crucible, and half
its weight (442 grains) of charcoal well prepared; a clay
cover, fitting exaftly, being placed on, and the whole ex-
pofed to a moderate heat for half an hour ; that the refult was,
a perfeft button of fuper-carbonated crude iron, weighing
928 grains, which therefore had gained -r'.ith on its original
weight ; while the charcoal, which remained in the crucible
in an intenfely black ftate, weighed 290 grains, having lofl
34.4 />fr cent, of its original weight.

In a fecond experiment, made in a fimilar manner, but with

onlya quarter of the charcoal, the iron gained of its ori-

ginal weight, and the lofs in charcoal was 45 per cent. : the
metal was richly carbonated. When one-fixth of charcoalwas
ufed, the iron produced, refembled the produce of No. 1 . and
2. of the crude iron of commerce ; its weight was increafed

■ ; and 57 per cent, of the charcoal difappeared in the

pjrocefs.

With one-fciehth of charcoal, the iron gamed of its

origiual

TILTING OF STEEL.

il weight ; and llie wiight of the charcoal which difap-
1 wasf>7,'a fxr cent. The metallic button was very
iiiglily cirlionatcd, aiid apparently formed an entire mafs of
carburet.

One-ninth of charcoal produced a fuper-carbonated but-
ton of crude iron, rather inferior to the preceding in point
of carbonization : its furface was fmooth, and of a dull
lead-colour, entirely free from the ufual Ihining fpecks of
carburet, which ver)- rich crude iron contains upon its fur-
face. It had gained equ.il to -j^tli in weight by the fuiion ;
and the lofs in charcoal was 8o per cent.

When treated in the fame manner with Tith of its weight
of charcoal, the iron gained weight equal to Vt parts : and
Kj.5 per cent, of the charcoal difappeared in the procefs.
The metallic button pofTcfTed an uniformly fmooth furface,
partially covered with carburet.

One-tifteenth part of charcoal, expofcd with the iron to a
heat fufficient to melt it, was all loft ; tlie metal gaii;ed Vjtij
in weight, which was exadly half the weight of charcoal loil.
The furface of the button was not carbonated, as the fore-
going experiments : the colour was blueifh -black, fmooth in
Uie centre, but a httle oxydated towards the edges. The
frafture was that of clofe dark -grey crude iron ; the cryftals
much clofer and more minute than in the preceding experi-
ments. Its quality was fuch as mauufafturers term No. 2.
grey melting pig-iron.

When only ,', th part of charcoal was employed, none of
which remained after the fufion, the iron gained V^ parts in
weight : a fmall portion of amber-coloured glafs was found
round the edges of the button. The frafture of the metal
was fmooth filvery-white, occafionally ftudded with car-
bonaceous fpecks in form of fmall grains : it exaftly re-
fembled mottled pig-iron. '

With iVth part of charcoal, the metal gained -^ parts in
weight, the whole of the charcoal difappearing. The upper
furface of the button was fmooth, but the under confider-
ably pitted. The concaves were chequered with the rude
cryftallization peculiar to caft-iron. Its frafture was bright
filvery -white, deftitute of grain, and exhibiting a very perfect
ftreaky cryftallization (lightly radiated : its refemblance
was ftrikingly fimilar to that of highly-blown crude iron,
prepared in the finery for making malleable iron.

A piece of Swedifh iron was placed in -.'ath its weight
of charcoal ; the fufion of the mixture produced a metallic
button weighing -^^ parts more than the iron employed,
which increafe is not quite a quarter of the lofs in charcoal,
which wholly difappeared in the experiment. The upper
furface of the button was fmooth without configuration,
but the under furface was uneven, and covered with minute
but perfeA cryftallization ; its frafture was blueilh filvery-
white, compofed of flat dazzling cryftals, proceeding in lines
from a centre to the edges of the button. Here it was
evident, that from the fmall proportion of carbon combined
with the iron, it was found to aftume the earlieft ftage of
granulation approaching to the ftate of fteel. The briUiant
concretions obfervable in the furface of the button were too
indiftinA and flat for fteel capable of bearing the hammer.

When the proportion of the charcoal was reduced to
^■gth of the iron, its confequent increafe was but xTjcth
part. The upper furface of the button was fmooth, with
9 faint imprclTion of a chequered cryftallization : the under
furface poflefted fome large pits fimilarly though more per-
feftly cryftallized ; the frafture was one fhade of blue
beyond the laft experiment, A regular granulated furface,
compofed of flat oblong cryftals, was obfervable, ftill too
indiftin(5l and too much on edge for workable fteel.

With only ^'^th of the weight of charcoal, the button
was deficieijt ^ J ^th part of its weight originally ufed, ye^

the whole of the charcoal was loft. Tlie furfaces of tiii«
button were uniformly fmooth ; the frafture denfe, and
difplaying a grain peculiar to highly faturated bliftcred
fteel. When put under the hammer with a low red heat, it
withftood a few blows, but afterwards parted.

Charcoal ^ : the metallic button weighed lefs than

the iron employed. Its furface was wavy and cryftallized :
the under furface was rough, and contained one large pit ae-
curately cryftallized : the frafture was regularly granulated,
fmall but dillinft, and of a light blueilh colour. The cryftals,
though dillinft, were not fo prominent as thofe of eafy draw-
ing caft-fteel ; it however hammered with the ufual degree of
caution neceftary in the working of caft-fteel. The bar of
fteel formed from the button w as very proper for file-making,
and other purpofes requiring highly converted fteel.

The proportion was reduced to m^jth part the weight

of iron : the produce was lefs than the original weight

of iron. The furface of the button was fmooth, without
cryftals : the under furface rough, and poffeffed of one
large pit in the centre, faintly marked with the ufual cryf-
talline appearance. The frafture prefented regular light-
blue grains, diftinft and more prominent than in the laft ex-
periment. One half of this button was drawn into a neat
fquare bar, and proved excellent fteel. One end of it, being
loofe and flialed, welded tolerably well, and hardened after-
wai-ds with a low heat. From its quality, it feemed adapted
for manufafturing penknives, razors, &c. pofiefGng neither
the extremes of hai-dnefs nor foftnefs.

Mr. Mufliet continued this feries of experiments till the
proportion of charcoal became fo fmall as ^T,th part ; and
he gives the following conclufions, deduced from the refults.

Parts bj
Weight.
Iron femi-fteelified is made with charcoal -pfj.

Soft caft-fteel, capable of welding, with - -r^
Caft-fteel for common purpofes, with - ttt^

Caft-fteel requiring more hardnefs, with - -g-V

Steel capable of ftanding a few blows but quite 1 ,
unfit for drawing, - - - S ^^

The firft approach to a fteely granulated! ,
frafture, is from - - - J ^"^

White caft-iron -jV

Mottled crude iron ... - ./^

Carbonated crude iron ... _^

Super-carbonated crude iron - - ^^, or

when any greater quantity is combined with it.

In the above experiments it will be feen, that when more
than ^'gth part of charcoal is employed, the weight of the
produce is increafed ; but when lefs than V^th part is ufed,
a lofs is experienced proportioned to the diminution of the
carbon. The increafe of weight in the iron is by no means
equal to the lofs in the charcoal, never exceeding the half
thereof ; but this is accounted for in other experiments maae
by Mr. Muftiet, where charcoal was found to be tranfmitted
through clofe crucibles in a high degree of heat.

The French chemifts made a direft experiment to prove
that the diamond is really carbon in a cryftallized ftate. By
inclofing a fmall diamond in a piece of malleable iron, and
melting this in a clofe crucible, it was found to be con-
verted into fteel, and the diamond had difappeared.

The manufafture of natural Jleel is carried on in Germany,
and Swedenborgius gives us the following account of the
method ufed in Dalecarlia for making fteel firom caft-iron.

Thq

to-,

TILTING OF ^TEEL.

The ore from which the crude iron to be converted into fteel
is obtained, is of ii good iciiid ; it is black, friable, and com-
pofed of many fmall grains : it produces very tough iron.
The converfion into ilecl is made upon a forge-hearth,
fomething fmaller than tliat commonly ufed for converting
caft-iron into malleable iron : the fides and bottom are made
of caft-iron ; the tuire is placed with very little inclination
on one of the fide-plates ; the breadth of the fire-place is
fourteen inches, its length is greater ; the lower part of the
tuire is fix inches snd a half above the bottom : in the inte-
rior part of the fire-place, tliere is an oblong opening for
the flowing of the fupcrfluous fcoria.

The workmen firft put fcoria on the bottom, then char-
coal and powder of charcoal, and upon thefe tlie cail-iron,
run or cut into fmall pieces. They cover the iron with more
charcoal, and excite the fire. When the pieces of iron are of
a red white, and before they begin to melt, they Hop the
bellows, and carry the mafs under a large hammer, where
they break it into pieces of three or four pounds each :
the pieces are again brought to the hearth, and laid within
reach of the workman, who plunges fome of them into the
fire and covers them with coal. The bellows are made to
blow flowly till the iron is liquefied, when the fire is increafed;
and when the fufion has been long enough continued, the
fcoria is allowed to flow out, and at that time the iron
hardens. The workman adds more of the piece of crude
iron, which he treats in the fame manner, and fo on a third
and fourth time, till he obtains a mafs of fl:eel of about a
hundred pounds, which is generally done in about four
hours. This mafs is carried to the hammer, where it is
forged and cut into four pieces, which are further beat into
fquare bars four or five feet long. When the fteel is thus
forged, it is thrown into water, that it may be eafily broken,
for it is yet crude and coarfe-grained. The fteel is then
broken in pieces, and carried to another hearth, fimilar
to the former. Thefe pieces are laid regularly in the
fire-place, firft two parallel, upon which feven or eight
others are placed acrofs ; then a third row acrofs the fe-
cond in fuch a manner, that there is a fpace left between
thofe of the fame row : the whole is then covered with
charcoal, and the fire is excited. In about half or
three quarters of an hour the pieces are made hot enough,
and are then taken from the fire one by one, to the
hammer, to be forged into little bars from half a foot to
two feet long, and while hot, are thrown into water to
be hardened. Of thefe pieces, fixteen or twenty are put
together, fo as to make a bundle, which is heated and
welded, and afterwards forged into bars four inches
thick, which are then broken into pieces of convenient
length for ufe.

Converting of Steel by Cementation with Charcoal. — The
quality of Iteel is intimately connefted with that of the iron
from which it is converted, and the iron made in Sweden is
efteemed the beft for the purpofes of cementation. This
, procefs is almoft wholly in the hands of the Englifti, who
pay a higher price for the iron, and by that means fecure
nearly all the iron of Roflagia, which is the beft iron of
Sweden.

The beft marks of Swedifli iron are : that called the hoop
L, which is denoted by a circle, with an L in the centre ;

S, f (p) : and the gridiron,

;ithus, {CL)) • t'^e G L ; thus, ((. j : the double bullets ;

thus, ^jp\. The iron of thefe three marks bears nearly the
fame price, which is fometimes as high as 40/. /.";• ton.
"There are alfo the Swedilh mai-ks ; as P L, (p /} : the hoop

which are worth a

few pounds /iir ton lefs than the former ; viz. from 34/. to
3S/., when the beft marks are 40/.

The Ruftian marks are, firlt, that called the C C N D : the
mark is fix Ruffian letters, C H E H P B, worth about
37/. per ton, when the others are at 4c/.: and the P S I,
which is marked by the Ruffian letters P S I, is fo inferior,
as to fell for only 26/. or 27/.

It is to be lamented that, in the prefent ftate of our
iron manufadlurc, we are unable to produce malleable
iron which is equally fit for converting into fteel with
the Ruffian and Swediih iron. The general opinion upon
this deficiency is, that it arifes from fome fuperiority
in the foreign ores of iron, but more immediately from
the circumftance of their ufing charcoal of wood inftead
of the coke of pit-coal in fmehing or reviving them ;
and fume of our manufatturers do not hefitate to aflert,
that tlicy can make iron with charcoal equal to the foreign
in quality ; but that in refpecl to price, the circumftances
of this country will not allow them to cope with thofe
countries, where the deftruftion of wood is in fome mea-
fure confidered as beneficial, by clearing the land for the
operations of huft)andry.

The Swedidi and Ruffian iron is imported into this
country by iron merchants in immenfe quantities to-
gether, this trade being in the hands of a few in-
dividuals : by them it is retailed in fmaller portions to
the converters, whofe furnaces are chiefly about Sheffield
and at Newcaftle, who, after cementation, difpofe of the
greater part of it to the manufafturcrs of fteel goods in
the ftate of bliftered bars. Its value is eftimated by the
Swedifli or Ruffian marks of iron, whicli ttill remain upon
the bars. The manufafturcrs fend their bars to the tilt-
mills, where they are made into common fteel and fliear or
German fteel, or they melt it to form caft-fteel.

The converfion of iron into fteel is performed in a fur- 1
nace, hence called a converting furnace. The external build-
ing is a large .ind tall cone, fimilar to a glafs-houfe, within
which, one or two large crucibles, called pots, are placed,
and furrounded by flues in a manner beft calculated to com-
municate a conftant and regular heat to every part of them.
In thefe pots the iron bars are placed, being ftratified in
pulverized cliarcoal, and the pots are covered over with
fand to exclude the external air.

A more perfeft idea of the converting furnace will be
had by referring to Plate VII. of Iron Manufadure, which
contains a horizontal plan and two vertical feftions of one of
the furnaces ufed in the neighbourhood of Sheffield, with two
pots for containing the iron. In all the figures, the fame
letters of reference denote the fame parts. C C is the exter-
nal cone, built of brick or ftone work ; its diameter at the
bafe varies in diff^erent furnaces, according to the fize of the
pots it contains : its extreme height from the ground to its
vertex fliould not be lefs than forty or fifty feet to caufe a
proper draught. To create a fufficient heat for the procefs,
the top of the cone ufually terminates with a cyhndric
chimney of fome feet in height. The conical form of the
external building is by no means eflential ; any form will
operate in the fame manner, if it is of a proper height : fome
are in praftice built nearly in the fliape of the fmall end of
^" '^gg> w't^b a round chimney upon the top. The lower
part of the cone is built fquare or oftangular, as is the plan
oi Jig. 3. The fides are carried up until they meet the
cone, giving the furnace the appearance of a cone cut to a
fquare or oftangular prifm at its bafe, and exhibiting the
parabola where every fide interfefts the cone.

The coiiical building contains within it a fmaller furnace,

called

TILTING OF STE£L.

called the vault, built of fire-brick or Hone, which will with-
Ibiid ihc action of a moft intenfe heat, without cracking or
vitrification. D D in the fedion is the dome of the vau t,
and E E its upright fides, the fpace between which, and the
wall of the external building, is filled up with rubbilh and
fand. The vault, as is (hewn in the plan, is always four-hded,
that it may contain the pots which receive the iron bars to be
converted. A H reprcfent the two pots, built of fire-ftone,
each ten feet long, three feet deep, and two feet nine inches
wide ; the fpace between them is twelve inches wide ; and
dircd^Iy beneath it is the fire-grate. The pots are fupported
by a number of detached courfes of fire-brick, as (liewn at
, f (fig. 1. ) which leave fpaces between them, called flues, to
conduft the flame under the pots : in the fame manner, the
fides of the pots are fupported from the vertical walls of the
vault, and from each other, by a few detached ftones,
(/, /v. 1.) placed I'o that they may intercept as little as
poflible of the heat from the contents'of the pots. The adja-
cent fides of the pots arc fupported from one another by fmall
piers of ftone-work, which arc alfo perforated, as fhewn at
,/ ( ifj. 2. ) to give pafl"age to the flame. The bottoms of the
pots are built of a double courfc of brick-work, about fix
inches thick ; the fides neareft together are built of a fingle
courfe of ftone, about five inches in thicknefs ; and the other
parts of the pots are fingle courfes about three inches, the
fides not requiring fo i-uch ftrength, becaufe they have lefs
heat and pren"ure to relill.

The vault has ten flues or (hort chimneys, F F, rifing from
it ; two on each fide, to carry off the fmoke into the great
cone, (hewn in the plan 3, communicating with each fide,
and two at each end.

In the front of the furnace, at H, an aperture is made
through the external building, and another correfponding in
the wall of the vault : thefe openings form the door, at
wliich a man enters the vault to put in or take out the iron :
but when the furnace is lighted, thefe doors are clofed by
fire-bricks luted with fire-clay. Each pot has alfo fmall open-
ings in its end, through which the ends of two or three of
tlie bars are left projefting in fuch a manner, that by only
removing one loofe brick from the external building, the
bars can be drawn out without difturbing the procefs, to
examine the progrefs of the converfion from time to time :
thefe are called the ta))-holes ; they (hould be placed in the
centre of the pots, that a fair and equable judgment may
be formed from their refult of the reft of its contents.

a b, in the elevation, is the fire-grate, formed of bars laid
over the afti-pit I, which muft have a free communication
with the open air, that it may convey a current of frefh air
to fupply the combuftion. Tiie afli-pit (hould alfo have fteps
down to it, that the attendant to the furnace may get down
to examine by the light, whether the fire upon the whole
length of the grate is equally fierce ; and if any part appear
dull, he ufes a long iron hook to thruft up between the bars
and open a paffage for the air. The fire-place is open at both
ends, and has no doors. The fire-grate is laid nearly on a level
with the floor of the warjhoufe, before the furnace, and the
fireman always keeps a heap of coals piled up before the
apertures at its ends, fo as to clofe the opening. This forms
a very fimple and effeftive door; and when the furnace re-
quires a fre(h fupply of fuel, a portion of the heap of coals
is fhoved in by a fort of hoe, and the heap renewed, to ftop
any air from entering into the fjrnace, except that which has
paffed upwards through the ignited fuel, and by that means
contributed to the combuftion. '

The fire-ftones that eompofe all thofe parts of the fur-
nace which are expofed to the a£lion of the heat, are firft.
hewn nearly to fize, and finiftied by grinding two furfaces
together, fo that they make very perfeft and clofe joints :

when laid together, they are cemented with wcU-tempere
fire-clay, mixed up very thin with water. The fire-clay which'
anfvvcrs beft for this purpofe, is that brought from Stour-
bridge, in Staifordfliirc, and is the fame of which the cele-
brated Stourbridge crucibles arc compofed ; but very good
fire-clay for the purpofe is procured from Birkiii-lane, near
Chefterfield. When the furnace has been once burnt, this
clay becomes equally hard with the (tone, and is lefs liable to
fly or vitrify in an intenfe heat, than any other known cement.

The procefs of charging the furnace with iron for con-
verfion is condufted as follows. The bars of iron are firft
cut to the length of the pot'; and for this purpofe an anvil is
placed at fuch a diftance from the wall of the building, that
the diftance from tlie edge of a cold chilTel wedged into the
eye of the anvil, to the wall, will be juft the length of the
pots. One workman places the end of a bar againft the wall,
and lays the other end acrofs the edge of the chiffel, vvhilft
another with a (ledge-hammer ftrikes upon the bar till it is
cut half through; then it is turned the other fide upwards,
and the end cut completely off. By this gauge the bars are
all cut to one length, and a man enters through the door in
the vault, to difpofe of them in the pots : he is provided with
a baflict of fine pulverized charcoal, a lleve, and a fhovcl. An
iron plate is put into the furnace, and lays over the fpace
between the two pots to form the floor, upon which the man
ftands while at work. He commences his operations by
fifting a layer of charcoal over the bottom of the pot, about
half an inch thick, and he is careful in ufing the fieve to lay the
charcoal of an even thicknefs in every part ; but if it (hould
not be carefully done, he levels it with the (hovel. The work-
man on the outfide now introduces the bars into the furnace
through a hole, made by taking out a brick in the wall, juft
over the end of one of the pots, and the workman within
depofits them upon the ftratum of charcoal in the bottom of
the pot, arranging them parallel to each other, and leaving an
interval of about an inch between each bar. When the
bottom of the pot is in this manner covered with iron bars,
charcoal is again fifted upon them, and levelled with the
fliovel, to fill up the intermediate fpaces between the bars,
and to cover them about an inch thick : another layer of
bars is then introduced into the furnace, placed upon the
charcoal, and in its turn covered over with a ftratum of char-
coal ; and in this manner the pot is filled to within two inches
of the top. A layer of the fand which is found in the
bottom of grindilone troughs, is then fpread three or four
inches thick upon the whole, to cover the pots up clofe, and
prevent the accefs of the common air and flame. In placing
the fucceffive layers of bars in the pot, it is proper that each
(hould be laid over the fpace between two of the bars in the
layer beneath, becaufe each bar will then be furrounded by
a greater thicknefs of charcoal, than it would if they were
laid direftly over each other. Two or three of the bars
(hould be left fomiewhat longer than the reft, and their ends
(hould projeft through the trial-holes in the ends of the pots,
and fand rammed round them in the holes to keep out the air.

The pots being both filled and covered up with the fand
and rammed down, the holes for introducing the bars are
clofed by a brick or fire-ftone, and luted with fire-clay. The
apertures through the outer wall oppofite the ends of the
trial-holes are alfo ftopped and luted. The iron plate upon
which the man ftood is now removed, and the doors in the
vault clofed up by bricks fet with fire-clay ; next, the opening
in the external building is (hut up, and the furnace is charged
ready for lighting.

The furnac-e is kindled by lighted wood placed on the
fire-grate, then a few coals are thrown in, and when well
lighted, the quantity is increafed ; the heat thus generated
rarefies the air contained in the vault and in the great cone ;

and

TILTING OF STEEL.

and being thus rendered of lefs fpecific gravity than the ex-
ternal air, it rifes up in the cone, and a frefh fupply rufhes
in through the bars of the grate, to rcflore the equilibrium.
By going through the iirc, this air parts with its oxygen,
and excites the combuftion, and becoming heated, rifes up
the chimney, and caufes a very ftrong draught of air to
enter the fire.

At firft kindling, the fuel is fupplied in fmall quantities,
that the heat in the furnace may be gradually increafed, and
not endanger the cracking of the ftoncs : in a few hours time
the quantity of fuel is increafed, fo as to produce the fuU
heat, which is to be maintained as equally as poflible through-
out the whole procefs. The fuel, which is pit-coal, is intro-
duced at both ends of the grate, through fmall arches in the
wall, which are in a line and on a level with the fire-grate,
a quantity of coals being always left before the end of the
arch to ftop it up, and prevent any air getting into the
furnace, vrithout palling through the grate. Part of thefe
coals is forced into the furnace, as before mentioned, when
it requires a fupply of fuel, which is generally at intervals
of about half an hour each. The fireman frequently ex-
amines the appearance of the under fide of the fire-grate,
and judges from it the ftate of the fire: he improves it where
neceffary, as before defcribed, by thrufting a hook up
between the bars to make way for the air.

The flame arifing from the ignited fuel upon the grate
partly proceeds upwards between the pots, and heats them
by that means ; it then ftrikes the roof of the vault, and is
reverberated down upon the pots, and cfcapes through the
fix flues or chimnies in the vault. The draught alfo draws
the flame from the grate under the pots, and round the out-
fide and ends. The principal objeft in this ftage of the pro-
cefs, is to maintain the fame degree of heat in every part of
the pot, that every bar may be equally converted in the fame
fpaCe of time. The roof of the vault muft be built of very
good ftone (none being better than from Roches quarry, in
Aihover), to withftand the great heat exerted upon it : it
is cuftomary to build them very thin, and cover the outfide
with a fmall thicknefs of dry fand to keep them tight, in cafe
of a ftone cracking.

In this way the fire is kept up in as equable a manner
as poflible, until the iron is fuppofed to have imbibed a
fufficient portion of carbon from the charcoal to render it
jit for its intended purpofe : in this circumftance, the manu-
fafturer regulates his judgment by his experience of former
procelTes. About the time that he fuppofes the converfion
to be fufficiently advanced, one of the trial-bars is drawn out
from the pot, and by comparing the fize of the blifters raifed
upon its furface with another bar which is known to be fuffi-
ciently carbonated, an idea is formed of the ftate of the furnace,
and accordingly the fire is, at the proper time, difcontinued,
and the furnace is fuffered to cool. Some manufafturers pro-
ceed to make experiment of the trial-bar by hardening and
tempering it, fo as to prove to a certainty the degree of its
converfion, the blifters being found in fome degree fallacious ;
for their fize depends as much upon the degree of heat to
which the bar has been expofed, as upon its carbonization,
and (hew the rapidity with which the converfion has been car-
ried on, rather than its adlual ftate.

The time which the iron is required to be in the procefs

of cementation depends upon a variety of concurring cir-

cumftances, i. The degree of carbonization requiredto form

a fteel of the proper quality ; this varies with the ufe the fteel

is to be applied to. 2. The heat it is fubjefted to. 3. The

nature of the iron employed in the procefs. The combinations

of thefe circumftancps arc fo numerous, that nothing but lonsr

... 00

experience can dctcrmme the proper duration ot the procefs,

Vol. XXXV.

In general terms it may be obferved, that a (hort period
will produce a fteel very foft and tenacious, which, when
properly treated, will poflefs elafticity as its moft ftriking
property, and is therefore very proper for fprings, wire-
drav/ing, and other purpofes requiring duftility, but without
the hardnefs requifite for edge-tools. The period of cement-
ation for fuch fteel varies in different manufaftories, from
four to fix days and nights.

Steel which requires more hardnefs, but at the fame time
fufficient tenacity to refill fudden fhocks, fuch asthe edge-tools
for working wood are fubjeft to, muft be cemented a longer
time. This, which is moftly tilted into fhear fteel, is cemented
fix, feven, or eight days, according to the heat and tlie qua-
lity of iron employed. Tlie fteel employed for fabricating
tools for cutting metals and hard fiihftances being but fmall
in demand compared with the others, is not cemented a
longer time, but is returned into the furnace at the next
cliarge, along with a charge of iron, and cemented again
with frefh charcoal : this is termed double converted fteel.
But for fome few purpofes, fuch as the turning and boring
of caft-iron, the fteel is converted three times : in this ftate it
becomes fo hard and brittle as to be totally unfit for any
purpofe requiring tenacity, or for any cutting edge which is
lefs than an angle of 70 degrees, or it would be continually
breaking.

The heat which is requifite for the procefs, muft be as
great as to give the iron nearly a welding heat, but if car-
ried farther, will endanger melting the bars when the procefs
has proceeded fome time ; an accident which has frequently
occurred througli the inattention of the fireman. It is ob-i
ferved by manufaifturers, that the carbonization proceeds
quicker when the heat is greateft, and for this reafon the
duration of the procefs varies in different furnaces, in forr.c
meafure from their conftruftion, in urging a greater heat,
and this depends chiefly upon the height of the chimney,
and the draught it occafions.

When the converfion is fuppofed to be complete, the fur-
nace is fuffered to cool, until a man can conveniently enter
the furnace, to take out the bars and remaining charcoal, and
prepare the furnace for a new charge. The bars which are
brought out are (from being covered with bUfters upon the
furface) termed bliftered fteel.

On examination of the frafture of a bliftered bar, it is
found full of internal cracks, which are generally parallel to
the flat fide of the bair : fome of them are larger than others,
and extend the parts of the bar fufficiently to raife numerous
protuberances or blifters upon its furface. Thefe cracks have
every appearance of being opened by the expanfive force of
fome gas generated in the iron during the procefs, but what
the nature of this gas is, ftill remains to be inveftigated. It
feems to arife from the body of the iron itfelf, by the crack
being within the fohd fubftance of the bar. The fracture
of the bliftered fteel is exceedingly irregular, of a white
colour, like frofted filver, and appears like an irregular cryf-
tallization ; but the facets exhibited are larger in proportion as
the cementation has been longer continued, and from this
reafon they are larger towards the furface of the bar than
in its centre.

The furnace above defcribed is of that kind which is
efteemed the beft for the procefs, and is moft generally em-
ployed in and about the neighbourhood of Sheffield in York-
fhire, where the manufaflure of fteel is carried on in a larger
fcale than in any other part of England. The furnaces ufed
at Newcaftle, which is another feat of this trade, are very
fimilar.

The charge confifts of twelve tons, each pot containing

])x tons of iron ; and it is neceflary that all the bars converted

4P at

TILTING OF STEEL.

at one procefs be of ihf fame f./.c, or the fmaller ones would
be thoroughly converted before the others had taken up a
fufficient lofe of carbon. This large quantuy of a fingle
article .s more than the trade of i'ome manufaaurers will
difpofe of. they therefore employ fmaller furnaces, wljich con-
tain only eight tons, at,d fuch are generally conftrufted but
with one pot ten feet in length, three feet broad, and two feet
deep ■ the fire-place is diredly beneath the pot, twenty mches
wide, and flues are carried round it on both fides and ends :
the vault and chimney of fuch a furnace are the fame as the
double pot. It is found by experience that the Imall tur-
naces confume fomewhat more fuel in proportion to the
quantity of iron they convert, than the large ones, becaufe
the heat loft in the beginning and end of the procefs, and that
tranfmittcd through the walls of the building, is the fame in
both inftances.

Mr. Daniel Little of America, in 1785, recommended a
new fubftance to be ufed in the cementation of fteel inftead
of charcoal : it is the marine plant known by the name of rock-
weed, or rockware, and is found in great plenty on rocky
ftiores in America. It was to be prepared by firft mowing it
from the rocks by the fcythe or fickle, and fpreading it out on
dry land till the rains have wafhed off the greater part of the
fea-falt ; it was then to be dried and pulverized, and miy be
ufed as any other cement for making of fteel. He lays that he
difcovered this property in an experiment where a fmall piece
of iron was put into a crucible, and filled with the powdered
plant as a cement : after it had been expofed to little more
than a cherry heat for five or fix hours, it was converted
into fteel.

All cemented fteel in its raw flatc, after it is taken from
tlic converting furnace, is called bliftered fteel ; becaufe the
furfaces of the bars are covered with blifters, and on break-
ing a bar it is found to be full of cavities withinfide, which
feem to have been opened by fome gas generated in the iron
when in thi procefs of cementation, and to have raifed the
furface into blifters, which are hollow within. In this ftate
the fteel is not fit for any purpofe, becaufe of thefe numerous
cavities, and from the great difpofition it has to break with
the moft irregular and rugged frafture imaginable. To render
it found and tenacious, it muft be well hammered while at a
moderate heat, which operation is termed t'llting the Jleel,
becaufe it is done under the tilt-hammer, worked by ma-
chinery. There are many reafons why the hammering of
fteel cannot be fufficiently performed by hand : the principal
are, tliat the expence of labour wo"ld be too great to anfwer,
and that a man could not ftrike hard and quick enough, to
complete the operation at one heat of the fteel : if more than
one heat is taken, the fteel will not receive fo much advan-
tage from the hammering, becaufe when it is heated, its
pores are opened ; and if fuffered to cool without hammering,
the grain of the fteel will be found confiderably coarfer ;
therefore, every time it is heated, the good effefts of the pre-
vious hammerintr are in a great meafure loft. Tilt-hammers
are worked by water-wheels or fteam-engines, according to
the local fituation of the manufaftory. (See adefcription in
the article Tii-T-Z/ammfr, PlateVlW. Iron Manufadure.)
The fame axis is made to aftuate three or four tilt-hammers
placed fide by fide, and the hammers are not all of equal
lengths, each one being ftiorter than the next : by this ar-
rangement, when they are all working together, the work-
man of one tilt does not incommode thofe employed at the
other two. The anvils of the hammers are nearly on a level,
or at moft only a few inches above the furface of the ground ;
and the workman fits in u pit or folTe, dug for the purpofe,
m a direftion perpendicular to the helve of the tilt, upon a
feat which is fufpcnded from the roof of the building by two

II

iron rods : by this means he can with the greateft eafe advance
to or from the hammer, by juft touching the ground with
his foot, and pufhing himfcif backwards or forwards as he
fits in the fwing. The three feats are in parallel direftions,
but fufficiently diftant from each other, in confequence of
the diff'erent lengths of the hammers, to allow the workmen
to perform their bufinefs. At a convenient diftance from
each tilt, is placed the forge for healing the fteel. The two
forges for the fmall hammers are placed together under the
fame dome, while the other forge is by itfelf near the great
hammer. The bellows for the forges are worked by a fmall
crank on the end of the gudgeon of the ftiaft ; they are
placed over-head in the roof of the building, and a copper
pipe conveys the air to the tue iron. The forges are like
thofe ufed by fmiths, except that they have a fmall cover
built of fire-brick over the hearth : the cover is fquare within,
about eight inches wide, eight high, and eighteen inches or
two feet long. It is open in front, to introduce the bars. The
coals are placed on the hearth, as fmiths ufually do, and the
brick cover afts, to reverberate the flame down upon the fteel,
and give a very regular heat. Each workman at the tilt is
attended by two boys, who heat the fteel at the forge, aiKl
convey it to the workman, that he may lofe no time : ano-
ther boy attends each tilt to take away the finished rods and
cut them to length, and then to ftraighten them.

The operations of the tilt are condufted in the following
manner : Suppofe a piece of fteel has been heated by one of
the boys, and brought to the man at the hammer, he places
it upon the anvil, at a part neareft to tlie centre of the ham-
mer, where its furface is reduced to a round edge, about
an inch wide : the face of the hammer is made round, to
correfpond with the anvil, and from its fimilarity to the edge
of a fmith's hammer, may be called the pen of the hammer
and anvil. The macliine is always in rapid motion, and be-
tween every ftroke that the hammer makes, he moves the
bar forwards on the anvil, that it may be ftruck by the edge
of the hammer in a frefli place. If the bar is flat, as blif-
tered fteel ufually is, it is firft hammered in this manner
upon its edge, to reduce it to a fquare, and at the fame time
draw it out in length. When it has been hammered thus all
its length, the furface becomes indented on both fides by
the edges of the hammer, tlie anvil being bounded by
waving lines. This firft operation is called notching doivn.
The tilter then removes the bar beneath the flat face of the
hammer, and the rod is flattened at every ftroke, and all the
indentation removed ; when he gradually recedes from the
hammer, drawing the rod along, and flattening it all the way.
When the end of the rod comes under the hammer, he turns
the other face of the rod upwards, and advancing to the
hammer, pufties the rod forwards under it : in this manner
he proceeds, flattening it on one fide or the other, until he
brings it to the proper fize, which he tries by a gauge. The
moment it is finifhed, the boy brings another piece of hot
fteel, which he places under tiie hammer, and then the other
boy takes away the finifhed rod from the tilter, who takes
the frefti piece : in doing this, they are careful that the hot
piece of fteel is placed under the hammer before the other is
taken away, that the faces of the hammer and anvil may not
itrike together, when there would be danger of breaking
them, as they are both made of caft-iron : the fecond piece
is tilted in the fame manner as before, and when finiftied, is
changed for another.

The perfeftion of tilting fteel, depends upon drawing out a
rod perfeftly ftraight to the fame fizc in every part of its
length. Many workmen, particidarly at Sheffield, have ac-
quired fuch fl<ill and dexterity in the management of the rod
while under the tilt, that their work is as ftraight and even

T I L

TIM

as though it had been drawn through a ileel-plate, in tlie
fime manner as wire, and all its angles perfeftly fquare : its
ftjrface is of a black polifh, and as fmooth as though it had
been filed. All artifts ufe the fquare fteel rods for making
their tools; and the ilraightnefs and regularity of the rods
are fuch, that a perfon who has not been an eye-witnefs of the
operation, would fcarcely believe it poflible to produce fuch
accurate work from the blows of a hammer. The points to
be attended to by a tilter are, that in notching down the bar
to draw it out to length and fize, he caufes the blows to fall
exaftly at equal diftances from each other, unlefs (which fel-
dom happens) the bar fhould have any part thicker than the
reft ; the ftrokes muft then be a little nearer together in that
place, to reduce it all to one fize. Afterwards, to flatten the
bar, he muft be careful to place the bar truly flat upon the an-
vil, and hold it in the fame place, whilft he draws the bar un-
der the hammer, and that he moves himfclf with a perfeftly
equable motion, that every part of the bar may be ahke fub-
jefted to the aftion of the hammer ; the furface will then be
true, and free from undulations. Another circumftance to
be attended to is, when he turns the bar upon the anvil to
hammer the adjacent fides, that he makes them truly fquare
to the former fides. Thefe things muft all be done in fo Uttle
time, that it requires long praftice and experience to perform
them well. Beginners are always apt, when they place their
feet on the ground, to move themfelves too quick juft at that
time, which caufes the bar to be thicker at that place.

The different methods of condufting the operation of
tilting, give the fteel different qualities, which are diftin-
guifhed into I. Common fteel ; 2. Shear or Newcaftle fteel,
alfo called German fteel ; and 3. Tilted caft fteel.

Common Jleel is made by tilting bars of bliftcred fteel, and
drawing them out into rods of any fize. The bhftered bars
arc of various fizes, but in general about an inch and a half
broad by half an inch thick. If thefe are to be drawn into
rods half an inch fquare, they are broken into convenient
lengths to handle, and one end of each piece is heated to a
good welding heat by the boy who attends the forge, who
puts three or four m the fire together, and, according to
their fize, he learns by experience at what time he muft put
every one into the fire, that it may acquire the proper degree
of heat by the time that the tilter fhall have juft finifhed the
other bars.

The tilter firft begins by notching down the narrow
edge of the bar, holding the other end of it in his hand,
and notches down fuch a length of it as experience teaches
him will be fufficient to form a rod of the length and fize re-
quired. The notching on the edge of the bar rather increafes
its thicknefs, while it diminifhes its breadth, and brings it
nearly to the fquare figure of a rod : he then flattens it, and
begins again to notch it down upon the broad fide ; after-
wards he again flattens it ; then proceeds to notch it upon the
edge, and afterwards to flatten it once or twice on both
fides, and the rod is tinifhed.

When a fkilful tilter has been forae hours at work upon
rods of one fize, he judges by fight when the rod is of the
proper fize ; but on firft beginning, he tries it by a gauge,
and flattens it repeatedly, if necelfary, the boy bringing a
piece of hot fteel to place under the hammer while he is
gauging, and which is drawn out in its turn. When the
tilting is completely finifhed, the fteel rod is taken away by
another boy, who, with a pair of (hears, cuts off the rod
from the bliftered bar from which it was drawn out. He
places the rod on a flat caft-iron table, and fets it truly
ftraight by a hammer, then ftanips the bar with a mark of
the quality of the fteel, and it is finifhed.

All thefe operations are performed in fo fhort a time, that

the rod ftill retains a red heat ; but this will excite lefs fur-
prize when it is confidered that the hammer ftrikes four
hundred blows /ifr minute, and falls with great weight, fo
that it foon completes the work, and it is very probable that
the great percuffion it exerts upon the fteel in feme meafure
preferves the heat. It is well known that blackfmiths are in
the conftant habit of lighting a match to kindle their fire,
by only hammering a fmall piece of iron quickly, and turn-
ing it about under the hammer, and in a fliort time it acquirer
fufficient heat to inflame the fulphur of the match. This heat
moft probably arifes from the friftion which the hammer
caufes amongft the particles of the iron, by rubbing them vio-
lently againft one another ; and the fmiths obferve, that the
iron will not become red-hot if it is always ftruck upon
the fame fide ; but it muft be turned round, that a new fur-
face may be continually expofed to the aftion of the
hammer.

Shearjleelh fo called, becaufe the fhears for dreffing woollen
cloth are made of it. It is alfo called Newcaftle fteel, be-
caufe formerly made there ; and German fteel, becaufe the
natural fteel in Germany is treated in the fame way ; it is
likewife c^iXLtdfaggotted Jleel. To make fhcar fteel, the bars
of bliftered fteel are broken into lengths of about eighteen
inches ; then four or more of thefe are laid together with one
of double the length, and all four are tied together witli
pieces of fmall fteel : this is called a faggot, and is placed in
the forge, to be heated to a good welding heat ; it is then
taken to the tilt, and notched down on both fides, to weld
all the bars together, and clofe up the internal flaws. The
workman holds the faggot by the end of the long bar as a
handle : the operation of welding takes but a few feconds,
and a fmall rod is then drawn out from a piece of the end, in
the fame manner as drawing out common fteel.

Cajl Jleel is prepared by melting fragments of bliftered
fteel, and cafting them into an ingot. (See Steel.) The
ingot is then drawn out under the tilt into the required fize,
and the manner of doing this is the fame as for common
fteel.

It is the cuftom of the manufafturers of cutlery and fteel

foods to purchafe fteel from the converting furnaces in the
ate of bliftered bars, which they fend to the tilt-mills to be
drawn out to the fize they require for their ufe : this is done
at regular prices. In tilting fteel, a trifling lofs is fuftained
by the metal oxydating upon the furface, and throwing off
black fcales. The manufadlurers are in the habit of allow-
ing 4.6 to 8 lbs. per hundred weight for fuch lofs : this la-
titude is given, becaufe in drawing the bars out into rods of
a fmall fize, the wafte muft necelTarily be greater ; the metal
being much longer expofed to oxydation, and the furface
throwing off more fcales.

TILUTHA, in ytneieni Geography, an ifland of Afia,
in the Euphrates, about 33° 55' lat.

TILWARAH, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Gurry Mundella ; 5 miles S. of Gurrali.

TIM, a town of Ruflla, in the government of Kurfk ;
44 miles E. of Kurfk. N. lat. 51° 40'. E. long. 37° 34'.

TIMA, Thima, Taima, Alablao, or Al Ahlak, a town
of Arabia, in the province of Nedsjed ; 180 miles N.N.E.
of Medina.

TIMACUM, in Ancient Geography, a town placed by
Ptolemy in Upper Mcefia, at a diftance from the Danube.

TIM.£A, a town of Afia, in the interior of Bithynia.
Ptol.

TIMiEUS, the Locr'ian, in Biography, was a philofo-

pher of the Italic fchool, and flourilhed in the time of

Plato, who derived from him principaUy the doftrine of

Pythagoras, and v/hofe hook, entitled " TimEus," was

4 P 2 founded

T I M

fauiuled on his book " On the Naturo of Things." Fro-
rlus prefervcd a fmiU trcjtifo ot" Timaeus " On the Soul of
the World,'" and it is prefixed to foine editions of Plato's
Timcus. In this trcatife, chiefly Pythagorean, he differs
from Pythagoras in the following particulars : viz. that,
inftead of one whole, or monad, he fuppofcs two inde-
pendent caufes of nature, God and Mind, the fource of
intelligent nature, and Neceflity or Matter, the original of
bodies ; and that he explains the caufe of the formation of
the <(rorld, from the external aftion of God upon matter,
after the pattern or ideas exifting in his own mind. Upon
a comparifon of this piece with Plato's Timaeus, it will be
found that the Athenian philofophcr has obfcurcd the
fimple doftrine of the Locrian with fancies drawn from his
own imagination, or from the Egyptian fchools.

In the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus there was a Sicilian,
named Timseus, who was a celebrated hiftorian ; but none
of his writings are extant. He died at the age of 96,
B.C. 262. Brucker by Enfield, vol. i.

TIMAGENUS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland in the
Arabic gulf. Ptol.

TIMANA, in Geography, a town of South America,
in the provmce of Popayan ; 80 miles E. of Popayan. N.
lat. 2'' 12. E. long. 74^46'.

TIMANTHES, in Biography, a famous Grecian painter,
was, as it is faid, a native of Cythnos, one of the iflands
called Cyclades, or of Sicyon, and flouriflied about the
year B.C. 400. The mind of this artift is fuppofed to
have furpaffed his art, in the cxercife of which he difplayed
great (kill, fo that in his performances, fomething was to
be underftood, which he did not exprefs. As an inftance
of this, we are referred to his picture of Iphigenia about to
be facrificed, in which, having exhaufted every variety of
the expreffion of grief in the other fpeiftators, he has
thrown a veil over the face of her father, thus intimating
that his anguifh furpaffed all external tokens. In his
Sleeping Cyclops, exhibited in a fmall tablet, he has intro-
duced Satyrs meafuring his thumb with a thyrfus, in order
to give an idea of the magnitude of the principal figure.
At Samos he was a competitor with the famous Parrhafius
in 3 piece, of which the fubjeft was the judgment for the
arras of Achilles, between Ajax and Ulyfres ; on this oc-
cafion the prize was awarded to Timanthes. In the temple
of Peace at Rome a hero of admirable workmanfhip by the
fame artift was preferved, Pliny Nat. Hift.

TIMAR, a traft or portion of land, which the grand
figr.ior grants to a pcrfon on condition of ferving him in war,
on horfeback.

Some define the timar a portion of land afRgned to a
fpalii, or other perfon fit to ferve on horfeback, to enjoy,
during life, for iii- fubfiftence.

Mcnin&i defcribes it as a ftipend or revenue, granted to
old foldiers who hrve deferved well, in lands, and poffeflions
of caftlcs, towns, vi'ljges, fields, or in tithes, and other
fnats and incomes ; fometimes with the prefecture, jurif-
di£lioii, or Cgnor-- jf the faid places.

The timar is a kind "f ilef granted for life. The whole
Ottoman empire is divided into fangiackies, or bannerics,
under which all fucii a„ hold timars, who are called tima-
riof, are bound 'o li.1 ihcrafclves when fummoned upon
any expedition. Timars may be rcfigned as benefices
among u?, only obtaining the confent jf the beglerbey, or
governor of tl.e province, indeed, for timars of above
2000 afpers per cnnum, calld zaim, the grand vizier alone
grants difpenfdtions.

TIMARIOTS, thofe who enjoy lands on the footing
and tenure of timars. See Timar.

T I M

The timariots are obliged to ferve in war, perfonally,
with as many men and horfes for fcrvice as their timar, by
the eftimate made of it, contains 2500 afpers, or about 6/.
fterling ; and to maintain them conftantly mounted and
armed after their manner, to be ready to march at all
hours when coramandod, and that on pain of death ; no-
thing, not even ficknefs itfelf, being allowed to excufe
them.

Befidcs this fervice, they likewife pay an acknowledg-
ment of one-tenth of their revenue. If they have any
children of age to bear arms, and fit for the fervice after
their deceafe, or, in defeft of this, if they have any rela-
tions that have the leaft intereft, the timar is ufed to be con-
tinued to them on the fame conditions, otherwife it is tranf-
ferred to others.

If the revenue thus held of the grand fignior exceed
1 5,000 afpers, or 36/. fterling, they who hold it are not
called ;/mfl//o/j', h\it fubajfi, or zaims : thefe always have the
adminiftration of juftice in the place, under the fangiac of
the province.

The timariots have different appointments, from 4000
or 5000 afpers, equal to about 12/. fterling, to zo,ooo
afpers : but unlefs their timar exceed 8000 afpers, they are
never obliged to march, except when the grand fignior
goes to the army in perfon, on which occauon none are
exempted.

The origin of the timariots is referred to the firft fultans,
who, being mafters of the fiefs or lands of the empire,
erefted them into baronies or commanderies, to reward the
fervices of their braveft foldiers ; and efpecially to raife and
keep on foot a number of troops without diftjurfing any
money.

But it was Solyman II. that firft eftablifhed the order and
difcipline among thefe barons, or knights of the empire ;
and by his order it was, that the number of horfemen each
ftiould maintain was regulated.

This body has heretofore been not only exceedingly
powerful, but great and iUuftrious throughout all the em-
pire ; but avarice, the ordinary fault of the Orientals, has
occafioned their declenfion of late years.

The viceroys and governors of provinces manage their
matters fo at court, that timars, even out of their jurif-
diftion, are gi^en to their domeftics, or to fuch as will give
them the moft money for them.

There are two kinds of timariots, the one appointed by
the Porte, the other by the viceroy of the country ; but
the revenues of both are lefs than thofe of the zaims, and
their equipage and tents lefs in proportion.

Thofe who have their patents from the court, have from
5000 or 6000 afpers to 1 9,999 afpers per annum ; if they
have one afper more, they become zaims. Thofe who re-
ceive their patents from the viceroys, have from 3000 to
60CO afpers per annum.

This cavalry is better difciplined than that properly
called the fpahis, though the fpahis be the neateft and
briflieft. Thefe laft only fight in platoons ; whereas the
zaims and timariots are divided into regiments, and com-
manded by colonels, under the direftion of balhaws. The
baftiaw of Aleppo, when in the army, is colonel-general of
this militia.

TIMARISTAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Farfiftan ; 15 miles E. of Pafa.

TIMAVO, a river of Carniola, which runs into the gulf
of Triefte, near Duino.

TIMAVUS, in Ancient Geography, a fountain, lake,
river, and port of Venetia. '■

TIMBANG, in Commerce, ameafure at Batavia for rice,

pepper.

TIM

pepper, and other dry goods. It is reckor.ed at ten facks,
or five pikuls : another mcafure is called kuiack, and weighs
75f cattis : 7 kulacks make Oiie timbang, liquid meafiirc.

TIMBER, in Geography, a river of Pruirian Lithuania,
which runs into the N»moiiin ; 4 miles N.E. of Wipe. —
Alfo, a town of Pruffian Litliuania, 6 miles W. of In-
.fterburg.

T I M

but where fometimcs wet, and fometimcs dry, it rots
prefently.

The ufes of timber are fo many, and fo great, that the
procuring of a fnfficient fupply of it extremely well de-
ferves the care of every (late ; as it muil be a great dif-
advantage to it to be obliged to have recourfe to lU neigh-
bours, and purchafe, at a vi-ry conliderable and continually

TlM^KV., OT Timber-Trees, \n Rural Ecotwmy, X\i3,l ^ort oi renewed expence, what migiit, by an eafy economy, be
wood produce which is ufful and proper for the purpofes fufficiently iupplied at home.

of building, the conftruAion of tools, implements, carri
ages, Sec. ; or fuch large trees of different forts as have
reached their full or fuitable Hates of growth, and are in
fituations tit for b^ing cut down for ufe. The various
kinds of trees which are the mod ufefnl and important in
this intention, have been 'loticed and confidered in fpcaking
of the nature of common and other plantations and plant-
ing ; but they are chiefly the different forts of pines, the
larch, the birch, the common afh, the mouatain-alh, the
beech, the fycamore, the elm, the oak, the horfe and
common chefnuts, the alder, and the poplar. However,
in general, the oak, the afh, the elm, the larch, and the

This economy, however, mull be applied in time; for
our natural indolence, our love to reap the advantages of
every thing ourfelves, and our little care for pofterity, give
great room to fear fucceeding ages will want wood, both
for private and pubhc exigencies. All our arts fhould
be employed on this fubjeft, with two views, the one
to preferve and cherifh our growing wood, the other to
renew the trees which have been, and are continually cut
down.

The quantity of acorns which the oak bears, has made
many people fuppofc, that Nature has taken care for a re-
newal for us ; and that of this vafl quantity of feed, which

Scotch pine, are by much the moll ufeful and valuable for annually fall, there will be always an over-fufBcient fupply
" ■' ' "^ '^ '^ ' of young trees, which will grow up in the place of the

old ones : but experience proves, that this is by no means
the cafe. The greater number of thefe fallen acorns is
devoured by many different animals, for whofe nourifhment
Nature has provided that abundance of them : and of thofe
which efcape this fate, we are to confider how few can
come to good, from the natural accidents they are unavoid-
ably expofed to ; they fall on a covered ground, where
dead leaves, and decayed parts of branches of trees, ufually
prevent their touching the earth, into which they are to
(hoot ; or, if they can fhoot here, it is merely from the
furface, where they are, in their flow growth, hable, while
very tender, to all the inclemencies of frolls ; and add to
this, that it is very difficult for fuch tender plants as the
young feedlings of thefe to fijid room for growth or
nourifhment among the every-way fpreading roots of other
trees ; and the co.itinual (hade and want of free air, muft
render them very weakly and irregular in their growth,
even fuppofmg them to get over all the other difficulties.

It is very certain, that timber-trees of oak aie frequently
met with among the underwood of forefls ; but we (haU
always find this to be the cafe, not in the clofe places, but
in certain fpots, where there has been a vacancy or opening ;
and that ufually, where there are not, nor have at any time
been, oaks in the neighbourhood of the fpot. The acorns
that fall from the oaks ufually come to nothing from the
before-mentioned accidents ; and thefe trees which grow at
diflances, are owing to the acorns brought thither by birds,
and accidentally dropped there. This is an in fiance fami-
liarly verified, by obferving, that there are frequently little
bufhes near woods, which, though of white-thorn or other

all the different ufes of this nature.

We (hJl here mention from Evelyn's Sylva, &c. fome
of thofe kinds of timber that ai"e mofl ferviceable, and give
a brief view of the ufes to which they are applied, referring
to their feveral denominations and other collateral articles
for a further detail.
^ I. Oak, the ufes of which need no enumeration ; to en-
dure all f.'afons and weathers, there is no wood like it :
hence its ufe in pales, fhingles, pods, rails, boards, &c.
For water-works, it is fecond to none ; and where it lies ex-
pofed both to air and water, there is none equal to it.

2. Elm : this, felled between November and February,
is all fpine or heart, and no fap ; and is of Angular ufe in
places where it either is always wet, or always dry : its
toughnefs likewife makes it of ufe to wheelwrights, mill-
wrights, &c. ; nor muft it be omitted, that its not being
liable to break and fly in chips, makes it fit for dreffers and
planks to chop on.

3. Beech : its cfiief ufe is in turnery, joinery, upholflery,
and the like, as being of a clean, white, fine grain, not
apt to bend nor flit; it has been fometimcs, efpecially of
late, ufed for building-timber, and if it lie conftantly wet,
is judged to outlaft oak.

4. yljh : its ufe is almoft univerfal ; it is good for build-
ing, or other occafions where it may lie dry : it ferves the
carpenter, cooper, turner, ploughwright, wheelwright,
gardener ; as alfo it is ufed at fea for oars, handfpikes, &c.

5- Fir, commonly known by the name of eleal, is of late
much ufed in building, efpecially witliin doors, for flairs,
floors, wainfcot, and mofl works of ornament.

6. Walnut-tree: this is of univerfal ufe, excepting for

the outfides of buildings ; none is better for the joiner's ufe, trees, are ufually furrounded and ornamented with young

it being of a more curious brown colour than beech, and oaks ; the jays and the hke granivorous birds are the au-

kfs fubjedt to worms. ' thors of this crop ; for bringing the acorns from the ad-

7. Chefnut-tree, next to oak, is the timber mofl fought joining woods, to eat under thefe bufhes, they drop many
fior by joiners and carpenters. It is very lafling. by the way, which they do not trouble ihemfelves to look

8. Service-tree, uf d in joinery, as being ot a delicate for oji the ground, and which having here a freer ground to

grain, and fit for curiofities : it alfo yields beams of con-
liderable fize, rroper for building.

9. Poplar, abel: this and afpen, differing very little from
une another, are much ufed of late inllead of fir : they look
as well, and are tougher and harder.

10. Alder, much ufed for fewers or pipes to convey
water ; when kept always wet, it grows hard like a (lone ;

9

ftrike root into, and an open air to gr )w in, feldom fail of
coming to good, unlefs d 'flroyed when young.

In order to the prefervation of our growing timber -trees,
it would be a very ulcful law, tliat all w!io cut down any
number of oaks, (hould alfo leave a number in good con-
dition for after-cutting ; and that no timber ihould be cut
down, but at a proper age, in regard to the nature of the

foil;

TIMBER.

loil ; fince it is certain, that trees grow to their pcrfcftion
at very different periods of time, in proportion to the depth
of foil ihey have to grow in ; and that as it is, on the one
hand, not for the intercll of the ftate to fuffer trees to be
cut till at their perfeflion for fizc and foundnefs, fo after
they are arrived at their perfcaion, it is equally certain that
they gradually decay.

The quality of the foil the tree (lands in may be nccellary
to be obferved to this purpofe ; but the quantity or depth
of it is the great fubjedt of enquiry ; and a great number
of obfervations has proved, that the proper feafon for cut-
ting oaks, in a foil of two feet and a half deep, is at fifty
years old ; thofe which (land in a foil of three feet and a
half deep, fhould not be cut down before feventy years ;
and thofe which (land in a foil of four feet and a half deep,
or more than that, will increafe in goodnefs and in fr/.e
till they are a hundred years old ; and obfervation has
proved, that after thefe feveral periods, the trees begin to
decay.

This feems the bed rule to edablifli, in regard to the
common foils ; but thofe which grow in a lighter or more
fandy foil, may have their periods changed from thefe to
forty, to fixty, and to eighty years at the greateft depth ;
and after thefe times it is always bell to fell the wood meant
for public fcrvice, whether then wanted or not, fince it is
much better to keep it in public magazines, than to leave it
to be daily decaying.

Heaths, and other uncultivated places, where there is no
regular growth of wood, but where fern and ufelefs plants
alone fecm to flouritli, ufually a(rord alfo fome draggling
trees of the oak. Thefe probably have had their origin
from acorns dropped by birds ; but they feldom grow tall
or regular ; lince, not having been defended from the in-
juries of cattle, they are ufually browfed on, and dunted
while young, and fo become crooked and fhort-trunked,
or poUard-trees. Thefe, though not of fuch value as the
more regular oaks, yet deferve care, both with refpeft to
their prefervation and felling ; lince they afford a number of
trees naturally bent, and formed for many parts of (hip-
building.

The little care ufually taken of thefe trees, though on

this occafion of great value, feems to threaten a general lofs

of them ; but as trees, thus naturally crooked and bent,

are of value, it is a laudable attempt to try at the finding

of a regular method of producing fuch ; and this is eafily

prafticable, by following the fame methods by which thefe

wild ones become fo. They wholly owe their figure to the

cattle's biting off their tops while young, and afterwards

biting off again the tops of the (hoots from the fird wound.

In this manner, if a number of young trees, fet apart for

the experiment, have their tops cut off at two, four, fix,

eight, ten, and twelve feet from the ground, and four years

afterwards the (hoots from thefe Hunted tops are again cut

in the fame manner, the trees will be found afterwards to

grow up in aH the irregularly crooked figures that can be

conceived, and by this means a fupply of naturally crooked

wood may be raifed for all the occafions of (hip-building,

with infinitely greater eafe, and more certainty, than by the

method propoled by fome, of bending them down with

■weights tied to their tops while young. See Growth of

Crooked Timbek.

As to the fupply of young wood in the place of what is
cut down, there are fome circumdances vijihich have not had
the attention paid to them which they deferve. The fpring
frods, which come on at a tinie when the ftioots, by which
nature is to raife the fupply for what is cut down, are juft

preparing to grow, are of prodigious injury, and do not
lefs mifchief to thefe than to the young Ihoots of garden
plants, though the dillant hope of the fucceffion of the pro-
prietor, and ufually alfo the didance of the place, and want
of repeated obfervations, occafion its not being perceived.
This, however, may in a great meafure be guarded againd.
Frequent experiments and repeated obfervations prove, that
thi- mifchief done by thefu frods afieft in a much greater
degree thofe (hoots which are expofod to the fouth, than
thofe which face the north : and that it is greatly more
powerful againd fuch as are wholly expofed to the wind,
than againll fuch as are (lieltered. Thefe known circum-
dances may give the hint to a metliod of faving, at lead, a
great part of the wood to be felled from this dedruftion, to
its renewal, by the making it a rule to begin cutting down
on the north fide ; and, as the whole felling is a work of
fome years, the danding wood of every feafon will defend
the young (hoots of the newly-cut dumps the following
fpring, not only from the fouth expofure, but will (helter
them alfo from the wind.

Many prudent managers have made fine edates of their
coppice-woods, by regularly felling a certain portion every
year, and providing for a renewal of the fird cutting, againll
the felling of the lad portion, by proportioning the time of
growth to the quantity to be cut every year ; and there is
great intered to be made of a true knowledge of the growth
of wood in this manner. Whoever obferves the growth of
young trees, will find that the fecond year's growth is much
more confiderable than that of the fird ; the third year is
more than that of the fecond, and fo on for many years ; ths
yearly growths of young wood greatly increafing every fea-
fon up to a certain time or age of the tree, after which the
increafe in bulk, by growth, becomes gradually lefs. The

freat advantage to be made of coppice-wood, would be by
nowing this intereding period, and feizing on it, always to
cut down the trees jud at that time when they arrived at the
end of their quick growth, and fo fetting nature to work
with new (hoots, to employ the fame on enriching again the
owner. Regular obfervation and experiment alone can afcer-
tain this happy period ; but any man who has much coppice-
wood upon his edate, may afTure himfelf of it, by cutting a
given quantity every year, for ten years fucceffively, and
then carefully reviewing the differences of the yearly pro-
duce. Memoirs Acad. Scienc. Ann. 1739.

On the bufinefs of raifing and growing good timber, or
trees of that fort, Mr. Loudon has thrown out fome inter-
eding, ingenious, and philofophical hints and fuggedions, as
well as dated fome drong fails in confirmation of them, in
his work on forming and improving country refidences.
It is confidered as remarkable, that the matter has never
particularly engaged the attention of thofe who have been
employed in defcribing the methods of rearing trees. The
elFefts of culture on other vegetables is fo great, it is faid,
as always to change their appearance, and not unfrequently
to alter, in a confiderable degree, their nature. The com-
mon culinary vegetables, and cultivated gralfes, alTume fo
different an appearance in our fields and gardens from what
they do in a d,ate of wild nature, that even a perfon accuf-
tomed to the nature of plants might eafily be deceived in
regard to the fpecies or kind. The fame general laws oper-
ate upon the whole kingdom of vegetables ; and thence it
is thought plain, that the effefts of culture upon trees,
though different in degree, mud be analogous in their nature.
It is true, it is faid, that as yet we are poIfelTed of no great
number of either experiments or obfervations, to enabfe
us to determine with minute accuracy the precife extent

of

TIMBER.

of thefeeffefts ; but Ml a perfon praftkally converfant with
the fubjeA, who {hall pay attention to what he may notice
to be taking place in difrerent parts of the conntry, and
who pofllflts a fvifticiciiL knowledge of tiie vegetable king-
dom and phyfiologv to reafon from analogy, may, it is
thought, deduce fuch general conlequences, as will fuggeft
important practical rules and regulations.

It may be proper, it is faid, to remark, that by culture
is not meant merely the operations upon the foil, or on even
the form of the particular tree ; but every tiling that tends
to remove it from its natural ftate in order to accelerate vege-
tation. It is confidered too, that a tree is in a natural _/?«''
whenever it has fprung up fortuitoufly, and propagates itfelf
without aid from man : whether it he in crowded forefts,
woody wailes, or in fcattered groups on hills or commons.
Some trees and other vegetables may be faid to be natural-
ized to fituations which, but for art, they probably never
would have grown upon. Thus, for inftance, mountain
plants are fometimes found common in plains, and even
meadows ; and alpine trees which diffeminate themfelves in
level and warmer parts of the country : but then the perfon
who is converfant with fuch matters, by comparing the effefts
of thefe diiferent fituations on the vegetable, always knows
to feleft as general nalur- that which perfefts all the parts,
and where the foil and filuation are beft fuited for the repro-
du£tion of the fpecies or fort, and the prolongation of indi-
\ndual life. Thefe rules are, it is faid, founded in nature.
^ For example ; no perfon, judging from them, could miftake
I a warm Englifh common as the natural foil and lituation of
Scotch firs, though they not unfrequently diffeminate theni-
' felves there. It is, indeed, well known to every one in the
lead converfant with the vegetable economy, that in all hcr-
, baccous vegetables, and even (hrubs of confiderable fize, the
I effeft of removal to an improved foil, climate, and fituation,
, is to expand the parts of the whole vegetable : that the
' effefk of removing or cutting off part of the vegetable above
ground is to expand thofe parts which remain : that the
effeft of removing any of the parts under ground, or of
removing the whole vegetable into a colder chmate and lefs
congenial foil and fituation, is to contraft or confolidate
the whole. This, were it neceffary, could, it is faid, be
illuftrated in a thoufand inftances from the commonefl vege-
tables : but for the prefent purpofe, it is only neceffary to
notice further, that this takes place more or lefs in a degree
correfponding with the rapidity of the growth of the vegetable,
and its duration. Thus, all the annual graffes are much far-
ther removed from a ftate of nature by culture than the per-
i ennial ones. So are the annual garden vegetables, as cab-
, bages, legumes, and fpinach, in oppofition to ftrawberries,
. afparagus, and many others. Quick growing trees or (hrubs,
, as willows, rafpberries, and fome others, are alfo much eafier
' removed from their natural ftate, than fuch as oaks, thorns,
hollies, and heaths, which grow much (lower. If thefe
remarks and conclufions be juft and well-founded, which, it
, is fuppofed, none will deny, it muft follow that the fame
' general effefts take place more or lefs on all trees ; that
i when they are removed into a colder climate, or have part of
I their roots cut off, it will in fome degree contraft the fibre
of the wood, and render it a of more folid and hard texture ;
and that when they are removed into a warmer cliniate, have
moft of th-'ir branches taken off, or are placed in a better
■ Jlate, it muft, by accelerating their growth, it is thought,
tend to expand the fibre of the wood, and of courfe render
the wood fufter and more liable to fuffer by the aftion of
: the common elements, when the tree is cut down and applied
to ufe. That this does really take place, will, it is faid, be
gathered from the detached fads ftated below, which have

come to the writer's knowledge, and to which rvcry prac-
tical unprejudiced perfon, who has vifited different parts
of the kingdom, will, it is tlioi(ght, be able to add many
others from his particular obfervation, attention, and exa-
mination.

Firft, that every hedger and forefter knows, that furze and
thorns, which have been cultivated in fields or hedges, are
of a much fofter or wider grain, and are much eafier cut over
with the hedge-bill, than fuch as fpring up from feed in a
wild fcenery, and never undergo any fort of pruning or cut-
ting in, nor any kind of culture in any way. Tiiey know
too, that in a common to be cleared of furze or thorns, or
in a hedge to be cut over, there are fome parts which require
a much {lighter ftroke of the hedge-hill than others ; and
that thofe parts eafiefttocut, are uniformly thofe where the
plants have grown the quickeft : — gardcuL-rs experience the
fame thing in pruning or cutting over fruit-trees or (hiubs.
Thus the difference between the texture of ibe cultivated and
the wild rafpberry is, it is faid, ftriking, though the ilem of
the one is nearly double the thicknefs of that of the other.
In all the other of thefe cafes, the Hems of both are fup-
pofed alike in diameter and cleannefs, or abfeiice of knots ;
though the fame thing would, it is thought, take place ia
a confiderable degree, even if the ftem of the cultivated or
quick growing one were thicker than that of the other in
the wild ftate. Suppofing that there were no other proofs,
this, it is contended, clearly (hews that cultivation, or what-
ever tends toincreafe the growth of a tree, tends likewife to
expand the vegetable fibre. But there are other concurring
proofs, it is faid, which demonilrate this, and at the fame
time ftiew, what few, it is fuppoied, will doubt, that when
the vegetable fibre is expanded, or when the annual ringlets
or circles of wood, produced by a tree, are foft and larger
than the general annual increafe of fuch tree, the timber
muft be lefs hard, and more permeable by air, water, heat,
and other matters, and, of courfe, inferior for all the pur-
pofes of timber.

Secondly, that it is well known that the common oak in
Italy, where it grows fafter than in this country, is com-
paratively of {hort duration. And tliat the oak which grows
on the mountains of the Highlands of Scotland is much
harder and clofer than any produced in England, though on
thefe mountains it feldom attains one-tenth part of tiie fi^e
of Englilh trees. Every country carpenter in Scotland
knows, it is faid, the extreme difference between the dura-
tion of Highland and Enghfh oak for fpokes of wheels.
Many hedge-carpenters in both parts of the country know
the relative duration of tranfplanted or plantation oaks, that
is, the young oaks which are thinned out from thriving
plantations of this fort, and thofe from natural forefts, when
employed as pofts for railing. From different obfervations
which the writer has made in Monmouth(hire and Hereford-
ftiire, the duration of the oak in thefe counties, it is thought,
is much inferior to what it is in Cumberland and Yorkfliire :
it is thought no exaggeration, when it is faid that the differ-
ence is as eight to ten. Some timber dealers are known by
the writer, who, in purchafing it, pay attention to the differ-
ence of foil and fituation even in the fame woods. When
they can find oak in expofed fituations and on deep clay foil,
and afh on rocky fteeps, they always give them the preference
in their purchafes as timber.

Thirdly ; that a known faft is ftated by the writer which
is faid to be of fuch importance, that it is truftcd, if it does
not fatisfy every unprejudiced perfon in refpeft to the truth
of the general principles which are wiflied to be here laid
down and explained, it will at leaft arrcft the attention of all
thofe who are interefted in the quality as well as mere bulk

of

TIMBER.

of timber : and this, it is thought, may lead to more cxtcnfive
obfervauons.aiiJ perhaps more favoiiriible conclufions relative

to It.

The pla..tations of the timber kind which were made at
Kiunaird callle in the years ,770-1790, arc, it is faid, well
known in t!i north of S :;)tland. They were chiefly oj
deciduous tr.x-s, among which were generally introduced
larches for (lielter. Thclc lardies, in fome places, grow with
aftoniftiing rapidity. On many flopes, where the furface-foi!
was good though not deep, and the fub-foil a fandy gravel,
they advanced upwards of live feet a year for thefirft: fix 6r
eight years after being put in. As they overtopped and
crowded the deciduous trees, they were gradually felled ;
and as much had been faid about the durability of larch-
wood, the firft trees that were cut down were fawn up, and
applied to a purpofo which was perhaps, 5t is thought, one
of the bell telts of their dui-able properties. This purpofe
was the foot-paths of peach-houfes and vineries, where they
were expofed to alternate drought and moifture, heat and
cold, and where common deal and other kinds of wood had
repeatedly failed. The larch deal of thefe trees was, it is
ftated, apphed in the fame way as the others, and in lefs
than two years was completely rotten and deftroyed !

It may, it is conceived, be alleged by fome, that this
could only hold true in regard to the fap, or laft formed
wood : but the heart, or red central wood which was pre-
fent, though it laited longer, did not, it is affirmed, endure
three years ! The vaft number of thefe trees annually taken
down, were afterwards, it is faid, cliiefiy made ufe of as
fuel ; and though this wood had been afTerted not to flame,
or be confumed without the affiflance of other wood, it did
not, in this cafe, flame violently, but it burned by itfelfwith-
out care or attention, and iinaflifled from other timber-wood,
producing numerous fires for labourer's ufes. In rendering
U fit for this purpofe too, the workmen found it extremely
brittle, a tree a foot in diameter being often broken with
the greateft eafe, by means of two or three blows given writh
the back of the hatchet. The tops and fide-branches of
them were likewife remarkably light and brittle, as are known
to many perfons in that part of the country as well as this.
See Timber, Crooked Growth of.

Thefe fadls are faid to deferve a very ferious attention,
and to lead to very important conclufions, in refpeft to the
cultivation and growth of this tree as timber in this country.
They arc not folitary ones ; for though, as yet, fufficient
time has not elapfed for a fair trial of this wood in differ-
ent foils and fituations, yet fome have found it much lefs
durable than others ; and that an attentive, nice obferver
will, it is thought, perceive larch-trees in fome rich warm
fituations in a decaying ilate, and others growing fo rapidly,
or fo much fide-lopped or pruned, as to fuggefl doubts,
whether their duration will be much longer than thofe of
the above caflle.

And, fourthly, that in Scotland, the difference of dura-
bility between common fir-wood which has been of flow
growth, and that which has been forced, as it is termed,
cither by fhelter, advantageous foil, fituation, or chmate, or
by lopping off the fide-branches, is known to every car-
penter in the more northern parts of it, efpecially in the
diflriAs of Perth, Stirhng, and Argyle. There, it is faid,
they diilinguilh the wood cut as timber in the native forefls,
from that obtained in plantations, by calling the former
highland-fir, and the latter park-fir. The highland-fir is
mofl efteemed, on account of its greater durabiUty, being
frequently found undecayed in ancient buildings when other
forts arc entu-ely wafled. Thefe circumftances are ftrongly
fupportcd, it is thought, by Mr. Lambert, v/ho, in fpeak-

ing of the genus Pimu, has faid, that " this ftriking differ-
ence between the highland and park fir, is probably to br
attributed to the mountainous and rocky fituations in which
the native timber is found, and where, the trees being of
flower growth, the wood is confcquently of a harder tex-
ture." Tlie fame writer is of opinion too, it is faid, that
few fpecics of pines will endure more than forty years in
the foils in which they are commonly fet out or planted in
England. Indeed, there arc many proofs of this, it is
thought, from Croom, Kew, and other places ; thougli
there are fome excellent fir-trees at Langhangles, where
the foil is deep and cold, that are mucli older than that
period. The greater durability of the former fort of fir-
timber may be daily feen, it is faid, in the flill more
northern diftrifts of Aberdeen, BamfF, and fome others,
during the removal of old farm-houfes aud cottages ; as
wherever a piece of the highland-fir appears, it is always of
a much deeper yellow than the park or low country fir.
At Gogar, it is faid, fome large fir-trees were taken down
in 1795 ; they grew upon a deep cold loam ; the wood was
fawn up, and was found of excellent quality as timber.
About a mile from this, at Lenny Park, a Avy bank is
covered with fir-trees of greater age than thofe of the
former fituation ; fome of them have been taken down at
different periods before and fince that time, and have uni-
formly been found of inferior quahty as timbet-wood. In
1804, too, a number of fir-trees were taken down from the
rocky banks of the Almond, between Craigie Hail and
Cramond Houfe ; and they were found of excellent quality in
their wood. While at Bevelaw, there are extenfive plant-
ations of fir-trees, which have been often thinned ; but the trees
have grown fo fafl, and been fo much cut or pruned in the
branches, that they never laft long, it is faid, as paling«
All thefe cafes have either come under the writer's own par-
ticular notice, or that of a relation of his, who is highly iii-
terefted in the value of park-fir, and, of courfe, has paid a'
more than common attention to the matter. A great
number of other inftances might, it is faid, be here added,
but it is unnecefTary : and the comparifon of the wood of
the common crab, the father of the orchard, with that of
the cultivated apple, is in fupport of the fame. Any perfon
who will take the trouble to examine the fir -woods at
Gordon Caftle, and contraft them with others in the county
of Perth, and thofe in England, will, it is thought, unquef^
tionably come to thefe conclufions : that Jloiti gro'wth is ef-
fentially neceffary to the durability of fir-timber ; and that
wherever the accumulation of wood has been accelerated by
culture of the foil, improvement of the climate, or by cut-
ting and pruning, it is injured in quality in propoition to
the ratio in which thefe agents have been employed. It ia
not faid, that no branches fhould ever be cut from fir-trees,
but that it is certain that judgment muft direft to cut off,
in general only, fucti as indicate that they are no longer of
much ufe, which is eafily difcovered by marks of approach-
ing decay.

Much of the above principles, reafonings, and conclufions,
is probably, in fome meafure, equally applicable to other
forts of timber.

In the raifing and growth of timber of the fir or Scots
pine kind, it is found not well fuited to very elevated fitu-
ations, as the fharpnefs and keennefs of fuch expofures
bring it too quickly into a ftate of decay and death. The
writer of an agricultural furvey of one of the more north-
ern diftriSs of Scotland has remarked, that there is a kindl
of laminated clay, much difpofed to diffolve with water,
which is not favourable to the growth of this, or any of the
pine tribe, I^ fucceeds very well, i% is faid, however, iat <

mo|^

TIMBER.

moll parts of the clay ground of tliat traft, if care be taken
to prevent ftagnant water. It does exceedingly well too on
land covering the freeftone rock ; but that the hell timber
of this fort is produced on hard dry gravelly foils. But
that the Siberian pine, and fome others of a limilar nature,
have been introduced with very little fuccefs. The Ihort
intervals of mild weather which happen in the beginning of
the fpring, excite them to vegetate too early, and the next
cold blafl deftroys the young buds. The New England
pine thrives in a tolerable foil, until from twelve to twenty
years of age, in proportion to the nature of the expofure,
after which it generally begins to decay. And tliat the
fpruce is likewife un(it to weather the dorm on the greatcil
heights. It iucceeds on the hard dry rock where the Scots
pine dies, but frequently decays at the end of eighteen or
twenty years, on ftiff wet clay. Its moft favourite foil for
timber is that which is dry and gravelly. The fdvcr fir
thrives in clay foils, where the fpruce fails ; nor is it averfe
either to the hard rock or gravelly foil, which probably af-
fords the bed timber ; but it makes little or no progrefs on
aiiy foil that is very poor. It unfortunately too frequently
fuffers feverely from the frofty mildews of the fpring, efpe-
cially in its youth, or more early ftate of growth. How-
ever, the larix or larch is now found to be the mod: hardy
alpine plant. In moift places, it makes greater progrefs than
almoft any other timber-tree, and there is fcarcely any foil,
that is not drowned with water, on which it will not fuc-
ceed. It fuffers moft in too luxurious fituations, where its
foft (hoots, unable to keep ereft, bend away from the (light-
eft gale, and its timber produce is probably the worft. It
is hable while young, in fome fituations, to be much in-
jured or wholly deftroyed by early fpring frofts taking place
aft?r mild weather has brought on its vegetation, and is occa-
(lonally feized with difeafe, and dies when placed on miry
clay.

It is fuggefted that the birch is next to the larch in the
progrefs of its growth, and equal to it in ability to ftand the
blall in alpine fituations ; and that it is fuperior to it in the
plain. But in whatever fituation it is placed, ,it delights
molt in a light foil and dry bottom, probably producing in
fuch the beft timber-wood. It, however, thrives in moift
foils, with very moderate draining.

The aflt alfo, when it enjoys a fufficient depth of good
foil, is capable of braving the ftorm, and pulhing up its
head in the moft expofed (ituations ; however, in a thin
foil, covering a lliff argillaceous bottom, it can make no
progrefs. It notvvithftanding thrives well in fome marlhy
foils, where the banks are ftcep, fo that the water gets away
without ftagnating. On dry rocky fteeps, the timber is
probably the beft. It forms perhaps the moft important
wood in the country as timber, being ufeful in all its ages
and ftates, and lit for moft purpofes.

The mountain-alh is hkewife a hardy native, which grows
freely in almoft all foils and expofures ; but its favourite
(ituation feems to be in hanging banks, among woods and
coppices, where the timber-wood is perhaps the beft. This
and the gean-tree, or wild cherry, raife and propagate thcm-
felves much when left at liberty, by putting up or out
fuckers from their roots.

The beech is faid to come near to the afh in capability of
braving the ftorm, and has much the advantage of it in
thriving in poor or ftiff foils ; but there are fome barren
argillaceous bottoms too much even for the beech ; and it
is moft fuccefsful, and affords the beft timber, in friable
foils. Its (hoots, wthile young, are foon affedled by froft,
but the tree fpeedily recovers.

The fycamore and elm require a hglit foil, and a dry,
Vol, XXXV.

open under-ftratum : and when this is the cafe, the timber
is the beft, and the trees thrive in a fituation pretty mnch
cxpoft'd. They form good timber too on fome foils of a
heavier nature.

In regard to the oak, it is lefs patient of the blaft than
moft of the timber-trees of the foreft. Being late in put-
ting forth its leaves, it continues to grow till the feafon is
far advanced ; and the immature wood of its late (hoots,
unable to refill the piercing effefts of the cold wind in ex-
pofed fituations, withers before the next fpring ; fo that,
like Penelope's web, the progrefs of one feafon is undone
in the following. The moll favourable fituations for the
oak, as timber or otherwifc, are therefore hollows or hang-
ing (lopes, where the (harp cutting winds are broken by the
neighbouring heights. In fuch fituations, if ftagnant
moifture be avoided, it will thrive in the (liffcll foils, and
with its ftrong roots penetrate the deepell bottoms, afford-
ing good timber. Though the growth of this tree be flow
in infancy, when it is placed in a favourable fituation, it will
make a progrefs in the courfe of fifty years, httle inferior
to many other kinds, and at length arrive at a great fize of
timber. See thefe timber-trees.

It has been found that the horfe chefnut-tree thrives well
on the lower grounds, and deep foils only. The fweet
chefnut, which quickly becomes a timber -tree in diftrifts
more northern than this, does not fucceed here. Its feafons
of growth are too early, or too late, for the climate. In its
firft, it bears fome refemblance to the Siberian pine, &c. j
in its laft, to the oak ; its early growths being almoft;
as early as the former, and its later being nearly as late a&
thofe of the latter, and ftill more foft and fufceptible of the
cold. Hence its (hoots are alternately put forth and de-
ftroyed, and it generally becomes a low, ftunted, flirubby
trce. But this, it is faid, does not feem to have always been
the cafe. The fate of the common walnut, which may be
confidered almoft as much a timber as a fruit-tree, is nearly
the fame with that of the fweet chefnut. It probably af-
fords the beft timber on dry friable foils of fome depth.

The poplar and moft of that tribe delight moft in water-
formed foils, but are commonly averfe to mar(h, and, when
happily fituated, make quicker progrefs than almoft any
other forts of trees, producing much light ufeful timber.
See Chesnut, Walnut, and Poplar.

Management of Timber. — The rules and regulations fot
the management of fir and other timber-trees, which are
given below, deferve attention. Mr. Salmon, of Woburn,
in Bedfordlhire, who is in favour of much lopping or cut-
ting of the fide-branches of fir-timber, remarks, in a late
volume of the Tranfaftions of the Society of Arts, &c.
that confidering the purpofes that this fort of timber is
commonly applied to, it muft occur that clearnefs of knots,
ftraightnefs, length, and equality of fize of the trunk, con-
ftitute its perfeftion, and that, if deficient in all thefe, it is of
no value but for the fire. Next to thefe confvderations, and
the profpedl of an improved knowledge of raifing and cul-
tivating this kind of timber-wood, it may, it is faid, be a
fair queftion, if our own country be not capable of pro-
ducing this timber little or not at all inferior to foreign fir ?
In this country at prefent, fir appears, it is thought, not for
any length of time to have been confidered much otherwife
than as ornamental. For this purpofe they ferve only for a
certain time, which, when pall, it ha.s been their fate to be
cut dawn long before having attained maturity. But from
the great extent of ground now covered with this fort of
timber-tree, it is to be hoped, it is faid, that another century
may obtain to Englilh fir fome of the charafter of the oak
of the fame country : towards fuch an end, if attainable,
4 Q every

TIMBER.

rvfry means llwuld, it is faid, bo ufcd, and towards which
iiothmK appears more likely to fuccced, than a wcll-
KTOunded afncral pradical mode of manaKement. from the
fime of the tree, being pt.t out, to their grealcft imaginable
aee of improvement. That a knowledge of fuch may by
pcrfcveraHce be gained, is not, it is faid, much to be doubted,
as from different fpecimens there appears great reafon to
conclude, that early and proper fide-lopping the branches,
and thinning out the young trees, will form a confiderable
feature in the plan and fyftem to be adopted and purfued.

The fubfequent plan and rules for the general manage-
ment in thefe ctfcs.are giren as the partial refult of prafti-
cal experience, but of only a few years' obfervations.

In the railing of this fort of timber, from every authonty
and obfervation, there can be no doubt, it is thought, that
all tlrs (liould be fet out or planted thick or near together, as
not more than four or five feet apart. That where tirs of the
fame kind are put out together, there is lefs lofs of plants, too,
from one fort not overgrowing and deilroying the others ;
conlequcntly, that it appears advifeable that all the different
forts ihould be fet out feparately by themfelves. If any
admixture at all be admitted, the Scotch fir and larch may,
oerhaps, bell fucceed together ; but this is not certain, and
they will unqueftionably be beft feparate on two accounts ;
firft, becaufe they are not fo likely to injure each other ;
and, fecondly, becaufe the larch may be put into the foil
bell fuitcd for it, and the Scotch fir the fame. And that in
r.iiGiig any particular fort cxtonfively, it may be right to
lijve a few of the fpruce fort, or others, on the out or
expofed fides, to prevent mifchicf from fudden gufts or
blalls of wind : but if the fituation be not liable to fucli
gufts, tlie fpruce had better be omitted, being mechanical
agents only, and, by excluding the fun and air, aft againft
the operations of nature. However, in thefe hints, orna-
ment is not, it is faid, confidered, but only timber : if the
former be wanted, and profit alfo, then the fpruce, the
larch, the filver, and fome other forts, may be combined.

It is contended, that from fome years' obfervations on cut-
ting out and fide -lopping the branches, and the effects thereof,
it appears certain that fir-trees, wlienever they arrive at a
certain age, (hould be cut or lopped to a certain height ;
and that for regulating thereof, the fimple rule given below
is recommended : the cutting-in to commence when the
trees are fix years old, or when there is difcernible five tier
of boughs and the (hoot ; the three lower tier of boughs
are then to be taken off. After the firft lopping or cutting-
in, the trees to be let alone for four or five years, and then,
and at every fucceeding four or five years, the cuttings-in to
be repeated, till the ftemof the tree be clear to forty feet high,
after which, as to fuch fide-lopping, it may be left to nature.
The rule for the height of thinning and cutting-in, after the
firft time, to be half the extreme height of the tree, until
they attain twenty years' growth, and after that time, half
the height of the tree, and as many feet more as it is inches
in diameter at four feet from the ground. This cutting-
out and retrenching the branches of fuch trees is known,
from repeated obfervations, it is faid, not to be exceffive ;
and that the rule is calculated to check the too tapering
top, and for ftrengthening the flender bottom, by carrying
the cutting and retrenching to a greater proportionate
degree, in a ratio compounded of the height and bottom
bulk ; and by this rule, too, it may be obfcrved, that the trees
will be at top clothed with fomewhat lefs than half their
branches. The proper time for fuch cutting-in is, it is
faid, between September and April, and the tool to be
employed in the bufinefs, the favv.

It is noticed, that orderly thinning the trees at certain
5

periods, vvhen for timber, is the next effcntial to that of
cutting in and lopping their fide -branches ; and that for thii
purpofe, obfervations have been made on the moil orderly
and thriving coUefticns of this fort of trees, and the fubfe-
quent fimple rule is laid down : keep the diftance of the
trees from each other equal to one-fifth of their licight. In
the application of this rule to this purpofe, it is evident
that each individual tree can never be made to comply, for
the original diftance (even if fet out in the moll regidar
order) will allow only for certain modifications, by taking
out every other tree, and fo on ; but even if the obtaining
fuch equal diftance were prafticable, experience would (hew,
it is thought, that another way Ihould be preferred, of
which the eye niuft be the judge, by taking out fuch trees
as are leaft thriving, ftand neareft to other good trees. Sec.
&c. at the fame time keeping in view the rule laid down :
the direftions and rules for which, given below, may
cafily be proved, by ineafuring a chain fquare, or any
quantity of the land, and counting the trees thereon ; then,
by trying the height of tw o or three trees in that quarter, Sild
taking one-fifth of fuch for the diftance, it would be readily
feen how many trees for timber lliould be contained in the
piece meafured : or the praftice may be more finiply regu-
lated, it is faid, by taking the diftance of eight or ten fuch
trees added together, the average of which fliould he equal
to a fifth of the height of the trees. In thefe rules and
direftions there is nothing imprafticable or complicated, it
is thought.

The writer ftates, too, that he has for years known the
expence and produce of this fide-trimming alone, and finds
that in Bedfordfliire the produce of it doubly repays the
charge or coft ; and that although fome experimentaliftj
may differ from him, or time may (liew fome reafon for
fomewhat deviating from his rule, it is prefumed all will
agree that fome fimple plan is advifeable, inftead of having
timber colleftions and woods mifmanaged, to the great lofs
of the community and their proprietors. If fuch a plan of
proceeding, as is here propofed, be generally promulgated,
if not perfeft, it will moft hkely, it is thought, in time become
fo, and thereby have its advantage ; and in order to promote
this, thefe concluding remarks are given : in the common
courfe of gardening, it is underftood that cutting and trim^
ming invigorate the tree ; that taking off the fide-branches
makes the upright ones {hoot the ftronger ; and by cutting
out the dead and decayed wood, the tree is kept alive :
fome of this doftrine will, it is fuppofed, certainly apply to
the tribe of firs ; it will certainly, too, fubftitute clean
timber-wood for knots : and of all this treatment, from
their particular ufes, they of all other trees ftand in moil .
need, and will be the moft improved by it. And that
(hould it be admitted that the like treatment would on the
fir, as well as other ti-ees, produce the hke effeft, it would
lead to a well-grounded expeftation that, as v^'ell as pro-
ducing clearnefs from knots, ftraightnefs, and length, the
fame operation would advance the quality nearer to that of
foreign fir ; for it may be traced, that where trees are tall
and clear of boughs or knots, the whole fubftance of the
wood is better and of finer grain, and that it appears hkely
that fuch will always be the cafe ; the reafon of which
may probably, it is thought, be inferred from the fap
having farther to rife and defcend, and having ho boughs
to divert or delay it, the circulation muft be more free and
rapid, moft increafe be left in the neighbourhood of the
boughs at the top of the tree, and leaft on the fides at the
lower part, confequently adding to the length of the head,
and rendering mere fine each annual increafe to the body ;
thereby producing a ciofe-grained, clean, long, and regular

eafy-

TIMBEll.

eafy-tapering ufeful piece of timber, inllead of a coarfe-
gi-ained, lliort, fudden-tapering trunk, witii a quantity of
bougl'.s and knots.

The foregoing rules, direftions, and obfervations, are
meant, it is faid, to apply to fir-timber only, but to a
certain extent they may be applied to other timber ; though
by no means in the fame degree or age. But if had recourfe
to as far as the firft fourteen years of their growth, and
then fuch cutting and fide-lopping be altogether omitted,
and the thinning out very much increafed, any collcftion
of fuch timber -trees would, it is thought, be rendered much
more valuable than if left to nature.

The firft of the above writers has, however, already Hated,
that the general effefts of fide-cutting or lopping the
branches of fir, and probably fome other timber-trees, are
of a correfpouding nature with that of culture ; that is, to
jncreafe the quantity of timber produce. And that the
particular manner in which it docs this, is by direAing the
greater part of the lap, which commonly fpreads itfelf in
the fide -branches, into the main ftem. This muft, of courfe,
necefl'arily enlarge that ftem in a more than ordinary degree,
by increafing the annual layers or circles of wood.

Now if the tree happen to be in a worfe foil and climate
than thofe which are natural to it, this will, it is fuppofed,
be of fome advantage, as the extra incrtafe of timber will ftill
be of a quality not inferior to what would take place in its
natural ftate ; or, in other words, it will agree with that
ftate of quahty and quantity of timber which the nature of
the fpecies, or fort of tree, admits of being produced. But
if the tree be in its natural ftate, the annual increafed pro-
duce of timber occafioned by this cutting or lopping the
fide-branches, muft necefiarily injure its quality, in a degree
correfpouding with the increaled quantity. And if the
tree be in a better climate and foil than that which is natural
to it, and at the fame time the annual increafe of wood be
promoted by fuch cutting means, it is evident, it is faid,
that fuch wood muft be of a very indifferent quality from
that produced in its natural ftate.

Confequently, although it might, in fome degree, it is
fuppofed, be fhewn from vegetable anatomy, and the ana-
logy of what takes place in herbaceous vegetables, it is
preferred to deduce, from the fafts ftated above, this propo-
fition : that whatever tends to increafe the wood in a greater
degree than tvhat is natural to the fpecies or kind when in
its natural ftate, muft injure the quality of timber. Cutting
or lopping the fide-branches tends to increafe this in a con-
fiderable degree ; and, therefore, it muft, it is thought, be
a pernicious praftice, in fo far as it is ufed in thefe cafes.

It has been (hewn, it is faid, in a very ftriking manner
by Mr. Knight, that timber is produced, or rather that the
alburnum, or fap-wood, is rendered ligneous, by the motion
of the tree during the defcent of the true fap. It is fuffi-
ciently known, too, to all who have attended to the phy-
fiology of vegetables, and greatly confirmed by fome expe-
riments not long ago communicated to the Royal Society
by the fame writer, that the folid texture of the wood
greatly depends upon the quantity of fap, which mutt
iieceftarily defcend, and likewife on the flownefs of its
defcent. Now both thefe requifites are, it is contended,
materially increafed by fide-fhoots or branches, which retain
a large quantity of fap, and by their junftion with the ftem
occafion a contraftion and twifted direftion of the vcfTels,
that obftructs the progrefs of this juice. That this is true
in faft, is well known to thofe accuftomed to make wine
frorn maple or birch trees, as in this bufinefs it is found
that thofe trees which have the fevveft fide -branches, bleed
more freely than the others, but during a much (horter

fpacc of time. Thefe hints, confequently, afford additional
evidence againft the practice of cutting or lopping the fide-
branches of timber-trees, and efpecially againft that of
ufing it for fir-trees, which, as the above writer juftly re-
marks, it is faid, have larger veffcls than moil others, and
therefore, when in an improved foil and cUmate, fide-branthes
for the above purpofes are cftentially iieceffary, if folid,
refinous, and durable timber be the object in view.

The following conclufions may, of courfe, it is thought,
be drawn in refpeft to the management of timber-trees from
the above fafts and remarks. Firft, that timber-trees (hoiild
be fet out in foils, fituations, and climates, as much as pof-
fible analogous to thofe of their natural ftate : and that it
is chiefly in this ftate, or where there are fome defcfts in
regard to them, that fuch cutting or lopping and culture
can be exercifed with advantage. Secondly, that in pro-
portion to the fuperiority of the foil, &c. in which trees arc
put, over the natural foil of fuch trees ; in the fame propor-
tion lopping and cviltivating the foil ought to be avoided,
and thinning encouraged. Thirdly, that particular regard
fliould be had to the foil and fituation, where either larches
or any of the pine tribe are placed out to remain finally for
produce as timber : for as the roots of thefe chiefly run
along the furface, and as in them the great current of the
fap is principally confined to one channel, that is, the trunk,
that tribe of trees is, of courfe, peculiarly liable to change
when fubjefted to unnatural agency of thefe kinds. Fourthly,
that the only way in which oak-timber oi fafe quality can
be raifed and provided for the navy of this country, is by
inclofing, preferving from cattle, and properly managing,
thofe royal forefts where oak is the natural produce of the
foil. The negleft of this advice, there is reafon to fear, it
is faid, may at fome future day be regretted. For park-
oak, as has been feen, is by no means unfrequently much
inferior to that of the foreft kind in durability. And that,
laftly, as the praftice advifed tends to render trees charac-
teriftical of their pecuUar fpecies or kind, it muft confe-
quently be the moft agreeable to ornament too, or the
principles of natural tafte.

The neceflity of confidering, thus fully, this branch of
the management of timber-trees is, becaufe the matter feems,
it is faid, to have been almoft entirely overlooked by prac-
tical men, who appear, in general, to think culture and
lopping, or cutting-in, of no other utihty than to increafe
the produce in the quantity of timber. Though they are
not, however, to be difcarded in many other views, yet if
folid and durable timber be the objeft, they ought, it is
thought, to be had recourfe to with caution, and in a dif-
criminate manner. As a contrary plan of proceeding has
been attempted to be enforced by fome, as has been feen, it
is thought neceftary to aroufe the attention of the country
to the raifing and improved management of the important
article of timber, efpecially as the confequences of that plan
are fuppofed to be more dangerous, as they cannot eafily
difcover themfelves until it be too late to apply a remedy.

In the management of timber-trees of the deciduous kinds,
the lopping, cutting-in, and thinning, ftvould be praftifed, in
fome meafnre, on the fame principles as the above, but ac-
cording to the particular nature, circumftances, and habits
of growth of the different forts ; being conftantly executed
in fuch a manner, as to prevent any injury or inconvenience
arifing by the too extenfive growth of the lateral ftioots or
branches, thefe being too few in number for the proper re-
tention of the fap ; and without the trees being left at too
great a diftance, and too naked and expofed. The trees for
timber too are always to be kept clear of all foul wood, and
any branches to be removed, taken off in a clean, c«reful, up-
4Q ? ward

TIMBER.

ward diroAion, as where the parts arv left in any way rug-
ged or uneven, they are liable to catch and detain the wet
and moilhire, and conduct it to tlie hearts of the trees, by
which they are not only greatly hurt in their growths, but
often much fpoiled as timber-wood, 'nietliinning ot the trees
for timber (hould be performed at diflerent iuitable periods,
fo as to prevent too much crowding, and afford proper
room for the full growth and increai'e of their wood, on the
principles laid down above. Sec PiiUMNG and Tjiinnixc;.
Sir Humphrey Davy has remarked in a late work, that
trees poffefling the firmell and the lead porous heart-wood,
arc the longcll in duration. That, in general, the quantity
of charcoal afforded by woods, offers a tolerably accurate in-
dication of their durability : thofe moil abundant in char-
coal and earthy matter are moll permanent ; and thofe that
contain the largell proportionofgafeous elements are the moff
dellruclible. That, amongft our own trees, the chefnut
and the oak are pre-eminent as to durability ; and the chefnut
,-iffords rather more carbonaceous matter than the oak. That,
in old Gothic buildings, thefe woods have been fometimes
millaken one for the other ; but they may be eaiily known
by this circumllance, that the pores in tlie alburnum of the
oak are much larger and more thickly fet, and are eafily dif-
tinguilhed : whilll the pores in the chefnut require glaffes to
be feen diftindlly. That, in confequence of the flow decay
of the heart-wood of the oak and the chefnut, thefe trees,
under favourable circumffances, attain an age, it is faid,
which cannot be much fliort of a thoufand years. The
beech, the a(h, and the fycamore, moft likely, never live
half fo long.

It is noticed too, that the oak and chefnut decay much
fooner in a moift fituation than in a dry fandy foil ; and
that tlieir timber is lefs firm. The fap-veffels, in fuch cafes,
;ire more expanded, though lefs nouriffiing matter is carried
into them ; and the general texture of the formations of
wood neceffarily lefs firm. Such wood, it is faid, fplits
more eafily, and is more liable to be affefted by variations in
the ftate of the atmofphere.

The lame trees, in general, are likewife much longer
lived in the northern than in the fouthern climates. The
reafon of which feems to be, it is thought, that all fermenta-
tion and decompofition are checked by cold ; and that at
very low temperatures, both animal and vegetable matters
altogether refift putrefaftion : and in the northern winter,
not only vegetable life, but likewife vegetable decay mull
bQ at a (land.

The antiputrefcent quality of cold climates is, it is faid,
fully illuftratcd in the inllances of the rhinoceros and mam-
moth lately found in Siberia entire, beneath the frozen foil,
in which they moft probably have exilled from the time of
the deluge.

Trees that grow in fituations much expofed to winds, have
harder a«d firmer wood than fuch as are confiderably (hel-
tercd. The denfe lap is determined, by the agitation of the
fmallcr branches, to the trunk and large branches ; where
the new alburnum formed is confequently thick and firm :
fuch trees abound in the crooked limbs fitted for forming
knee-timber, which is neceffary for joining the decks and
the fides of (hips. The gales in elevated fituations gradually
act fo as to give the tree the form beft calculated to refill
their effefts. And the mountain oak rifes robuft and
Iturdy ; fixed firmly in the foil, and able to oppofe the full
torce of the tempeft.

Different ftates of timber are chofeii for different ufes,
1)Ut the above writer remarks, that (hip-builders prefer for
iheir purpofes that kind of oak-timber afforded by trees
*b;!t have had their bark flripped off in the fpring, and

2

which have been cut in tlie autumn or winter following'
The reafon of the fuperiority of this timber is, it is thought,
that the concrete fap is expanded in the fpring in the fprout-
ing of the leaf; and the circulation being deftroyed, it is
not formed anew : and the wood, having its pores free from
faccliarine matter, is lefs liable to undergo fermentation from
the attion of moillure and air.

It mull, however, be confideied as very extraordinary,
that in a country where the navy is a matter of fuch vaft im-
portance, and in dillritls where the oak, or other forts of
timber-wood ufeful for the fame purpofe, may be faid to
be almoll the ftaple articles, no complete or fatisfadory
trials ftiould have yet ever been made of the means of in-
crcafing the duration of fuch timber, which are moftly fo
readily practicable, and fo very material in their confequences.
Felling ofTlmbsr. — The proper periods or times of cutting
down, or making/aZ/j- of timber, as they are often called,
muft evidently, in fome meafure, depend upon and be regu-
lated by the nature and the differences in the circumftances
of the growths of the fame or different kinds of trees. But
as in them, as well as other living matters, there feem to be
three Itages of growth ; as that of their early rifing, their
middle mature ftate, and that of their decline or decay ; they
may ferve as more fatisfaftory guides in the bufinefs. In
the firft, the growth is moitly loft and rapid ; in the fecond,
it becomes firm, ftrong, and perfeA ; and in the lall, it be-
gins to become weak and unfound. Mr. Loudon has con-
fidered the beginning of the middlemoft of thefe ftages as
the moft profitable period or feafon for felling of timber ; as
after that time, though the tree may appear found and
healthy, its annual increafe is fo little, that the cutting it
down and replacing it may be more beneficial than letting
it remain. The number of years that a tree may ftand be-
fore it arrives at fuch a ftate, muft, it is faid, vary in dif-
ferent foils, fituations, and expofures ; but the period itfelf
may readily and without difficulty be afcertained, — by the
annual (hoots, the ftate of the bark, and by taking the
circumference of the tree at the fame place for two or three
fucceffive feafons, and comparing the difference. In the view
of profit from timber produce, it is of material confequence,
it is faid, to cut down fuch coUeftions of trees at maturity,
or in their vigour and perfection, which, fome fuppofe, for
the oak, where the foil is natural, is from about the age of
fifty to fixty or feventy years' growth. Many trees will ftand
a half, others a whole century after they are full grown,
appear quite healthy, and, at the fame time, make httle or
no increafe of timber. There are particular cafes too, de-
pending on the nature aud ftate of the markets, in which it
may even be more profitable to cut limber before it is ar-
rived at a full gro«'th tlian afterwards.

It may be difficult, it is thought, to fay when timber,
which is principally planted for ornament, (hould be cut
down. A tree, when young and frefh, is beautiful ; when
middle-aged, it is more or lels pifturefque ; when in old age,
ilrikingly fo, with a degree of grandeur ; and its greateil
height of pifturefquenefs and fubhmity, is when decaying
under the preffure of age. Hence it is conceived, that if
ornament, or expreflion, which is a more appropriate term,
were the fole objeCl in view, trees need almoil never be cut
down. But moll perfons have a feeling of what is beautiful ;
and though all may be ftruck with grandeur or fublimity,
few have fo much enthufiafm as to facrifice the profit of va-
luable timber, for the pleafure of enjoying either of thofe
charadlers.

The time and manner of cutting umlerivood and under-
gfowlh will be feen under thefe heads.

There are perfons in this country, who, unqueilionably

from

TIMBER.

from negleft &nd mifmanagement of their timber, are now, it n\iary, in which cafe it will be all Iieart, at lead the fap will
is faid, Tofing annually very handfonie incomes. The lofs of be very inconfiderable : this, he adds, is alfo the only good

price which generally follows the refufal of a good or high
offer, the certain lofs of intcreft, the decay of timber, and the
injuries arifing from the incumbrance of full-grown trees, are
irretrievable loffes, which thofe who have the care and ma-
nagement of timber fliould ftudioufly endeavour to avoid.
But while the difadvantages of futfering timber to Hand until
it be overgrown are thus held out, it is far from proper or
advifeable to propofe or favour the premature felling of it.

The feafon of the year for this work ufually commences
about the end of April ; becaufe the fap then rifes, which
makes the bark run freely, as it is technically termed ; that
is, iljlrips off the trees freely ; fo that where a quantity of
timber for ordinary ufes is to be felled, the ftatute i .lac. I.
c. 22. formerly required it to be done between the ill of
April and the laft of June, for the advantage of tanning :
but this aft was repealed by 48 Geo. III.

However, the opinions and praftices of authors are very
different as to the belt feafon for felling timber : Vitruvins
recommends an autumnal fall ; others advife December and
January : Cato was of opinion, that trees fhould have borne
their fruit before felled ; at leaft, that their fruit fhould be
flrll ripe ; which coincides with the fentiments of Vitruvius.
In effeft, though timber unbarked be mofl obnoxious to
worms, yet we find the wild oak, and many other kinds, if
felled too late, when the fap begins to be full, to be very
fubjedl to worms ; whereas about mid-winter, it neither
calls, rifts, nor twines. If trees were felled at a more early

feafon for felling alh. Some authors add farther, that in
felling timber, care Ihould be taken, firfl, only to cut it
into the heart, and fo to let it Hand till dry ; by which
means the moiflure is evacuated in drops, which would
otherwife occafion putrefadlion.

M. de Button obferves, as a circumflance which greatly
increafes the flrength and folidity of timber, that the trees
intended to be felled for fervice, fhould firfl be flripped
round of their b.irk, and fuffered to Hand and die upon the
fpot before the cutting. The fappy part, or blea of the
oak, becomes by this management as hard and firm as the
heart, and the real flrength and dcnfity of the wood has
been proved by m.iny experiments to be greatly increafed
by it : nor is this pratlice detrimental to the proprietor, be-
caufe the remaining flumps of thefe trees fend up their young
fhoots as vigoroufly, as if they had been cut down in their
natural condition. Mem. de I'Acad. Sc. Par. 17^9.

When any tree is to be cut down for timber, the firfl thing
to be taken care of is a fkilful dilbranching fuch limbs as may
injure it in its fall. In felling the tree, it fhould always be
cut as clofe to the ground as poffible, unlefs it is intended
to be grubbed up ; and this will be of advantage both to
the timber and the wood ; for timber is never fo much va-
lued, if it be known to grow out of old flocks.

There are feveral different modes made ufe of in felling or
taking down timber, and they mull neceffarily be fomewhat
various, according to the nature, extent, and kind, of which

feafon than April, it is faid that the timber would be better the colleftion may be, as well as in the methods of perform-

feafoned

It is, indeed, the common opinion, that timber which
is felled in winter, is flronger, and more falling, as being
more firm and clofe, than that which is felled in fummer.
But M. Leeuwenhoeck apprehends that there is no differ-
ence, except in the bark, and outermofl ring of the wood,
which in the fummer are fofter, and more eafily pierced by
the worm : wood conllfling of hollow pipes, which, both
in fummer and winter, are full of moiflure, and do not fhrink
in winter ; and therefore the wood cannot be clofer at one
time than another, for if otherwife, it would be full of cracks
and clefts. The unexpefted and fudden rotting of fome
timber, he conceives to proceed from fome inward decay in
the tree before it was felled : having obferved all trees to be-
gin to decay at firfl in the midft or heart of the tree. Phil.
Tranf. N^ 213. or Abr. vol. i. p. 592.

The ancients had a great regard to the age of the moon
in the felling of their timber. If their rules avail aua;ht,
they are thefe : fell timber in the wane, or four days after
new moon ; fome fay, let it be the lafl quarter. Phny
orders it to be in the very article of the change, which hap-
pening on the lafl day of the winter folftice, the timber, fays
he, will be immort.al : Columella fays, from the twentieth
to the twenty-eighth day : Cato, four days after the full :
.Vegetius, from, the fifteenth to the twenty-fifth, for fhip-
timber ; but never in the increafe, trees then mofl abound-
ing with moiflure, the only fource of putrefaftion.

Some even have a regard to the temper and time of the
day ; the wind to be low, neither eafl nor wefl, neither in
frofl, wet, nor dewy weather, and finally, never in the fore-
noon.

Laflly, fome regard is had to the fpecies : fir is bell felled
when it begins to Ipring, both as it then quits its coat beft,
and as the wood, according to Theophraflus, is by that
means rendered wonderfully durable in water. Elm, fays
Mr. Worlidge, is to be felled between November and Jar

ing the work : thus, in groves of the deciduous timber kind,
the trees are moflly bell felled by gradually taking or
thinning them out as they arrive at maturity ; which, wliere
they are to be continued, Ihould be cut over by the furface
of the ground, and the flools be each feparately well fenced
in, that by defending them from cattle, new trees may be
produced ; but when not defigned to be continued, they
may at once be rooted out. Groves of the fir or pme fort,
or any fingle fir-tree of any kind, fhould at once be taken
out by the roots. In woods, any timber-trees that may be
cut down, fhould have their places as nearly as poffible fup-
pliedby fapphngs, or any other proper forts of young timber-
trees. However, previous to the work of fcUing, the trees
fhould be marked by a proper perfon ; in performing which,
in a fall of timber, regard is to be had to the relative flate of
flanding in the trees. In clofe timber-woods, the whole or
nearly the whole may be marked and taken down ; as if
fome which appear flourifhing be left flanding, they will not
only be liable and in danger of being hurt in taking the
others down ; but, in confequence of their fituation in regard
to expofure being changed, will no longer continue to
flourifh. As their atmofphere is not only thus altered, and
rendered too cool, perhaps, for their acquired habit, by the
removal of the adjoining trees ; but they thereby get room
to throw out fide-fhoots from their flems ; in confequence of
which their tops die, and their growth is irrevocably Hinted.
While, on the contrary, in open woods of the fame kind,
thin hedge -rows, and other open fpaces, fuch timber-trees
only as are ripe for the axe, or arc fuitable for the intended
pnrpofe, fliould be marked : the youthful growing trees
being left to be benefited mofl probably by an increafe of
air and head room, in an atmofpliere and expofure to which
they are habituated and accullomed. On eflates that are
timbered, it is dircded that they fhould he frequently gone
over by proper ptcfons, who, let the price and demand for
timber be whal lliey may, fliould mark cvPry tree which

wears

TIMBER.

wears the appeirance of decay. Who-e the demand is briflv
and the price hi^h, lie Ihould ro two fteps further, and marie
not only fueh as are full ^own, but fucVi alfo as are neai"
perfeAioTi ; for the intercS of the money, tlie difincum-
brance of tlie approaching younjr timbers, and the com-
parative advantages of a good market, are not to be bartered
for any increafe of timber which can reafonably be ex-
pected from trees in the lad Itage of tlicir growth.

In the work of felling timber, three diftmft methods are
prac\ifed and had recourfe to in different cafes ; as, firft, that
of cutting the trees aiovi ground; fevering tliem from
their roots, by means of the axe or the faw ; leaving what
are termed Jlools, to occupy the fpots where they Hood.
Second, that of cutting them, within tlie ground, with the
axe and mattock ; but leaving the principal parts of the
roots in the foil. And third, that of grubbing them up by
the roots, by the ufe of the fpade and mattock; thus throw-
ing them down with the butts and large roots adhering to
the ftems. Tiie preference to be given to one or other of the
two firft modes of taking down timber-trees, refts, it is faid,
chiefly on the nature of the future application of the land
upon which they grow. If it be intended to remain in the
ftate of woodland, the firft n.ethod, or the fecond, if too
much of the main roots be not cut away, is the beft and
moft ehgible. But if the land is to be cleared for the pur-
pofes of agriculture, where fufficient hands can be had for
difpatcliing the bufmefs, the fecond is, by far, the beft.
The laft is improper in moft cafes.

The writer of the rural economy of the midland
diftricts ftates, that there the methods of Jlocking, axe-
grubiing, and axe-falling are praftifed. That the firft is a
kind of partial grubbing, in which the roots are cut through
a foot or more from the ftem ; and, again, a foot or more
from the inner cutting ; taking up a ftiort length of the
thickeft part of the roots, and digging a trench round the
tree, wide enough to come at the downward roots. That
the fecond, or axe-grubbing, is fomewhat fimilar to the mode
of grub-felling defcribed below, except that the end of the
butt is left larger in thefe places than in that cafe. And
that the third, or axe-falling, is the common method of
Yorkdiirc, and other places, of cutting off above ground,
with the axe ; a method which is feldom praftifed, except
ii! fome few cafes where another crop of timber, or of
coppice-wood, is defigned to be taken. Stocking is the
prevailing mode ; — the charge for taking down varying with
the fize of the tree : for a tree of two feet in diameter, it is
about a (hilling ; and about four-pence more for cutting off
the butt ; the ftocking and butting being, for the moft part,
let together. Other modes, too, are praftifed in other dif-
trifts in performing the bufinefs ; as that of fawing the trees
off in an horizontal manner clofe by the furface of the
ground, by means of a long faw with one or both handles
fixed on the upper fide, the trees being firft dipped in by
the axe on the tailing fide.

The method of faJhng timber praftifed in the county of
Norfolk, is faid, by the fame writer, to be uniform, and
perhaps pecuhar to the county. It is very aptly called
grub-felling ; the operation partaking both of grubbing and
of felling with the axe, in the common way above ground ;
a method which is wafteful of timber. The woodman of
this diftrift, therefore, fells below the furface of the ground,
by cuttnig off the horizontal roots clofe to the ftem, which,
inftead of ftjortening, he, in effeft, lengthens, by adding to
It a conical point, cut out of the crown of the root ; fo that
by this way of proceeding, a greater length of timber is
obtamed, than by firft grubbing and afterwards cutting off

the butt witli A faw. Grub-felling is, it is thought, with-
out doubt, the moft eligible way of taking down hedge-row
timber ; and this, it is fuppofed, accounts for its being the
eftablifhed praftice in the above county.

The difpofal of timber, which often takes place before it
is cut down, is to be regulated by the occafion of it, as arifing
from thsjlate of the timber, or other caufes and circum-
ftanccs. It is, however, fcldon^ proper and beneficial to
fell and cut it down before its moft profitable ftate of ;
growth is reached ; thoiigh this principle may fometiraes be
fet afide by particular circumftances, as the nature of a
market ; the value of the land it encumbers by its growth,
being greater than its annual increafe ; the intereft of the
money it is worth, with that of the growth from the ftools,
being greater than the increafe of the ftanding timber, &c.
It is confequently rarely advantageous to fuffer timber to
remain upon its roots, after it has attained its full growth ;
— as, in this cafe, the whole of the intereft is loft, it is faid,
to the owner ; while the ufe of one of the moft valuable
articles of the produce of the country is loft to it and the
whole community.

In fpeaking of oak-timber, the late bifhop of Landaff has
given fome ufeful and interefting remarks in regard to the
difpofal of it, in the introduftion to the Agricultural
Report of the State of the County of Weftmoreland. Where
profit IS confidered, it is faid every tree fhould be cut dow.i
and fold, when the annua] increafe in value of the tree by its
growth, is lefs than the annual intereft of the money it would
fell for. This being admitted, it is only neceffary to inquire
into the annual increafe in the value of oaks of different ages.
After different ftatements, thirty-fix {hillings each are fixed
upon as the price of trees that (hould be cut down and fold :
as, if they be cut down before they arrive at that value, or if
they be allowed to remain until they will fell for a much
higher price, the proprietor of the foil or land on whicii
they grow will be a lofer. It is noticed too, as being the
general opinion, that it is more profitable to fell and fell oak-
wood at fifty or fixty years' growth, than to let it ifand for
navy timber to eighty or a hundred, owing to the low price
that is now paid for oak-trees of large dimenfions, either by
the Navy Board or the Eaft India Company. On this
account, it is advifed making a much greater increafe of
price than ordinary on timber of this fort of lai-ge fcantling,
as in place of four or five pounds the load, if eight or nine
were given for trees containing each one hundred cubic feet
and upwards, every perfon in the kingdom, it is thought,
would have a reafonable motive for letting his timber ftand
until it became of a fize fit for the ufe of the navy ; whereas,
according to the prefent eftabliftied price, it is every one's
intereft to cut down and fell their trees before they arrive at
a proper fize to be ufeful as navy timber. This fuggefts,
too, the neceffity of attending to the royal forefts in a more
particular manner ; and may be an additional inducement to
the trying the cultivation and growth of the larch in them,
and training it for ftiip-timber. See Timber, Crooked
Growth of.

There are feveral different modes of difpofing of timber
according to tlie nature of it, the fituation, and the cuftoms
of the diftrifts to which it belongs ; but the principal of
them are, firft, thofe of felling the trees ftanding; either by
autfion, by receiving written propofals, or by bargain and
fale : fecond, cutting the trees down, and feUing them in the
rough ; by any of the above modes : third, converting the
fallen trees ; that is, cutting them up into wares to which
they are beft adapted, or which are moft faleable in the par-
ticular fituation. On a large timbered eftaie, the firft mode

TIMBER.

is, in common, the moft advifeable to be had recourfe to ; in
which cafe, an accurate valuation of the marked trees is to
be made, before they are offered for fale : and, in the cafe
of oak timber-wood, it is moftly proper, and always fatif-
faftory, to have feparate valuations of the timber and the
bark.

In felling timber in the county of Norfolk, the prevailing
praftice is, according to the writer of tlit- rural economy
of that diltriCf , to fell it (landing, at fo much a ton when
fallen ; meafuring the timber down to fix inciies timber
girt ; the topwood and the bark (of oak) becoming the pro-
perty of the purchafer ; who is ufually at tlie expence of
taking it down. And it is cuftomary there, too, for the
purchafer to difpofe of the bark (of oak), and fometimes the
topwood, by the fame admeafurement.

In the midland diilrifts, after difpofuig of and cutting out
the timber, the arms or boughs of the trees are cut up into
pofts, rails, and cord-wood for charcoal ; the fpray being
moftly made up into faggots.

The relative value of different forts of timber may be faid
to depend almoft wholly upon local circumflances, as thofe
of contiguity and facility of being taken to the places
where they are the moft largely made ufe of, or where only
employed. Some forts are, however, every where valuable
on account of either their general application, or their
fcarcity, fuch as the oak, the afti, the elm, the beech, and
the ftill more valuable larch, and others of the firft defcrip-
tion : and of the latter, the common chefnut, tlie yew, the
box, and the holly. The light produfts of different kinds,
afforded by fome timber-trees, are alfo of great ufe and value
in moft places.

Hunter, in his " Evelyn's Sylva," has juftly remarked,
that every perfon who can meafure timber, thinks himfelf
qualified to value ftanding trees ; but that fuch men are
often deceived in their eilimates. That it is the perfeft
knowledge of the application of the different fhaped trees
that enables a man to be correS in fuch valuations. That
a foot of wood may be of little importance to one trade,
but of great value to another. This is the grand fecret, it
is thought, which enriches the purchafers of ftanding timber.

On the whole, the great and couftant demand for timber,
on account of the increafing fcarcity of it, fliould induce
the proprietors of lands which are proper and iuitable for
it, to attend as much as pofTible to the raifmg and providing
of this great objefl of rural economy, and national as v.'ell as
individual wealth.

Timber, Hardening of. See Hardening of Timber, and
Seafoning o/' Timber.

Timber, Seafoning of, a term ufed to exprefs the pre-
paring of timber after it is felled, for cutting and v/orking
up for ufe.

As foon as felled, it fhould be laid up in fome dry airy
place, but out of the reach of too much wind or fun, v.'hich,
when in excefs, will fubjeft it to crack and fly. It is not
to be fet upright, but laid along, one tree upon another, only
with fome (hort blocks between, to give it the better airing,
and prevent its becoming mouldy, which will rot the
furface, and produce mulhrooms on it. Some perfons
daub the trees all over with cow-dung, which occafions their
drying equally, and prevents their cracking, as they are
otherwife tery apt to do.

Some recommend the biu^ying of timber in the earth, as
the beft of all ways of feafoning it ; and others have found it
a fine prcfcrvativc to bury their timber under the wheat in
their granai'ies ; but this cannot be made a general praAicc.

In Norway, they fcafon their deal planks, by laying them

in falt-vvater for three or four days, when new favved, and
then drying them in the fun ; this is found a great advan-
tage to them ; but neither this, nor any thing clle, can pre-
vent their (lirinking. And it has been recommended to lay
boards, planks, &c. in fome pool or running ftream for a
few days, to extraiil the fap from them, and afterwards to
dry them in the fun or air ; by this means, it is faid, they
will be prefcrved from chopping, cafting, or cleaving ; but
againft (hrinking there is no remedy. Mr. Evelyn par-
ticularly recommends this method for fir. Sec Hardbniku
of limber.

The feafoning of timber by fire is the beft way of all, for
piles and other pieces that arc to ftand under the earth, or
water. The Venetians firft found out this method, and the
way by which they do it is this : they put the piece to be
feafoned into a ftrong and violent flame ; in this they con-
tinually turn it round by means of an engine, and take it
out when it is every way covered with a black coaly cruft ;
by this means the internal part of the wood is fo hardened,
that neither earth nor water can damage it for a long lime
afterwards. This method is praftifed in many places for
feafoning the pofts for paUng of parks, &c. and has this
to recommend it, that in the very oldeft ruins we have ever
been acquainted with, there have been difcovered many times
pieces of charcoal, all of which have been found uninjured,
though buried in the earth for ever fo many ages. This
method of charring timber is praftifed in many parts of
England, and has been much recommended, both as to
economy and effeiS;.

For this purpofe, all that is neceffary is to light a fire upon
the ground, which fhall be furroundcd with a wall built with
loofe bricks or ftones, and then, when the pieces of timber are
laid acrofs the walls, to turn them round carefully fo as to
prefent every part to the aftion of the fire in fucceflion ;
and when the whole furface, to the depth of three quarters
of an inch or an inch, is converted to charcoal, they will be
fufficiently prepared. While burning, they fhould have a
temporary covering of boughs or other fuel to preferve
them from the aftion of the atmofphere, which would be
apt to convert part of the wood into afties. See Parkes's
Eflays, vol. ii. See alfo Charring of Pofls.

An ingenious friend of the editor objefts to this praftice.
The opinion that paint is a prefervativc of wood is almofl
univerfal. Neverthelefs, we ftiall fhew it to be not only erro-
neous, but that in moft cafes the ufe of paint accelerates the
deftruftion of every fpecies of wood to wliich it is applied.

The decay of wood is occafioned by internal, not external
moifture, and this only when it becomes ftagnant. As long
as there is a free circulation, no decay takes place. Stop
the circulation, and if there be any moifture whatever in the
v/ood, ftagnation commences, putrefcence enfues, and the
deftruftion will proceed with an aftivity in proportion to
the quantity and clofe confinement of the internal moifture.
When wood is thoroughly painted on every fide, it is evident
that the moifture within it is completely fealed up, and
which necefTarily becoming ftagnant, the decompofition and
decay of tlie timber immediately commence. Hence it is
clear, that painting of wood, as above ftated, in every cafe,
except only when it is entirely free from moifture, or as it
is called thoroughly feafoned, muft be as efteftual a method as
any that can be deviled for accelerating its decay.

Wood that is painted only on one fide, will, ceteris pa-
ribus, laft as long again as that which is painted on both
fides. And that which is not painted at all will be mofl
durable. Experiment will prove this to be the faft, whether
the wood is cxpofed to the weather or not.

It

TIMBER.

It is fcldom that wc meet with cither a fcaffold-pole or a
fcaffold-board (fuch as arc ufod by builders) that is rotten,
.dthough thcv are of fir, and are alternately wet and dry,
and defcend'from father to fon for feveral generations.
The reafon is, they are never pa'nited.

Examine any old bnilditig, and it will be found that no
part of the wood or timber is in a found ibte, excepting
that which has efcapcd the painter's bru(h. The wainfcot,
doors, windows, &c. will be found to be rotten, when the
floors and ilairs, although alternately wet and dry from
periodical wnlhing, arc pcrfedly found, becaufe they have
never been painted.

It is a common praftice in London to cover the bafe-
ment floors with painted oil-cloth; and it is aftonidiing to
fee how foon, in thcfe cafes, the floors are rotten, and which
is called the dry rot, but which is never once fufpefted to
be the ftoppage of circulation by the ufc of the oil-cloth.
Were cirpets fubilituted for the painted cloths, no fuch
effeft would take place.

The dry rot in buildings, and particularly in the navy,
is comparatively a modern difeafe, and has very much m-
creafed lince the pernicious praftice of painting has become
fo general. The ancient city of Chefter, where fo much
timber was introduced into the outfidcs of the buildings,
and which is now black with age, but never painted, is a
(Iriking illuftration of this theory. The fame may be re-
marked of the villages at a diftance from the metropolis,
where the outfide wood-work of the buildings, fuch as
doors, windows, window-lhutters, weather-boarding, &c.
which have never been painted, are neverthelefs found, and
vet fome of them fo ancient as to defy all enquiry as to
their age. How diiTerent this from the gentlemen's houfes
near London or other great towns, wliere the gates, ports,
rails, and pallifadoes are kept conftantly well palnteti, but
are feldom found to laft longer than ten or a dozen years at
mod!

Paint indeed conceals from the eye the deftruftion which
it occafions ; and our readers will doubtlefs by this time
begin to fufpeft their former opinions of it to be erroneous.
We fliall therefore only mention two other inftances, which
came under our own obfervation, to (hew that wood never
ought to be painted, except for the purpofe of ornament.

A few years ago, fome old houfes were pulled down near
the Monument in London. Several of the principal timbers
%vere fo fcorched and burnt on the outfide, that an enquiry
took place as to the caufe of it ; and it was clearly afcer-
tained, that tlie timbers in queftion mult have been preferved
from the ruins of the great fire of London in 1666, fo that
this wood muft now be much more than 150 years old ; yet
the writer of this article lately faw that fame fir-timber
fawed out into deals, and again ufed as new (luff, being to
aH appearance as found as ever. The only perceptible dif-
ference was in the colour, which was darker than deals ge-
nerally are.

The other inftance referred to is the late old Jewr)' chapel
in London. When that building was taken down, the pews,
which were of oak, and the feats, which were deal (but
never had been painted) were found to be in fo perfeft a
ftate of foundnefs, that they were removed to the new build-
ing in Jewin-ftreet, and where there is no doubt they will
remain as long as the building itfelf, although thofe faid
deal feats are known to be confiderably more than one hun-
dred years old.

The mod efFeftual method of preferving timber from de-
fay is to char it ; but when the purpofe to which it is to
be applied will not admit of that operation, the next beft

method is to wafh it over with charcoal and water, fimilar
to white-waftiing. Either of thefe methods wil' certainly
preferve it from the dry rot, charcoal being the greateft an-
tiputrefcent known, and no moirture within the influence of
its ackion will become putrid or decompofed, and we have
already fhewn that this muft take place before wood will
perifli. It may be further obferved, that vegetation can-
not take place where charcoal or charring is ufed, and
the dry rot is always accompanied with that fpecies of
vegetation called fungi, and this fungus never occurs till
decompofition or decay has begun.

When boarded floors are to be laid upon or very near the
ground, it fhould be ftrewed over with dry aflies, and the
joifts and underfide of the boards either charred or payed
over with charcoal-wafli, as before direfted. The lame
(hould be done with the fide of the wainfcot next the
walls.

As painting is indifpenfable from the fafhion of the times,
to doors, window-fhutters, wainfcot, &c. it would be well
to have them painted once over in the carpenter's (hop when
the (luff is perfeAly dry, and finiflied afterward in the build-
ing for which they are prepared.

If the beft feafoned ftuflF be put up unpainted in a new
building, the quantity of moifture it will imbibe from the
brick- work, plafter, &c. before it can be painted, will de-
feat all former care of well feafoning.

As to fafhes, mahogany is unqueftionably the cheapeft
article they can be made of ; for deal, when painted only a
few times, w ill have coft more than the difference of price of
that very fuperior wood, both as to look and durability.
Air that is Itagnant is equally pernicious as ftagnant moif-
ture. When it is in that ftate, it foon becomes decompofed,
and the hydrogen gas fixing upon wood, ropes, paper, and
other vegetable fubftances, quickly brings on their deftruc-
tion. Ventilation, and the ufe of charcoal, are the beft pre-
ventives.

The above hints will be fufficient to guide the intelligent
workman in all other cafes.

Though it does not properly belong to this article, it
may not be amifs to mention, that thefe obfervations are
quite inapplicable to the prefervation of iron. Iron decays
from the effeft of external moifture, and the aftion of the
atmofphere upon its furface, which produces oxydation,
and which is the fole caufe of its decay. This is only to
be prevented by painting.

Timber, Preferving of. When boards, &c. are dried,
feafoned, and fixed in their places, care is to be taken to
defend and preferve them ; to which the fmearing of them
with linfeed-oil, tar, or the hke oleaginous matter, contri-
butes very much.

The ancients advife the fmoke-drying of all inftruments
made of wood, by hanging them up in the chimnies where
wood-fires are ufed. The whole benefit arifing from this
feems to be, that the oil of the burnt wood enters, as it
afcends in the fmoke, into the pores of that which is pro-
pofed to be preferved.

The Dutch preferve their gates, portcullices, draw-
bridges, (luices, &c. by coating them over with a mixture
of pitch and tar, on which they ftrew fraall pieces of cockle
and other (hells, beaten almoft to powder, and mixed with
fea-fand, which encrufts and arms them wonderfully againft
all alTaults of wind and weather.

Timber felled before the fap is perfeftly at reft, is very
fubjeft to the worms ; to prevent or cure which, Mr. Eve-
lyn gives us the following fecrct, as moft approved : Put
common fulphur into a cucurbit, with as much aquafortis

as

TIMBER.

ig will cover it three fingers deep ; diftil it to a drynefs,
and let it have two or three reftificatious.

Lay the fulphur remaining at bottom on a marble, or
in a glafs, and, with the oil it dilTolves into, anoint the
timber.

Tliis, he adds, not only infallibly prevents or cures the
worminefs, but prcferves all kinds of woods, and even many
other things, as ropes, nets, and mafts, from putrefadlion,
either in air, water, or fnow.

For fuch as would go a fhorter way to work, two or
three anointings with linfeed-oil may do very well.

As to the chaps, or clefts, green timber is liable to after
working, and which is a very great defcft in many fine
buildings, they are clofed by anointing, fuppling, and
foaking it with the fat of beef-broth, twice or thrice
repeated. — Some carpenters ufe greafe and faw-duft
mingled for tlie fame purpofe. But the former method
ii excellent. Mortimer's Hufbandry, vol. ii. p. 104.

Timber, Strength of. See Strength of Materiah, and
Beam.

Timber, CrooieJ, Growth of, the means of raifing and pro-
viding bent or twilled timber of different forts for the pur-
pofe of fliip-building and many other ufes. It has been
noticed by Mr. Loudon, that the form of the larch tim-
ber-tree is unfuitable for fome of the purpofes of naval ar-
chitettui-e ; and that to render it more proper and fuitable
for fuch ufes, cutting or pruning it has been advifed by
fome ; and, what is ftill lefs prafticable, fhading it, by
others : but that when its mode of growth is weU confidered,
it will be found that neither of thefe methods would prove
eSe£lual. The former could not fucceed, it is fuppofed,
becaufe in the larch and fir-tribe one ftem conftantly takes
the lead ; and that in this ftem alone is contained the timber.
The latter, or fliade, might, it is thought, produce a crooked
enough ftem ; but that in regard to ftrength, or timber
produce, it would evidently be fs deficient, as to be totally
unfit for naval architefture. In confequence of which, he
has recommended the plan of bending the young trees as
preferable to every other praftice ; and as this mode may, at
fome future period, perhaps be deemed of public importance,
he has given a few remarks concerning the method that
fliould be adopted and employed in the bufinels.

It is faid that, in the firft place, fuppofing a timber plant-
ation or wood to be planted in regular rows, fifteen feet
apart, and the fame diftance in the row ; and grown from
fifteen to twenty years ; in bending or rendering the trees
crooked, begin with the firft row, and let every other tree
be bent down in different degrees, and tied to the interme-
diate ones which remain creft, or be faftened to the ground.
After the trees have had the growth of feven or eight years
longer in that fituation or pofition, they may be bent back-
wards, fo fts to have fomewhat the form of the letter S,
the tops or leading (hoots rifing direftly upwards again from
the upper bends, and the bent trees be either tied to them-
felres between the bent parts, to keep them in their proper
bent pofitions, or to the trees on the fides, or to any
of the trees which furround them, as may be found to be
»oft convenient and neceffary. When the ropes have held
the trees in thefe fituations or pofitions for a few more
years, they will have received, and retained, in fome mea-
fure, the above crooked appearance ; which is a form that
will afford knee and other pieces, which are of great ufe in
(hip-building, and which alv\'tiys, it is faid, bear a higher
price than any other form of even oak-timber. Some tree*
need, however, it is thought, only be bent gently on one
fide, and others a little more fo. This variation in the in-
clination of the trees, with thofe which fhould be left eieSt,

Vol. XXXV.

would, it is fuppofed, ferve to produce and afford proper
fhelter for the whole timber plantations to which they might
belong, according to t'r.e ufes or purpofes for which they
are intended, or to the form which is moft in demand. This
plan is certainly thought worthy of a trial ; and there is no
great reafon to doubt its fuccefs ; for the praftice of bend-
ing trees is not new ; as it was advifed by Evelyn, and prac-
tifed by the Romans in Virgil's time.

It is probable, too, that fome other forts of timber-tree*
may be grown in this way with advantage.

It is fuggefted, that in planting the larch for this, or any
other purpofe, a careful attention (liould be had to the
choice of a proper foil, as when the tree is in one which is
not too rich, it reaches a large fize, and foon arrives at ma-
turity ; and that it is obvious, that if the above method were
adopted, the timber would be fit for building the largeft
fliips fifty years after it was planted, and for building fmaller
veiTels much fooner. And that there is abundant evidence,
that it would grow to a fufiicient fize for this ufe in all the
mountainous parts of the idand ; moreover, that the experi-
ments which have been made by Mr. Knight, on the fap and
wood of trees, as well as common obfervation, prove, that
the circumftance of bending, efpecially in an open expofure,
would produce a much thicker trunk and a larger quantity
of timber, in a given time, than a ftraight tree. Thefe cir-
cumftances, in conneftion with the valuable qualities of this
tree as fiiip-timber, and the growing fcarcity of that article
in this countr)', lead the writer to iuggeft the propriety of
devoting fome extent of the national forefts to the cultiva-
tion and raifing of the larch as timber, either bent in dif-
ferent ways, or even allowed to take its natural form ; as the
firft coft of planting and fencing in, even for five hundred
acres, would not exceed looo/., and the yearly expence$
afterwards would be but a mere trifle. The culture of the
oak, and perhaps fome other timber-trees, fhould not,
however, be neglefted in the fmalleft degree : but when it
is confidei-ed that this tree takes two or three hundred year*
to come to perfeftion, and the larch not above half a cen-
tury, reflefting at the fame time on the approaching fcarcity
of oak-timber fit for the navy, thefe hints and remarks may
not, it is thought, be unworthy of the attention of the le-
giflature, or from other quarters. See Timber and Tree.

The excellent properties of larch-timber, for the ufe of
the navy, have been noticed by many, as thofe of refitting
different dangerous effefts. Anderfon, in his Catalogue of
Trees, afferts, it is faid, that it does not fly in fplinters by the
impulfe of a ball in an engagement ; that no force of heat
makes it flame ; but that when thrown into a ftrong fire it
confumes imperceptibly. How many accidents then, it is
aflced, might be prevented by a greater ufe of this timber,
if applied in ftiips ? Many lives are loft by the fphnters of
oak in naval warfare : all thefe would be faved to the ftate
by having the planks of war-ftiips made of it. Decks of
the fame materials would refift fire, either accidental or de-
figned ; for although burning materials in time will force
their way through a plank of larch, yet it never would
^read to the adjoining plank. To be in a (hip on fire at
fca, is certainly, it is faid, the moft dreadful fituation in
which any perfon can be placed ; every exertion, therefore,
to prevent fuch calamity, is the duty of all welUwifliers of
their country. Befide thefe advantages arifing from the ufe
of the larch as timber, there is another of no fmall im-
portance to a warhke and commercial nation, the faving of
expence in Ihip-building ; as by experience it is found that
it lafts longer than oak under water, ajid wornis wiU not
touch it. Sailors are faid indeed tp put larch chips among
their clothes ; which are found by experience to prevent

4 R Terjtun,

TIMBER.

k:

of thcfe ftatements mav alfo be met w.t . in NL«ton s Vi
truv » wl>ic1i wc have not room to admit m this place.

T MBEr X ./-M. Cr».wA «/, the limit to tlie growth and
incXro wifdt, trees of this fort. It has been remarked
b, a late ,vriter, that from the old alburnum of fuch tre s
beinc cradually converted into heart-wood, and being con-
dn Slfprefl-ed upon by the expanfive force of the new
fibS it becomes harderi denfer, and at length lofes altoge-
ther its vafcular ftrudure ; and in a certain time obeying the
common laws of dead matter, decays, decompofes, and is
converted into aeriform and carbonic elements ; into thole
principles from which it was originally formed. 1 he decay
of the heart-wood ^^■c■uld confequently feem to conftitute the
rreat limit to the age and fize of timber or trees ot that
Kind. This is more liable to take place in fome cafes than
in others. The age of growth in timber-trees is, however,
moftly afcertained by the rings or layers of which they are

formed. , r ■ i ^i

In regard to the age of the growth of the oak, the
writer of the rural economy of the midland counties has
remarked, that there has been lately a fall of timber in the
woods there, including fome large timber-trees. That he
counted the rings of one which was found at the butt : the
number, as nearly as he could afcertain it, was two hundred.
But thofe of the laft forty or fifty years' growth were fo thin, he
could not count them with certainty ; though with fufficient
accuracy upon which to ground the calculations given below.
The girt of this tree, in the girting place, was nine feet,
the diameter of which was foraething more than thirty-
four inches. And the eftim.ited growth, in this part, was
thirty inches diameter during the firft hundred and fifty
years, and four inches (two inches thick) in the laft fifty
years. The length of the ftem was twenty-two feet. The
contents of the whole were one hundred and ten feet of timber.
Thofe of the firft. hundred and fifty years' growth, eighty-
five feet ; leaving twenty -five feet for the growth of the laft
fifty years. It is therefore obferved, that altliough the in-
creafe of diameter had been comparatively fmall during the
laft fifty years, the increafe of timber had been nearly as
great as in the firft ftages.

But fuppofing, it is faid, that this tree had been taken
down at one hundred and fifty years old, it would, at 2s.
a foot, have produced 8/. lOs., the intereft of which would
have amounted, in the courfe of fifty years, to more than
2o/. ; befide the ufe of the land during that time : whereas
the tree, at that rate, is now worth only 1 1/. Thefe calcu-
lations and inferences are not, however, it is faid, intended
to excite a fpirit of felling timber prematurely, or at too
early an age, a fpirit which is already too prevalent ; but
to endeavour to decide on the moft proper age of growth for
its being cut down ; it being an incontrovertible faft, that,
in point of utility, public and private, the fault of fuffering
timber to ftand to too great an age, is infinitely greater than
that of cutting it down before it has attained its full
growth or age. In the latter cafe, it is faid, there is no
wafte ; the intereft of money, and the fucceeding ftioots, or
the ufe of the land, ftand againft the lofs of growth of tim-
ber. But, in tlie former, the principal, intereft, after-
ftioot, and the ufe of the land, are all thrown away : fo that
the community, as well as the proprietors, are lofers by the
management. In the one cafe, cutting part before it be fit,
may lave other trees which are more fully grown ; but, in
the other, the whole ia loft. Leaving, it is faid, the pre-

fervation and management of fhip-timber to thofe to whoni
it properly belongs, it does not follow that, becaufe it is
wrong to fnff"er timber to ftand to wafte, it is right to take
it down before it be of a proper age, or fufficiently grown,
for the purpofe of ftiip-building. It is not over-grown, bu.
ftout-growing timber which is fit for that ufe. Timber is
feldom cut down prematurely, or at too early an age, but
by the neceflitous ; or by thofe who have only a temporary
pod'effioii ill their refpcftive eftates. And what argument,
it is a(l<ed, can prevail with this clafs of proprietors ?
Another clafs, and it is trufted by much the largeft, is com-
pofed of thofe who, confidering their timber merely as a
profitable part of their feveral eftates, take it down when-
ever it becomes /«//-grown, and a fair opportunity offers.
And a third clafs of this fort of proprietors confifts of
thofe who, through falfe pride, falfe fear, or falfe economy,
fuff'er their timber to ftand until it be over-grown : and
if the writer have any other motive for making known the
above minutes on the ages of timber-trees, than that of re-
cording fafts, it is the defire of placing in its proper hght,
the improvident management of this clafs of timber pro-
prietors ; and, at the fame time, to endeavour to form juft
ideas of a fubjeft, which has not, hitherto, been brought
before the public ; but which is pre-eminently entitled to
public notice and difcufliion.

It is additionally ftated, that this matter having been ren-
dered, in a confiderable degree, faniihar to the writer by
many years' obfervation and praftice, he may here fct dowa
wliat appears to him the proper ages of growth for cutting
down the four following fpecies or forts of timber.

1. Poplar, from thirty to fifty years old.

2. Elm, from fifty to a hundred.

3. Afli, from fifty to a hundred.

4. Oak, from one to two hundred.

But it is faid that it very much depends on fituation,
and on the foil and fubfoil in which timber-trees are rooted.
On dry abforbent foils, the oak and the elm, at leaft, are
obferved to go off much fooner than in cooler more reten-
tive fituations. And in a wood, on a dry loam, with a
rocky fubfoil, the oak was found going faft to decay at
two hundred years old ; while in another, in a cooler fituation,
it was found, but unprofitable, at that age ; and in a third,
perhaps a ftill cooler fpot, it was found, profitable, and wear-
ing every appearance of being in a fit ftate of growth for
being taken down at the age of a hundred and fifty years.
Thefe three woods were thofe of Merevale, Bagot-park,
and Statfold, in the midland diftrifts of this country.

A full knowledge of the age of growth in timber-trees
is a matter of great utility and advantage to the proprietors
of wooded lands.

TiMBEK, Marking of, the putting of fuch marks upon
timber-trees, or large falls of timber, as may be neceflary to
diftinguifti them in felling, and which are of 3 proper age and
growth for being taken down. It is ufually performed by
means of an inftrument of the compalTes kind, by which a
circle, with a number, or fome other particular fort of mark,
is formed on the ti'ee. It is of great ufe and advantage in
felling and dlfpofing of timber, to have this bufinefs exe-
cuted in a careful and judicious manner. See Timber.

Timber, Meafur'mg of. See Mensuration and Slid-
iXG-i?u/c

For finding the area of a board or plank, the rule is fimple
and eafy ; which is that of multiplying the length by the
mean breadth. If the board is tapering, the breadths at the
two ends (hould be added together, and half the fum will be
the mean breadth. The method by the fliding-rule is too
obvious to need being mentioned.

Timber-

TIMBER.

TlMBEn-Carriagf, that fort of wheel-carriage which is
contrived and conftrufted for the purpofe of conveyinc;
heavy and other timber. Carriages for this life are formed
in a ilrong firm manner, but in different methods, according
to circumilances, and the nature of the timber to be drawn.
They are fometimes made with four wheels, but much more
frequently only with two. They have occafionally fliafts
too, but are more often conilrufted with a pole merely.

Thefe carriages, the writer of tlie rural economy of
Norfolk remarks, are in that diibitt, as in moil other
places, of two kinds ; the four-wheeled fort of carriage, pro-
vincially " a drag ;" and the pair of wheels, provincially
" a gill." The Tail is moil in ufe. Tlie conftruftion of
the gill of this county is, it is faid, fimilar to that of the
timber-wheels of moil other counties"; namely, a pair of
tall wheels, with a crooked axle-tree, furmounted by a
block ; to which axle is fixed a pair of fhafts, or fometimes
?. Tingle pole only. But it is noticed, that the method of
ufing them there, is different from that which has been ob-
ferved in other places ; where the only ufe they are put to
is to raife the butt-end of a large timber to be drawn a fliort
diftance ; the top-end being fuffered to drag behind upon
the ground, to the great injury of the turf, or the road
upon which it is drawn.

In the above county, however, a large ftick of timber,
or perhaps three or four fmaller ones, are, it is obferved, en-
tirely flung to the axle ; fo that, in drawing, no part of
them whatever touches the ground f the top-end or part
being generally drawn foremoll, and the end towards the
horfes always the heavieft.

It is ilated, that the method of taking up a piece of tim-
ber is this : the horfes being taken off, the wheels are run,
by hand, aftride the timber to be flung, until the axle is
judged to be a few inches behind the balance-point : or,
■which is better, a chain is firft put round the timber, and
the wheels run up to it. It is difficult to afcertain the exadl
place of fixing the chain by the eye ; but neverthelefs, a
perfon accuilomed to fling timber in this manner, will, it is
laid, come very near the truth. Tlie chain hooked, and the
axle brought into its proper fituation, the Ihafts, or pole,
are thrown back in the ufual manner ; the chain carried over
the block, brought round the pole, its ends made fall, and
the fhafts or pole brought down again by the horfes ; by
which means the timber is lifted from the ground, and
fufpended to the axle. If the required point of balance be
not hit upon at the firft trial, the fhafts are fuffered to rife
again, the chain is unhooked, and (liifted to its proper fitua-
tion : the fhafts being then again pulled down, are bound by
an iron trace, or fmall chain, clofe down to the timber ;
while another fmall chain or trace is faftened round the fore-
moft end to hook the horfes to ; the team drawing by the
timber, and not by the pole or fliafts.

It is fuppofed, that the utility of having a fuper-balance
of weight forward is two-fold : if the piece were flung in
exaft equilibrium, it would, upon the road, be in perpetual
vibration ; thereby rendering the pull imilcady, and ex-
tremely inconvenient to the horfes : whereas, by throwing
the balance forward, the traces are commonly kept down
conftantly in their proper place, and the pull becomes uni-
form : if, however, too much weight were to be thrown
forward, the draught of the horfes would not raife the point
of the timber from the ground ; the fridlion would, of
courfe, increafe the draught, and the road be at the fame
time hurt. It therefore follows, it is faid, that the proper
weight to be thrown forward is fuch as is enough to prevent
a vibration, but not fo much as to prevent the point from
'being raifcd from the road by the draught of the liorlJes

upon level ground. And that the other advantage, by a
fuper-balance forwaril, is gained in going down a hill ; in
which cafe, the draught not being wanted, the point, of
courfe, falls to the ground, and ferves as a pall to regulate
tile motion of the carriage : if the fuper-balance alone be
not fufhcient to check tlic too great rapidity of the motion,
the driver adds, it is faid, his own weight. I>ikewife, if,
in afcending a hill, the balance be lofl ; he, in like manner,
feats himlelf upon the fore-part of the load, thereby keeping
it down to its proper level.

It is added, that this method of conveying timber may,
it is poflible, be in ufe in other diftrifts ; but the writer has
not feen it pradlifed any where except in the above county :
and that it is known to be an excellent, but not a common
mode of praftice.

It is of great utility and convenience for timber proprie-
tors and dealers to be always provided with good earriages
of this fort.

Timber Hedge-Ro'ui, fuch trees of this kind as are raifed
and grown in the lines and rows of the hedges. It has been
long a difputed point among the writers on agriculture, and
which is not yet fully decided, whether it be admiflible or
not to have trees of this fort in the direftions of the hedge-
rows : lome ilrongly contending for its utility, on the
grounds of the fhelter, fliade, and timber afforded by the
pradlice ; while others as fl;rongly oppofe it, on the fcore of
the injury which it does to the crops and the hedges under-
neath the trees, as well as the obftruftion which it affords
in working the land, when in the tillage ftate. However,
in many fituations and cafes, there can be no doubt of the
advantage of having timber-trees of the hedge-row kind,
when under proper and fiiitable management.

It has been well obferved by an able writer on the means
of improving the rural objefts and praAices of the country,
that although a few trees growing in a hedge, when con-
fidered fmgly, may have little effeft, and be of no great
value or coniequence ; yet that a number of hedge-rows, all
properly interfperfed with timber-trees, will completely
change the appearance of a hilly country or diftrift, improve
its chmate, and yield a confiderable quantity of timber to
the owners of the lands. The coniideration of the matter
muft, of courfe, it is thought, be of great importance to
the landed interefl of fome parts of the ifland, efpecially
tliofe in the more northern or mountainous diftridls of the
kingdom. What is neceffary to be faid on this fubjeft
here, may confequently be introduced under the heads of
the nature of the lands where timber of the hedge-row kind
may be raifed and grown without injury to the farmer ; and
the fpecies or fort of trees which is molt proper to be raifed
in fuch cafes. In regard to the interejl of the farmer, the
lands which are the moft evidently and fuitably adapted for
the growth of liedge-row timber-trees arc all tliofe whicli are
naked and much expofed, and which are kept for the moll
part under palturage ; and in fo far as the beauty of a
country or diftrift, the improvement of its climate, and the
health of its inhabitants, are concerned, the hedge-rows of
the rifing-grounds alone fhould be occupied by trees, ex-
cept a few in the vallies, by the fides of public roads or
rivers, to form fore-grounds to the reft of the country or
diftridl ; and a few near houfes or villages to group with
them, and afford a richnefs to their appearance. In low
rich vallies between mountains, which are kept in perpetual
aration, the hedge-rows fliould not be taken up by timber-
trees of this fort. But a country or diftricl wholly level,
as many of the counties and diftrifts in the fouthern parts of
the kingdom are, may fometimes have the hedge-rows par-
tially Cet with trees, without doing any great injury to the
4 R 2 farmer ;

TIMBER.

farmer; wfile. if properly managed, .t may vary the
country, and improve its cUmate. In fuch cvels, the
hcdtres mould, however, be kept very low, and the trees
be trained cn-ft with fingk- ftoms, and few lateral arms or
boughs near the furface ; or, as is done in fomc places the
width of an ordinary ridije may be left on each lide ot the
hedije, to be kept in perpetual pallure, which prevents the
corn from being fo much injured by the trees, and is a great
ornament to a farm. This laft mode is, however, not with-
out its difadvanta;jes, as it is liable to difleminate and till
the adjoining tillage-lands with the feeds of noxious and
hurt/ul weeds. However, in cafes where the whole farm is
to be kept in perpetual pafture,' the trees may often be al-
lowed to extend their branches, and the hedges may be
kept high or low, at pleafure. Moill or clayey foils fhould
never, when under perpetual aration, be fet with hedge-row
trees ; and indeed, before they arc put into fuch rows any
•where, or in any cafe, a full confiderauon and eftimate
(hould, it is faid, be made of their effcft on the annual rent
■of the land, on their intriiific value, on the climate, and on
the appearance of the country.

The writer of the Yorkfhire rural economy confiders
this an interefting fubjcft to the proprietors of inclofed
•eftates. The old inclofed parts of that neighbourhood, when
feen at fome diftance, have, it is faid, the appearance of
woodlands ; the inclofures being moftly narrow, and full of
hedge -row timber. The age, on a par, is about 50 years.
In naif a century more, the value of the timber of fome
parts of it, if fuffered to Hand, will probably be equal to
the value of the land ; a circumftance, it is fuppofed, of no
fmall import to the owner. But the detriment to the oc-
cupier requires to be confidered. In this county, it feems,
it is faid, to be a general idea, founded perhaps on experi-
ence, that lofty hedge-rows are beneficial to grafs-land ; in-
creafing its produdlivenefs by their warmth, and giving
ftielter and fhade to pafturing-ftock. The roots even of
the a{h are confidered as inoffenfive to land in the ftate of
grafs ; in which ftate the grounds, thus loaded with hedges
and timber-trees, are almoft univerfally kept. Indeed it
would be impoflible, in their prefent ftate, to occupy them
as arable land. They are entire inclofures, every foot of
the areas of which muft neceftarily be occupied by aihen
roots ; neverthelefs they give an ample fupply of hay and
pafturage ; one to two tons of hay an acre : and, in many
of them, three acres will afford fufficient pafturage for two
cows of the largeft fize. The rent from thirty to forty
(hiUingt an acre. Strong evidence this, it is faid, that the
roots of the aftl are not very hurtful to grafs-land.

It is evident, however, it is thought, that the oak, when
fuffered to thruft its low fpreading head into the inclofure,
it injurious to the herbage beneath it ; that the leaves of the
aftl are very detrimental to after-grafs ; and that the hedges
are annually receiving irreparable damage : no general plan
of training up the trees with tall ftems having, it is be-
lieved, in any inftance, been adopted, fo as to prevent, in
any complete manner, fuch cffefts.

On ihefe accounts it is concluded, that the advantages
accruing from the planting of timber-trees in the hedge-
rows of inclofed common fields, of a foil and lying in a
fituation adapted to grafs, are far fuperior to any diSdvan-
tages ariCng therefrom, even where they have been fuffered
to grow in a ftate of almoft total negleft. And that land
which has lain open, and which has been kept in a ftate of
aration during a fucceffion of ages, is equally produdive of
graft and trees. That it is generally good management to
let it lie in grafs for fome length of time, after inclofure.
Befides, that in the above neighbourhood, it is evident to

o

common obfervation, that trees flourifh with unufual vigow
in newly -inclofed lands of arable fields ; and that their injury
to grafs-land is inconfiderable, when compared with tlie
value of the timber which they produce. The low fpread-
ing heads of the oak, and the leaves of the afli, appear to
be the chief inconveniencies of thefe two forts of trees to
grafs-land.

But as an alternacy of corn and grafs is, it is thought,
p-enerally eli,';ible on lands which our anceftors have made
clioice of for common fields ; ar, J as the roots of the afti arc
not only obftruftions to the plough, but the general nature
of the plants is, in a finguiar degree, inimical to corn ; it is
confequently neceffary to eradicate the afti from the hedge-
rows, before the land be again broken up for arable ; or to
preclude this tedious rperation, in the firft inftance, by
planting oak in its ftead. It is conceived that the head
of the oak may be raifed to fuch a height, as not to be in-
jurious to grafs, nor to the hedge, while yet in a youthful
ftate, even though it were fuffered to run up to its natural
height.

The roots of the fir tribe of trees afford equal obftruftion
to the plough ; they are, of courfe, equally objeftionable
in the hedge-rows of arable fields.

It is fuggefted, in conclufion, that whenever the inclo-
fures are broken up for corn, the hedges ftiould, in common
good management, be headed down, and kept in a dwarfifh
ftate ; in which cafe, tall ftemmed oaks would be a valuable
fource of timber, without being, in almoft any degree, in-
jurious either to the hedges, or to the corn growing under
them. But the training of young oaks, and the general
management of hedge -row timber, cannot, with any degree
of prudence, be left to a mere occupier. When intended
as nurferies of timber, they ftiould, it is conceived, be under
the immediate direftion and management of a perfon proper
for the purpofe. See Pollard and Fence.

The writer of the Gloucefter Report on Agriculture,
however, remarks, that the praftice of planting timber-trees
at all in hedges is liable to objeftions ; for if the tree be left
to take its natural growth, which is the beft mode of raifing
it for good timber, the lower fence is ruined by its fhade
and drippings ; or if they are cut up and ftireded into naked
poles, or pollarded for the fake of the lop or fire-wood, the
timber is injured, and the beauty of the tree deftroyed. A
better plan is, it is thought, to affign certain fpots on eftates
for the purpofe of raifing timber-trees only. This would
eventually be no wafte of land, becaufe the grafs or corn
growing near the hedges, which are filled with timber or
fruit-trees, is worth little or nothing. In the fmall inclo-
fures at the angles of a field, for inftance, the trees might
take their natural growth ; and this would be more rapid,
in confequence of their being planted in clumps, and pro-
tefted. If, however, the old mode of planting in hedge-
rows ftiould be continued, the afti may be the beft for the
purpofe. The timber, in fome refpedis, is fuperior to elm,
and, in various cafes, ufeful where that cannot be applied.
In durability it almoft rivals the oak, and its growth is im-
proved by being kept to a fingle ftem, the only mode of
treatment in which trees ftiould be admitted into hedge -rows
at all, but which few other trees will bear. The oak and
beech particularly, when fo large as to become heart-wood,
appear to be greatly hurt by the lofs of their fide branches ;
the immediate effedl of which is a retardation of growth :
and it is faid, that the oak will not tlirive for ten years after
this operation ; and of the ehn, that it is injured, though
apparently fuffering lefs. It is, however, to be noticed,
that the fineft and foiindeft trees are thofe which have been
moft left to tlieir natural growth.

In

TIMBER.

In what relates to the moft proper forts of trees for
putting in hedge-rows, in diOerent cafes, it may bf further
noticed, that when the foil is good and deep, according to
the firll of tlie ab ^ve writers, tlie oak and Scotch elm may
be the moft fuitable ; in ftrong land, the afh ; in poor foils,
the beech, fycamore, and birch ; in cafes of moiil foils, as
meadows and fuch like places, the Lombardy poplar,
which, befides its timber produce, forms, when in rows, a
clofe, ereft, narrow hedge, fifty or fixty feet high, in a few
years. Such hedges are, however, of no very great value,
whether the trees be cut low, or allowed to rife to their full
height. The oak and the above fort of elm profner better,
it is faid, in hedge-rows than in any other fituations ; their
roots have a free range in the adjoining inclofurcs, while
their tops flioot out vigoroufly on every fide, thus often pro-
ducing excellent filip-timber. More remarks of this nature
may be met with in Kent's hints, and Marfhal's work on
planting. The beech, it is thought, is peculiarly fuited
for thin foils and expofed fituations. When put out about
ten or twelve feet afunder, it affords excellent flielter, and,
at th' fame time, a very confiderable quantity of timber.
The afh and the fycamore will rife and grow ereft on the
moft expofed upland fituations, or near the fea. When
put out in good foils, they (hould generally be trained to
one ftem ; in which ftate, their timber produce is the moft
valuable and ufeful. The refinous tribe and the evergreen
forts of trees are, for the moft part, improper for being fet
out in hedge -rows. In the different cyder diftrifts or
counties in the fouthern parts of the kingdom, fruit-trees
are not unfrequently introduced into the hedge-rows ; the
praftice of which might probably be advantageoufly had
recourfe to in many other diilrifts and counties in the fame
part of the country, as well as in feveral more to the north.
In many different fituations they would be a valuable acqui-
fition, without doing any injury, or taking up the more
ufeful part of the land.

In a great number of diflrifts and places where hedge-
row timber exifts, the fituation is often improper, and the
management wretchedly bad and negligent ; in confequence
of which, it has frequently become an injury to the farmer,
without yielding any advantage to the proprietor. Two
more glaring inftances of this cannot, it is thought, be
given than in the tall naked elms, and pollarded oaks, which
prevail in many places in the fouthern parts of the ifland :
the former, by improper lopping and cutting, are worth
nothing ; and the latter, by being cut over at the height of
eight or ten feet, form ugly bufhy-headcd trees, which
do great injury and mifchief to the farmer, and yield no-
thing to the owner. In defence of fuch praftices, it has
been faid, that fuel alone is the intended produce ; but cer-
tainly it would be much the beft method, in fuch cafes, it
is thought, to allot a fpace or portion by itfelf for the pur-
pofe of raifing fuel, and devote the hedge-rows to the more
important ufes of producing timber. The fuel part of the
land might be rented by the fanner, and the hedge-rows
belong exclufively to the proprietor. Keeping each fort of
woody colleftion ftriftly charafteriftic of its kind is, it is
thought, as beneficial in the raifing of trees, as the divillon
of labour is in political economy. There is a great num-
ber of fituations and places in the more northern parts of the
ifland, as well perhaps as in fome others, where hedge-row
timber might be cultivated to the advantage of both the
landlord and tenant, and the great ornament of the country.
Suppofe, it is faid, an eftate of two thoufand acres, divided
into fields of ten acres each, and the hedge-rows planted
with trees at fifteen feet apart ; this would be above the
rate of eight trees upon the acre, or fixteen thoufand trees

m the hedges only. At the end of thirty years, if well
m.-inaged, they would be worth from twenty to forty fhil-
ings each ; but fay only thirty [hillings each, this would be
iixtccn thoufand pounds : a very confiderable fum, it is
laid, for a proprietor of only two thoufand .icrcs to receire
every thirty years, above the annual rent of his eftate.

Thcfc hints and obfervations place the utility and import-
ance of iiedgc-row planting, where it can be done with
propriety, in a ftnking point of view.

TiMBKU-/«/^a7or, a term applied to a pcrfon who is ap-
pointed to infped and examine the ftates of timber-woods,
plantations, and forefts in any diftrift or place. It has been
fuggefted by the writer of the correftcd account of the ftate
of agriculture in the county of Devon, that, as it is evident
that the timber in tliat county is wafting in a very alarming
manner, (and the fame is the cafe in many other timber-wooded
diftrids.) It is necen"ary that an ordinance ftiould be made,
tiiat in future no timber-tree fliould be cut down, or legally
expofed for fale, without having the mark of the timber-
mfpeftor of the diftrift affixed to it, and a certificate ac-
companying it. This fort of officer fliould, it is thought,
be appointed and paid by government, and to whom annual
returns ftiould be made of all matters and circumftanccs ap-
pertaining to his duty, which ftiould alfo extend to the in-
fpeftion and examination of all young timber-plantations,
Sic: where it ftiould be required that he ftiould not only fee
that a certain number of young trees is planted for every
timber-tree that is cut down, but that the fame young trees
and plantations are well fenced in and protected. That on
his obferving fuch timber woodland fences infufficient for
their fafety, and their owners perfiftingly unmindful of the
report he has made, he ftiould be empowered to order and
diredt the neceflary repairs to be done, and to be enabled to
recover the amount of fuch expence, by levying an imme-
diate diftrefs upon the moveables on the premifes of the
parties.

It would unqueftionably be of great utility and advantage
in increafing the quantity, and improving the quality of
timber, to have fuch infpediors in all timber-wooded diftriftt
of every defcription.

TlMBER-P/an/ation, that fort which is made fimply for the
purpofe of raifing and producing timber. Several points
and circumftaiices are necelfary to be attended to in the
performance of this bufinefs, in order to render fuch planta-
tions the moft expeditioufly and abundantly produftive, fuch
as the proper choice of foil, fituation, and expofure, as well
as proper fencing in, thinning, training, and pruning, all of
which are noticed and explained under their appropriate
heads. See Plantation, Planting, Pruning, Thin-
ning, Timber, &c.

TiMBE}i-Ref>a'ns, fuch as are done by fome fort of
timber, to be cut down on eftates, &c. Rough timber is
inoftly allowed for repairs to be done by tenants, and it is
commonly the cuftom of this country to permit the top-
wood of the trees to be taken by them for their trouble
and cxpences in various ways with fuch timber. In fome
cafes, however, the contrary mode takes place, fuch top-
wood being charged to them at a moderate rate or price.
And, in all cafes, it is thought by the writer of the work on
" Landed Property," that the tenant ftiould be charged for
the bark of oak-tii.iber, which is now become fcarce and of
great value, he teing allowed for peehng and for carriage to
market, or other places.

It is advifed that the neat value of the bark and the top-
wood, where it is charged in thefe cafes of repairs, fhould
be made a fair cftimate of when the timber is marked, and
charged to tenants in a fum certain. By this means they be-
come,

T I M

come, it is thought, intereiled in the peeling and harvefting
or leciiriiiK of tlic bark : no walle is confeciuently nicurred
througli their neglcd, or any unfair dealings niked ; nor
is there any difputable account to be fettled, on the rent-
day, betwct-n them and the receivers.

In the %ie\v too of enabling the afting managers, in fuch
cafes, lo/tUa, in the bell and readiell manner, proper trees
for the feveral different forts of repairs that may, from time
to time, be required, — let, it is faid, the woodmen, or
thofe who Iiave the immediate charge of the timber of
citatcs, be direifted to note down, in going their rounds,
fuch trees as may be faulty, and arc likely to go foon
to decay, or which are llinted in their growth, or too
much crowded, and, in general, fuch as are proper to be
taken down for the different ufcs of ellatcs : whether for
erefting or repairing buildings, or for gates or other pur-
pofes : in order that they may be able to lead or direcl,
without lofs of time, tlie afting managers and the carpenters
or builders of ellatcs, with the eftimates, in their hands, of
the quantity and quality of the timber which is rcquifite to
the trees moll proper for any given purpofe : thus pre-
ferving the crop of /ale timber from unneceffary fpoil, by a
lefs difcriminate choice or method of proceeding.

Timber, Slick of, a term frequently applied to any large
boled or Hemmed tree of the timber kind : a line, large,
perfeifl timber-tree. See Timber and Tree.

TiMBER-7>f«, the wood of timber, before it be felled,
particularly that of oak, Sec. See Trees.

For the railing, planting, tranfplanting, pruning, &c. of
timber-trees, fee Seminary, Nursery, Pruning, and
Transplantixg.

TlMBF.R-ll'ood, a term fignifying that fort of wood which
is employed or defigned for the raifing and growth of tim-
ber, in contradiftintlion to that of the under-wood or cop-
pice kinds, or fuch as has little or no brufh-wood or under-
growths in it. There ar« but few cafes in which it is not
advantageous for timber-woods to be kept pretty clear and
free from mod forts of under-growths, efpecially where they
approach near the trees. See Wood.

TlMBER-/rbo(/ or Tree, Regijler of, the account which is
neceffary to be kept of the timber-wood or trees of that
kind, which are growing upon the different parts of a tim-
bered eftate. The writer of a late work on " Landed Pro-
perty," has advifed that it fhould confiil of all that is met
with on the feveral divifions of an eftate j fetting forth the
number of fuch trees in eacli of the different woods, groves,
hedge-rows, and all other places, with the feveral fpecies or
kinds, the number which is affixed to each, and the admea-
furement of each of them. Separate accounts, containing
thofe trees of each particular divifion, being entered and
kept ; for the fatisfaftion and occafional ufe of the land-
manager and the woodward. Sucli hfts or rcgifters are
always of great utiUty and benefit to the proprietors of tim-
ber-wooded ellates, as afcertaining their nature, ftate, and
fituation in many different refpefts.

TlMBER-Z,0(/f, in our Old Writers, a fervice by which tenants
were to carry timber from the woods to the lord's houfe.

Timber, Bearing of. See Bearing.

TiMBER-/^o/-;J, Cafing of. Sec Casing.

Timber or Timmer of Furs, as ermines, martens, fables, and
the like, denotes forty (kins ; of other ildns, fix fcore. Rull.

"Haec civitas (fc. Ceftriae) nunc reddebat de firma 45
libraset trestimbrias peUium martenariun." LL. Edw. Conf.

T1.MBEKS cf Ermin, in Heraldry, denote the ranks or
rows of ermin in noblemen's coats.

Timber, in Falconry. To timber, is to neftlc, or make a
fleft, as birds of prey do.

T I U

Timber, Prick, \n Botany. See SpiNDLE-TVif^.

Timbers, in Ship-Building, the ribs of a ftiip, or the m-
curvated pieces of wood branching outward from the keel
in a vertical diredlion, fo as to give ttrength, figure, and fo-
lidity to the whole fabric.

One timber in a (hip is compofed of feveral pieces united
into one frame, which accordingly is called by the artificers
a frame of timbers. The timbers whofe planes are perpen-
dicular to tlie keel, are called fquare-timbers ; and thofe
which are placed obliquely on tlie keel, as at the extremities
of a fhip, are called cant-timbers . The foremoll of tliofc
pieces on tlie (liip's bow are called the knucUe-timbers ; and
the hindermoft. on the quarter, ihe fa/iion-pieces. See SiliP-

BUILDIXG.

Timber and Room, or Room and Space, is the diftance be-
twixt the moulding edges of two adjoining timbers, v.liich
mull always contain the breadth of two timbers ; and fome-
times two or three inches between them.

TIMBO, in Geography, a town of Africa, on the Grain
Coaft. N. lat. 5^' 28'. W. long. 9" 20'.

TIMBRE, or Timmer, in Heraldry, denotes thecreft of
an armory, or whatever is placed atop of the efcutcheon, to
diilinguith the degree of nobility, either ecclefiaftical or
fecular.

Such as the papal tiara, cardinal's hat, the crofs, mitre,
coronet, mortier, and particularly the cafques or helmets,
which the ancients called more efpecially timbres, from their
refembling a kind of bell without a clapper, which the
French call timbre, or becaufe they refounded like thofe
timbres when ftruck. This is the opinion of Loifeau, who
derives the word from the Latin, iinlinnabuhim.

TIMBREL, Tabret, or Tambour de Bafque, in Mtific, '\i
an inftrument of very high antiquity ; having been in ufe
among the Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans. To the rim
were hung bells or pieces of metal.

TIME is a portion or part of infinite duration. It is
generally meafured by motion, and chiefly by the motions
of the heavenly bodies.

There is nothing perhaps of which the mind is lefs ca-
pable of forming a diftinft idea than time, imconnefled with
the motions of fenfible objedls ; and yet, on account of tliis
coaneftion, every one thinks it a fubjedt VN-ith which he is
familiarly acquainted, until an explanation is required.

The opinions of ancient philofophers on the fubjeft are
generally vague and contradidlory. Pythagoras and He-
raclitus maintained that time was a fubftance, but the Stoics
confidered it as unfubftantiated. Ariftotle and the Peripa-
ticians define time to be " a multitude of parts of motion,
which pafs and fucceed each other in a continual flux, and.
have relations to each other, inafmuch as fome are anterior
and others pofterior." Archytas defined it to be " a con-
tinned and indivifible flux of naws or inftants."

The Epicureans confidered " time as merely an objeA of the
imagination, or an attribute given to things by the mind
while contemplating them either as enduring or ceafing ;
as poffefling a longer or Ihorter exiftence, as enjoying fuch
exiftence, as having enjoyed it, or as being about to
enjoy it."

Lucretius, the great poet and philofopher of this feft,
defines time as follows :

" Tempus item per fc non eft, fed rebus ab ipCs
Confequitur fenfus, tranfadlum quid fit in xvo ;
Turn, quse res inftet, quid porro deinde fequatur :
Nee per fe quemquam tempus fentire fatendum ell
Semotum ab rerum motu, placidaque quiete."

Lib. i. 46c.

Thuj

TIME.

Thus tranflated by Creech :

" Time of itfelf is nothing, but from ttiouglit
Receives its rife, by labouring fancy wrought
From things confidered, whilil we think on fome
As prefent, fome as pall, or yet to come.
No thought can think on time, that's ftill confeil,
But thinks on things in motion or at reft."

The above opinion of Lucretius, though fanAioned by
many of the ancients, and even by fome of the moderns, does
not appear to have fatisfied philofophers in gencrah Cicero
fays (i de Invent.) "difficile eft tempus deiinere." Thus
alfo St. Auftin (2 Confeif. 24.) obferves, " fi nemo ex me
quaa-at quid fit tempus, fcio ; fe quasrenti exphcare vehni,
nefcio."

Locke feems to have confidered time more profoundly
than perhaps any other philofoplier. The following
are among his opinions on the fubjeft. Human Underft.
vol. i. ch. 14.

" The anfwer of a great man to one who adied him what
time was, ' fi non rogas intelHgo,' (which amounts to this ;
the more I fet myfelf to think of it, the lefs 1 undcrftand
it,) might perhaps perfuade one that time, which reveals all
things, is not itfelf to be difcovered. Duration, time, and
eternity, are, not without reafon, thought to have fometliing
very abftrufe in their nature.

" To underftand time and eternity aright, we ought with
attention to confider what idea it is we have of Jiirnl'wn, and
how we came by it. 'Tis evident to one who will but ob-
ferve what palTes in his own mind, that there is a train of
ideas which conftantly fucceed one another in his under-
flanding as long as he is awake. Refleftion on thcfe ap-
pearances of feveral ideas, one after another in our minds, is
that which furnifhes us with the idea of fticceffioii ; and
the diftance between the appearance of any two ideas in
our minds, is that which we call duration (which fee).
Having thus got the idea of duration, the next thing na-
tural for the mind to do, is to get fome meafure oi th\i com-
mon duration, whereby it might judge of its different
lengths, and confider the diftinft order wherein feveral
things exift : without which, a great part of our knowledge
would be confufed, and a great part of hiftory rendered
very ufelefs. This confideration of duration, as fet out by
certain periods, and marked by certain mcafures or epochs,
is that, I think, which moft properly we call time."

Nearly according to the above our modern Encyclopredifts
define time ; vhx,. " a fucceffion of phenomena in the univcrfe,
or a mode of duration marked by certain periods and mea-
fures, and principally by the motions or apparent revolutione
of the fun." Others define time to be "the duration of a thing,
the exiftcnce of which is not without beginning or end ;
which diftinguiflies time from eternity."

Time is diftinguiftied into abfoliite and relative.

Aljolute lime is confidered in itfelf, without any relation to
bodies or their motions flowing uniformly. Relative time is the
fenfiblemeafureof any portion of duration by means of motion.
As the equal and uniform flax of time does not affeft our
fenfes ; and as there is nothing in this flux that can make
us know immediately time itfelf; we muft, of necelfity, have
rccourfe to fome motion, by which we can determine the quan-
tity of time, by comparing parts of time with thofe of fpace
that the moving body traverfes. Therefore, as we judge that
limes are equal, when they flow whilft a body which is in an
uniform motion traverfes equal fpaces ; fo likewife we judge
bat times are equal, when they flow whilft the fun,
■loon, and the other celeftial luminaries, complete their ordi'

nary revolutions, which to our fenfes appear uniform. See
Motion.

But as the flowing of time cannot be accelerated nor
rctartled ; as all bodies move fometimes quicker and fome-
times flower ; and as there is perhaps no perfeftly Uniform mo-
tion in nature, except the earth's rotation on its axis, fome
authors are of opinion that abfolute time cannot be concluded
to be fomething i-eally diftinft from motion : for fuppofing
for a moment the earth and the other planets have been with-
out motion ever fince the creation, does it thence follow that
the courfe of time would have been ftopped or inteiTupted i
Would not the duration of this ftate of reft have been equal
to the time which has elapfed fince the creation ?

As abfolute time is a quantity which flows in a uniform
manner, and which is very finiple in its nature, mathemati-
cians reprefent it to the imagination by tlie moft fimple fen-
fible magnitudes, particularly by right lines and by circles,
with which abfolute time appears to have a great analogy in
refpcft of fucceffion, the fimilarity of parts, &c.

In faft, it is not ablolutely ncceflary to meafure time by
motion ; for the conftant and periodical return of a thing
which happens or manifefts itfelf by intervals equally diftant
from each other, as, for inttance, the budding of a plant, &c.
may do the fame thing. It is faid there are people in Ame-
rica who reckon years by the arrival and departure of birds.

Time is ufually reprefented by the uniform motion of a
point that defcribcs a right line. The point is the fucceffive
ftate, prefent fucceflively at different places, and producing
by its fluxion a continual fuccelfion, to whicii we attach the
idea of time. The uniform motion of an objeCl alfo mea-
fures time ; for when this motion takes place, the moving-
body traverfes, for example, one foot in the fame time in
which it has traverfed a firft foot ; therefore, the duration
of things that co-exift with the moving body whilft it tra-
verfes one foot being taken as one, the duration of thofe
that will co-exift with its motion whilft it will be traverfing
two feet will be two, and fo on ; fo that by this means time
becomes commenfurable, fince we can affign the reafon of
one duration to another duration that we had taken for
unity. ThuSj in clocks, the hand moves uniformly in a
circle : the twelfth part of the circumference of this
circle is unity, and time is meafured by tliis unity, by fay-
ing two hours, three hours, &c. So likewife one year is
taken for one, becaufe the revolutions of the fun in the
ecliptic are equal, or nearly fo, to our fenfes ; and we make
ufe of it to meafure other durations in relation with this
unity. We know the attempts made by aftronomers to
find a uniform motion, to enable them to meafure time ex-
aiftly ; and this is what has been beft done by means of
pendulums. See Pendulum.

There is no meafure of time exaftly correft. Every one
has his own meafure of time in the quicknefs or flownefs
with which his ideas fucceed each otlier ; and from thefe
different degrees of quicknefs in different perfons, or in the
fame perfon at different times, arife thefe modes of fpeaking,
/ have found the time very long, or very Jhort ; for time ap-
pears long to us, when the ideas fucceed each other flowly
in our mind, and viee verfd. The meafures of time are ar-
bitrary, and may vary among different people ; the only
one that is univerfal is the prefent inftant ; and yet fome
deny the exiftence of prefent time, as being conftantly on
the wing ; or, according to Horace, (Carmen XI.)

" Dum loquimur fugerit invida itas."

Time is indeed an inexhauftiblc fubjedl for figurative and

poetical allufions, and even for paradoxes. Thus, it is faid

11 to

TIME.

to owf iti own itnmatcrial being to the creation of materia
order ; to have all iis portions meafnred l.y the periodical
motion, of matter, and yet to be diftind from, and inde-
pendent of, thofc motions for its exilK-nce, though it couM
not exill until they exiiLd : alfo that it operates upon every
thing, yet touclios nothing. Many other contradiftory
prop.'rties might be mentioned, but fuch tend t., darken
rather tlian to elucidate the fubjeit. Some philofophera
have gone even fo far as to deny the exiftence of time ; for
if there be no profent, there cannot be any future, and the
paft certainly has no exiftence.

We now come to confider the application of mathe-
matics to time, asconneAed with allronomical computations,
where the fubjedt is accurately calculated, and rendered
fubfcr\-ient to tlie important purpofes of meafuring fpace,
by which the longitude is determined both in the heavens
and on earth.

jljlronomical lime is diftinguiflied into folar or apparent
time, mean time, and fidereal time.

Apparent time, alfo called true folar and ajlronomical time,
it regulated by the apparent motions of the fun. Mean or
mean folar time, alfo called equated time, is a mean or average
of apparent time : iaAfiJereal time is fhewn by the diurnal
revolutions of the fixed ftars.

An apparent rlay is the interval between two fuccedive
tranfits of the fun's centre over the fame meridian, which
interval is fubjcft to continual variations, owing to the ec-
centricity of the earth's orbit, and the obliquity of the
ecliptic to the equator. Thefe variations are computed in a
table, for which fee Equation of Time.

A mean day is the interval that would be obferved be-
tween two fuccedive tranfits of the fun's centre over the
fame meridian, if the earth's orbit were circular, and the fun
always in the equinoftial. Thus the intervals or tranfits
would be all equal, fuch as are fhewn by a clock that goes
exaftly 24 hours in a day, and 365* 5 ■■ 48"' 48' in a
year. A clock thus fet is faid to be adjufted to mean
time.

KJidereal day is the interval between two fuccedive tran-
fits of a ftar over the fame meridian ; which interval is uni-
form, becaufe all the fixed ftars make their revolutions in
equal times, owing to the uniformity of the earth's diurnal
rotation on its axis.

The fidereal day it fhorter than the mean folar day by
3" 56'. 55 fidereal time. Tliis difference arifes from
the fun's apparent annual motion from weft to eaft, which
leaves the ftar as it were behind. Thus, if the fun and a
ftar be obferved on any day to paft the meridian at the fame
inflant, the next day, when the ftar returns to the meridian,
the fun will have advanced about a degree eafterly (his
daily portion of the ecliptic) : and, as the earth's diurnal
rotation on its axis is from weft to eaft, the ftar will come to
the meridian before the fun, infomuch that at the end of the
year it will have gained a day on the fun, that is, it will
have paffed the meridian 366 times, while the fun will have
paffed it but 365 times. Now as the fun appears to per-
form his revolution of 360° in a year, fay, as 365 <i ^ >•
48"" 48' : 360° :: i" : 59' 8".3, which is the fpace the
fun would dcfcribe in a day, if all the days were of an equal
length ; and this fpace reduced to time, = 3' S^"-S5 = the
ticefs of a mean day above 3. fidereal day, in fidereal time, or
3' 55".9i in mean folar time.

It therefore appears that the earth defcribes about its axil
M arc of 360° 59' 8".3 in a mean folar day, and an arc of
360° in 2. fidereal day ; therefore, as 360° 59' 8" : 360* ::
»4'' : »3 j6' 4".o9 = the length of a fidereal day in mean

folar time, or the interval between two fuccefTive tranfits of
a ftar over the fame meridian.

Hence the following general rule for converting fidereal
to mean time, and the contraiy :

As 24'' : 23'' 56' 4".09 :: any portion of fidereal time
to its equivalent in meantime. And as 23'' 56' 4".09 :
24'' :: any portion of mean time to its equivalent in fidereal
time. Thus Tables I. and II. in our article Chronometbr
are computed.

From what has been faid, it is evident that apparent and
mean time are tlic fame, with refpcft to the length of the
hour, minute, and fecond of each, as well as of the year }
but the hour, minute, and fecond of fidereal time are refpec-
tively lefs in the above proportion. It is only the folar and
mean days that differ, and this variation is marked by the
times of commencement. Thus the apparent day always
begins when the fun's centre is on the meridian ; but the
mean day commences fometimes fooner and fometimes later,
as computed in the tables of the equation of time. See
Equation of Time.

The reduaion of time, that is, to turn apparent, mean, and
fidereal time into each other, may be performed by the fol-
lowing theorems, taken from Kelly's Spherics, p. 208, ed. 4.

Let A = apparent time.
M = mean time.
S = fidereal time.

E = the equation of time at apparent noon.
e r= the daily difference of the equation of time.
R = the fun's right afcenfion at apparent noon.
r = the daily increafe of the fun's right afcenfion.
N = the fun's mean right afcenfion at mean noon,

;. e. the fidereal time at mean noon.
m = the reduction of fidereal time at the rate of

3' 55".9i for 24 hours fidereal time.
3 = the reduction of mean to fidereal time, at the-
rate of 3' S&'-SS ^°^ ^4 lioui"S mean time.
And let + fignify that addition or fubtraftion which is to
be ufed according as the quantity under coa-
fideration is increafing or decreafing.
Alfo let A' = M + E, as applied in cafe 2.

Formulae for the Reduftion of Time.

Cafe,

. M

Given.

A

M

Req".

Solution.

M

M

M = A+E -(-

A X <

24

A'4-

A'x

— 24±f

S = N4- M-f-/

M=S-N

S = A+^^^^+R

A A=S-R-

S- R X r

24 + r

The

TIME.

The foregoing fix cafes comprehend all the varieties that
occur in the reduftioii of time ; and for their numerical il-
lullration, fee our article Chronometer.

For the application of time to the meafurcmeut of fpace
and motion, fee Lon'gitude and Lunak Ohfervations.

Time, Civil, is aftronomical time accommodated to civil
ufes, and formed and diftinguiflied into years, months, days,
and hours, with their fiibdivifions : the reckoning of the
hours as civil to twelve twice over, is meant to mark the
natural day.

Time, in Heathen Mythology, was perfonified and deified.
Saturn was ufually the fymbolof it. Time was reprcfented
with wings, to mark the rapidity with which it pafles,
and with a fcythe, to fignify its ravages. It was divided
into feveral parts ; the century, the generation or fpace of
thirty years, the luftrum, the year, the fcafons, the months,
the days, and the hours ; and each of thefe parts had its par-
ticular figure in men or women, according as their names
were mafculine or feminine ; their images were uftd hi reli-
gious ceremonies.

Time, in Mufic, is an affeAion of found, by which we
denominate it long ox fiort, with regard to its continuance in
the fame degree of tune.

Time and tune are the great properties of found, on
whofe difference or proportions mufic depends : each has its
feveral charms : where the lime or duration of the notes is
equal, the differences of tune alone are capable of entertain-
ing us with endltfs pleafure.

And of the power of time alone, i. c. of the pleafures
arifing from the various meafures of long and fhort, fwift
and flow, we have an inftance in the drum, which has no dif-
ference of notes, as to tune.

Time, in mufic, is confidered either with refpeft to the
abfolute duration of the notes, i. e. the duration confidered in
every note by itfelf, and meafured by fome external notion
foreign to the mufic ; in refpeft to which the compofition is
faid to be quick or (low : or it is confidered with refpedt to
the relative quantity or proportion of the notes compared
with one another. See Note.

The figns or charafters by which the time of notes is re-
prcfented, are fheven under the article Characters, in
Mufic, where the names, proportions, &c. are alfo ex-
preffed.

A femi-breve, for inftance, is marked to be equal to two
minims, a minim to two crotchets, a crotchet to two quavers,
and fo on, ftill in a duplicate ratio, i. e. in the ratio of 2 : i .
Now where the notes refpeft each other thus, i. e. where
they are in this ratio, the mufic is faid to be in duple, i. e.
double or common time.

When the feveral notes are triple of each other, or in the
ratio 3 : i> that is, when the femi-breve is equal to three
minims, the minim to three crotchets, &c. the mufic is faid
to be in triple time.

To render this part as fimple as poffible, the proportions
already ftated among the notes are fixed and invariable : and
to exprefs the proportion of 3 : i, a point (.) is added to
the right fide of any note, which is deemed equivalent to
half of it ; and by this means a pointed femi-breve, O. be-
comes equal to three minims, and fo of the reft.

From hence arife feveral other ratios conftituting new
kinds of triple time ; as 2 : 3 and 3 ; 4, &c. ; but thefe, Mr.
Malcolm obferves, are of no real fervice, and are not per-
ceived without a painful attention. For the proportions of
the times of notes, to afford us pleafure, muft be iuch as are
not difficultly perceived ; on which account the only ratios
iit for mufic, befide that of equality, are the double and
triple.

Vol. XXXV.

Time, Common or Duple, is of two fpecies : tlte firft,
when every bai- or meafure is equal to a femi-breve, or ita
value in any combination of notes of a lefs quantity.

The fecond, where every bar is equal to a minim, or its
value in lefs notes. The movements of this kind of mea-
fure are various, but there are three common difi.inftion3 ;
the full Jlow, fignified at the beginning by llie mark C ; tiie

fecond Iri/i, fignified by £ 2 ; tli« t^iird very quid, figni-
fied by ^ J

But what that flow, brifk, and quick i«, is very uncer-
tain, and only to be learned by praftice. The nearell mea-
fure we know of, is to make a quaver the lenglh of the pulfe
of a good watch ; then a crotchet will be equal to two
pulfes, a minim to four, and the whole meafure or femi-
breve to eight. This may be reputed the meafure of Iriji
time ; as for the Jlo-w, it is as long again, and the quick is
only half as long.

Some propole to meafure it by imagining the bar as
aftually divided into four crotchets, in the firft kind, and fo
make the whole as long as one may diftinftly pronounce
thefe four words, one, two, three, four, all of equal length :
fo that the firfl: crotchet may be applied to cue, the fecond to
two, Sec. and for other notes proportionally ; and this is
made the brifk movement of common time.

The whole meafure then of common time is equal to a
femi-breve, or a minim ; but thefe are varioufly fubdivided
into notes of lefs quantities.

Now to keep the time equal, we make ufe of a motion of
the hand or foot, thus : knowing the true time of a crotchet,
we fhall fuppofe the meafure or bar aftually fubdivided into
four crotchets for the firft fpecies of common time ; then
the half meafure will be two crotchets ; therefore the hand
or foot being up, if we put it down with the very beginning
of the firft note or crotchet, and then raife it with the third,
and then down to begin the next meafure ; this is called
heating 0/ time.

-By praftice, they get a habit of making this motion very
equal, and confequently of dividing the meafure or bar into
equal parts, up and down ; as alfo of taking all the notes in
the juft proportion, fo as to begin and end them precifely
with the beating. In the meafure of two crotchets, they
beat down the firft, and the fecond up. Some call each
half of the meafure in common time, a time; and fo they
call this the mode or meafure of tw» times, or the dupla
meafure.

Again, fome mark the meafure of two crotchets with a
2 or ;, fignifying it to be equal to two notes, of which four
make a femi-breve ; and fome mark it -J for quavers.
Malcolm's Mufic, p. 385, &c.

Time, /or Triple. See TniPLS-Time.

TiME-Ttiile. See Characters, Franco, and Plate I*.

Time, in Fencing. There are three kinds of time ; that
of the fword, that of the foot, and that of the whole body.
All the times that are perceived out of their meafure, are
only to be confidered as appeals, or feints, to deceive and
amufe the enemy. See Fencing.

Time, in the Manege, is fometimes taken for the motion
of a hoife, that obferves meafure and juftncfs in performing
a manege ; and fometimes it fignifies the interval between
two of his motions. In the manege of a ftep and a leap,
the horfe makes by turns a corvet between two caprioles ;
and in that cafe the corvet is one time that prepares the
horfe for the caprioles.

4 5 The

T I M

The time, obfervrd in making a ftop are nothing but fo

TiMK alfo r.gnifies the effea of one of ^he aids ; thus, we
f.y, a good horfcman difpofos his horie for the cffefta of the
heel, by bejnnning with one time of the legs, and never runs
precipitately upon his times. n -a .1

> Time offhtiving Fhwers, in Gardemng, among flontts, the
period or (iafon of exhibiting thofe of the finer kinds, either
on the fummer ftages for this purpofe, or in other places.
For fome forls of llowors, as thofe of the auricula and other
limilai- kinds, it is ufually from about the latter part ot
April until about the beginning of May, 111 fituations near
the metropolis, in which length of period or feafon there
are cominonly about four fuch (hows at different fuitable
intervals of time.

In other forts of fine flowers, the (hows are moilly lome-
what later, and do not lall any great length of time, as for
tulips, carnations, and fome other fimilar kinds ; and there
are ftill a few others which lall differently in regard to
time, or a great part of the fummer feafon. See Summer-
Slage.

Tmv.-Kctpfrs, in a general fenfe, denote mltrumcnts
adapted for meafuring time. Sec Chronometer.

Ti-^i-E. of Peace. See Pe ACE.

Time, in Chronology. See Chronology.

Time, in Grammar. See Tense, Prosody, and Measure.

Time, in Mechanics. See Motion.

Time, Periodical. See Period.

TrME, Equation of. See Equation.

Time, Kipper. See KippeR-

Time, Unity of. See Unity.

TIMELFIOERD, in Geography, a bay of the North
fca, on the coaft of Norway ; 32 miles W. of Romfdal.

TIMEN-GUY, in Rigging, a rope fallened at one end
to the forc-(hroiids, and nailed at the other end to the an-
chor-ftock, on the bow, to prevent the fore-(heet from en-
tangling.

TIMENS, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the
province of Chriftianfand ; 15 miles S. of Stavanger.

TIMERA, a town of Sweden, in the province of Me-
delpadia ; 5 miles N. of Snndfwall.

TIMERY, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ; 6
miles S. of Arcot.

TIMERYCOTTA, a town and foftrefs of Hindoo-
ftan, in Golconda ; 54 miles S.E. of Hydrabad. N. lat.
15° 20'. E. long. 79" 26'.

TIMERYDURGAM, a town of Hindooftan, in Ba-
ramaul ; 21 miles N.N.W. of Darempoury.

TIMESQUIT, or TiMAsQUiT, a town of Africa, in
the country of Darah ; 80 miles W. of Tafilet.

TIMETHUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Sicily,
the mouth of which is placed by Ptolemy between Tynda-
rium and Agathyrium.

TIMICl, Mat-el-Wed, a place in Africa, S.E. of
Arfinaria, on the banks of one of the rivers which formed
the Carteimus ; and in which are ruins.

TIMIRU, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cuba^
20 miles W.S.W. of Villa del Principe.

TIMMER. See Timber and Timbre.

TIMMIA, in Botany, received that name from the cele-
brated Hedwig, in compliment to his correfpondent Mr.
Joachim Chriltian Timm, an apothecary and principal ma-
giftrate at Malchin, who publilhcd Flora Megapolitame Pro-
dromus, in 17S8. Tills makes an octavo volume, containing
the names, charafters, places of growth, &Ci. of the na-
tive plants of Mecklcnburg-Schwenn, difpofed according to
the Linnaean fyftcm, with the abohtion of the 20th, 21ft,

10

T I M

2 2d, and 23d clalTes, and a feparation of all the graffes and
grafs-like plants together, into a clafs by themfelves. The
number of fpecies is 1 200, of which joi belong to the
Crvplogamia, the other clalfes being far from rich. Neither
does the work contain any critical obfervations to compen-
fate for the inconvenience of the above changes. — Hedw-
Crypt. V. I. 83. Sp. Mufc. 176. Schreb. Gen. 761. Timm.
Megapol. 234. — Clafs and order, Cryplogamia Mufci. Na^
Ord. Mufci.

EIT. Ch. Capfule ovate. Outer fringe of fixteen pointed
teeth : inner membranous, with jointed teeth combined at the
top. M.ale flowers on the fame plant, axillary, ftalked, bud-
(haped.

The known fpecies are two only. T. megapolitana,
Hedw. Crypt, v. I. 83. t. 31, found near Malchin, growing
in boggy ground among Carices, as well as in North America :
and T. aufriaca, Hedw. Sp. Mufc. 176. t. 42. f. i — 7, na-
tive of Schneeberg, a celebrated Aullrian mountain. Both
have the habit of Bryum, or Mnium ; fee thofe articles.
We cannot confider Timmia as an admiffible genus, being
diftinguiflied from Bryum merely by the connexion of the
points of the inner fringe, hke Pohlia of Hedwig, which
the reader will find in its proper place. Under the head o(
Fringe of Mojfcs we have fuggefted the objeftions to
founding genera on the diflterences of figure in the inner
fringe, which ai-e uncertain, variable, very difficult to obferve,
and lead to unnatural diftinttions. Charatlers derived from
the fituation of the male flowers are fubjeft to ftill greater
difficulties and objections.

TIMMISKAMAIN Lake, in Geography, a lake of
North America, in Canada. This lake gives name to a tribe
of Indians near it. N. lat. 47'' 30'. W. long. 8o° 40'.

TIMMS, a town of North Carolina; 15 miles S.S.E.
of Fayetteville.

TIMOAN, an idand in the Eaft Indian fea, inhabited by
Malays : (hips may obtain wood and water ; the anchorage
is good almoft all round the ifland $ but the inhabitants are
furly and infolent. N. lat. 2" 58'. E. long. 104° 25'.

TIMOCHARIS, in Biography, an attronomer of Alex-
andria, who flouri(hed in the third century B.C. He ob-
ferved B.C. 294, on the 9th of March, four hours before
midnight, a conjundlion of the moon with the Spica Virginis,
the ftar being then, according to him, 8^ W. from the equi-
noftial point.

TIMOK, in Geography, a river of Servia, which rifes in
mount Hxmus, and runs into the Danube, 6 miles N. of
Viddin.

TIMOLEON, in Biography, a diftinguiflied example of
patriotifm and attachment to liberty, was of noble parentage,
and a native of Corinth. His difcriminating charafter was
exhibited at an early age in the refcue of his brother Timo-
phanes at a moment of danger, when he was thrown from
his horfe in an engagement with the Argives, and furrounded
by the enemy. Timoleon flew to his aid, covered him with
his fliield, and after receiving many wounds, liberated his
brother. This fame brother, being placed by the Corin-
thians for the fafety of their city at the head of a ftanding
body of mercenaries, affumed the fovereignty of the ilate ;
but Timoleon, dreading the fubverfion of the liberty of his
country by the ambition of his own brother, remonftr^t.ed
againft his proceedings ; and, finding his own attempts for
reftraining him ineffectual, engaged two friends to concur
with him in his efforts ; but their united endeavours proving
of no avail, Timoleon is faid to have ftood by him weeping,
wnth his face eovered, while his alTociates difpatched the ty-
rant. Such is the account of Plutarch ; but Diodorus fa^'s,
that Timoleon killed his brother with his owii hand. This

aft,

T I M

TIM

aft, however, followed by the reproaches of his friends, and
by the imprecations of his mother, was the occafion of poig-
nant diih-efs to Timoleon ; fo tliat he withdrew from all
pubhc aflairs, and for fome years wandered about in the
mod difconfolate ftate, in the mod gloomy receflcs of his
gi-ounds, without ever approaching the city. After a re-
tirement of twenty years, the Syracufans apphed to Corinth
ior fuccour in a fcafon of calamity, occafioned by domeftic
tyrants, and by the hoftile preparations of the Carthaginians.
The Corinthians paffed a vote for granting the aflirtance that
was requefted, and Timoleon, in preference to many others
who were propofod, was appointed their general. Timoleon
lasiled for Sicily in the year B.C. 344, with a fleet of about
ten fail, and arriving, by a ftratagem, in the port of Tauro-
menrum, ditembarkcd his army, confiding of no more than
one thoufandmen. Succefs and viftory attended his arms ;
and h3\'ing become mafter of Syracufe, he deftroyed its ci-
tadel as a neft of tyrants, and caufed to be erefted in its
place a hall of judicature ; thus intimating, that the date
was now to be governed by laws, and not by arms. He alfo
colonized the city, which had been depopulated, by an import-
ation of Greeks, and by inviting all the fugitives to return.
Timoleon at the fame time extended his attention to the other
cities of Sicily, reducing thofe inhabitants who had ufurped
authority to the rank of private citizens, or fending them as
exiles to Corinth. He prepared likewife to refid the Car-
thaginians, who were fending a powerful army againd the
ifland ; and with a fmall force, but by extraordinary difplays
of valour and military flcill, totally defeated them. He
afterwards direfted liis attention to the internal date of Si-
cily, and by the raeafures which he adopted, fettled its in-
habitants in the unmolefted pofleflion of the advantages
which they enjoyed in a fertile foil and propitious climate.
The Sicilians acknowledged their obligations with gratitude
and refpecl, and confidered Timoleon as the common father
of the nation. Having fixed his abode in Syracufe, he fent
to Corinth for his wife and family, and lived as a private ci-
tizen, refpefted and edeemed for his virtues. Two dema-
gogues, however, contrived to didurb his tranquillity, and
brought charges againd him, which he thought unworthy
of refutation, and in reference to which he merely faid, " he
could not fufficiently exprefs his gratitude to the gods for
allowing him to fee the time when the Syracufans enjoyed
the hberty of fpeakingwhat they thought proper." Whild
Greece was involved in the calamities of a civil war, and in
conflifts which terminated in the lofs of public liberty, Ti-
moleon was unmoleded and tranquil, in a country which he
had contributed to render happy. Fortunate in all his tranf-
aftions after he left Corinth, he afcribed his fuccefles to the
goddefs Fortune, and dedicated to her the houfe in which
he refided. It has been obferved, that in the fydem of the
ancients, a regard to thefe nominal and fiftitious deities did
not exclude their belief of a fuperin ten ding providence :
and a particular indance occurs in the hidory of Timoleon
which would lead him to imagine that his life and its inci-
dents were under a providential care and diredlion. Soon
after his arrival in Sicily, two drangers were hired to adaffi-
nate him : and whilft he was facrificing in the temple of
Adranum, where he then lived, thefe murderers mixed iu
the throng, and were preparing to execute their commiflion.
At this indant a man gave one of them a blow on the head
with his fword, which laid him at his feet, and then fled to
the top of a rock. The other, fuppofing their defign had
been difcovered, laid hold of the altar, and intreated Timo-
leon to fpare his life, on condition of his revealing the whole
plot. The firft fugitive being brought down from the
*ock, affetted that he had committed no crime, becaufe the

man whom he had (Iruck had murdered hin father in the city
of Leontium. Suth an efcape would naturally imprefs a
mind lefs thoughtful than that of Timoleon.

At a late period Timoleon lod his fight, and this afilitlion
he bore with perfed. refignation : and it was alleviated to
him by the alfiduous attentions of the Syracufans. In his
old age he was revered by the Syracufans as a father in the
midd of his family : and at length terminated his life by a
flight difcafe, in the year B.C. 335. His funeral obfequies
were attended by a great number of people ; and when the
body was placed on the pile, a lierald made the foUowing
proclamation : "The people of Syracufe inter Timoleon the
Corinthian, the fon of Timodcmus, at the expencc of two
hundred minae : they honour him, moreover, through all
time, with annual games, to be celebrated with mufic, horfe-
racing, and wrelUing : as the man who dedroyed tyrants,
fubdued barbarians, repeopled great cities which lay defo-
late, and redored to the Sicilians their laws and privileges." A
monument was afterwards crefted to his memory iu the mar»
ket-place, which being furrounded with porticoes and other
public buildings, was made a place of exercife for the
youth, and named the " Timoleonteuni." Plut. Vit. Timol.
y\nc. Un. Hid.

TIMON tf?e Phliafmn, a difciple of Pyrrho, flouriflied
in the time of Ptolemy Philadclphus, and Hved to the age
of ninety years. At an early age he vifited Megara, for
the advantage of Stilpo's indruAions in dialeftics, and after-
wards removed to Elea, where he became a hearer of Pyrrho.
He fird profeffed philofophy at Chalcedon, and afterwards
at Athens, where he remained till his death.' He took fo
little pains to invite difciples to his fchool, that it has been
faid of him, that as the Scythians fliot flying, Timon gained
pupils by running from them. This indifference to his pro-
feflion was probably owing to his love of cafe and indulgence ;
for he was fond of rural retirement, and fo much addi£led
to wine, that he held a fuccefsful conted with feveral
celebrated champions in drinking. This difpofition pro-
bably led him to embrace the indolent doftrine of fcepticifm.
He feems to have treated the opinions and difputes of the
philofophers with contempt, for he wrote with f;»rcadic hu-
mour againd the whole body. His poem, entitled " SiHi,"
often quoted by the ancients, was a keen fatire, abounding
with bitter inveftives againd men and doftrines. The
remaining fragments of this poem have been induif rioufly
coUefted by Henry Stephens, in his" Pocfis Philofophica."
The public fucceflion of profeflbrs in the Pyrrhic fchool
terminated with Timon. Bruckcr by Enfield.

Timon, Samuel, a writer of hidory, was born at Tir-
nau, in Hungary, and died at Caflbvia, in 1736, at the age
of fixty-one years. In 1693 he entered among the Jefuits,
and being of feeble conditution, declined the labours of the
fociety, and devoted himfelf to literary occupation, particu-
larly to the hidory of his own country, in reference to which
he publiflied feveral works. Nouv. Dift. Hid.

TIIVIONEER, TiMONiER, Fr., in Sea Language, the
helmfman, or perfon who manages the helm to direft the
diip's courfe.

TIMONITIS, in Jncknt Geography, a country of Afia,
in Paphlagonia, in the vicinity of Bithynia. Strabo and
Ptolemy.

TIMONVILLE, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Mofelle ; 9 miles W. of Morhange.

TIMOORGOODA, a town of Hindoodan, in the cir-
car of Cicacolc ; 10 miles S.W. of Cicacole.

TIMOPHEEVA, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Irkutflc, on the Ilim ; 32 miles N.W. 01 Vercholenlk.

TIMOR, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, about 120
4 S 2 miles

T I M

m.le5 in leugth, and 33 .n breadth. The Portuguefe w.rc
tlic Hrft Europeans who formed any kind of fettlement on
ih.5 ifland, who fled to it as a place of refuge from their
enemies, the Dutch. But they were purfued by thofe im-
placable enemies, and in the year .613 driven from Cupan,
ur Coupan.', a town fituatcd at the weft end of the illand,
where the Dutch have ever fince polTelTcd and garrifoned a
fort which the Portuguefe had erefted. The chief of tlie
natives, or king of the illand, is by the Dutch called key-
fer (emperor). Some Portuguefe relide in the north part of
the ifiand. The principal produftions are fanders or faudal
wood aud wax, which the Dutch receive in exchange for
coarfe linens or piece-goods ; but on tlie whole, the profit
arifing from the commerce is little more than fufficicnt to
defray the expences, and the fettlement in all probability is
continued merely to keep out other nations. S. lat. 7° 16'
to 10'^ 24'. E. long. 124° to I26''2l'.

Timor Laul, or Laoet, Cgnifying in the Malacca language
f,a, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, about 60 miles in cir-
cumference. S. lat. 7" 25'. E. long. 132° i6'.

TIMOROSO, in the Italian Mufic, intimates that the
fong is to be played or fung in fuch a manner as to exprefs
an awe or dread, either to fhew refpcft, or to reprefent
fear.

TIMOROUS, in the Manege. See Starting, Skit-
tish, &c.

TIMOTEO DA Urbin-o, in Biography, vi\io{q real name
was T. della Vite, was born at Urbino in 1470. He re-
ceived his education as an artill under F. Francia, at Bo-
logna, but at the age of twenty-fix returned to his native
city, whence he foon after went to Rome to fee his country-
man, Raphael, and the great works in the Vatican which
had recently acquired for him fo much renown. Raphael
employed him in painting the Sibyls in the church of La
Pace, and was fatislied of his ability in the performance : fo
much fo, that he allowed him to retain the Cartoons. After
this he returned to Urbino, and there executed feveral great
works for the cathedral and other public buildings. He
improved his ftyle, as it was natural he fliould, under the
tuition of his great maft.er : and his latter produftions ex-
hibit much grace and vigour in their execution. His moft
efteemed works arc, the Conception, in the church of the
OfTervanti, at Urbino ; and Chrift appearing to Mary Mag-
dalen, in S. Angeli, at Cagli. He died m 1524, aged
fifty -four.

TIMOTHEUS, one of the moft celebrated poet-mufi-
cians of antiquity, was born at Miletus, an Ionian city of
Caria, 246 B.C. He was contemporary with Philip of
Macedon, and not only excelled in lyric and dithyram-
bic poetry, but in his performance upon the cithara.
According to Paufanias, he perfefted that inftrument
by the addition of four new ftrings to the feven which it
had before ; though Suidas fays it had nine before, and that
Timotheus only added two, the tenth and eleventh, to that
number.

It feems neceffary here to ftate the feveral claims made in
favour of different perfons who have been faid to have ex-
tended the limits of the Greek mufical fcale.

Many ancient and rcfpeftable writers tell us, that before
the time of Tcrpandcr, the Grecian lyre had only four
ftrings ; and, if we may beheve Suidas, it remained in this
ftate 856 years, from the time of Amphion, till Terpander
added to it three new ftrings, which extended the mufical
fcale to a heptachord, or feventh, and fupplied the player
with two conjoint ictracbords.

It was about 150 years after this period, that Pythagoras
u laid to have added an eighth ftring to the lyre, in order

TIM

to complete t^e odave, wluch confifted of iiuo ditjiincf
tetrachords.

Thefe dates of the feveral additions to the fcale, at fuch
diftant periods, though perhaps not exaft, may, however,
if near the trflth, Ihew the flow progrefs of human know-
ledge, and the contented ignorance of barbarous times.
But if we wonder at the mufic of Greece remaining fo many
ages in this circumfcribed ftate, it may be aflvcd, why that
of China and Perfia is not better now, though the-inhabit-
ants of thofe countries have long been civilized, and accuf-
tomed to luxuries and refinements.

Boiithius gives a different hillory of the fcale, and tells us
that the fyftem did not long remain in fuch narrow limits as
a tetrachord. Chorsbus, the fon of Athis, or Atys, king
of Lydia, added a fifth ftring, Hyagnis a fixth, Terpander
a feventh, and, at length, I.ychaon of Samos, an eighth.
But all thcfe accounts arc irreconcileable with Homer's
Hymn to Mercury, where the ehelys, or teftudo, the in-
vention of which he afcribcs to that god, is faid to have had
feven ftrino-s. There are many cliiimants among the mufi-
cians of ancient Greece, to the ftrings that were afterwards
added to thefe, by which the fcale, in the time of Ariftoxe-
nus, was extended to two oftjives. Athenasus, more than
once, fpeaks of the nine-Jlringed inftrument ; and Ion of
Chios, a tragic and lyric poet and philofopher, who firfl: re-
cited his pieces in the 82d Olympiad, 452 B.C. mentions,
in fome verfes quoted by Euclid,, the /cn^rin^tv/ lyre ; a
proof that the third conjoint tetrachord was added to the
fcale in his time, which was about fifty years after Pytha-
goras is fuppofed to have conftrufted the oftachord.

The different claimants among the Greeks to the fame
mufical difcoveries, only prove that mufic was cultivated in
differeirt countries ; and that the inhabitants of each coun-
try invented and improved their own inftruments, fome of
which happening to refemble thofe of other parts of Greece,
rendered it difficult for hiftorians to avoid attributing the
fame invention to different perfons. Thus the fingle flute
was given to Minerva, and to Marfyas ; the fyrinx, or
fiftula, to Pan, and to Cybele ; and the lyre, or cithara, to
Mercury, Apollo, Amphion, Linus, and Orpheus. In-
deed, the mere addition of a ftring or two to an inftrument
without a neck, was fo obvious and eafy, that it is fcarcely
poflible not to conceive many people to have done it at the
fame time.

With refpeft to the number of ftrings on the lyre of
Timotheus, the account of Paufanias and Suidas is confirmed
in the famous decree againft him, for which fee Senatus-

CONSULTUM. .

It appears from Suidas, that the poetical and mufical
compofitions of Timotheus were very numerous, and of va-
rious kinds. He attributes to him nineteen nomes, or canti-
cles, in hexameters ; . thirty-fix proems, or preludes ;
eighteen dithyrambics ; twenty-one hymns ; the poem in
praife of Diana ; one panegyric ; three tragedies, the Per-
iians, Phinidas, and Laertes ; to which muft be added a
fourth, mentioned by feveral ancient authors, called " Niobe,"
without forgetting the poem on " The Birth of Bacchus."
Stephen of Byzantium makes him author of eighteen books
of nomes, or airs, for the cithara, to eight thoufand verfes,
and of a thoufand n^ooi/zia, or preludes, for the nomes
of the flute.

A mufician fo long eminent as Timotheus, muft have ex-
cited great defire in young ftudeuts to become his pupils ;
but, according to Bartholinus, he ufed to exaft a double
price from all fuch as had previoufly received ififtruftions from
any other mafter ; faying, that he would rather inftruft thofe
who knew nothing, for half price, than have the trouble of

unteaching

TIM

unteach'mg fuch as had already acquired bad habits, and an
incorreft and vicious manner of playing.

Timotheus died in Macedonia, according to Suidas, at
the age of ninety-feven ; though the Marbles, much better
authority, fay at ninety ; and Stephen of Byzantium fixes
his death in the fourth year of the 105th Olympiad, two
years before the birth of Alexander the Great ; whence it
appears that tliis Timotheus was not the famous player on
the flute fo much cileemed by that prince, who was ani-
mated to fuch a degree by his performance, as to feize his
arms ; and who employed him, as Athenseus informs us, to-
gether with the other great muficians of his time, at his
' nuptials. However, by an inattention to dates, and by for-
getting that of tliefc two muficians of the fame name, the
one was a Milefian, and the other a Theban, they have been
hitherto almoft always confounded.

TIMOTHY, a favourite difciple and companion of
St. Paul, was the fon of a Jewefs by a Greek father, at
Lyftra in Ifauria. He Was the confidential aflbciate and
•friend of St. Paul, and he addrelTed to him two epiftles.
(See Epistle.) According to the Roman martyrology, he
was ftoned to death at one of the fellivals of Diana at
Ephefus.

Timothy Grafs, in jlgncuhur^, the common name of a
grafs which is faid to be cultivated much in America. The
feeds are faid to have been carried from the ftate of Virginia,
by Mr. Timothy Hanfon, to that of North Carolina, where
it is much grown, and from which circumilance it probably
received its name. It is a fort of grafs which thrives
moll: in low, damp, marfliy grounds; in fuch foils and fitua-
tions, it will produce a fine turf in a Ihort time. It is very
luxuriant, grows to a confiderable height, and has, in fome
fort, the appearance of wheat or rye, having a broad blade
or leaf.

It may be noticed, that all forts of cattle are faid to be
fond of it whilfl in the green growing ftate, as well as in that
of hay.

It is very produAive, but coarfe, and flowers late. Almoft
all the agriculturalifts and travellers of America concur in
giving this grafs the higheft commendations, as being the
chief fupport of cattle wherever meadows are found. And
from the inquiries made by Mr. Strickland, at the requeft of
the Board of Agriculture, it appears to be extenfively cul-
tivated in the middle and northern ftates of the American
union ; he has frequently feen extraordinary crops of it
growing as thickly as it could ftand on the ground, three or
four feet high, and in fome inftances as eoarfe as wheat-

T I M

ftraw. In this ftate it is cut before maturity j and as the
hay in America is always well cured, however fucculent it
may be, at the time of cutting, horfes prefer it to every
other kind of liay, and thrive better upon it.

No other graflcs approach it in produce ; and it is ftatcd
to be particularly uieful when mixed with red clover, in
preventing it from falling too clofe to the ground. And
fince his return, by cultivating it in his garden lie has afcer-
tained it to be the fame as the cat's-tail grafs ; but he is
doubtful vvlietlier, if it were cultivated in the field, and
fliould grow with American luxuriance, an Enghfli fun
would be able to cure it with American perfedion. It has,
however, been faid by Curtis, that it has no excellence that
we are acquainted with, wliich the meadow fox -tail grafs does
not poflefs in an equal degree. In the trials made by the
Rev. Mr. Young of keeping it clofely fed down by (heep,
upon a moift loam with a clayey marie bottom, the fuccefs
was fufficiently encouraging to evince that it is deferviiig
of attention ; efpecially as its feeds may be eafily procured
in any quantity from America at the price of about one
guinea the bufliel ; which, he obferves, is enough, in con-
junction with that of other grafles, for four or five acres of
land. He thinks four pounds, the proportion for the acre
as fixed by Rocque, who firft introduced it into this country,
are much too httle ; and is of opinion, that timothy is
beft adapted to moift loams, efpecially thofe of the peaty
kinds.

It is faid to be common in the dairy paftures of Chefhire,
by the writer of the Agricultural Report of that county,
but that, although it has been ftrongly recommended for
cultivation, it feems by no means to merit the high charac-
ter which was, at one time, given it. In moift lands or
foils it grows tolerably well ; but in all cafes and kinds of
land, it is thought much inferior to the meadow fox-tail,
and the fmooth-llalked meadow-grafs. In a paper in the
third volume of tlie " Tranfaftions of the Highland Society
of Scotland," the feed of this grafs is put down as ufeful in
a mixture for one crop of hay, to be fucceeded by pafturc,
in land of the clay kind. And that, in thefe circumftances,
late and csarfe as it is, it may be beneficial in fuch fort of
land, as it is in fome degree congenial to it.

The experiments, however, lately made at Woburn Abbey,
under the direflion of his grace the duke of Bedford, the
refults of which are detailed in an appendix to a late work
on " Agricultural Chemiftry," place its comparative merits
in the ftrongert and moft certain point of view. It is there
ftated, that, at the time of flowering, from a clayey loam :

Ounces.

Lbs.

OZ.

dr.

653400

0

=■

40837

8

0 per acre

277695

0

=

17355

15

0

23481

9

0

25523

7

=

^595

3

0

2073

The produce per acre is .....

Weight when dry of produce of fame fpace
Weight loft by produce of fame fpace in drying
Weight of nutritive matter afforded by fame - -
Weight of nutritive matter, loft by leaving the crop till the feed be"!
ripe, exceeding one half of its value - - - 1

At the time the feed is ripe :

Produce per acre ......

Weight when dry of produce of fame fpace ...
Weight loft by produce of fame fpace in drying
Nutritive matter afforded by produce of fame fpace
Latter-math, produce per acre ....

Affords of nutritive matter . . . -

Sixty -four drachms of the ftraws, afford feven drachms of ing, to that at the time the feed is ripe, as 10 to 23 ; and
nutritive matter. The nutritive powers of the ftraws the latter-math to the grafs of the flowering crop, as
limply, therefore, it is faid, exceed thofe of the leaves, in 8 to 10.

proportion of 28 to 8; and the grafs at the time of flower- From the wliole of thcfe particulars, the comparatri-e

merits

653400

0 = 40837 8

0

310365

0 = 19397 13

0

21439 II

0

58703

14 = 3668 15

14

152460

0 = 9528 12

0

4764

6 = 297 12

6

T I M

m*riti of this grafs wiU, it is fuppofed, appear to be ve.7
•' ' • - - ij-.i .».„ abunJaiicc oj tine

'.'hich

great ; to which may be added the
foliage which it atfords early in the fpnng
rcfped it is inferior, it is faid, to x.\\c fertile meadow-grafs and
narroio-Uavid mradow-grafs only. The value of the ftraws
at the time the feed ia ripe, exceeds that of the grafs at the
lime of flowering, .19 iS to 10; a circumftance which in-
creafej its value, it is thought, above many others : for, by
this propmy, its valuable early foliage may be cropped, to
an advanced pi-riod of the feafon, without injury to the crop
of hay, wliich, in other graffes that fend forth their flower-
ing ftraws early in the feafon, would caufe a lofs of nearly
one-half of the value of the crop, as is clearly (hewn in
many inllancts ; and this property of the ftraws too, makes
the plant p.-culiarly valuable for the purpofe of hay.

In the fn»a!lcr variety of this grafs, the produce /fr acre
on the fame iort of land, at the time ef ripening the feed j
the weight when dry ; the lofs of weight in drying 5 and
the nutritive matter afforded, arc all ver^- confiderably Icfs
than in the above fort. In the latter-math produce on the
fame fpacc, the quantity is the fame as in that, but the
nutritive matter afforded by it fomething lefs, as may be
feen in thi- work referred to above.

In the bulbous-ilalked fpecies, the produce of the acre
in the fame kind of land, at the time of flowering ; the
weight when dry ; that loft by the produce of the fame
fpacc in drying j and the quantity of nutritive matter
afforded by it, are all ftated in the fame work to be greatly
lefs than in the firft kind. And that this grafs is inferior
in many rcfpcftfi to that of the firft fort. That it is
fparingly found in meadows. And that from the number
of bulbs which grow out of the ftraws, a greater proportion
of nutritive matter might have been expected. This feeras
to prove, it is faid, that thefe bulbs, in this fort of grafs, do
not form fo valuable a part of the plant as the joints, which
are fo conlpicuous in the firft fort, the nutritive powers of
which exceed thofe of this bulbous-ltalked fort, as 8
to 2S.

The qualities and ufeful properties of timothy grafs are
thus weU pointed out and determined. See Phleum and
Grass.

TIMOU, in Geography, a town of Thibet ; 225 miles
E.S.E. of Laffa.

TIMOU R, or TA^tEnLA^'K, in Biography, a famous
Oriental conqueror, was born at the village of Sebzar, in the
territory of Cafli, 40 miles S. of Samarcand, in the year
1336. At the time of his birth, the Khans of Cafhgar,
with an army of Getae or Kalmucks, invaded Tranfoxiana.
In 1357, Timour, having lately loft his father, coUedted a
number of followers with a view of delivering his country ;
but being dcfcrted by them, he retreated to the defert, and
his army was there farther diminifhed by an adtion with the
Getx. He then wandered with his wife and feven com-
panions, and being arrefted, was kept two months in
prifon. Upon his liberation he fwam over the rapid ftream
of Oxus or Jilion, and for fome months led the life of a
vagrant. - In proccfs of time, and on return to his native
country, he was at the head of a confiderable force, which
enabled him to expel the Getae from Tranfoxiana. After
a civil war between him and his brother-in-law, the Emir
HoufTein, who was defeated and put to death, Timour, at
a general diet held in 1370, was feated on the throne of
Zagatai, at the city of Balk, and inverted witli the high
title of Saheb Karan, or emperor of the Age ; upon which he
repaired to Samarcand, which became the feat of his empire.
In confequence of this elevation, his ambition was direfted
to greater objefts ; and h.iving reunited to Zagatai its

T 1 M

former dependencies, Karizme and Kandaliav, he fixed his
views on the kingdoms of Iran or Perfia, which were then
occupied by various ufurpers. Having reduced to fub-
mifTion Ibrahim, the prince of Sherwan, and fecured tli
conqueft of Ears or Perfia proper, by the defeat and dpatli oi
Shah Manfour, its prince, and the extirpation of his male
progeny, he advanced from Shiraz to the Perfian gulf, and
exaded from the rich city of Onnuz an annual tribute..
He then proceeded as a conqueror through the whole courfe
of the Tigris and Euphrates from their fources to their
mouths, entered Edeffa, and reduced the Chriftiaus in the
mountains of Georgia. Retaliating upon the Getie the in-
vafion of his country, he pafTed the Sihon, and fubdued the
kingdom of Cafhgar. In his feveral expeditions he pene-
trated as far as 480 leagues to the N.E. of Samarcand, and
his emirs crolTed the Irtifch into Siberia, another fcene of
his adventures and conquefts near Kipzak or Weftern
Tartary. Having entertained at his court Tottamifh, a
fugitive prince of that country, he fent him back with au
army which eftablidied him in the Mogul empire of the
North. Toftamifti, however, after a reign of ten years,
unmindful of his obligations to his benefadtor, entered Perfia
with a mighty army, pafied the Sihon, burnt the palaces of
Timour, and reduced him to the neceffity of contending for
his capital and empire. But his triumph was of no long
duration ; for Toftamifh was defeated, Kipzak was invaded,
and Todtamifh was again encountered and routed. This
purfuit led Timour to the tributary provinces of Ruffia,
and a duke of the reigning family was made captive on the
ruins of Yeletz, his capital. Timour then marched fouth-
wards, and having pillaged, reduced to aihes the commercial
city of Azoph, and alfo thofe of Serai and Aftrachan.
Under the influence of that ambition which was his ruling
principle, he determined, in 1398, on the invafiou of Hin-
dooftan, and taking advantage of the reljellion againfl the
weak Sultan Mahmood, he Ted an army of 92 fquadrons,
each of 1000 horfe, and found great difficulty in traverfing
one of the fnowy ridges between the Jihon and the Indus.
Having croffed the Indus at Attock, he entered the Panjab,
and formed a junction with one of his grandfons, who had
reduced Moukan. He then advanced towards Dehli, and
having overthrown the army of Mahmood with its elephants,
took poffefrion of the capital, which he defolated by pillage
and maffacre. In this part of his march he manifefted his
religious zeal, by deftroying infidels and idolaters without
mercy, and having palTed the Ganges about 100 miles N.E.
of Dehli, he flaughtered a great number of the Guebres, or
fire-worfhippers. Whilft he was thus engaged, he received
intelHgence of the diftiu-bances that had occurred on the
confines of Georgia and Anatolia, of the revolt of the Chrif-
tiaus, and of the ambitious projects of the Turkifh fultan
Bajazet. Having iffued orders to his commanders, he
haftened back to Samarcand ; and after a fhort interval of
repofe, he proclaimed a feven years' expedition to the
weftern p.irts of Afia. In the year 1400 he began with the
Georgian Chriftians, and foon reduced them to the alter-
native of tribute or the Koran, and to prifoners he allowed
no other choice but death or abjuring their religion. Re-
turning from this warfare, he gave audience to the ambaf-
fadors of Bajazet, and after fome time fpent in mutual com-
plaints and menaces, Timour laid fiege to Siwas or Sebafte,
on the borders of Anatolia, which he took and deftroyed,
burying alive with favage cruelty the Armenian garrifon of
4000 men. He then invaded Syria, and advanced towards
Aleppo, from which iffued a numerous and well-appointed
force to engage his army, the front of which was covered by
a line'of Indian elephants, carrying turrets filled with archers

and

T I M

and Greek fiie. This fonnidable hofl tlircw tlie Syrians
iuto diforder, and they fled with precipitation into the city,
whither the enemy accompanied them. Timour foon be-
came mafter of tliis opulent capital. Wiiile the llrects were
ftreaming with blood and refounding witli cries, the con-
queror held a theological conference witli the dodtors of the
law; protcfting, towards the clofe of his harangue, that he
was not a man of blood, that he wis not the aggrefTor in any
of his wars, and that his enemies brought upon themfelves
the calamities they fuffered : at the fame time his foldiers
were piling up a certain tale of heads of the enemy, in con-
formity to his orders, which, according to his cuftom, were
afterwards piled up in columns and pyramids. From Aleppo,
Timour proceeded to Balbeck, wiiich he took, and then
. advanced towards Damafcus. The fultan of Egypt-had
1 made great preparations for the defence of the city, and alfo
' for the affafiination of the invader ; but the plot of ufing
poifoned daggers was difcovered. The fultan pretended
fubmiffion, and thus intended to put Timour off his guard ;
in the accomplifhment of this artifice, the camp of Timour
i was fuddenly attacked by the Syrian army, and thrown
! into diforder ; but as foon as order was reftored, the Syrians
were repulfed, and driven to the gates of Damafeus with
great flaughter. The fultan in the mean while had returned
1 to Egypt, and the city was left to make the bell pofTible
• terms witli the conqueror. During a truce, the foldiers
' broke into the city, mafTacred a great part of the inhabitants,
' and made captives of the reft, carried off a great quantity of
' rich plunder, and the city was reduced to adies. Bagdad
, was the next place of importance to which Tinrour direfted
. his views. Here Timour attended in perfon, and ordered a
blockade ; after 40 days' defence on the part of the in-
' habitants, a ftorm was commanded ; and the death of fome
of the affailants was revenged by a malTacre which produced
I a pyramid of 90,000 heads. The city was completely
razed, with the exception of mofques, hofpitals, and colleges.
1 Timour's next objeft was the Ottoman empire. Having
; confulted the court-aftrologers, and obtained a favourable
' anfwer, he put himfelf at the head of an almoft innumerable
force, and moved from the Araxes through Armenia and
Anatolia, determining to carry the war to the heart of his
I rival's dominions. By his rapid advances, he inverted
I Angora before Bajazet was apprized of his movement.
! Upon receiving this intelligence, the Ottoman haftened to its
relief with a very large army. An engagement enfued, and
the conteft, which was very fanguinary, was at length
< decided by the defeat and capture of the Turkifh emperor.
' This battle was fought in July 1402. Bourfa, Nice, and
' Smyrna were fucceflively captured with the fame circum-
(lances of cruelty that marked the progrefs of Timour's
aiTus.

Timour's conquefts were extended from the Irtifch and
Volga to the Perlian gulf, and from the Ganges to the Ar-
chipelago ; and beyond thefe limits his name was a found of
• terror. Several princes purchafed his favour by tribute, or
j by extraordinary tokens of refpeft. His want of fhipping
i prevented his entrance into Europe. From his various expe-
] ditions, Timour did not return to Samarcand until the fum-
■ner of 1404. In that capital, he difplayed his magnificence
\ >nd power in difpenfing rewards and puniihments, attending
■.0 the complaints of his people, eredling palaces and tern-
ales, and giving audience to ambafTadors from Egypt,
; A.rabia, India, Tartary, RulTia, and Spain. Although he
i lad profelTed fatisfaftion with the extent of his empire, yet
le indulged a projeA of ambition of very great magnitude,
, vhich was that of the conqueft of China. His preparations
; or this grand expedition were proportioned to its magni-

T I N

tude ; 200,000 veteran foldiers were mullcred, and they
were furniflied with means for conveying ncccdarics over
the defarts which feparate Samarcand from Pckin. The
aged emperor mounted his horfe in the winter feafon, croffed
the Sihon on the ice, and advanced to the diftance of 300
miles from his capital ; but at the camp of Otrar he was
feized with a fever, which fatigue, and the imprudent ufe of
iced water, foon rendered mortal. He was not unapprizcd
of his danger ; and having fummoned round him his em-
prefles and principal emirs, he declared his grandfon Me-
hemet Jehan Ghir his univerfal heir and fuccelfor, and ex-
aiilcd an oath of obedience to him. He thus expired April
ift, 1405, in the 70th year of his age, and the 35th from
his elevation to the throne of Zagatai. He left 53 de-
fcendants, and his pofterity are to this day inverted with
the title of the Mogul emperors, although the power and
dominions have parted into other hands.

His perfon and charadler are defcribed by one of his bio-
graphers in the following terms: " Timour was tall and cor-
pulent, with a wide forehead and large head, a pleafing
countenance, and fair complexion. He had broad fhoulders
and ftrong limbs, but was maimed in one hand and lajne of
the right fide. His eyes were full of fire ; his voice was
loud and commanding ; his conrtitution hardy and vigorous;
his .underftanding found ; and his mind firm and itedfaft.
In converfation he was grave and modcft, and he prided
himfelf in an attachment to truth. He delighted in reading
hirtory, and in dilcurting topics of fcience with the learned.
His religion was fierce and fanatical, and he aftually had,
or affefted to have, the fuperftitious reverence for omens,
prophscies, faints, and allrologers, which is general in the
Eaft. He condufted his government alone, without fa-
vourites or minifters, and its fpirit was abfolute and uncon-
trouled rule. It was his boart to have introduced fecuritv and
order throughout liis wide dominions, and he challenged the
prail'e of a benefattor to mankind ; but no conquelis have
been attended with greater dertruition of human lives, and
greater defolation of flourilhiug cities and diftridls, than his
were ; and his ambition prompted him to extend his authority
beyond the pollible limits of a fingle government. He was
not, howevei-, a mere barbarian conqueror ; but, if his in-
ftitutions can be relied on as genuine, had enlarged ideas of
the adminiflration of a great empire." The " Inilitutions
of Timour" have been made known in Europe by two
tranllations from a Perfian vcrfion : one in Englilh by major
Davy and profertbr White, Oxford, 1783; and the other
in French, by M. Langles, Paris, 1 787. Mod. Univer.
Hift. Gibbon's Rom. Emp. Gen. Biog.

TIMOURKENG, or Fortnfs of Iron, in Geograpiy,
a town of Thibet ; 60 miles W.N.AV. of Eatac.

TIMPALU, a town on the W. coaft of the ifland of
Celebes. N. lat. 0° 16'. E. long. 1 19^ 44'.

TIMPANO, Ital., a kettle-drum. See Tympanum
and Tymba-LLES.

TIMPFE, or Tympfe, in Coinage, an old filver coin
of Poland. The tympfe, or tympfen, was reckoned at
eighteen grofchen, and the florins were valued at thirty
grofchen.

TIMURCOUGH, in Geography, a town of Thibet ;
54 miles W.N.W. of Lahdach. N. lat. 35° 12'. E. long.

If 12'. .

TIMU8, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor,
dertroyed by an earthquake.

TIMYR'A, a town of Afia, in Ifauria.

TIN, Stanmim, Jupiter, a whitidi metal, fofter, lefs elaf-
tic, and lefs foncrous, than anv other metal, excepting lead.
In the Chaldee language, J' [2 5 '"') fignifiesy//mf,»W, or dirt ;

and

TIN.

and when the Phcenicians came into CornwaU, aud faw th s
meial in its ancient Oimy llnte, tbey called .t » the mud ;
a«d he,>cc. fume have faid, the name /m, in Cornu-Bmi(h
n-an i» derived. Some of tlic ancients called it plumbum
[ilbum, white lead, probably to dillinKuilh it from common
lead ; not knowing that it was radically another metal.

This met.\l, aonominated Kicrcr.'T.-o; by the Greeks, and
ftannum by the Latins, feems to I'ave been known from the
moft remote ages. It is mentioned by Mofes ; fee Numb.
xxxi chap. 22. It was tranfported to the Laft from
Spain and Britain by the Phoenicians, with which nations
they are faid to have carried on a lucrative commerce.
Homer mentions it ; andbyAriftotle, the epithet Ki^.T.xov, or
Ce/tii-, is applied to it, indicating plainly the country from
which it was procured. See Tis-Trade of Britain.

Tis-Slonf, in Mineralogy, is the moft common ore of tin,
and is nearly a pure oxyd of that metal. The colour is brown,
which paffes from a blacki(h-brown to black, and from a
red-brown to yellowilh and grcenifli-wliite. It occurs cryf-
tallized and amorphous, aiid in grains and rolled pieces,
varying from the magnitude of a grain of fand to that of
»" '^gff' "'' larg*^"^- 1 ""^ primitive form of the cryftal is a flat
oaohedron : the angles are 112° 10' and 67^50'. The
figure of the cryftals is fcldom perfed ; fometimes a reft-
angular prifm is inlerpofed between the pyramids that form
the oAohcdron. The edges and fummits of the cry Hals are
frequently bevelled or truncated, from which a great variety
of lecondary forms is derived. The cryilals are alfo fre-

jidary

quently united, forming compound cryftals or macles
indeed, fo numerous are tlie fccondary cryftals of tin, that
more than on." hundred and eighty forms of fingle cryftals
have been obferved, befides the compound cryftals, of which
there is a confiderable variety. The furface of the cryftals
is commonly fmooth and fplendent, but is fometimes
flreakod. The ftrufture is laminar, but the lamins are
rarely vifible. The frafture is uneven and imperfeftly con-
choidal, with a more or lefs ftiining and refinous luftre.
When the laminar ftruAure is difplaycd, the luftre is highly
fplendent. The cryftals are femi-tranfparent or opaque,
the darker colours being opaque, the lighter fometimes
nearly tranfparent ; and the intermediate (hades are only
tranflucent, or tranflucent at the edges. The ftreak is a

freyi(h-%vhite. Tin-ftone is hard, fcarcely yielding to the
nife, and giving fparks with fteel. It is brittle and heavy.
The fpecific gravity varies from 6.759 ^" 6.970.

Before the blowpipe it decrepitates, and becomes paler ;
when finely pounded and mixed with borax, it is reducible
on charcoal to the metallic ftate.

Tin-ftone contains the following conftituent parts, ac-
cording to Klaproth.

Tki
Oxygen

Iron
Silex

Some analyfes of tin-ftone give from two to three per cent.
of alumine. The tin-ftone of Cornwall, drefled in the com-
mon manner, is reckoned rich if it yield 65 per cent, of tin.
Tin-ftone may be diftinguifhed from wolfram by its fupe-
rior hardnefs, as it gives fparks with fteel ; but wolfram
yields ealily to the knife. The powder of tin-ftone is a
greyilh-white, that of wolfram a reddifti-brown. It is dif-
tinguifhed from blende by its fiiperior hardnefs, and its not
emitting a fulphurous odour when pounded. By its greater
fpccific gravity and luftre, it may be diftinguiftied from
garnet; and iromfchorl, by its colour, luftre, form, and higher
12

fpecific gravity. This ore occurs in veins and beds, and dil'-
feminated in granite rocks. The veins interfeft rocks of
granite, gneifs, mica-flate, and flate : tin-ftone occurs alfo in
alluvial foil in the diftrifts that contain tin-veins. Sec

SxUEAM-TVn.

IVood-tin is a fpecies of tin-ftone, or oxyd of tin, found
with flream-tin in rolled pieces, which are wedge-ftiaped or
renifoi-m, and fometimes globular. The ftrufture is di-
vergingly fibrous, with concentric laminse ; and from the
fuppofed refemblance to the tranfverfe feftion of fine-grained
wood, it received its name. The colour is commonly hair-
brown or wood-brown, paffing into yellowifti-grey. The
luftre is glimmering or filky. It is opaque, hard, and
brittle : the fpecific gravity is 6.450. It is infufible before
the blowpipe, but is changed to a browni(h-red colour.
When ftrongly heated in a charcoal crucible, it yields about
75 p:r cent, of metallic tin. The conftituent parts are, ac-
cording to Vauquelin,

Oxyd of tin - 91

Oxyd of iron - 9

In Cornwall, this ore is almoft always found with ftream-
tin, and never in veins : it is faid, however, to have been re-
cently met with in cellular quartz, but in very minute
pieces. It is one of the moft common ores of tin in Mexico,
and occurs in veins that traverfe a porphyritic trap, and
alfo in alluvial depofitions. In fome wood-tin, there is a
fmall, black, fmooth globule, from which, as from a centre,
the fibres diverge : this has received the name of bird's-eye
tin. Wood-tin, in its ftrufture and mode of formation,
probably bears a near analogy to the kidney-ftiaped hema-
tite iron-ore.

Bell-metal Ore, Tin Pyrites, or Sulphuret of Tin, is an ex-
tremely rare ore of this metal, being found only in Corn-
wall, at Huel rock, in a vein accompanied with fulphuret
of zinc and iron. Its colour is fteel-grey, pafling into yel-
lowiih-white : it has a metallic luftre, and granular uneven
frafture : it yields eafily to the knife, and is brittle. The
fpecific gravity is 4.350. It fufes into a black flag before-
the blowpipe, exhaling at the time a fulphurous odour.
It communicates a yellow or green colour to borax. The
conftituent parts differ in different fpecimens ; according to
Klaproth, they are as under :

From AUernon.

Schlackenwald,

77.50

75-

21.50

24.50

0.25

0.50

0.75

Tin

Copper -
Iron
Sulphur
Earthy matter

34

36

3

2

26.50

30-
12,
30.50

99

Klaproth obferves, that the darker varieties of this ore are
confiderably poorer in tin than the lighter, but the propor-
tion of iron increafes.

jinalyfis of the Ores of Tin. — The analyfes in the dry way
were made by Klaproth in charcoal crucibles in the follow-
ing manner, in which the refults were always found to be
conftant. The ore was broken, and well cleaned from the
matrix. One hundred grains were introduced into the
cavity of a charcoal crucible, clofing its orifice with a
ftopper of charcoal. The charcoal crucible was then fitted
clofe into one of baked clay, and placed upon the forge-
hearth before the nozzle of the bellows. The contents in
the charcoal crucible were reduced to the metallic ftate by
expofing it to a ftrong blaft for half an hour. The button
of metafiic tin produced was a little blackifh on the fides,

and

TIN.

and its furface coated with a greenifli cruft. From one
hundred grains of Boliemiaii tin-ftone, feventy-two grains
aud a half of tin wen^ produced. Wood-tin and (tream-tin
wfTC treated in a fimilar manner. Brown tin-llone, expofed
to a porcelain fire in a clay crucible, formed a clear denfe
glafs, givenini-grey in the middle, but of a bright yellow
on the fides and top. The interior of the vcdcl was glazed,
ot a milk-white, and overlaid with many fmall groups of
needle-ihapcd cryftals of a light -brown colour. The inner
furface of the lid was lined with fimilar cryftals.

j^nal^ss o/Tin-Stcne in the humid luay. — To Klaproth we
are indebted for the difcovery of a fimple and effcftual mode
of analyfing tin-ftone in the humid way. Boil loo grains
of this ore, finely pounded, with a folution of 600 grains
of cauftic potafli. Evaporate to drynefs, and then ignite
tiiC mafs moderately for half an hour. Add boiling water,
which dilTolves the principal part of the mafs, and the re-
fiduc rauft again be ignited with fix times its weight of
cauftic potafs, and diftblved in water, as before. Add
this to the laft folution, and faturate the whole with mu-
riatic acid, wh.ich will throw down an oxyd of tin. Let
this be re-diftblved by an additional quantity of muriatic
acid, and precipitated again by carbonate of foda ; when
lixiviated, and dried in a gentle heat, it acquires the form of
bright -yellowilh tranfparent lumps. This precipitate muft
be finely powdered, and once more diftblved in muriatic acid,
aflifted by a gentle heat. The infoluble part confifts of
filex. Dilute the folution, which is colourlefs, with from two
to three parts of water, and introduce a ftick of zinc, round
which the tin will coUeft in a metallic ftate in the form of
delicate dendritic laminse. Scrape off the tin, wa(h, dry,
2iid fufe it under a cover of tallow in a capfule placed on
charcoal, A button of fine metallic tin will remain at the
bottom, the weight of which, dedufted from that of the ore,
indicates the proportion of oxygen.

Anal^ts of Bell-metal Ore, or Ttn Pyrites. — To two
drachms of finely powdered ore, add one ounce of muriatic
acid, and half an ounce of nitric acid : this will diftolve the
greater portion of the metallic part without heat, but a
entle heat muft be applied to diftolve the whole. The
ulphur will float on the furface of the folution, and muft be
feparated by filtration. To the folution add carbonate of
potafs, which produces a greenifti precipitate ; let this be re-
diffolved in diluted muriatic acid, and introduce a cylinder of
pure tin, the weight of which is to be previoufly afcer-
tained. By this means the copper will be feparated in a
metallic ftate. The cylinder of tin muft now be carefully
weighed, and the quantity which it has loft muft be noted,
and a cylinder of zinc muft be introduced into the fore-
going fslution : this will feparate all the tin, which muft be
melted with tallow and weighed. Deduft the quantity of
tin which was loft by the cylinder, and the remainder will be
the quantity of tin from the ore, held in the folution.

The fulphur feparated by the firft filtration muft be ig-
nited, and the unconfumed refidue, diftblved in nitro-muriatic
acid, muft be added to the folution, in order to obtain the
whole of the contents. The undiflblved part will be the
filiceous matrix.

The copper may be brifl<Iy digefted in nitric acid, which
will leave behind a minute portion of oxyd of tin, and af-
certain the precife quantity of pure copper contained in the
ore.

The method of getting, preparing, &c. the tin in the
Cornifli mines, much the beft and moft confidcrable in the
world, is given us in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, Abr.
vol. ii. p. 569, &c. and more diftindlly and fully in Pryce's
Mineralogy.

Vol, XXXV.

f:

The working of the tin-mines i« very hard and difficult,
not only by reafon of the great depth which the veins de-
fcend to, even as low as fixty fathoms ; but alfo becaufe
the rocks, through which pafTages are frequently cut, are
extremely hard. Nor is the foft fhaking earth found in the
tin-mines much lefs inconvenient to the workmen, both by
reafon of the fetid, malignant vapours it exhales, ami of
the current of water often met with in them : thcfc dif-
advantages often render it imprafticablc for the workmen to
hold it above four hours together.

The cxillcnce of native tin has been always doubted, and
till of late abfolutely denied by all mineralogifts, both ancient
and modern : however, Mr. Borlafe, in his Natural Hiftory
of Cornwall, p. 185, fuggeftcd, that its exiftencc was far
from being improbable ; but he afterwards difcovcred three
fpecimens of this metal, native or pure, of which he pre-
fented an account to the Royal Society. Mr. Mendcs da
Cofta made fevcral experiments on one of thefe fpecimens,
with a view of proving that it was really tin ; from which
he infers, that it is perfeftly duftile and malleable ; and be-
ing bent between the teeth, gives the fame crackling noife as
tin always does : in an open fire it melts eafily, calcines on
the furface, and fmokes ; but forced in a ftronger fire with
borax, it detonates with fmall phofphorefcent fparks, which
is a property of pure tin ; and it is only corroded to a white
calx in fpirit of nitre, and oil of tartar per deliquium being
added to the folution, none of it was precipitated ; whence
he concludes, that it was pure tin. Philof. Tranf. vol. Ivi.
art. 7. 39. Native tin is alfo faid to have been found in
Saxony and Malacca.

The ores of tin may be generally claft^ed into ftioad or
fhode, ftream, and bal or mine tin. The ftioad is disjun<ft,
and fcattered to fome diftance from its parent lode, and is
pebbly or fmoothly angular, of various fizes, from half an
ounce to fome pounds weight. See Shoad.

Stream-tin ore is the fame as ftioad, but fmaller flzed, &c.
See Stream-TVb and Streaming.

Bal or mine tin-ore often rifes very rich ; and inftances
frequently occur, in which it has been difcovered in the
richeft and pureft ftate imaginable. This kind of rich ore
confifts of the blackeft grains or cryftals, and is ufually
found at a moderate depth, or within the day-fide of forty
fathoms.

When the tin-ore is raifed, or dug and drawn out of the
mine, and laid by the fhaft, it is iJrR /palled, as the procefs
is termed, which confifts in breaking it into fmaller frag-
ments, and feparating it from the worthlefs parts. When
the beft parts are forted, they are divided into heaps by a
hand-barrow, containing a fack and a half, or eighteen
gallons. Each of thele fhares, called doles, being turned
over, equally levelled and mixed, is then divided with a
ftiovel into two equal parts ; and after being bruifed hy
large fledges to the fize of a hazel-nut, is equally levelled
and divided into four parts ; the bruifing and divifions arc
repeated at pleafure, till the quantity dcfigned for fampling
is well mixed, and made as fine as common fand. To make
a rough guefs, or coarfe effay, the famplcr takes a handful
of it, and wafhes it on a ftiovel, till the impure parts :.re
carried off by the water, and the more folid and heavy par-
ticles, that are left behind, are bruifed with a fledge on the
ftiovel, till the whole affumes the appearance of mud. Thi.t
is again waihed, and by a peculiar motion the metallic p.ir-
ticles are collefted together on the fore-part of the ftiovcl.
By repeating thefe bruifings, waftiings, and motions, it be-
comes clean black tin, fit for the fmelting-furnace. This
is called a i'<i«, (probably from the Trench av/int, forrmr/l,)
as it is thrown upon the point of the fhovel by the dextrrity
4T ■ "f

TIN.

of thf famplf triiT. After the tin is llius cleaned, it is
dried ; and if there he as much blaclc tin as will cover a
(hilling, or equal to the weight of a (hilling, it is called a
jhillin'; van, which is not rich ; but if the tan will cover or
equal the weight of a crown-piece, it is good tin-ftuft, and
called a crown van. The (liilling van, the tinners fay, will
produce one hundred avoirdupois weight of block or white
tin ; and the crown van will yield five hundred weight of
block tin, for every hundred facks in meafure of the rcfpec-
tive doles from which the fample or van was taken, and fo
ill proportion, to the richeft tin-duff, c^Wcd. f cove, which
is reckonc<I at the rate of ten thoufand of white tin-metal
for every hundred facks. But a better judgment may be
formed from the meafure of a wine half-pint, than from a
handful, which is indeed accounted a half pint. When the
tin, thus meafured, is reduced clean, and to a proper fize,
by ufing a large fhovel, and taking off the fized tin on an-
other (hovel, the van is dried in a fhovel upon the fire, and
then weighed by pennyweights and grains ; and for every
pennyweight and a half the van weighs, the produce will
be one hundred weight of black tin for every hundied facks
of tin-duff; and for three pennyweights, two hundred weight,
&c. in the fame proportion ; and if it be tin worth ten for
twenty, or one for two, then the tin-ftuff is valued at five
hundred weight of block or white tin for every hundred
facks : if it be worth twelve for twenty, the (luff is valued
at fix hundred weight of white tin a hundred ; or if it be
worth only eight for twenty, it is only valued at four hun-
dred weight of white tin a hundred, &c. This black tin is
rather of a liver colour, though called black in contra-
diftinclion from white tin, or the metal produced from this
black ore : it is very heavy, and may in general be com-
puted to hold one-half clean metal, and fome of it will pro-
duce thirteen, or even fourteen parts in twenty ; whence
the mode of expreffing fo much white tin for twenty of
black tin, t. e. eight for twenty, ten for twenty, twelve
for twenty, &c. Thus, if the van of one hundred facks
of tin-ftuff weighs fix pennyweights, being four hundred
weight of black tin at twelve for twenty, the white tin or
metal mud be two hundred weight one quarter fixteen
pounds.

In this method of fampling, the tinners form a near con-
jedure of the quantity of white tin which their doles of
tin-ftuff will produce at the fmclting-lioufe, when it is
dreffed, and brought into black tin. But if the black tin
IS combined with any bad mixture, as of mock-lead, copper,
or mundic, after the van is bruifed fine and wa(hed, they
lay the (hovel over the fire, and burn the black tin, ftirring
it continually, till it has done fmoaking : they then wa(h
it again on the (hovel, and thus the heterogeneous matter,
becoming light by being burnt, is carried off by the water :
for when black tin is calcined or burnt, it flill retains its
fpccific gravity ; but copper, lead, and other crude mine-
rals, become much lighter by torrefaftion, and are eafily
f^parated from tlie tin by water. In the drclTmg and ma-
nagement of tin by ftamping, £cc. there are obtained two
forts of black tin, -uiz. the crop and rough, or the crop
and leavings of tin. The firft is the prime tin : immedi-
ately feparable from the bafer parts by its fuperior weight
and richnefs. The latter is that which is carried off, and
mixed with the Ughter earthy parts, by being under fize,
and, therefore, more eafily carried off by the water.

The tin-iluff, after this previous preparation and adjuft-
ment, is carried to the ftamping-mill, in order to be dreffed
or pounded.

This operation of pounding in the ftamping-mill is efl"en-
tial to the complete feparation of the ore from the matrix.

through which it is difleminated. If full of flimc, it i;
thrown into a ])it, called a Imdilh; to wa(h away the earth)
matter, and render the ftamping more free, without choak-
ing the grates. The ore is fliovelled into a kind of flopinp
canal of^timber, called the />;?/}, whence it Hides by its owi
weight, and the alTiftance of a fmall ftream of water, intr
the box where the lifters work : the lifters are r.uted by ;
water-wheel, and are armed at the bottom with large
maffes of iron, weighing nearly two hundred weight each :
thefe pound or ftamp the ore fufficiently to enable it to
pafs through the holes of an iron grate fixed at one end
of the box. To affift its pulverization, a rill of water keeps
it conftantly wet, and it is carried by a fmall gutter into
the fire -pit, where it makes its firft depofition ; the lighter
particles running forward with the water into the middle
pit, then into a third, where what is called i\\e Jl'ime fettles
(See Drejfing of Or-es, and Buddle. ) From thefe pits
the ore is carried to the keeve, which is a large vat containing
water; in which it is farther purified by an operation
itvmeA pncklng, and which confifts in beating the upper
part of the contents with mallets for fome minutes, by
which the lighter particles are kept fufpended, whilft the
tin-ore, from its great fpecific gravity, fubfides. The wafte
is flcimmed and laid by, to be again huddled, under the.
name of ihs fihnpings . The tin is fifted through a copper-
bottom fieve into another keeve of water, by which the
gravelly wafte ftill remaining is feparated from the clean tin ;
and the tin that runs through the fieve, if it requires no
farther huddling, may be cleaned by repeatedly toffing and
packing it as before. If it be necelfary to buddle it again
after it is fifted, let it be huddled and diftributed in three
parts, viz. the crop or pureft, the creafe or next in purity,
and the hind-creafe or tail, which is the moft impure. The!
crop is to be cleanfed by tolling, &c. and the creafe mull
be huddled again, and out of this mull be referved as much
as may be cleanfed by toffing and packing. The remainder
muft be cleanfed by an operation called dilLughing, from
dilleugh, to let go, or fend away. A dilleugher is a large'
fine hair-fieve, which the drelTer holds in a keeve one-third
full of water, into which the tin is thrown by a fhovelful
at a time, and which is fliook fo as to put the tin into mo- ,
tion : one fide of this dilleugher is dipped in water, and
raifed again in fuch a manner, that the wafte may run over,
which is laid afide to mix with the fliimpings, to make the
famples of low value, called the rough [or row) tin. This
ufually undergoes another operation, in which, by a rill of"
water paffing over the buddle in which it is placed, it is
farther cleanied, and then dilleughed, fo as to be fit to mix
with the crop-tin.

Upon the fame mechanical principle of feparation, the
tinner is capable of eftimating the value of a fample of ore.
For this purpofe, the pounded tin-ore, or tin-ftuff, as it is
called, is placed on a ftiovel and wafhed under a ftream, till
the impure earthy parts are carried off by the water from
its fides, when, by a particular and dexterous motion, not
eafily defcribed, all the metallic particles are collefted to-
gether on the fore-part of the (hovel : this operation is
called vanning, which we have already defcribed.

When the tin-ore is contaminated with the different pyri-
tous ores of copper, arfenic, and iron, it is firft roafted in
a burning-houfe, and then wafhed in water, by which means
the tin, which is heavy, is eafily feparated.

By this procefs, as at prefent condufted in Cornwall, a
confiderable quantity of copper is loft ; for being converted
into fulphate of copper, which is foluble in water, it is loft
by waftiing ; whereas, if the roafted ore were fuffered to
remain in a clofe pit for a few days, and the water drawn

off

TIN.

off into another pit, the copper might be feparated by iron
in a metallic ftate.

Tiie leavings of tin, confiding of the (lime and tails, «. e.
of tin-mud and tin-gravel, are dreffed by a particular kind
of apparatus, for the conftruftion and ufe of which, we
muft refer to Pryce's Min. Corn. p. 226, &c.

Each ilamping-mill, which has conftant work and water,
will employ one man and five boys ; and one hundred facks
are carried, ilamped, and dreffed, in the fpace of a few
days, at the average rate of about four-pence per fack, or
one guinea and a half per hundred.

When the tin-ore is dreffed, it is divided into as many
fliares as tlierc are lords and proprietors.

The next operation pertaining to tin-ore, or black tin,
is that of fmeltlng it. The Phoenicians, who traded to
Cornwall for tin in the earlier ages, probably condudled this
procefs by digging a hole in the ground, and flrewing the
ore on a charcoal fire, which perhaps was excited by a bel-
lows. But having no idea of confining the fire, and direft-
ing its force on the fubflance to be fmelted, they made no
ufe of furnaces, either fimple or reverberatory. Charcoal
was long ufed in the operation of fmclting, till at length
iieceflity fuggefled the introduftion of pit-coal ; and in the
..fecond year of queen Anne, a patent was granted for fmelt-
*ing black tin with fofllle coal in iron furnaces. The inven-
tion of rcverberatory-furnaces built with brick, ftone, fand,
lime, and clay, foon followed this difcovery ; the form of
which, being fimple, has admitted of little improvement to
the prefent time. The chai'ge for one of the tin fmelting-
furnaces is from five to fix hundred weight of black tin,
well mixed with a tenth or twelfth or eighth its weight of
culm, which is a fpecies of coal from South Wales, that is
very free from fulphur. The furnace is charged through a
hole in its fide with a fliovel, and the tin levelled over the
bottom with an iron rake or paddle. The apertures are
then clofed, and the lire raifed to a very great ftrength, in
which ftate it is left for four or five hours, when the door is
taken off, and the whole cliarge well ftirred together. The
ilate of the metal is examined, and more culm thrown in if
neceffary ; the furnace is again clofed, and the fire kept up
till the end of about fix hours from its receiving the charge ;
when it is again examined, and if proper, it is then tapped,
and the metal let out into a fixed bafon made of clay, and
large enough to hold fomewhat more than the metal of the
chai"ge. The fcoria in the bottom of the furnace is raked
out at the mouth into a fmall pit made for this purpofe,
where it generally forms itfelf into a cake. When cold, it
is carried to the ftamping-mill, in order to feparate the
. globules of melted tin diffeminatcd through the fcoria or
flag. This, being broke by hammers to the fize of goofe-
eggs, is put into the firft ftamping-mill, and paffed through
fmall iron bars ; by which means the pillion (for fo all tin re-
covered out of the flags is called) of the larger fize is taken
out and prevented from wafte by too much ftamping. The
refufe of this firft ftamping is put into other ftamping-mills
of a fecond, third, or even fourth fize. Of the pillion, fe-
parated from the fcoria, all the rough or grainy parts are
confidered as metals, and refined accordingly, by being
fmelted without any flux, and the produce of this fmelting
refined, with the tin firft tapped.

The tin in the bafon, or float (as it is called), as foon as
it comes down to a moderate heat, is laded out into the
moulds, in flabs or pigs of about three-fourths of a hundred
weight.

The method of fmelting in Saxony and Bohemia, does
not differ greatly from that praftifed in Cornwall. When
the ore has been roafted it is waflied upon tables, to feparate

the oxyd of iron and the oxyd of copper, which are ligliter
tiian tin-ore. At Alt-Saint-Jolm, llie oxyd of tin is mixed
with the black oxyd of iron : tiiis is feparated by a powerful
magnet, which is drawn over the table. That the powdered
oxyd of tin may not be blown away by the blaft of the
furnace, it is previoufly moiftened with water ; but as the
flame always carries away a part of the ore, a chamber is
conftrufted about the middle of the chimney, made of wood
lined with clay, where tiie powdered ore that has been driven
up by the flame is depofited.

The next procefs is that of rejining. The furnace having,
by the fide of the fmall float now defcribed, a larger one
capable of holding twenty, or more blocks, is for this pur-
pofe fuffered to cool to a certain degree, and then charged
full with the flabs juft mentioned, the tap-hole being kept
open, fo that as the tin melts in this moderate fire, it makes
its exit through it into the float ; where, while running out,
it is frequently ftirred and toffed by a ladleful at a time held
arm-high, letting it fall in a ftream into the mafs of metal,
when the fcum which arifes is taken off. While the metal
already put into the furnace is melting, more is added, fo as
to be juft enough to fill the float with good tin : and this,
after being tolfed and flcimmed as before, and fuffered to
cool to a proper temper, is carried in iron ladles to moulds
holding generally fomewhat above three hundred weight
(then denominated block-tin), where they are marked as the
fmelters chufe with their houfe mark, which may be a peli-
can, plume of feathers, ftag, or horfe, by laying brafs or
iron ftamps, in the face of the blocks while the tin is in a
fluid ftate, and yet cool enough to fuftain the ftamping iron.
The blocks are then ready to be weighed, numbered, and
fent to the neareft coinage town to be coined. The privi-
leged towns for coinage of tin, were anciently Liflteard,
Loftwithiel, Truro, and Helfton : but foon after the Re-
ftoration, Penzance was added to the number ; in which laft
place there is every quarter more tin coined than in the
towns of Lilkeard, Loftwithiel, and Helfton, for a whole
year. When the tin is brought to be coined, the affay-
mafter's deputy afTays it by cutting off with a chiffel and
hammer a piece of one of the lower corners of the block,
about a pound weight, partly by cutting and partly by
breaking, in order to prove the roughnefs and firmnefs of
the metal. If it is a pure good tin, the face of the block
is ftamped with the duchy feal, which ftamp is a permit for
the owner to fell, and at the fame time an affurance that
the tin fo marked has been examined and found merchant-
able. The ftamping of this imprefTion by a hammer is coin-
ing the tin, and the man who does it is called the hammer-
man. The duchy feal is argent, a lion rampant gules,
crowned or, within a border garnifhed with bezants.

The drofty part remaining in the furnace is by an increaf-
ing fire wholly melted, which is then tapped into the fmall
float, where the tin fubfiding, and the drofs rifing to the
top, the latter is taken off, and the tin laded into fmall flabs,
as at firft, to be again refined. The tin that remains in and
about the fcoria and drofs of the laft tappings, &c. is re-
covered by repeated fmeltings, till at laft, being almoft
entirely drained of that metal, they become what the work-
men generally call hard heads, and efteemed of no farther
value.

M. GrofFe, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences
of Paris, has delivered a method he had invented of fepa-
rating tin from lead or filver. Having tried an experiment
on the fcoricc of metal, which contained with the tin a large
quantity of filver, it feemed to him that one great ftep to-
ward the reparation of the filver, was the haflening of the
calcination of the tin, and with this view he tried a mixture
4 T 2 of

TIN.

of charcoal, f.illpclre, and earth, which he put together
Into tlie coppel with the fcori*. It is cafy to fee that a de-
touatioii would happen from this, and this muft greatly add
to the force of the lire, in ading upon die fcoria, while the
ferruginous matter well known to be contained in the char-
coal mixed itfelf with the tin, and muft greatly accelerate
its calcination, divide its parts, and give the lire a new aftioa
over it. The confequence of this perfcftly anfwered ex-
pedation, and recovered a large quantity of iilver from the
fcorii, ill which the tin had before held it firmly imbodied ;
repeated experiments proved the truth of this obfervation,
and it was found to be eafy by this means at any time to fe-
parate filver from tin, or to purify filver without lofs, by
means of lead in which tin has accidentally been imbodied.

The fcoriae in which tin is mixed with lilvcr, are com-
pofed of tin half calcined, and run into an opaque vitrified
lubftance, which forms a fort of net-work, in which the
lilvcr is confined in extremely fmall particles. If this is
thrown into aqua fortis, the whole is ditTolved : but then it
requires a very ftrong fire to make the tin lofe its metaUic
form ; finally, if the whole is finely powdered, and then
put into this menftruum, the filver only is taken up or
dilTolvcd, the tin remaining untouched at the bottom of the
vcffel.

The fame gentleman found alfo a method of feparating
tin from filver, by means of corrofive fublimate of mer-
cury. To conceive the manner in which this feparation is
effefted, a piece of fine tin need only be call into a folution
of fublimate ; in which cafe the acid of the fea-falt is feen
to leave the mercury in order to fix upon the tin.

And, according to the fame principle, if fublimate cor-
rofive be added to a mixture of tin and filver, the fame
efFeft is produced, the acid affixes itfelf to the tin, and
makes with it a butyrum joviale or butter of tin, the mer-
cury becomes diffipatcd in the mean time by the aiftion of
the fire, and the filver remains pure and alone ; but in this
experiment, if too much corrofive fublimate be added, tliere
is danger of lofing fome of the filver ; Cnce the abundant
acid will prey upon and carry off a part of that metal,
making a fort of luna cornea which difiipates itfelf in the
air, or it the operation be performed in a clofe veffel, a
butyrum lunarc.

Gold may alfo be purified from tin in this manner, and in
this there is no rilk of lofs, fince the acid which takes up
the tin has not the leaft power over that metal : in all thefe
procefles, however, the operator muft avoid the fumes iffu-
ing from the crucible, for they are very dangerous.

Thefe methods of feparating of tin from filver are very
certain and infaUible, but they are too expenfive to be em-
ployed in common, and in larger works.

The feparating of tin from lead to be employed in the
refining of filver is a matter of great importance ; and this
may be done in the following manner : melt the lead, and
when in fufion thrown into it a quantity of filings of iron,
then increafe the fire to a confidcrable degree, and the fur-
face of the metal will be covered with a fort of fcum, which
is no other than the iron and tin. At this time there (hould
be a little alkali fait thrown in, and by this means the fcorias
readily feparate themfelves, and the pure lead remains in
form of a regulus at the bottom. The fame method may
be ufed to feparate tin from filver in the larger way, but it
wUl be neceffary for this purpofe to add fome lead,' fince
other\vife the fufion will be very flow and difficult, and the
tin will calcine without feparating from the filver. This is
a very eafy and very cheap method, and wiU obviate moft of
the rmfchiefs which happen to the refiners, of which they
would have much lefs frequent rcafon to complain, if they

nicely examined the lead they were to employ. But if gold
or filver be mixed with tin, the ftiorteft method in fmall-
quantities is to calcine the whole very briikly, and in order
to complete the vitrification and feparation of the tin, to
caft in a little glafs of lead, wliich will immediately jgin itfelf
with it and carry it off^ from the mafs.

It may feem fingular that iron being one of the hardeft
of the metals to melt, and tin being of all the eafieft, they
fhould fo readily and eafily unite in thefe experiments ; but
this feems to be the refult of one of thofe natural and unex-
pefted alliances which accident frequently difcovers to us in
bodies. There is one conjefture, however, that may be
worthy a place in this refearch, which is, that all tin-ore
contains a quantity of arfenic ; and it is well known that iron
very readily mixes with arfenic, and is employed to feparate
the arfenic from other ores, and a regulus may be formed of
arfenic and iron. It is eafy to fuppofe that tin is, in its me-
talline form, not wholly divefted of the arfenic it contained
when in the ore ; and if this be allowed, it is no wonder that
the two metals are eafily brought together by the mediation
of that principle. Memoirs Acad. Scienc. Par. 1737.

Mr. Cramer gives the praftical rules of feparatina filver
from tin, thus : Divide one centnerof tin into two equal parts ;
put each of thefe into a feparate teft, and add to each fixtee^
centners of granulated lead, and one of copper ; put the
whole under the muffle, and make a very ftrong fire ; the
tin will be calcined immediately, and will fwim upon the lead.
Then diminifh the fire a little, till the afhes of the tin that
fwim upon the furface do no longer fparkle : when you fee
this, add with- a ladle two centners of glafs of lead to each
teft, in fuch a manner that it may be fpread wide over the
whole furface of the rejefted calx ; the calx will then change
its form of povsrder into that of glafs ; then increafe the fire
to its higheft degree, ftir up the whole with an iron rod made
warm ; and when thefcorification is perfected, pour out the
glafs into a mould ; the fcoris being feparated, put both-
the regulufes into two coppels well heated ; and into a tliird' •
put fixteen centners of lead, and one of the fame copper
ufed in the procefs : examine all thefe beads after the cop-
pelling is over ; if the two firft weigh exaftly alike, it is a
proof the procefs has been well performed ; and fubtvaftiiig.
the weight of the bead, feparated from the third pan, from
the joint weight of the other two, the remainder is the
weight of the pure filver contained in the quantity of tin
which was examined. Cramer's Art of Aflaying, p. 228.

Tin is found in Europe, Afia, and America, but has not
hitherto been difcovered in the continent of Africa. This
metal is much lefs generally difTeminated than gold, filver,
iron, copper, or lead ; but where it occurs, it is moft fre-
quently in large quantities. In Afia it is found on the coarc
of Sumatra, and in Siam and Pegu. It is principally im-
ported into our Indian pofleffions from Queda, JunkfeiJo.i,
Tavai in Lower Siam, and the ifland of Banca. The tin-
mines of Banca are faid to be of great extent ; and Mr. Ell-
more informs us, that no lefs than from forty to fixty thou-
fand peculs of tin are furnifhed by thefe mines annually.
Tin is faid alfo to be found at a place five days' journey from
Nankin in China. The Indian tin was known to the ancients.
Diodorus Siculus mentions it among the produftions of
India. . Tin-ftone is found in Mexico in the ftate of ftream-
tin, and is procured from alluvial depofitions by waffling.
It is alfo faid to occur in Chili,

Tin-ore occurs in Saxony and Bohemia in beds, and dif-
feminated in granite rocks ; it is found alfo in veins in rocks
of granite, gneifs, and mica-fiate. Alluvial depofitions of
tin are alfo met with in thefe diftrifts. The mines fometimes
confift of a mafs of ore formed by the junftion of a multitude

of

TIN.

t>f fmall veins which pats through the rocks in different
dueAions. Thefe veins alfo contain topazes. Brongniart
Traite Elcmeiitaire.

Tin is found near Monterey, in the province of Gallicia
in Spain, in veins which travcrfe granite and mica-flate.
Tills ore has recently been difcovercd in fmall quantities in
grains and cryftals, in a I'ock of granite at Puy les Vigncs, in
the vicinity of St. Leonhard, in the deparment of Haute-
Vienne in France. It occurs in veins with wolfram, arfcnical
pyrites, and martial arfeniate of copper.

The moft confiderable repofitory of tin-ore in Europe is
that of Cornwall. The greatcft part of the tin confiimed in
Europe is procured from thence ; and Camden even fuppofcs
tliis abundance of tin in Cornwall and DevonOiire, to have
given the original denomination Britain to the whole kingdom;
In the Syriac language, varataiinc, or baratanac, fignilies land
of tin; from which Bochart derives the name Britain. It oc-
curs in Cornwall, both in veins and alluvial depofitions, in
various parts of the county. Alluvial depofitions of this
ore are alfo met with on Dart-moor, in Devonihire. The
veins which contain tin interfcft both granite and flatc rocks ;
the latter are provincially called iillas. Thefe veins vary in
width, and fomctimes contain large maffes of the ore. One

Mock was raifed from the mine called Polberrow, in St.

"gnes, which weighed more than twelve hundred pounds,
and produced more than half that weight of pure metal.
Tin-ftone generally occupies the upper part of veins, and is
fucceeded by copper-ore ; but there are inftances of tin occur-
ring at the depth of two hundred fathoms. Different mo-
difications of the forms of the cryftals are peculiar to certain
Veins. Cryftals of tin-ftone are alfo diffeminatcd in fome of
the granite rocks in the vicinity of veins : the cryftals appear
to occupy the place of mica. Where the tin-ftone is diffe-
minatcd in flate, it is generally in fmall ftrings or minute

"veins. See Mine and Veins.

The workmen diftinguifh feveral kinds of tin ; as moor-
tin, which is the beft fort, a fool of which weighs eighty
pounds ; and mine-tin, which is the next, the fool of it
v.'eighing about fifty-two or fifty pounds. The tin got from
the foft, gravelly earth, they call pryan-tin, to diftinguilh it
from that obtained from the ftoncs, which is better by almoft
half. See STREAM-77n Ore.

Grain-tin denotes the ore of tin that is fometimes dug very

•rich in the form of grains or pebbles, or elfe in larger pieces,
compofed of many fuch diftinft grains, united in one mafs,
always of a black or dark rofin colour, pointed like dia-
monds. Grain-tin is alfo ufed to fignify the pureft and fineft
block or white tin, fmelted with charcoal in the blaft or
blowrng-houfe furnace, which never had any brood or foreign
mixture in the mine : whereas the mine-tin is ufually cor-
rupted with fome portion of mundic, or other mineral, and
is always fmelted with a bituminous fire, which communi-
cates a harfti fulphurous quality to the metal. Grain-tin
is peculiarly produced from ftream-work, and is worth
feveral ftiillirigs per hundred more than mine-tin. See
Streaming.

See on this article Macquer's Chem. Dift. art. Tin; and

iPryce's Mineralogia Cornubienfis, fol. 1778.

There is a curiofity in the Cornifli mines, which is this :
that in digging at the depth of forty or fifty fathoms, they

I frequently meet with large timber, ftill entire.

Childrey, in his Natural Hiftory, goes back as far as the

'deluge to place them there ; but, without having recourfe
to fo great antiquity, they wlio believe that the mines, when

eexhauiled of their ore, or mineral matter, renew and fill again

itin courfe of time, will foon folvc the difficulty, by fuppofing

that, in the firft working of thefe mines, thefe timbers had
been let down to ferve as props and pillars.

But there are other people who will think this renewal of
the mines itfelf a difficulty as great as the former. However,
what the former author adds, wz. that in fome places in the
mines they likewife find pick-axes, &c. with wooden ftiafts,
as alfo brafs nails, and tliat even a medal of Domitian has
been found in one, feems to countenance the opinion.

For the life of tin in the compofition of pewter, fee
Pewteu.

TiN-ZiWif of Britain. That tin was procured from
Britain in a very early age, appears probable from the con-
current leftimony of the moft ancient hiltorians. The Phoe-
nicians are faid by Strabo to have paffed the pillars of Her-
cules, now the ftraits of Gibraltar, about twelve hundred
years before Chrift. At what precife period they dif-
covercd the Cafliterides, or Tin iflands, is unknown, nor is
their exaft fituation determined ; but it is generally believed
that the Soilly iflands, and the weftern part of Britain, were
the places from whence thefe early navigators procured the
tin which they exported to other countries. The Phccni-
cians were extremely anxious to conceal from the reft of the
world the true fituation of the Cafliterides. Herodotus, who
wrote about four hundred and fifty years before Chrilt,
could not learn where thefe iflands were fituatcd ; but he
fuppofed tliat tin, like amber, was brought from the remoteft
parts of Europe. Strabo relates, that the captain of a Phosni-
cian veffel returning from Britain feeing himfelf purfued by
a Roman galley, chofe rather to run his velfel among tlie
rocks, that the Romans might experience the like fate, than
be the means of difcovering fo valuable a commerce to the
enemies of his country. The captain having efcaped from
the wreck, claimed from his country compenfation for t!io
lofs of his veflel and the cargo ; and it is faid he was paid
from the pubhc treafury the amount of his claims. By thele
precautions, the Phoenicians are faid to have enjoyed a pro-
fitable trade to thefe iflands for about three hundred years.
The fecret was at length difcovered, and the Greeks, Gauls,
and Romans, came in fucceflively for a fhare of this trade.
The Phocean Greeks eftabliftied a colony at Marfeilles five
hundred and forty years before Chrift ; and after the deftruc-
tionof Carthage, earned on this commerce : they endeavoured
to conceal from the Romans their knowledge of the Britifh
ifles ; for on being queftioned by Scipio refpefting the
fituation and extent of thofe ifles from whence the tin was
brought, they declared that they were entirely unknown to
them. The Phoenicians, in their voyage to Britain, are faid
to have failed from Cadiz to the harbour of the Artabici,
near Cape Finifterre, from whence, after four days' fail, tliey
arrived in Britain. Strabo relates, that Pubhus Lucius
Craffus having made fruitlefs attempts to difcover whence
the tin was brought, at length fucceeded, and arrived in
Britain. It is uncertain when this Craffus lived, and even
who he was, there being two of this name ; the father, who
was proconful of Spain, and the fon, who had a command
under Ctefar in Gaul.

Diodorus Siculus, who wrote during the time of Auguftus,
appears, from the quotation which we fliall fubfequently give,
to have been well acquainted with the tin-trade of Britain at
that period. There cannot be a doubt, that from the conqueft
of Britain by the Romans, to the dechne of their empire in the
Weft, they enjoyed the undifturbed poffeffion of the Britifli
tin-trade.

"What the ancient method was of preparing tin for the fur-
nace we cannot learn, fays Dr. Borlafe. Polybius the hif-
lorian is faid to have defcribed it ; and that work is com-
mended

TIN.

mended by Strabo, but now loft. The (liort dcfcription of
the tin-trade jrivcii by Diodorus Siculus defcrves particular
attention. «' Tliefe men (the tinners) manufafturu the tm
by working the grounds which produce it with much flciU.
For though the laud is rocky, it has foft veins runnirg
through it, in which the tinners find the treafure, which they
extract, melt, and purity. Then fliaping it by moulds into a
cubical figure, they carry it ofl" to a certain idand lying near the
Britilh fhorc, which they call Ictis ; for at the reccfs of the
fea between tlie ifland and the main land, the pafTage being
dry, the tinners embrace the opportunity, and carry the tin
over in carts to the Idis or Port ; for it muft be obfcrved,
that the iflaiids which lie between the continent and Britain
have this peculiarity, that when the tide is full they are real
iflands, but when the fea retires they are fo many />fn«(/u/<?.
From this ifland the merchants bring the tin of the natives,
and export it into Gaul ; and finally through Gaul, by a
journey of about thirty days, to the mouth of the Rhone :"
lib. 4. Pofidonius, as quoted by Strabo, fays the port to
which till was brought in the fouth of France was Mar-
feilles. ;

To what ufes the nations of antiquity applied all the tin
which thcv obt.iined witli fo mucli labour from Britain, is
not precifely known. The Phoenicians were celebrated for
their Ikill in tiie art of dyeing ; and the Tyrian purple, which
was cither a bright crimfon or a fcarlet, was held in the
liigheil ctlimation ; hence it has been conjettured, with much
probability, that the Phoenicians were acquainted with the ule
of the folution of tin in the preparation of that colour. In the
modem art of dyeing fcarlet or crimfon, the folution of tin
in the nitro-muriatic acid is efientiiJly neceflary to commu-
nicate thofe colours to woollen cloths or ftuffs, a praftice
which is probably derived from the ancient manufaftures of
the Eaft.

The mirrors of the civilized nations of antiquity were
made of a compofition of copper and tin. The moft ancient
account that we have of tliefe mirrors is that in Exodus,
chap, xxxviii. 8. " And he made the laver of brafs (a mix-
ture of copper and tin), and the foot of brafs of the mirrors
of the women." The Jewifli women probably received thcfe
mirrors from the Egyptians when they left the country ;
for it was the cuftom of the Egyptians to carry a mirror in
their left hand, when they went to their temples. Cyril de
Ado.

Pliny fays that the bell fpecula were anciently made at
Brundufi\im of copper and tin. The metallic mixture of
tin and copper, for rendering the latter metal white, is men-
tioned by Ariftotle. ( De Mirab. ) This compofition is ftill
in ufe for the fpecula of refledling telefcopes. (See Spe-
culum.) Tlie ancients alfo made ufe of an alloy of tin
with copper and lead for pot-metal. In the time of Pliny,
pot-metal, oUaria iempcratura, was made of two pounds of
lead, and an equal quantity of tin, mixed with one hundred
pounds of copper. From the fame writer we learu, that
the bronze of wliichthe Romans made their ftatues, and the
plates on which they engraved their infcriptions, was com-
pofcd of one hundred pounds of copper, mixed with twelve
pounds and a half of an alloy made of equal parts of lead
and tin. He informs as alfo that tin, plumbum album, was
employed in coating or tinning copper vefTels, to render
them more wholcfome ; and it appears that the Romans
not only ufed pure tin, but the fame mixture of tin and lead
which lome ol our workmen ufe at this time in tinning of
velTels. A mixture of equal parts of tin and lead they
called argentarium ; a mixture of two parts of lead and one
of tin they called tcrtiarium ; and with two parts of tin and

;hey

one of lead, they tinned whatever veffels they thought fit.
(Watfon's Chemical Effays, vol. iv.) In the manufaftuie
of arms, the ancients ufed an alloy of tin with copper, their
brafs being a compofition of thefe metals ; but by what
method they were enabled to communicate to it the nccef-
fary degree of hardnefs is unknown.

What was the relative value of tin, compared with that
of gold and filver, as eftimatcd by the Phoenicians, tlie
Greeks, or tho Romans, is uncertain.

The procefs of extrafting tin from its ores was probably-
very imptrfeft, and remained fo in this country to the time
of Elizabeth, when Carew informs us that fir Francis Godol-
phin introduced great improvements in the tin-works.

The revcrberatory-furnace appears, from Dr. Borlafe,
to have been introduced into Cornwall about the beginning
of the lail century ; and about the fame time the introduc-
tion of pit-coal became general, the wood of the country hav-
ing been nearly exhauilcd. Sir Bevil Granville had previoufly
made many experiments for melting tin with pit- coal, but
without fuccefs, when the ore was fmelted at the blowing-
houfcs by large bellows worked by a water-wheel.

Whether the Phoenicians or the Greeks interefted them-
felvcs in the management of the tin-mines, or whether thev
were fimply merchants purchafing and exporting the tin, J
uncertain. It appears, however, by the pafiage quoted frd
Diodorus Siculus, that the veins of tin-ore were worked Ss
mines ; though it has been, and is ftill generally believed, that
ftreain-tin w as the only ore worked by the ancients. From
the teftimony of Strabo, Pliny, and others, the Romans not
only traded to Britain for tin, but improved the art of
mining in Cornwall. The Romans being the conquerors,
and the Britifh under them having probably little or no
property, they were the working miners, but under what
regulations is uncertain. The Saxons did not obtain pof-
fefiion of Cornwall till the reiffn of Athelftan, and neither
they nor the Danes appear to have direfted their attention
to the mines. After the Norman conqueit, the working of
mines is faid to have yielded great profit. In the time of
king John, however, the right of working tin being as yet,
fays Borlafe, wholly in the king, as earl of CorpwaU, the
property of the miners was precarious and unfettled, and
all the tin that was raifed was engrofled and managed by
the Jews. The t'm-farm of Cornwall at this time amounted
to no more than one hundred marks, according to which
valuation, the bifiiop of Exeter received then, and ftill
receives from the duke of Cornwall, the annual fum of
61. ly. 4^., fo low were tlie tin profits then in Cornwall;
whereas in Devonfhire, the tin was then farmed at lOO/.
yearly. King John, fenfible of the languifliing ftate of the J
mines, granted the county of Cornwall fome privileges, and 1
is faid to have alfo granted a charter to the tinners.

In the time of Henry III. the tin-mines of Spain,
which had been worked by the Moors, were flopped, and
Cornwall had all the trade of Europe for tin. In the ^
eighteenth year of Edward I., the Jews being banifhed the
kingdom, the mines were again neglefted for want of propi r
encouragement to labour, and fecurity to enjoy and difpofe
of the produfts. In confequence of a petition from fomc
Cornifti gentlemen to Edmund, earl of Cornwall, a charter
was obtained with more explicit grants of privileges of
keeping courts of judicature, and managing and decidi.iL'
ftannary caufes. About this time, fays Borlafe, it appear:
that the rights of bounding or dividing tin grounds into ..
feparate portions, for encouraging the fearch for tin, were 1 1
more regularly adjufted, and various laws introduced for
the proteftion of the miner.

. In

TIN.

In the thirty-third year of Edward I. the above charter
feems to have been confirmed, and the tinners of Cornwall
were made a dittinft body from thofe of Devonfliire, before
which time the tinners of both counties were aceullonicd to
meet on Hingfton-Hill every feventh or eighth year, to con-
cert the common intereft of both parties. Two eoinasjcs
of tin yearly were alfo granted by this charter, and the
tinners had the liberty of felling their own tin, imlefs the
king infilled on buymg it himfelf. Other laws and regu-
lations for the encouragement and protection of the miners,
were palTed in the reigns of Edward III., Henry VII.,
and Elizabeth. The mines having been much negledled
during the reign of Mary, Elizabeth invited German miners
into the country, and great encouragement was given to
mining operations in Cornwall, and various parts of England.
The quantity of tin procured annually in the fucceeding
reigns of James I. and Charles, amounted to fixtcen hundred
tons. During, and for fome time after the civil wars, the
tin-trade declined, but revived again in the reign of
George I., and has fince been increafing. For an account
of the annual produfts of the tin-mines of Cornwall and
Devonfhire, fee the article Mine.
.AH the tranfatlions connefted with the tin-mines are
Bnder the controul of the ftannary laws : courts are held
every fix months, and they decide by juries of fix perfons,
with a progreffive appeal to the lord warden and lords of
the duke of Cornwall's council. By whatever method or
accident a vein is difcovercd, permiffion of the proprietor
muft be obtained before any operations can be commenced,
except in the cafe of fuch tin-mines as are anciently em-
bounded according to the provifion of the ftannary laws.
(See Stannary Courts.) The owner of the foil is
technically called the lord, whofe {hare (which is called
his dyj}) is generally one-fixth or one-eighth of the ore.
The duke of Cornwall receives a duty of four (hillings
per hundred weight of tin, which is taken when the tin
IS affayed and licenfed : this procefs is called the coinage,
from the French word coin, a corner, A corner is chipped
off each block at the ofGce, and if it be found fuffi-
ciently pure, the blocks are ftamped with the arms of
the duke. The annual revenue of the tin is about
10,000/.; the average annual amount being about 3200
I tons, and the value about 120/. per ton. The mode
of aflay is obvioufly rude and imperfeft ; and we have
I heard that foreigners have recently complained that the
Britifii tin was not fo pure as that obtained from the
Eaft. But whatever be the purity of Britifh tin, there
■ can be no doubt that it is greatly adulterated on the con-
t dnent. It is faid that every tin-founder in Holland has
I Enghlh ftamps, and be the quahty of the tin what it may,
I the infcription makes it pafs for Englifh. The metal with
which Britifh tin is adulterated on the continent is lead,

• which being five times cheaper, and when mixed in fmall
quantities not eafily detefted, the temptation for fuch

Jiraud is great. It is not true, as afferted by fome foreign

• writers of rafpeftability, that Britifli tin is purpofely
jajjpyed with certain portions of copper and lead before it
lis exported from Cornwall. The ores of tin, in the tin-

• mines of Cornwall, are fo intimately alfociated with portions
of copper-ore, lead-ore, arfenical pyrites, and oth^r metals,
of which a fmall mixture will remain in the block-tin, and
can only be feparated by fubiequent refining, that any confi-
dcrable portion of alloy may I')e detefted by the increafe of
fpccific gravity. Graia-tin, which is the purelt tin of com-
merce, is fmeited from the fined ore by a charcoal fire :
'he common block- tin is fmeited with pit -coal or culm, as

before Hated. Grain-tin is ufcd for various piirpofes in tlir
arts, where tin of the pureft quality is required.

Long as the tin-mines of Cornwall have been worked,
they ilill continue to fiipply in abundance this ufful metal ;
but from the greater extent of the prefent works, and from
the circumllance of tin always occupying the upper part of
the vein, we may infer that the tin-mines of that county
will be exhaufted at no very dillant period. At prefent,
the principal part of the tin is obtained from the wellern
extremity of the county ; but when the tin-mines in that
diftrift are worked out, we may confider the tin-trade of
Cornwall as nearly cxtinft. The granitic range of Dart-
moor, in Devonfhire, has been lefs explored than Cornwall ;
but there is reafon to believe that the metallic repofitories
of tin and copper which it contains will furnirti an ample
field for the induftry of future adventurers, and a failure in
the fupply from Cornwall would greatly enhance tlie price
of this metal, and give increafed fpirit to mining fpcculations.

Tin, in Chemtjlry and the Arts. The colour of tin is
white, like that of iilver : it has a fenfible tafte, and when
rubbed, emits a peculiar fmell : its hardnefs is greater than
that of lead, and lefs than that of xinc : its fpecific gravity
is ftatcd by Briffon to be 7.291, and it is faid to become a
little greater by hammering : it is very malleable, and may
be beaten into very thin leaves. Tin-foil, as it is termed, is
ufually about -nrV^th of an inch in thicknefs ; but this is by
no means the utmoft degree of thinnefs which it will bear.
Its duftility and tenacity are rather low : a tin wire, -^ -^-th
of an inch in diameter, is ftated by Mufchenbroeck (as
quoted by Dr. Thomfon) to be capable of lupporting a
weight of 31 lbs. only, without breaking. Tin may be
eafily bent, and when bent, produces a peculiar crackling
iioife : it fufes at about 442° of Fahrenheit's fcale, but will
bear a moft intenfe heat before it is volatilized. On being
expofed to the atmofphere, its furface becomes (lightly tar-
niflied, but it undergoes no other change. When kept
under cold water it undergoes no change ; but red-hot tin,
expofed to the vapour of water, decompofes it, an oxyd
of tin is formed, and hydrogen gas is evolved. Expofed to
the aftion of the air in a melted ftnte, it quickly becomes
covered with a greyifli powder, or oxyd ; and if the heat is
very violent, it is ftated to take fire, and to burn with a
pale white light.

Tin unites with oxygen in two proportions, as has been
lately proved by Gay Lulfac, in oppofition to Berzelius, who
concluded from his experiments that there were three oxyds
of tin. (See Annal. de Chimie et Phyf. vol. i. p. 40.) The
firft oxyd, or protoxyd, of tin, confifts of about

Tin
Oxygen

The fecond, or pcroxyd, of about

100.
13.6

Tin
Oxygen

100.
27.2

This gives the weight of the atom 7-352. Dr. Thomfon is
inchned to confider it as 7.375 ; but it perhaps will be
found hereafter either 7.25 or 7.5. The firil of thefe
oxyds may be formed by difTolving tin in muriatic acid,
either by means of heat, or by adding occafionally a little
nitric acid : when dilfolved, add to it a folution of potafti ;
a white precipitate falls, which is partly taken up again ;
but the remainder, on ftanding, alTunies a dark grey colour,
and even a metallic luftre ; and on being heated to whitenels,
is pure protoxyd of tin. The peroxyd may be formed by

bailing

TIN.

boiling the protoxyd in dilute iiiciic aciJ, drying by eva-
poraliun, and licitiiig to rcdntfu.

Till forms likewife two combinations with chlorine. When
tin is burnt in chlorine, a very volatile clear liquor is formed,
a non^condudor of eledricity, and which, when mixed with
a little water, becomes a folid cryilalline fubftance, a true
muriate of tin, containing the peroxyd of tin. This com-
pound has been called the fmoLing liquor of Liiavlus, from
its difcoverer, who formed it by diftilling together amalgam
of tin and corrofive fublimate. According to the experi-
ments of Dr. John Davy, it confifts of two atoms or pro-
portions of chlorine united to one of tin ; or of about

Tin

Chlorine

lOO.

121.82

ProMonde of tin, firR defcribed by Dr. J. Davy, is a
grey, femi-tranlparent, cryftaUine folid, and may be formed
by heating together amalgam of tin and calomel. Accord-
ing to the fame chemift, it confifts of one atom or propor-
tion of chlorine united to one of tin ; or of about

Tin
Chlorine

100.
60.72

Tin combines readily with fulphur and phofphorus, but
not with hydrogen, azote, carbon, or boron.

There are two fulphurets of tin ; the firft may be formed
by fufing tin and fulphur together : it is of a blueifh colour,
and lamellated ftrudure ; and from the experiments of Dr.
J. Davy, confifts of one proportion of tin united to one of
fulphur. The other fulphuret of tin is made by heating to-
gether the peroxyd of tin and fulphur. It is of a beautiful
gold colour, and appears in fine flakes. It was formerly
called aurum mufivum, and various complicated procefles
given for forming it. Pelletier and Prouft inveftigated its
nature, and concluded it to be a compound of oxyd of tin
and fulphur ; but Dr. Davy has ftiewn that this is not the
eafc, and that it confifts merely of one proportion of me-
tallic tin united to one proportion of fulphur.

The phofphurct of tin may be formed by heating the two
fubftances together. Only one phofphuret is known : it
has a metalUc appearance, and is 10 foft that it may be cut
with a knife. When gently heated in the air, the phofpho-
rus takes fire. According to the experiments of fir H.
Davy, it contains about 17 per cent, of phofphorus, and
confifts therefore of one atom or proportion of phofphorus
united to one of tin.

Tin combines with moft of the metals, and fome of its
alloys are much employed.

Its alloys with the metals of the fixed alkalies fpeedily
tarnifh in the air, and cffervefce in water.

It readily unites with gold by fufion, and was formerly
fuppofed to have the property of rendering this metal brit-
tle ; but this has been more recently denied. An alloy of
1 1 gold and i of tin, was found by Mr. Hatchett to have a
pale whilifti colour, brittle when thick, but when cut thin,
capable of being bent eafily. Its fraAure was fine-grained,
and of an earthy appearance. Mr. Alchorne found, that
gold alloyed with no more than ^yth of tin, retains its
duflility fufficiently to be rolled and ftamped in the ufual
manner. But Mr. Tillet Ihewed, that when heated to red-
nefs, the tin melts, and the alloy falls to pieces.

Its alloys with platina, according to Dr. Lewis, are brit-
tle and dark-coloured, when the two metals are in equal pro-
portions. The alloys of tin and filver are very hard and
jjrittle. The alloys, or rather amalgams, of tin ar.d mer-

8

cury differ in hardnefg, according to the proponlons in
which tlie two metals are mixed ; three p^uLs oi mercury aiiu
one of tin form an amalgam which cryltallizes in cubes, or,
according to Sage, in the form of brilliant fquare plates,
thin towards the edges. Tin readily combines with copper,
aud forms alloys exceedingly ufeful for a variety of pur
pofes, as will be briefly noticed when we fpeak of the ufus
of this metal. Tin does not readily combine with iron,
but their union may be effiefted by fufing them together in
clofe veifels : it combines with zinc by fufion, and the alloy
is harder than zinc, and ftronger than tin : with lead it rea-
dily unites in all proportions, and the lead by the addition
becomes confiderably harder.

The oxyds of tin are capable of combining with the alka-
lies, and of forming vi\i\\ them peculiar compounds.

Salts of Tin Tin is oxydated and diflblved by many oi

the acids, and forms falts, differing in their nature ac-
cording to the degree of oxydizement of the metal.

Nitrates of Tin. — Concentrated nitric acid (fpecific gra-
vity 1.48) poured on tin, exerts but little aftion upon it ;
but if a little water be added, a violent adlion is exerted,
and peroxyd of tin is formed, which feparates in the form of a
white powder, this oxyd being apparently incapable of
combining with nitric acid : in this cafe, both the acid and
the water are decompofcd, and nitrate of ammonia is formed ;
but if the acid be diluted, and care be taken to moderate its
aftion upon the metal, the water only is chiefly decompofed,
and the protoxyd of tin is formed, which combining
with the nitric acid, forms a folution of a yellow colour,
which is a real nitrate of tin. Still, however, a little ni-
trate of ammonia is formed, and the nitrate of tin itfelf i»
not permanent, the metal continuing to pafs to the ftate of
peroxyd, and gradually feparating. The fame change is
produced by heating the folution, a precipitate being depo-
fited, which, however, is partly fubnitrate of tin.

Muriates of Tin. — We have already fpoken of the clJo-
rides, or compounds of tin with chlorine. Now if water'
be added to thefe chlorides, they are converted into muriates
of tin. The muriate of tin, in which the metal is in the
ftate of protoxyd, may be formed, however, by diffolving
tin in about four times its weight of muriatic acid : hydro-
gen efcapes, and the folution has a brownifh-yellow colour,
and yields, on evaporation, fmall needle -(baped cryftals, fo-
luble in water, and foraewhat deliquefcent. Water poured
upon it in fmall quantity decompofes it, and converts it into
a fubmuriate, which is precipitated, and a fuper-muriate,
which remains in folution. A fimilar effeft is produced by
the alkalies, when not added in excefs. This muriate of
tin, formed of the protoxyd, has a great tendency to com-
bine with oxygen, and to pafs into the ftate of muriates
with the peroxyd, and this property enables it to exert
many curious efforts upon other metallic falts. Thus, for
example, the red oxyd of raircury, the black oxyd of man-
ganefe, the white oxyd of antimony, the oxyds of zinc and
filver, are deprived of their oxygen by this fait, and reduced
to the metallic ftate. The muriate of tin with the peroxyd
of the metal may be formed as before mentioned. It is ca-
pable of cryftallizing, and poffeffes properties quite different
from thofe of the muriate above defcribed. It is much
ufed by dyers, who generally form it by diffolving tin in
nitro-muriatic acid.

Sulphate of Tin. — Sulphuric acid, when cold, has little
aftion on tin, but affifted by a moderate heat, it attrafts
oxygen from it ; fulphurous acid gas is evolved, and a ful-
phate of tin is formed, which yields, when evaporated,
fmall needle -formed cryftals. It is probable there are two,

fulphatcs

TIN.

fulpliates of tin, tliougli llicir properties do not appear hi-
therto to liave been diilindtly defined.

The phofphale, JJiiate, and borate of tin may be formed
by double decompofition, by adding folutions of their alka-
line falls to a folution of muriate of tin. They are all info-
luble compounds, and have been but impcrfeftly examined.
No carbonate of tin appears to exift.

The other falts of tin are unimportant, and but little
known. The acetate has been moft invelligated : it may be
formed by boiling tin in acetic acid. The folution has a
whitifli colour, and yields cryftals by evaporation. There
appears, however, to be another acetate, ( formed probably
with the peroxyd of the metal,) that does not cryftallize,
but is capable of £xiiling only, on evaporation, in tiic form
of a gummy mafs.

Ufcs of Tin and its CoinpomuU Tin and its compounds

are extenfively ufcd in the arts. We (hall here briefly point
out fome of the more important operations in which they
are concerned, referring our readers for further particulars
to the different articles themfelves. An amalgam of tin and
mercury forms the metallic coat of glafs mirrors. For the
method of performing this operation, fee the article Silver-
ing o/" Mirrors.

The compounds of tin with copper are very important.
Of this alloy cannons are made, alfo bcU-metal, bronze, and the
mirrors ox fpecula of telefcopes. For thefe different purpofes,
the two metals are mixed in different proportions, which are
pointed out more particularly under their refpeftive articles.

Veffels of copper, efpecially for culinary purpofes, are
iifually covered with a thin coating of tin, to prevent
the copper from oxydating. (See the article Tinning.)
Thin iron plates covered with this metal, form what is
known by the name of tin-plate ; which fee.

The oxyd of tin, mixed with that of lead, forms putty,
which is much ufed in pohfhing metals. See Puttv and
Speculum.

Tin alloyed with lead iortm folder ; which fee.

Of the falts of tin, a folution of the muriate, or dyers'
liquor, as it is termed, is ufed as a mordant in dyeing fcarlet.
ee the articles Dyeing, Mordant, and Red.

The folution of tin in aqua regia, added to the tinftures
of cochineal, of gum-lac, and of fome other red tinftures,
heightens the colour of thefe, and changes it from a crim-
fon or purple to a vivid reddifli- yellow, or fire-coloured
fcarlet. The new fcarlet, or Bow dye, is obtained in this man-
ner ; and it is faid, that our moft beautiful and lafting-
coloured fine cloths owe their fuperlative excellence to the
retentivenefs given by our fine grain-tin ; infomuch, that
the Englifli fuperfine broad-cloths, dyed in grain by the help
of this ingredient, are become famous in all markets of the
■known world.

Mr. Pryce apprehends, that the purple dye of the Ty-
rians owed its reputation wholly, or in part, to the ufe of
our tin in the compofition of their dye-ftulF, as the tin-trade
was folely under their own direftion.

This colour, however, fucceeds only with wool and other
animal matters. Attempts have been made, but without
fuccefs, to give this colour to thread, to cotton, and even
lo filk, though this latter fubftance has many properties of
animal matters. The folution of tin made with marine acid
alone, or with vitriolic acid, does only give to red lindtures
a erimfon colour, as alum does. Vegetable acids, as vine-
gar and cream of tartar, are alfo capable of diflblving tin.

Tin or its compounds are not ufed in medicine. They do

not appear to be of a poifonous nature ; but the muriate of

tin, taken into the flomach in confrderable quantity, fpeedily

induces death, apparently merely from its conofivc qualities.

Vol. XXXV.

It was formerly rpcommeiidcd for its anthelmintic virtues •
but it is polTible, fays Dr. Lewis, that thefe may proceed
not fo much from the pure metal, as from a certain fub-
flance of a different or arfenical nature, of which the piucll
forts of tin arc found to ])articipate.

The principal preparations of tin are as follow :

Tin, Butter of, is a name given by fome chemifts to a
combination of tin with the concentrated marine acid of cor-
rofive fublimatc. It is procured by reducing thefe fub-
flances into fmall parts, and mixing them together : this
mixture will, by degrees, be moiftened by attrafting the hu-
midity of the air. The decompofition of the corrofive fub-
limate by the tin is more fpeedily efTefted by diftillation.

Tin, Calx of, is the metal reduced into powder, either
by means of fire, or by being dilfolved in an acid menflruum,
and precipitated with an alkali.

Tin, Cerufs of. See Spani/]} White.

Tin, Diaphoretic of. See Antiiiecticum Poterii.

Tin, Flowers of, are a kind of white cofmetic, or paint
for the complexion, drawn from tin with fal ammoniac, by
means of fublimation.

Tin, Gold-coloured preparation of is made by adding fix
ounces of mercury to twelve of melted tin, pulverizing the
cold mals, mixing with it ieven ounces of llowers of fulph\ir
and fix of fal ammoniac, and fubUming in a matrafs.

This preparation is called aurum mofnicuin, and as a medi-
cine is httle regarded, though forn\crly much elleemed
againft hyllerical and hypochondriacal complaints, malignant
fevers, and venereal diforders. Upon experiment, it appears
to be little more than calx of tin.

Tin, Salt of, Sal Jovi', is prepared from twelve ounces of
calx of tin, and four of aqua regia, diluted with twenty-four
of water : after digeftion for two days, the veffel is to be
fhaken, the more ponderous part of the calx fuffcred to fet-
tle, the turbid liquor poured off, and evaporated almoft to
drynefs, and the mafs farther exficcated on brown paper :
to the remaining calx half tlie quantity of frefli menftruum
is to be added, and the procefs repeated. Dr. Lewis's ex-
perience has not enabled him to pronounce on the virtues of
this fait, which is in taflc very Iharp and corrofive : he thinks
it needlefs to calcine the metal, as tin uncalcined diffolvcs
much more eafily and plentifully, and the folution is in both
cafes the fame. According to Hoffmann, the folution of tin
is a (trong purgative. Lewis's Mat. Med.

Tin is alfo a word ufed by fome of the chemical writers
to exprefs fulphur.

TlVi-Copin^, in Rural Economy, a fort of covering of tliis
kind of metallic fubllance in the fheet form, which is not un-
frequently employed on the upper parts of the frames,
flands, or ftaddles of corn-flacks, for the purpofe of pre-
venting deftruftive vermin from entering or getting into
them. It is a chcip, ready, convenient, and ufeful mate-
rial in this intention, in many cafes, which the arable fanner
fhould not be inattentive to in his flack-yard.

Tis-Flriors, a contrivance ufed by our hulbandmen who
propagate hops, to dry them after the gathering. See

OOST.

It is thus done : Let a fquare brick room be built, with
a door on one fide, and a long fire-place of a foot wide in the
middle, reaching almoft acrofs it ; let holes be made at the
fides of this fire-place, to let out the heat into the room ;
and at the height of five feet above this, let a floor be made
of laths of an inch thick, laid lattice-wife. Let this be
covered with great plates of double tin, taking care that the
joinings of the tin be well foldered, and lie upon the laths,
nor over the interftices, which may be about four inches
wide. Let a row of boards be fitted round the edge of

4 U this

T I N

this floor, to ke*p tl.c hops from fallin;r oft ; then lay on a
covmn- of hops of a foot thick, and make a fmall hre of
charcoal i.. th' mouth of the firo-ph.ce. and the hops ^v,U
dry very quickly and rery regularly. They may be con-
tinuallv llirred about while dr)-.ng. and, when dry, a
part of the boarded ed-e of the kiln may be taken down,
and the dried parcel thrull out, and a frefh parcel laid on in
their place. A very fmall (luantity of fuel is fufficient in
this w-ay, and any fuel will do, for the fmokc never comes at
the hops. There is a very great improvement llill upon
this method of drying hops, ufed by fome people : this is
the making of a wooden cover, of the fi/.e of the t'n-fio°'' j
this is covered with plates of tin nailed on, and is fufpended
over the kiln in fuch a manner, that it may be let down at
pleafure, when the lower parts of the hops arc dry. 1 his
is to be let down within ten inches of their furlace, and
there it ads as a reverberatory, and drives back the heat on
the upper ones, fo that they are dried as foon as the lower
ones. Thus all the trouble of turning is faved, and the
hops arc much better dried than in any other way. Mor-
timer's Hufbandry, p. i86. See Ventilatok.

Tis-Foil. Sec Foil, Foliating, and Lookixg-glass.

Tis-Niiub, in Jtlinhig, a term ufed by the people of
Cornwall, to exprefs the opening into a tin-mme. They
alfo call it finyZia//.

Thev make feveral openings in the fides of the hills
where t'iiey exped veins of ore to be. All thefe, except that
which opens on the head of the mine, are called ejfay-balches ;
but that which does fo, is made their entrance afterwards,
and changes its name to that of the tin-hatch. See
Hatches and Shaft.

Tis-Hoopfor Cheefe, in Rural Economy, a light thin hoop
conftrufted of this fort of ftieet metallic fubllance, that is
fometimes employed in cheefe-making, for holding and
keeping the curd together while it is breaking and being
crumbled down into the tilling-vat, in order to prevent the
trouble of railing and holding up the corners of the cloth
which is made ufe of in the bulinefs. It is ufually about
nine inches in breadth, and formed fo as exaftly to fit the
top part of the chcefe-vat on which it refts when ufed.
Thefe hoops are fometimes made of other materials, as
wood, &c. and are ufeful in faving time and trouble.

Tia-Ore, called Un-jluff by the miners in Cornwall.
See Ti-a-Stone.

M. Gellert direfts, that ores of tin fhould be affayed in
the following manner : Mix a quintal of tin-ore, wafhed,
pulverized, and twice roafted, with half a quintal of calcined
borax, and half a quintal of pulverized pitch ; thefe are to
be put into a crucible, moiftened with charcoal-duft and
water, and the crucible placed in an air-furnace : after the
pitch is burnt, give a violent fire during a quarter of an
hour, and then withdraw the crucible. If the ore be not
very well wafhed from the earthy matter, as it ought to be,
a larger quantity of borax is requifite, with fome powdered
glafs, by which the too quick fufion of the borax is re-
tarded, and the precipitation of the earthy matter is pre-
vented. If the ore contains iron, to the above mixture may
be added fome alkaline fait. See MooR-5/o«f.

The method of aflaying tin-ore, fays Mr. Pryce, is very
rafy ; for in its form and fize of black tin (which is the ore
dreffed by ftamping, feveral waftiings, and calcination, if
mineralized with vitriolic, arfenical, or fulphureous pyrites)
great part of the work is done, and little more remains than
fufion, which is accomplidied by a red heat in the following
procefs : Take four or five ounces of black tin as emptied
from the facks, mix it well with about one-fifth part of its
weight of powdered culm ; put the mi.^ture in a black-lead

T I N

crucible, on the wind furnace, and, in about twenty minutcir,
the metal will be found precipitated to the bottom of tlw-
crucible, the culm and fcoria floating on the tin. On thi-
furface of this matter there will be globules of tin ; and
therefore the mixture (liould be itirred witii an iron rod, to
make them fall into the tin at tiie bottom. Clofe the fur-
nace, and let the whole remain in fufion from three to five
minutes. Keep in readincfs an iron or brafs mortar, and an
ingot-mould about fix inches loiig ; pour the tin into the
ingot, and empty the culm and fcoria into the mortar,
fcraping off what remains in and about the crucible with a
(harp iron. As foon as cold, put them into another mortar,
and pulverize them gently, fo as to feparate the fcoria from
the largell of the globules of tin. Seleft the larger glo-
bules, and pulverize the remainder a fefond time ; then put
this (luff, twice powdered, on a (hovel, and palTing it often
througii water, in the fame manner as the lighter parts are
walhed from ores in vanning, and the fmaller globules will
remain on the (hovel ; and thefe, with the larger (both to-
gether being generally called pUUon-tin), being added to,
and weighed with the ingot, (hew the produce in metal of
the four or five ounces affayed. See Macquer's Chem. Didl. ;
and Pryce's Min. Corn. p. 269.

TiN-P/ato, an article of manufafture very common
among us, and vulgarly called tin. It is iron plated over
with tin. The French call it fer blanc, white iron, as we
fometimes do in England. It was once known under a
diltinft name, lattin, under which article the procefs of ma-
nufa&uring it is defcribed.

The procefs ufed for this purpofe near Caermarthen, in
South Wales, which is defcribed by Mr. Donovan, in his
" Defcriptive Excurfions through South Wales in 1805,"
is as follows :

The iron-ore employed in this manufaAory is the common
kind of the country, intermixed with a large portion of the
fine haematite from Ulverllone, in Lancafhire, which gives a
very fine metal. This too is fmelted with charcoal inftead
of coke, to produce a metal of the grcateft purity and ex-
tenfibility, and clofenefs of texture, which quahties are par-
ticularly required in this manufafture. The reduced ore is
fmelted in the ufual manner, and call into pigs, which are
then wrought by the hammer into long flat bars, that are
afterwards cut into pieces of about ten inches in length.
Thefe are then wrought into plates by being heated red-hot,
and paffed through a flatting-mill, which confifts of two large
cylinders of ileel, cafe-hardened and fecured in a frame of
iron. Thefe are placed contiguous to each other, but with
a certain interval of fpace, and revolve in a contrary direc-
tion, fo that when one end of the bar is thruft in the fpace
between the cylinders, the whole is drawn through and pro-
portionably extended and flattened in the palfage. The
diftance between the cylinders, which of courfe determines
the thicknefs of the plate, is maintained and regulated by
fcrews which can be altered at pleafure. When the bar is
thus made into a plate of twice the thicknefs of the ordinary
plates, it is heated red-hot, cut in two by a pair of (hears, \
and one piece folded exactly over the other, and both re- '
paffed repeatedly through the cylinders till the folded plate
has extended to the fame length and breadth as the plate
was before cutting. It is then clipped round the edges, and
the two plates torn afunder (which requires fome little
force) after which they are each finilhed by pafllng through
a finer rolling-prefs, fo as to take away every creafe or in-
equality in the plate, and thofe that are too rough to pafs
through this finer prefs are thrown afide.

The plates are then fteeped in a very weak acid liquor, \
and when taken out are fcoured thoroughly with bran, fo as )

to

TINCTURE.

to be quite brlglit and polifhed to enable the tin to adhere.
Tiic tin is melted in deep reftangiilar crucibles, and kept
fluid by a moderate charcoal lire beneath. To prevent its
calcination, a quantity of greafe prepared from linfecd-oil
and fuct is conilantly kept floating on the furface of the
tin, and renewed as it evaporates oft, which gives an excef-
fively naufeous ftench. The plate is then taken up by one
corner by a pair of pincers, and dipped vertically into the
tin, and when withdrawn is found beautifully white and re-
fplendent with the coating of this metal that adheres to it.
Tliis dipping is repeated three times for what is called_y7/)j/f
tm-phile, and fix times for the double plate. Tiie plates are
then only cleanfed and forted, and are tit for ufe.

We fliall here add, with regard to the hiltory of this ma-
nufafture, that in the year i6Sl, tin-plates were made in
England by one Andrew Yarranton, who was fent to Bohe-
mia to learn the manner of making tliem. But tlie manu-
fa£tiu-e was difcontinued by his employers, and afterwards
fo much difregarded, as to be reckoned among the projedls
called bubbles of tiie year 1720 ; however, it was revived,
and brouglit to tuch perfeftion about the year 1740, that
very little of it was imported from foreign parts ; our own
plates being of a finer glofs, or coat, than that made beyond
fea, the latter being hammered, and ours being drawn under
a rolling-mill. And. Hift. Com. vol. ii. p. 175,361.

The two principal wholefale houfes for this manufafture
in London, are thofe of Jones and Taylor in Tottenham-
Court Road, and Hov/ard and Co., in Old-ftreet Road.

TINA, a name given by the old medical writers to a
bath made of a ftrong decoftion of many carminative ingre-
dients to be ufed in the colic.

Tina, in Geography. See Knin.

TINAGOB, a town on the W. coaft of the ifland of
Samar. N. lat. 12° 5'. E. long. 124° 30*.

TINALMO, a town on the S. coaft of the ifland of
Lu(;on. N. lat. 13° 38'. E. long. 122° 42'.

TINAMASAKI, a town of Japan, on the S. coaft
of the ifland of Niphon. N. lat. 34° 12'. E. long.

136° 5S'-

TINAPA, a town of Mexico, in the province of New

Bifcay ; 120 miles N.W. of Duranga.

TINARA, a town of Nubia, on the Nile ; 200 miles
S.S.W. of Syene.

TINCA, the Tench, in Ichthyology. See Cyprinus
Tinea, and Ten'CH.

TiNCA Marina, the fea-tench, a name given by fome au-
thors to tlie common tiirJus, called in Englifli tlie -wrajfe,
and phycis.

TINCAL, is a name given to borax in the crude ftate in
which it is brought from India, and before it is refined. It
confifts of fmall cryftals of a yellowifli colour, and it has a
greafy or unftuous touch. See Borax.

According to M. Cadet, it contains a larger quantity
of tlie peculiar vitrefcible earth of borax than the refined
fait commonly fold does. See Baorac.

TINCAUSARIS, in Ancient Geography, a place of
Africa, in Cyrenaica, on the route from Carthage to Alex-
andria, between Boreum and Atticis. Anton. Itin.

TINCHEBRAY, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Orne ; 10 miles N. of Domfront.

TINCO, a town of Spain, in the province of Afturias ;
20 miles N.W. of Oviedo.

TINCONTIUM, or TiNXOXClUM, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a town of Lyonnefe Gaul, between Avarican and
Deceida. Anton. Itin.

TINCTOR, Joh;*, in Biography, born at Nivelle, in Bra-
bant, and flourifhed about the year 1474. He was a great

mufician, long in the fervice of Ferdinand of Aragon, king
of Naples and Sicily, who reigned from 1458 to 1504, and
ftyles himfelf his arch-deacon, chaplain, and cantor. Be-
fides feveral mufical tradls by this early writer on counter-
point, he was autlior of the firft mufical diiflionary. All
written mufic in counterpoint during the fifteenth cen-
tury was compofed for voices, at leaft we have never feen
any other ; and being intended for the church, was fet to
Latin words : fo that the firft terms ufed in the art, were
likewife in that language ; and thefe were fo numerous in
Tinftor's time, that he collefted them, under the title of
" Terminorum Muficae Diffinitorium," and printed them
at Naples. This was doubtlefs not only the firft mufical
diftionary that was ever compiled, but the firft book that
was printed on the fubjcft of mufic in general. The work
is fo fcarce, that we have never been able to find it, except
in his majefty's ineftimable library. In this " Diffinitorium,"
we firft met with the precife definition of tlie four principal
parts in vocal counterpoint : cantus, alius, tenor, and baj'e ;
which fee under tlieir feveral heads.

Tinftor, in one of his trails, gives to the Engliftt the
invention of counterpoint. See Dun.stable.

Walther feems never to have heard of Tinftor's " Diffi-
nitorium ;" but he gives the title of his three trafts : " De
Arte Contrapunfti ;" " De Tonis ;" and " De Origine
Muficae ;" from Gefner's Bibl. Univ.

TINCTORUM RuBiA. See Madder.
TINCTURE, TiNCTURA, in Pharmacy and Chemijlry,
a reparation of the finer and more volatile parts of a mixed
body, made by means of a proper menftruum difiblving the
fame.

Tincture is more particularly ufed for an extraft of
part of the fubftance of a body, efpecially its flavour and
colour, which are hereby communicated to the menftruum.
Tinctures, in the Materia Medica, are fpirituous folu-
tions of fuch of the proximate principles of vegetables and
animals, as are foluble in pure alcohol or in proof-fpirit ; and
they are faid to have been invented about the end of the thir-
teenth century, by a profeftbr of medicine at Montpelier, called
Arnold de Villa Nova. From vegetable matter fubmitted to
its aftion, alcohol takes up fugar, refin, extraftive, tannin,
cinchonin, camphor, volatile oils, feveral acids, and the nar-
cotic principle ; proof-fpirit alfo takes up the whole of
thefe partially, and is befides the proper menftruum for
gum-refins ; io that alcohol, either in a concentrated or di-
luted form, is capable of feparating the greater part of the
aftive principles of vegetables from the ligneous inert fibres.
The tinftures obtained from animal fubftances are very few
in number, and the principles taken up by the fpirit are
analogous to thofe enumerated above, belonging to the ve-
getable kingdom.

Pure alcohol is required in very few inftanccs only for
the formation of tindlures, proof-fpirit being adequate
for almoft every purpofe. The dilution of the fpirit,
however, muft be varied according to the known princi-
ples of the fubftances to be fubmitted to its atiion : when
rcfin predominates, it muft necelTarily be more concentrated ;
when gum-refin or extraftive is the moft abundant confti-
tnent, proof-fpirit then muft be employed. In conl'e-
quence of the great affinity of water for alcohol, the addi.
tion of it to alcoholic tinftures feparates the rcfin, camphor,
and volatile oils they contain ; but water is generally mifci-
ble with tinftures made with proof-fpirit, without produc-
ing any decompofition. Tinftures are not liable lo fuffer
fpontaneous decompofition, as is the cafe with infufions and
decoftions ; and, independently of the lofs wiiich takes place
from the evaporation of the fpirit and the volatile oils, if
the bottles containing tinftures be clofely corked, tliey may
4U 2 be

TINCTURE.

be kfpt for an ii.acftiiite length of time, and their virtues
remain unimpaired. ... ,.

Tiiiaurcs are prepared by macerating the ingredients in
the fpirit in a temperature not exceeding 8o^ at whicli
degree, bv aUowing the menUruiim to remain on the in-
gredients for a fulticient length of time, all the principles
that can prove nlVfnl in the tindurc are extrafted, and
tJie folvent faturated. The ingredients muft be dried and
reduced to a coarfe powder, and the maceration made in
clofe vefl'els, and afiilled by frequent agitation. When
completely made, tinftures (hould not be allowed to re-
main upoii the ingredients, but be filtered through bibu-
lous paper, and kept in this ftate in well-corked bottles.

The chief ufe of this clafs of preparations is to caufe
infufions and decoctions to which they are added, to fit
lighter upon the ilomach, or to unite with them fome
aftive principle, which the water is incapable of extradt-
ing. Thomfon's London Difpenfatory.

A great variety of tinfturcs may be given to common
water, and many remarkable things occur in their changes
on the addition of common menllruums. Take a large
fpoonful of the fyrup of pomegranate-flowers, mix it with
five fpoonfuls of water ; the mixture will be of a very lively
and brilliant red : for a violet colour, take the fame quan-
tity of fyrup of violets and the fame of water. When
thefe tinftures are thus prepared, have at hand a phial, in
which is a fmall portion of oil of tartar, which will only
look like water remaining after the wafliing of the phial.
Pour the red or the violet tinfture into this phial, and it
immediately becomes a fine grafs-green. Diffolve the
quantity of a walnut of crude fal ammoniac in a glafs of
water, pour all cut except three or four di-ops at the
bottom, and pour into this glafs the fine red liquor, and
it immediately becomes black as ink. In order to change
the purple liquor red, only have a fmall quantity of fpirit
of vitriol in the bottom of a phial, and pour into this the
violet water ; it immediately on this becomes of a florid red.

Steep Brafil wood in common water, or in white wine,
twenty hours ; the liquor will then look of the colour of
red wine : pour this into a glafs waflicd with vinegar, and it
becomes of a fine yellow, like fack. If this experiment
be made with white wine, the wood and the vinegar make
fo little alteration in it, that it may be drank afterwards,
and the whole procefs feems a way of turning red port
into fack. Into this liquor, when yellow, put a few drops
of a tinfture of benjamin mr.de in fpirit of wine, and it
immediately lofes its yellow colour and becomes white. Beat
fome galls to fine powder, and rub the powder on a towel ;
then put into a bafon of water, in which any perfon is
going to wafli their hands and face, a fmall piece of com-
mon green vitriol, or copperas : after the perfon has
waflied, let them have this towel to wipe on, and the hands
and face will be as black as if wafhed with the common
writing-ink ; the copperas in the water and the galls on the
towel making real ink where they mix. This does no lall-
ir.g injury to the flcin, but will come ofl" again upon wafliing
• with foap. Phil. Tranf. W 238, p. 88.

We fliall here enumerate and defcribe the principal
tinclures tliat occur in the materia medica.

TlscTL'RE of Acetate of Iron is prepared, according to
the Dub. Phar. by adding together two ounces of ace-
tate of kali and one ounce of lulphate of iron in a fl:one-
ware mortar, till they unite in a foft mafs, and when dried
by a moderate heat, triturating it with two pints of rec-
tified fpirit of wine ; and then digefling it for feven days in
a phial, clofely corked, and frequently agitated, and then
pouring the clear tinfture from the fjeces.

TiKCTLRE of /led ate of Iron ivhk Jhrjiiol, is prepared by
6

rubbing together fnlphate of iron and acetate of alkali, of
each an ounce, and proceeding as in the lormer article, tri-
turating with two pints of alcohol ; and digefting for
twenty-four hours. Thefe tintlures have a peculiar odour,
a reddifli-brown colour, and a warm ftyptic talte ; and
poflefs the fame medical properties as the other prepar-
.ajions of iron. The dofe of either may be from W\ x to
fjj, given in water or any other fuitable vehicle.

Tincture of Acetate of Zinc of the Dub. Ph., is ob-
tained by rubbing fulphatc of zinc and acetate of kali,
of each an ounce, and adding one pint of reftified fpirit
of wine, and then macerating for a week with occafional
agitation, and filtering through paper. This tinfture is
aftringent, but requires to be diluted with water, before
it is ufed either as a coUyrium or an injeftion. It may be
beneficially employed as an internal remedy in dyfpepfia and
other debilities of the ftomach.

Tincture of Aloes of the Lond. Ph., is prepared by
macerating of extraft of fpiked aloes powdered, half an
ounce; of extraft of liquorice, an ounce and a half; of
water, a pint ; and of reftified fpirit, four fluid-ounces, in
a fand-bath until the extrafts are diflblvcd, and then
{training.

The tincture of aloes of the Dub. Ph. is obtained by di-
gefl;ing for feven days, half an ounce of focotorine aloes
powdered, an ounce and a half of extraft of liquorice dif-
folved in eight ounces of boihng water, and eight fluid-
ounces of proof-fpirit, and then ilraining.

The tinllure of focotorine aloes of the Edinb. Ph. is formed
by digefl:iiig for feven days, with a gentle heat, in a clofe
veffel, often flnaken, half an ounce of focotorine aloes in
powder, an ounce and a half of extraft of hquorice, four ,
ounces of alcohol, and a pound of water ; and pouring off
the clear tinfture. Its dofe is from f^fs to fjjfs.

Tincture, ethereal, of aloes of the Edinb. Ph., is prepared
by digefling an ounce and a half of myrrh with a pound
of fulphuric ether with alcohol, for four days, in a clofed
bottle, and then adding one ounce of Englilh fafl'ron cut,
and one and a half of focotorine aloes in powder ; digefling
again for four days, and pouring oft" the tinfture. This
is a warm ftomachic purgative, and is given with advantage
in dyfpeptic affeftions, jaundice, gout, chlorofis, and other
cafes in which aloetics are proper ; in dofes of f5j or f5ij as
a fl;omachic, and in larger dofes as a briilv purge.

TinSure, compound, of aloes of the Lond. and Dub. Ph., is
prepared by macerating for fourteen days (feven days Dub.),
of extraft of fpiked aloes powdered, and fafl'ron, of each
three ounces, in two pints of tinfture of myrrh ; and
ftraining.

Tin9ure of aloes and myrrh of the Edinb. Ph., is prepared
by mixing a pound and a half of alcohol with half a pound
of water, and then adding two ounces of myrrh in powder ;
digefl:ing for four days ; and, laftly, adding of focotorine
aloes in powder an ounce and a half, and an ounce of Eng-
lifli faffron cut ; digefting again for three days, and pouring
oS" the clear tinfture. This tinfture may be adminiltered in
the fame cafes and dofes as the former ; and it is occafionally
ufed as a local ftimulant to foul ulcers.

The tinllure of aloes, formerly called tinBura facra, and
hiera picra, was ordered to be made by digefting five ounces
of the powder, called hiera picra, or a powder formed of
eight parts of aloes and two of canella alba, in five pints of
mountain wine ; or an ounce of aloes, with one drachm of
the lefler cardamom feeds, and the fame quantity of ginger,
in two pounds of the fame wine. Lewis.

Dr. Buchan direfts this tinfture to be made by infufing
an ounce of focotorine aloes in powder, and two drachms
of Virginia fnake-root, and as much ginger, in a pint of

mountain

TINCTURE.

mountain wmr and Ijalf a pint of brandy, for a week, fre-
quently (liaking the bottle, and ilraininp off the tindiirc.
This, he fays, is a fafe and ufeful purge for perfons of a lan-
guid and phlegmatic habit ; but it is thought to have better
effedl: when taken in fmall dofes as a laxative. The dofe, as
a purge, is from one to two ounces.

Tincture of Amla-gris. Sec AMiiEuaRis.

Tl-HCTVRV. of Ammoniated Iron. Sec luoN.

Tincture of Augiiflura Barh. Sec Angilstura.

TiNCTUBE of Antimony ufed to be thus made r Take fait
of tartar, a pound ; antimony, half a pound ; rcftified fpi-
rit of wine, a quart ; reduce the antimony to powder, and
mix it with the fait by fufion over a ftrong fire. When it is
cold powder it, and pour on the fpirit of wine ; digeil them
together in a fand-heat, and then liltre off the cleai- tinfture
for ufe. The fait of tartar yields a tinfture as well as anti-
mony. It is a diaphoretic and attenuant. See Antimony.

This tinfture, on an empty ftomach, is faid to have fome-
times proved emetic.

TiNCTURA Antiphthifica. See Tinctura Saturmna.

Tincture, Aromatic, may be prepared by infufing two
ounces of Jamaica pepper in two pints of brandy, without
V heat, for a few days, and then Ilraining off the tinfture.
This will anfwer all the intentions of the more coftly pre-
parations of this kind.

Tincture of Affafoct'ida^ See Assafcetida.

Tinctura Aurantii, TinBure of Orange-peel, is obtained in
the Lond. and Dub. Ph., by macerating three ounces of
frefh orange-peel in two pints of proof-fpirit for fourteen
days (three days Dub.), and filtering. This is an ufeful
adjunft to infufions and deco&ions in dyfpepfia, communi-
cating to them an agreeable flavour, and not decompofable
by water.

Tincture of Bark. See Anoustura and Tincture
of Cinchona.

Tincture of Benzoin, Compound, of the Lond. and Dub.
Ph., is prepared by macerating for fourteen days (feven
days Dub.), three ounces of benzoin, two ounces of ilorax
balfam (trained, one ounce of balfam of Tohi, and half an
ounce of fpiked aloes, in two pints of reflifu'd fpirit, and
filtering.

The compound t'm&ure of benzoin of the Edinb. Pli., or
Traumatic balfam, is obtained by digefting for feven days,
three ounces of benzoin in powder, two ounces of balfam of
Peru, half an ounce of hepatic aloes in powder, in two
pints of alcohol, and filtering through paper. This tinc-
ture is a ftimulating expeftorant, and fometimes prefcribed
in chronic catarrh and old afthmatic cafes ; but chiefly ufed
as an external application to wounds and languid ulcers. Its
dofe is from fsfs to fjij, or more. See Benzoin.

Tinctuke of Calumba of the Lond. Ph., is had by mace-
rating for fourteen days of calumba (or Columbo) root
Diced, two ounces and a half, in two pints of proof-fpirit,
and filtering.

The Edinb. tincture of calumba is obtained by digefting
for feven days, two ounces of calumba root in powder, in
two pounds of proof-fpirit, and filtering tlu'ough paper.
This is an ufeful addition to ftomacliic infufions and decoc-
tions. See Columbo.

Tincture of Camphor, Compound, is ordered by the
Lond. Ph. to be prepared by macerating for fourteen days,
of camphor two fcruples, of hard opium powdered and acid
of benzoin, of each one drachm, in two pints of proof-
fpirit, and filtering.

The camphorated tindure of opium, or " paregoric elixir,"
is obtained by digefting for ten days, of hai-d purified opium
in powder, and benzoic acid, of each a drachm, of camphor

two fcruples, of cll'ential oil of anifccd a drachm-, ni two
pints of proof-fpirit, and filtering. This is an ufeful
anodyne in chronic afthma, hooping-cough, and catarrh
after the inflammatory fymptoms have abated, and contri-
butes to .-illay t];e frequent cough. The dofe is from f 7J to
f ?ij occafionally, ufing after it the inhaler, and f;iij in cafes
wliere quiet, rather tlian lleep, is required. SccCami'IIOR.
Tincture of Capficum of the Lend. Ph., is obtained by
macerating for fourteen days, an ounce of capficum ijcrries
in two pints of proof-fpirit, and fihering. Tlie dofe in tym-
panitis, cynanche maligna, the low ftage of typhus, and (iieh
cafes, is from f ^ fs to f^j ; and a mixture of fj;vj with half
a pint of water will anfwer all the purpofes of the capficum
gargle. See Cap.sicum.

Tincture of Cardamoms of the Lond. and Dub. Pli., is
prepared by macerating for fourteen days (feven days Dub.)
tliree ounces of cardamom feeds huflccd and bruifed, in two
pints of proof-fpirit, and fdtering.

The tincture of cardamoms, or " tinftura amomi repentis,"
of the Edinb. Ph. is had by digefting for feven days, four
ounces of leffer cardamom feeds bruifed, in two pounds and
a half of proof-fpirit, and filtering through paper.

The compound linSure of cardamoms of tlie Lond. and
Dub. Ph. is prepared by macerating for fourteen days, car-
damom feeds (hniliedDub.), carraway feeds and cochineal,
of each, in powder, two drachms, cinnamon bark bruifed
half an ounce, ftoned raifins four ounces, in two pints of
proof-fpirit, and filtering. Thefe are agreeable additions to
ftomachic infufions.

Tincture of Cafcarilla. See Cascarilla.
Tincture of Caffia. See Cassia.

TlNCTUREo/'Cn//or of the Lond. and Dub. Ph., is formed
by macerating for feven days, of ciftor powdered two
ounces, in two pints of reftified fpirit (proof-fpirit Dub.)
and filtering. The Edinb. Ph. direils an ounce and a half
of Ruffian caftor powdered to be macerated for feven days
in one pound of alcohol, aiid then filtered. The dofe is
from l)\xx to f ^ij. See Castor.

T\\s compound tinBure of cajlor of the Edinb. Ph. is ob-
tained by digefting for feven days, one ounce of Ruflian
caftor powdered, half an ounce of affafoetida, in a pound of
ammoniated alcohol, and filtering through paper. This
is advantageoufiy given in hyfteria, cramp of the ftomach,
and flatulent colic, to the extent of fjij for a dofe.

Tincture of Catechu of the Lond. and Dub. Ph., is pre-
pared by macerating for fourteen (feven Dub.) days, three
ounces of extrad of catechu, and two ounces of cinnamon
bark bruifed, in two pints of proof-fpirit, and filtering.

The tinflure of catechu, formerly Japonic tincture of Edinb.
Ph., is prepared by digefting for feven days, tlu-ee ounces
of extrail of catechu in powder, two ounces of cinnamon
bark bruifed, in two pounds and a half of proof-fpirit, and
filtering through paper. This tinfture is a folutlon of tan-
nin, extradlive matter, and the oil of cinnamon. Tlie dofe,
in cafes whei-e aftringents are required, is from f jj to f_5iij,
taken in water or wine, or cretaceous mixture.

Tincture of Cinchona of the Lond. Ph., is obtained by
macerating for fourteen days, feven ounces of lance-leaved
cinchona bark in powder, in two pints of proof-fpirit, and
filtering.

The tinBure of cinchona of tlie Edinb. and Dub. Ph. is had
by digefting for feven days, four ounces of cinchona bark
in powder, in two pounds and a half (two pints Dub.) of
proof-fpirit, and filtering through paper. The dofe is from
f5j to fjiv.

For the compound tindure of cinchona, fee Snake-KOOt.
This is the fame as the celebrated tindure of Huxham,

who

TINCTURE.

«lio gave it in intermittenU and low nervous fevers, in di-
luted wine or otlier proper veliicle, with lo or 15 drops of
elixir of vitriol (aromatic fulphuric acid, Edinb. ) in dofes of
from f ^j to f^iij, or more in intermittent s. See CixCHOSA.
TlxcTi RK of Cinnamon of tlie Lond. and Dub. Ph., is
obtained by macerating for fourteen days (feven days Dub.)
three ounces of cinnamon bark bruifed (three ounces and a
half Dub.) in two pints of proof-fpirit, and filtering. The
dofe, as a fit adjunct to the chalk mixture and allringent in-
fufions, is from f^j to f^iij.

The campaund UnHure 0/ cinnamon ol the Lond. and Dub.
Ph., is prepared by macerating for fourteen days (feven
days Dub.) fix drachms of cinnamon bark bruilcd, three
dracluns of cardamom feeds bruifed, long-pepper powdered
and ginger, of each two drachms, in two pints of proof-
fpirit, and filtering.

The compound limfure 0/ cinnamon of Edlnb. is formed by
digefting for feven days, cinnamon bark bruifed, lefler car-
damom feeds bruifed, of each one ounce, long-pepper in
powder two draclmis, in two pounds and a half of proof-
fpirit, and filtering through paper. This is beneficially
ufed in flatulencies, atonic gout, languors, and debility, in
dofes of fjj or fjij properly diluted.

TiNCTL'R.\ Croci, or Titi&ure of Saffron of the Edinb. and
Dub. Ph., is prepared by digefting for feven days, one
ounce of Englirti falTron cut in ftireds in fifteen ounces (a
pint Dub. ) of proof-fpirit, and filtering through paper. See
Crocu.s and Saffron.

TiNCTLKE of Fox-glove (Digitalis) of the Lond. Ph., is
obtained by macerating of fox-glove leaves dried (rejefting
the large ones) and reduced to a coarfe powder, two
ounces, in a pint of proof-fpirit, and filtering. The Dub.
Pli. direfts two ounces of fox-glove leaves (the larger ones
rejefted) dried and coarfely powdered, in a pint of proof-
fpirit, and then to filter.

The tinSure of fox-glove of Edinb. Ph. is had by digefting
for feven days, one ounce of fox-glove leaves dried, in eight
ounces of proof-fpirit, and filtering through paper. The
dofe of this tinclure fhould be 11], at firft, and gradually
increafed.

TiscTVR'E of Galbanum ol the Dub. Ph., is formed by
digefting for feven days, two ounces of galbanum cut into
fmall pieces, in two pints of proof-fpirit, and then filtering.
Ufed as tinfture of aft^afoetida, but lefs naufeous and lefs
powerful.

TlNXTURE of Galls (Dub. ) is prepared by macerating for
feven days, four ounces of galls in powder, in two pints
of proof-fpirit, and then filtering. The dofe, as an allrin-
gent, is from f;^j to f^iij.

TrKCTURE of Gentian, Compound, (Lond. and Dub.) is
obtained by macerating for fourteen days (feven days Dub.)
two ounces of gentian root cut, one ounce of orange-peel
dried, half an ounce of cardamom feeds bruifed, in two
pints of proof-fpirit, and filtering.

The compound lindure of gentian, commonly called " fto-
machic tinfture," of Edinb. Ph., is prepared by digefting
for feven days, two ounces of gentian root fliced and
bruifed, one ounce of orange-peel dried and bruifed, half
an ounce of cancUa alba bruifed, half a drachm of cochi-
neal in powder, in two pints and a half of proof-fpirit,
and filtering through paper. This is an elegant ftomachic
bitter and cordial, but in dyfpepfia the infufion is preferable.
See Gextiam.

Tincture of Gold. See Aurum Polabik, and Chemical
Hi/lory of Gold.

Tincture of Guaiac of the Lond. and Dub. Ph., is pre-
pared by macerating for fourteen days (feven days Dub.)

half a pound of guaiac powdered (four ounces Dub.), in
two pints of proof-fpirit, and filtering.

The tinilure of guaiac of the Edinb. Ph., is formed by di-
gefting for feven days, one pound of guaiac powdered, in
two pounds and a lialf of alcohol, and filtering through
paper. Adniiniftered in the form of a draught, it muft be
triturated with yolk of egg or mucilage, that it may com-
bine with water. The dofe is from fjj to fsiij, in any con-
venient vehicle.

The ammoniated tindure of guaiacum of the Lond. and Dub.
Ph., is obtained by macerating for fourteen days (feven
days Edinb. and Dub.), four ounces of guaiac in powder,
in two pints of compound fpirit of ammonia, and filtering.
The dofe is from fjj to f5ij, triturated with any mucous
or vifcid matter. See Guaiacum.

Tincture of Black Hellebore of the Lond. Ph., is ob-
tained by macerating for fourteen days, four ounces of the
root of black hellebore fliced, in two pints of proof-fpirit,
and filtering.

The tinelure of black hellebore of the Edinb. and Dub. Ph.,
is prepared by digefting for feven days, four ounces of black
hellebore root bruifed (powdered Dub.), half a drachm (two
fcruples Dub.) of cochineal in powder, in two pounds and
a half (two pints Dub.) of proof-fpirit, and filtering
through paper. This tinfture was regarded by Dr. Mead
as a powerful emmenagogue, and is ftill ordered in uterine
obftruftions, and in fome cutaneous affeftions. The dofe
is from 1li,xxx to f5j, in any appropriate vehicle. See
Hellebore.

Tincture of White Hellebore. See Tinctura Veratr't
Albi.

Tincture of Henbane of the Lond. Ph., is formed by
macerating for fourteen days, four ounces of the dried leaves
of henbane in two pints of proof-fpirit, and filtering. The
Dub. Pli. direfts to digeft for feven days, two ounces and a
quarter of dried leaves of black henbane, in coarfe powder,
in a pint of proof-fpirit, and then ftraining.

The tiuHure of black henbane of the Edinb. Ph. is had by
digefting for feven days, one ounce of the dried leaves of
black henbane in eight ounces of proof-fpirit, and filtering
through paper. In a dofe of fjj, it feldom fails of pro-
curing fleep and quiet, and does not affeft the head or pro-
duce coftivenefs. In cafes of diarrhoea, a few drops of tinc-
ture of opium ftiould be added to counteraft its tendency
to pafs off by the bowels.

Tincture of Hops of the Lond. Ph., is formed by ma-
cerating for fourteen days, five ounces of hops in two pints
of proof-fpirit, and ftraining. This has been recommended
as a fubftitute for tinfture of opium in gout and rheumatifm.
The dofe is from f^^fs to f5ij, or more. See Hops.

Tincture of Jalap of the Lond. Ph., is made by mace-
rating for fourteen days, two ounces of jalap root powdered,
in two pints of proof-fpirit, and filtering. The Dub. Ph.
orders five ounces of jalap root in coarfe powder, to be
digefted for feven days in two pints of proof-fpirit, and
then filtered.

The tincfure of jalap of the Edinb. Ph. is formed by digeft-
ing for feven days, three ounces of jalap root in powder, in '
fifteen ounces of proof-fpirit, and then filtering. See Jalap.
Tincture, Japonic. See Tincture of Catechu.
Tincture of Kino is obtained by macerating for four,
teen days, three ounces of kino in powder, in two pints of
proof-fpirit, and filtering through paper. In the Edinb.
and Dub. Ph. two ounces of kino (three ounces Dub.) are
digefted for two days in a pint and a half of proof-fpirit,
and filtered through paper. The dofe is from f3j to f5ij.
Tincture of Lacca. See Lac.

Tinctura

TINCTURE.

TiNcrruRA Lyttic, or T'wdure of Bliflermg Fly. See hard ojiium powdered, in two pints of proof-fpirit, and

Lvtt.t;. ftraining.

TiNCTURA Martis cum Spirilii Salts, a medicine thus pre- Tiie tiiillure of opium of Edinb. Ph. or Thtlaic tiiulure or

pared: Take fihngn of iron, half a pound ; Glauber's fpirit liquid laudnnum, is obtained by niaceratin" for fuvcn days

of fea-falt, three pounds ; digell all together without heat, two ounces of opium in two pounds of proof-fpirit, and

as long as the fpirit will work upon the fdings ; then, after filtering through paper.

the faeces have lubfidod, pourofl the clear liquor, cvaporat- Thulure of opium, or Thebaic tiiiclure of Dub. Ph. is pre-

ing it to one pound, and adding of reaified fpirit of wine pared by digeiling for feven days, ten drachms of purified

three pints. hard opium in coarfe powder, in a pint of proof-fpirit,

Some combine the acid and inflammable fpirits firft, and then llraining. Tiie ufual dofe is from V{\ to llllx. In

digefl. three ounces of iron-filings in a quart of the dulcified colica piftonum, f^j, given before purges, facilitates their

compound. A few drops of this tinfture are a fufficient aftion, and renders the rehef more fpeedy ; and in tcl

dofe. r- r 1 1 . ., . _ .

This tincElure is good in ;dl the cafes in which the fal
martis is fo.

Tincture of Martial Flowers. See Iron.

TixeruRE of Metals, called Lily of Paracelfus, may be
prepared by melting together in a crucible two parts of
martini regulus of antimony, one part of fine tin, and
one part of pure copper. The alloy thus compounded is
to be powdered, when cold, and mixed with thrice its
weight of purified nitre. The mixture is to be thrown,
at different times, into a red-hot crucible, where it deto-
nates, and is expofed to a violent fire, till the metals be
perfeftly reduced to calces. The matter is to be taken
from the crucible, while red-hot, and immediately thrown
into a heated iron mortar, where it is quickly powdered.
The powder, while hot, is to be put into a matrafs, and
Hpon it fome reftified fpirit of wine is to be poured to a
height equal to the breadth of four fingers. The digeftion
is continued during fome days, or till the fpirit of wine has

i J , -- tetanus,

fjvfs have been advantageoufly given in divided dofes, in
twenty-fix hours. The tinaure externally applied allays
local pain, and alTills in relaxing the fpafm in lock-jaw and
finiilar affeftions.

The ammoniated tindure of opium of the Edinb. Ph. is
formed by digeiling for feven days, in a clofe phial, three
drachms of benzoic acid, and the fame quantity of Engjilh
faffron, cut in flireds, two drachms of opium, half a drachm
of volatile oil of anifeed, in fixteen ounces of ammoniated
alcohol, and filtering through paper. This tinaure is ufed
in hooping-cougiis and fpafmodic afthma. Each f5j con-
tains gr. j of opium. See Opil'.m.

TiNXTURE of Qiiajfia of the Dub. Ph., is obtained by di-
geiling for feven days, an ounce of chips of quaflia wood in
two pints of proof-fpirit.

Tincture of Rhubarb. See Rhubarb.

Tincture of Saffron. See Tinctuha Croci.

Tincture of Sena. See Sena.

Tin - ■

Tincture of Salt of Tartar, is made by pouring fon
-■aified fpirits of wine, to a height equal to the breadth (

acquired a very deep yellowifli-red colour. The fpirit is to re
be decanted and kept in a bottle.

This tincture, although no part of the metals, reduced
by calcination almoil to the (late of pure earths, can be
diffolved by the fpirit of urine, has a fpirituous, fapona-
ceous, acrid, and alkahne charatler, and has been fuccefs-
inlly ufed, when the fibres and veflcls require to be excited
and animated, as in apoplexies, palfies, and dropfies. It is
alfo capable of accelerating the motion of the blood, and
of increafing certain fecretions and excretions, particularly
fweat and urine. Tlie dofe is from fix or twelve drops to
forty, or even more, and mull be adminiftered in fome
proper cordial. Macquer's Di£l. Chem.

Tincture of Muriate of Iron. See Iron.

Tincture of Mufh of the Dub. Ph., is obtained by
digeiling for feven days, two drachms of mufli in powder, in
a pint of reftified fpirit, and then llraining.

Tinftnre of mufli is dircfted, in the Edinb. Ph. of 1 783,
to be made by diflolving two drachms of mu(i<, in a pound
of reftified fpirit.

Tincture of Myrrh of the Lond. Ph., is prepared by
macerating for fourteen days, three ounces of myrrh bruifed, ufually employed in making the tinfture

le

r - u 1 --- .. of

tliree or tour fingers, into a heated matrafs, that contains
fome hot fait of tartar, which has been previoudy fufed in
a crucible and powdered. The matrafs is to be closed,
and the digellion continued for feveral days with a gentle
heat, or till the fpirit of wine has acquired a fine rcddirti-
yellow colour.

This is effentially the fame as tindure of metals, their
medicinal qualities being the fame.

TiNCTURA Saturnina, the lead tinfture, a name given in
the late London Difpenfatory to the tinfture before called
tindura antiphthifua, becaiife it was ufed to check the im-
moderate fweats in heclic complaints.

It is made of fugar of lead and green vitriol, of each
two ounces, and of reftified fpirit a quart. The falls arc
feparately to be reduced to powder, and then put into the
fpirit, then the whole is to iland fome d.ays without heat to
extraft the tintlure, and afterwards filtered through paper.

Many perfons have found great perplexity in making this
tindure, it having at firll begun to (hew a good colour,
but afterwards loft it : this accident is owing to the heat

in twenty-two fluid-ounces of redified fpirit, and a pint and
a half of water, and filtering. The Edinb. Ph. direds three
ounces of myrrh in powder to be digefted for feven days, in
twenty ounces of alcohol and ten ounces of water, and
filtered through paper. The Dub. Ph. orders three ounces
of myrrh bruifed to be digefted for feven days, in a pint and
a half of proof-fpirit and half a pint of redified fpirit, and
then ftrained. This tindure is tonic and deobftruent ; it is

This tindure is a powerful ftyptic, and is often ufed
with good fuccefs in hedic fevers, fpitting of blood, heat
of the kidnies, fimplc gonorrhoeas, fluor albus, and tabes
dorfalis.

It was firft recommended by Etnniller ; who, from its
effed, gave it the name of tinatira niuiphthifca, which our
College of Phyficians changed to that of tinaura filurnlna.
The Edinb. Ph. direded it to be made of three ounces of

ufed now generally in gargles, combined with infufions of the fugar and two of the vitriol, to a quart of fpirit, and
rofes and acids ; or applied to foul ulcers and exfoliating in the beft of the foreign ones. Mr. Boyle recommends it
bones, or diluted with water, as a wafti for the mouth when and our moft eminent phyficians formerly ufed it, notwith-
the gums are fpongy. The dofe is from f5fs to fjj. ftanding that fome authors confider it as a dangerous medi-

Tincture of Opium oi the Lond. Ph., is formed by cine, on account of its principal ingi-edient, t\i<: faccharum
macerating for fourteen days, two ounces and a half of fatunii, which fome call a flow poifon. Wliether it be fo

T I N

rtaiii that there is a

or not when given in fubftance, it is ccrta
ereal dilTcrence between a corrofive lalt fo given, and a
Vindure made of the fame, in fpirit of wine, and given in
fmall dofcs, as Dr. Mead ob(^rves ; who adds, that in flow
heaic fevers attended with a loofenefs, profufe fweats, and
a coniquation of the humours, he reckons two or three
drachms, given at different times, in coohng hquors, es-eiy
twenty-four hours, to be a convenient dofe. But the ufual
dofe was from fifteen to thirty drops in Briftol water, or
fome temperate or cool julep.

Concerning the danger of faturnine preparations, when
applied to the purpofcs of internal medicine, fee fir George
Baker's Tarther Obforvations on the Poifon of Lead, in
Med. Tranf. vol. ii. p. 446, &c. See alfo Colica Dam-
moniorum. Lead, Saccharu.m Satunii, and Vinegar of
Lead.

TiNCTVRE of Snaie-root. See Snake-ROOT.
TiKCTURE of Soot. See Soot.
TiN-cTUiiE of Squills. See Squills.
TiNCTl-RE of Spanijh Flies, or Tiiulura CaiithariJes. See
TlNCTL'RA Lyiltt.

TlNCTlRA Styplica, a form of medicine made with very
little trouble and apparatus, and ferving to fupply the
place of that elaborate preparation the tinfture of Helve-
tius : it is prcfcribed in the late Lend. Ph., and is to be
made by mixing a drachm of calcined green vitriol with a
quart of French brandy tinftured by the calk : this is to
be (hook together, that the brandy may turn black, and then
drained off for ufe.
Ti.N-cTUKE of Sulphur. See Sulphur.
TiNCTURA Theliaica. See Tin'CTURE of Opium.
Tincture of the Balfam of Tolu of the Edinb. Ph., is
made by digefting an ounce and a half of the balfam in a
povind of alcohol in a gentle heat, till the balfam is dilfolved,
and filtering through paper.

This tinSure pofTeni-s all the virtues of the balfam ; and
in coughs, and other complaints of the bread, a tea-fpoonful
or two of it may be taken in a bit of loaf-fugar.

But it is chiefly ufed for making the fyrup. An ounce
of the tinAure, properly mixed with two pounds of fimple
fyrup, will make what is commonly called the balfamic fyi'up.
See SvRUP.

Tincture of Valcrinn of the Lond. and Dub. Ph., is
prepared by macerating for fourteen days (feven days Dub.)
four ounces of valerian root in powder, in two pints of
proof-fpirit.

The ammoniated tinBure of valerian of the Lond. Ph.
is obtained by macerating for fourteen days, four ounces of
valerian root in two pints of aromatic fpirit of ammonia,
and filtering. The Dub. Ph. direfts two ounces of valerian
root in powder to be digefted for feven days in a pint of
fpirit of ammonia. It is beneficially employed in hyfteria
and other nervous affeftions, in dofes of f 51, or f 5ij, given
in milk, or fome other bland fluid.

TiNCTURA Veralri ytlbi, TinSure of White Hellebore, of
the Edinb. Ph., is made by digcfting for feven days, eight
ounces of white hellebore-root briiifcd, in a pound and a half
of proof-fpirit, and filtering through paper. Thistinfture is
employed to excite vomiting in maniacal and apopleftic cafes,
and as an alt -rative in cutaneous eruptions. It is given in
dofes of mv to i\[y. ; but its cff>dts are fometimes very vio-
lent. Thomfoii's Difpenfatory.

TiNCTURA Zin^iberis, or TinBure of Ginger, ai the Lond.
and Dub. Pli., is formed by macerating for fourteen days
(feven days Dub.) two ounces of ginger-root diced, in
two pints of proof-fpirit, and filtering. This is ufeful as
a ftimulanl and carminative, in atonic gout when it attacks

T I N

the ftomacli, in flatulent colic, and as a coiTedlor of gi"ipiiig
purgatives.

Tincture is alfo applied by the Heralds to the colours
ufed in efcutchcons, or coats of arms ; under which, with
them, are likewife included the two metals, or and argent,
becaufe often reprefented by yellow and white. See
Colour.

Tincture comprehends colours znd furs.
The writers on heraldry have had great difputes, which
of thefe colours or tinftures are the mofl honourable. All
agree in giving the pre-eminence to the metals gold and fil-
ver, that is, to the yellow and white colours : as to the
others, fome efteem them more noble as they approach more
to light, that is, to whitenefs. Upton, on this account,
ranges them thus : azure or blue, gules or red, purpure or
purple, vert or green, fable or black : others wholly di (Tent
from this, and prefer thofe colours mod which can be feen i|
at the greated didance ; with thefe, fable or black is the *
mod honourable or fird colour ; and they allege the imperial
black eagle, placed in a white field, as an indance of this.
Leigh prefers the i-ed to the blue, as the red has fome alliance
to gold, and the blue to filver ; the fable is generally pre-
ferred to green and purple, by thofe who give the red and
blue the fird places : it is in this edeem on account of its
drong appearance ; and green is preferred to purple, be-
caufe the ktter is but of very late ufe in heriJdry, and is
called a new colour.

All the precedence given to tinftures mud however be
confidered with this fpecial provifo, that there is no particu-
lar reafon for bearing them otherwife in the arms of king-
doms and families. In all coats of arms there dicnild be
two colours or tinftures ; and it is the general rule that the
field diould be of a nobler colour than the figures placed
upon it : thus in the arms of Scotland the field is yellow,
and the lion placed upon it red ; and if the field confids of
two different colours parted by fefs or by pale, then the no-
blcd colour mud always be in the bed place, as on the
upper part, or on the right hand of the dield ; but all thefe
rules are to be underdood witli this limitation, that there are
no other fpecial reafons in the family for the contrary. Nef-
bit's Heraldry, p. 19.

The two metals, or and argent, and the four colours,
black, red, blue, and green, (fee Colour,) are the feveral
tindtures, fays Edmondfon, of which the fields and all
charges of arms ought in driftnefs to be made ; excepting,
however, fueh charges as are to be borne in their own pro-
per or natural colour ; which bearings, not having in bla-
zon any particular technical or fixed terms, are all com- i
prehended under the wordproper. As to the tinAures purpurf,
tawny, and fanguine, thefe, being mixtures, are now feldom,
if ever, ufed, either for fields or charges, though they are
ranked among thofe, which, as fome whimfical heralds fay,
have mydical fignifications, and reprefent the moral, politi-
cal, and military virtues of thofe who originally bore their
arms fo coloured or tinftured. Some heralds, fays the
above-named writer, have blazoned the armorial colours in dif-
ferent terms, according to the rank and dignity of the perfon
whofe arms they are defcribing. Accordingly, the arms of
gentlemen, efquircs, knights, and baronets, are to be bla-
zoned by tinftures ; thofe of nobles by precious dones ; and
thofe of fovereign princes, kings, and emperors, by planets :
but this mode of blazoning would, he thinks, introduce into
the fcience of heraldry great abfurdity and confufion, and
render blazons in iome cafes very ridiculous.

TINCULEN, or Tinzule.v, in Geography, a town of
Africa, in the country of Darah ; 120 miles S.W. of Ta-
filet.

TINDAL,

T I N

TINDAL, Matthew, LL.D. in Biography, a re-
puted dcill, was tlie fon of a clergyman, and born at Beer-
Ferres, in Devondiire, about the year 1657. From Lin-
coln college, Oxford, into wiiich he was admitted in 1672,
he was removed to Exeter college ; and having graduated
B.A., he was eledled fellow of All-Souls college, and became
LL.D. in 1685. About this time, thereign of James IL,
he was befet by fome of the popifti emilfaries, who were then
aftive and induftrious in making profelytes, and converted to
popery ; but, upon farther examination, he returned to the
church of England in 1687. To the revolution he was ar-
dently attached ; and having been admitted an advocate, he
often fat as judge in the court of delegates, and had a pen-
fion from the crowu of 200/. per annum. Tindal was both a
political and theological writer, and under the latter defcrip-
tion he pubhfhed " A Letter to the Clergy of both Univer-
fities,"on the fubjedlof the Trinity and the Athaiiafian creed,
with a view to fome alterations in the Litiu-gy, which were
fubjefts of difcuflion. But the treatife that attrafted prin-
cipal notice appeared in 1706, and was entitled "The Rights
of the Chriftian Church aflerted againft the Romilh and all
other Prieils who claim an independent Power over it ; with
a Preface, concerning the Government of tlie Church of
England, as by Law cilabliflied." This publication roufed
the animadverfions of the high-church clergy, and the venders
of it were legally indifted. The favourable notice taken of
this work by Le Clerc, in his " Bibliotheque Choifce," gave
great offence to the lower houfe of convocation ; and this
learned body circulated a declaration, implicating the foreign
critic, and others of fimilar fentiments, which Le Clerc him-
felf, and many other perfons, thought to be unjuft and illibe-
ral. Tindal alfo publi(hed a defence of his work, the fecond
edition of which, in two parts, was ordered by a vote of the
houfe of commons, to be burnt in the fame fire with Sache-
verel's fermons, in the year 17 10. Some time after, the
lower houfe of convocation, Atterbury being prolocutor, on
a reprefentation of the (late of religion in the kingdom, ani-
madverted on tlie dangerous confequences of the doftrine of
neceflity. To which Tindal replied, by aflertrng the truth
and ufofulnefs of that doftrine. Of the fubjedts and tendency
of his pohtical writing«, it is nowneedlefs to give any account.
It will be fufficient to obferve that he was an advocate for
the Hanoverian fucceflion, and for the Whig miniflry of that
period. Hitherto Tindal had made no direft attack againft
religion ; but in 1730 he no longer difguifed his fentiments,
which were announced to the public in a treatife entitled
" Chriftianity as old as the Creation, or the Gofpel a Re-
publication of the Rehgion of Nature." He difclaims,
indeed, in words, oppofition to the divine authority of the
Chriftian religion, and denominates himfclf and his friends
" Chriftian Deifts ;" but in reality it was his evident and
avowed purpofe to (hew, that there neither has been, nor can
be, any external revelation diftinft from what he terms " the
internal revelation of the law of nature in the hearts of all
mankhid." Tindal was attacked by Dr. Waterland, who
treated him with a degree of contempt which called fortli the
animadverfions of Dr. Middlcton. The author, though de-
clining in health, wrote in his own defence, but concretions
of the gall-bladder, with which he had been long afHifted,
terminated his life in the year 1733. His remains were in-
terred in Clerkenwell church, agreeably to his own deiire,
near thofe of Dr. Burnet, bi(hop of Sahfbury. A fecoud
volume of his " Chriftianity as old as the Creation" was left
in MS. ; but the pubUcation of it was prevented by Dr. Gib-
fon, biihop of London. His (irft work had given occalion
to fo many unanfwerable defences of Chriftianity, that the
Vol. XXXV.

T I N

learned bifhop was unnecelTarily alarmed, when he prevented
further difcudion of this interetting fubjeft.

Tindal, Nicholas, the nephew of the former, was
educated at Exeter college, Oxford, and had di{ferent pre-
ferments in tlie church. He died in 1774, at a very advanced
age, at Greenwich Hofpital, of which he was chaplain.
Among his literary undertakings, the moft confulerable was
a tranflation of Rapin's Hiftory of England, with a conti-
nuation. Biog. Brit.

TINDALE. See Tyndale.

TINDEL, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
country of Zenhaga, on the fca<oaft ; 18 miles S.S.E. of
Cape Mirik.

TINDERCOTTA, a town of Hindooftan, in the
Carnatic ; 15 miles E. of Tiagar.

TINDERO, a town of Sweden, in the province of Me-
delpadia ; 12 miles N.E. of Sundfwall.

TINE, in Agriculture, a term applied to a tooth or fpike,
whicli is fct or placed in any kind of tool or implement, but
cfpecially thofe of the harrow, drag, and other fimilar kinds.
Tines for this ufe fliould, for the moft part, be a httle curved
or racked forward towards the points, as laying hold of the
ground better, and in a more perfeA manner. Sometimes
tines are neceifary to be ftceled a little in the points and front
edges, in order to prevent the wear of them, and render
them more effeftive in tearing, cutting up, and dividing the
land.

Tine, or Tyne, in Geography, a river of England, which
rifes in two ftreams, one called the North Tyne, which rifes
on the borders of Scotland, in the north-weft part of the
county of Northumberland ; the other, which is called tlie
South Tyne, rifes about feven miles S. from Aldftone, in
Cumberland : both thefe ftreams unite near Hexham, from
whence the united ftream proceeds to Newcaftle, and from
thence to the German fea, at Tinemouth.

TINEA, a river of France, which rifes in the Alps, and
runs into the Var, about 1 2 miles N. of Nice,
Tinea, in Medicine. See Porrioo.
Tinea, in Natural Hiflory. See Moth, &c.
TINEH, in Geography, a town of Egypt, fituated be-
tween thefouthextremityof lake Menzaleh and the Mediterra-
nean, near the ancient Pelufiura, and on a canal formerly called
the Pelufian or Bubajlic mouth of the Nile ; through which
Alexander paffed with his fleet from Gaza : this canal is now
choaked up with mud ; 80 miles N.N. E. of Cairo. N. lat.

30° 48'. E. long. 38° 45' Alfo, a town of Africa, in

Tripoli, on a river which runs into the gulf of Sidra. N.
lat. 30° 5'. E. long. 19° 12'.

TINEHALY, a poft-town of the county of Wicklow,
Ireland ; 41 miles S. by W^. from Dublin.

TINEMAN, in our Old Writers, a petty officer in the
foreft, who had the nofturnal care of vert and veiiifon, and
other employments in the foreft.

TINEMAR, in Geography, a town of Ceylon ; 10 miles
S.W. of Trink.imaly.

TINEMOUTH. See Tynemouth.
TINET, TiNETTUM, in our Old Writers, is ufed for
brudi-wood and thorns to make and repair hedges. In
Hereforddiire, to tine a gap in a hedge, is to fill it up with
thorns, that cattle may not pafs through it.

TINETO, in Geography, a fmall ifland near the coalt
of Genoa, at the entrance of the gulf of Spezxa. See

TiNO.

TINEVELLY, or Palamcotta, a city of Hindoo-
ftan, and capital of a province of the fame name, in the Car-
4 X natic J

TIN

natic ; 74 milfs S.S.W. of Madura. N. lat. 8° 42'. E.

lo'nji- 77° 46'-

TiNEVEi.LV, a province of Hiiidooflan, bounded on the
N. by Madura, on the E. and S. by the gulf of Manara,
and on the W. by Travancore, from which it is feparated
by the Gliauts. The coail of this (late is called the Filhing
Coall, and has long been celebrated for its pearls. It was
formerly in podl-nion of the Portuguefe. The fifheries arc
carried on by the natives, but the Dutch claim the fove-
reignty, and fend two or three frigates to proteft the boats,
which fometimcs amount to hundreds. The revenues of the
country belong to the nabob of Arcot.

TINEWALD, the parliament or annual convention of
the people of the Ifle of Man, of which this account is
given : the governor and officers of that ifland do ufually
fummon the twenty-four keys, being the chief commons
of it, once every yeai", viz. upon Midfummer-day, at St.
John's chapel, to the court kept there, called the tinewald-
eourt ; where, upon a hill near the faid chapel, the inhabit-
ants of the ifland ftand round about the plain adjoining ; and
here the laws and ordinances, agreed upon in the chapel of St.
John, are publirticd and declared unto them. At this fo-
lemnity the lord of the ifland fits in a chair of fliate, with a
royal canopy over his head, and a fword held before him, at-
tended by the feveral degrees of the people, who fit on each
fide of him, &c.

TING, in Geography, a city of China, of the fecond
rank, in Pe-tchc-li, near the river Tarn ; 107 miles S.S.W.
of Peking. N. lat. 38'=' 32'. E. long. 114* 39'.

TINGAM, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Au-
rungabad ; 20 miles E.S.E. of Aarungabad.
• TINGAMOLLY, a town of Hindooftan, in the cirear
of Ruttunpour ; 6 miles W. of Kyragur.

TINGANO, a river of Malacca, which runs into the
Chinefe fea, N. lat. 5° 27'. E. long. 103° 9'.

TINGAU, or TiNCH, a townof Bavaria, late belonging
to the abbey of Kempten ; 7 miles N.E. of Kempten.

TlNG-CHAN, a town of the kingdom of Corea ; 30
miles S.E. of Haimen.

TINGENTERA, Algeciraz, in Ancient Geography,
a town of Spain, in Bcctica, towards the S.W. It appears
to have been the fame town with that called by Antonine
'; Portus Albus," and " Julia Traduda." It was the na-
tive place of Pomponius Mela.

TING-FAN, in Geography, a city of China, of the fe-
cond rank, in Koei-tcheou ; 992 miles S.S.W. of Peking.
N. lat. 26° 5'. E. long. 106^ 4'.

TING-HAI, a city and walled town of Chufan, on the
coaft of China, iituated within a mile from the large open vil-
lage or fuburb, built along the fliore. The way from the one
to the other lies over a plain, interfered with rivulets and ca-
nals in various direftions, and cultivated like a garden. The
city walls are thirty feet high ; and along thefe, at the dif-
tance of every hundred yards, are fquare ftone towers. In
the parapets are embrafures, and the holes in the merlons for
archery, without cannon. The gate is double, and within
it a guard-houfe, where military men were ftationed, and the
bows and arrows, pikes and matchlocks, were arranged in an
orderly manner. Of the towns of Europe, Ting-hai moft
refembled Venice, on a fmaller fcale. The bridges are fteep,
and afcended by fteps, like the Rialto ; the ftreets are like
^leys, or narrow pafTages, and paved with fquare flat ftones.
The houfes are low, and moftly of one fl;ory. Attention to
ornament was chiefly beftowed on the roofs of the houfes ;
on the ridges of which were uncouth figures of animals, and
Other decorations in ftone and in iron. The town was full of

II

T I N

fliops, containing, chiefly, articles of clothing, food, and
furniture, difplaycd to full advantage. Even coffins were
exhibited to view in a variety of colours. The fmaller quad-
rupeds, including dogs, intended for food, as well as poul-
try, were expofed alive for fale, as were fifh in tubs of water,
and eels in fand. The number of places where tin-leaf, and
fticks of odoriferous wood were fold, for burning in their
temples, indicated no flight degree of fuperftitious difpofi-
tion in the people. Loofe garments and trowfers were worn
by both fexes ; but the men had hats of ftraw, or cane,
which covered the head, the hair, except one long lock, being
cut ftiort or fliaved ; while the women had theirs entire, and
plaited and coiled, in a becoming manner, into a knot upon
the crown of the head. Aftivity and labour univerfally pre-
vailed. None aflted alms, and none fliunned labour. Staun-
ton's Embafly to China, vol. i.

TINGI, a duller of fmall iflands in the Chinefe fea, near
the eaft coaft of Malacca. N. lat. 2° 23'. E. long.
104° 21'.

TINGIA, a town of Peru, in the audience of Lima ;
15 miles S.E. of Iga.

TINGIS, Tangier, a town of Africa, fituated upon
a ftrait between the promontory, the coafts, and the mouth
of the river Valon, according to Ptolemy, who furnamed
it Caefarea. Mela fays that it was a very ancient city,
founded by the giant Antsus. It gave name to Mauritania
Tingitana, of which it was tlie capital. Pliny fays tiiat it
took the name of Julia Tradufta, when the emperor
Claudius fent thither a colony. Plutarch, in Serlorio, calls
it Tingena, and fays that a fon of Tinga by Hercules, called
Sophax, founded it, and gave it the name after that of his
mother.

TIN-GLASS, a name frequently given to the femi-metal
bifmuth.

TING-NGAN, in Geography, a town of China, of the
third rank, in Quang-tong, on the river of Limou ; 17
miles S. of iCiong-tchcou, in the ifland of Hai-nan.

TINGO, or Tenna, a river of Italy, which runs into
the Adriatic, 3 miles N. of Fermo.

TINGORAN, a fmall ifland in the Chinefe fea, near the
coaft of Malacca. N. lat. 4° 8'. E. long. 103° 33'.

TINGO RC ALLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Bengal ;
40 miles W.S.W. of Calcutta. N. lat. 22° 9'. E. long.

87^ 53'-

TINGRACALLY, a town of Bengal ; 16 miles E. of
Mahmudpour.

TINGRECOTTA, a town of Hindooftan, in Bara-
maul ; 18 miles S.E. of Darampoury.

TINGRI, a town of Thibet. Here the Nepaulefe were
defeated by the troops of China in 1792 ; 22 miles S.W.
of Zuenga.

TING-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the firft rank, in
Fo-kien ; 870 miles S. of Peking. N. lat. 25° 48'. E.
long. 116° 4'.

TINGUIRICA, a river of Chili, which runs into the
Rahel ; 40 m-iles from its mouth.

TINGUZGALPA, a town of Mexico, in the province
of Nicaragua ; 80 miles N.W. of Leon.

TINGWALL, a town of the ifland of Shetland ; 4 J
miles W.N.W. of Lerwick. 3

TINGWALLA, an ifland of Sweden, in the north
part of the Wenner lake, oh which the town of Carlftadt is
built.

TINIA, or Teneas, in Ancient Geography, a river of
Italy, in Umbria, which, according to Sihus Italicus, ran
into the Tiber.

TINIAN,

T I N

TIN

TINIAN, ill Geography, one of the Ladi-one iflands, in
tlie North Pacific ocean, about 42 miles in circumference,
firft difcovered by the crew of a Manilla (hip, which was
call away li.re in the year 1638. The author of Anfon's
Voyage gives a pleafing defcription of this ifland, as found
by the c.ew of the Centurion, in the year 1742. Com-
modore Byron, who vifited it in the year 1765, and anchored
oil the fouth-wcil end of the ifland, in the fame place where
the Centurion lay, inftead of delightful lawns, found the
trees and underwood fo thick, that in endeavouring to force
a paffage through, they were entangled and cut as if with
whfp-cord. After they had cleared the well, which they
imagined was the fame at which lord Anfon filled his
caflvs, commodore Byron found the water brackifli, and full
of worms. He fays, " the road alfo where the fliips lay
was a dangerous fituation at this feafon (Auguil ifl), for
the bottom is a hard fand, and large coral rocks ; and the
anchor having no hold in the fand, is in perpetual danger of
being cut to pieces by the coral ; to prevent vrhich as much
as poffible, I rounded the cables, and buoyed them up
with empty water-call'Cs. Another precaution alfo was taught
me by experience, for at firfl. I moored, but finding the
cables much damaged, I refolved to be fingle for the future,
:hat by veering away, or heaving in, as we fhould tiave
more or lefs wind, we might always keep them from being
Qack, and confequently from rubbing, and this expedient
fucceeded to my wifh. At the full and change of the
moon, a prodigious fwell tumbles in here, fo that I never
faw fhips at anchor roll fo much as our's did while we lay
here ; and it once drove in from the weft ward with fuch fio-
leiice, and broke fo high upon the reef, that I was obliged to
put to fea for a week ; for if our cable had parted in the night,
and the wind had been upon the fliore, which fometimes
happens for two or three days together, the fliip muft inevit-
ably have been loft upon the rocks. I foon found that the
(land produced limes, four oranges, cocoa-nuts, bread-fruit,
guavas, and paupaus in abundance ; but we found no water-
melons, fcurvy-grafs, or forrcl. Notwithftanding the fatigue
and diftrefs that we had endured, and the various climates
we had paifed through, neither of the fhips had yet loft a
fingle man fince their failing from England, but while we
lay here two died of fevers, a difeafe with which many were
feized, though we all recovered very faft from the fcurvy.
I am indeed of opinion that this is one of the moft unhealthy
fpots in the world, at leaft during the feafon in which we
were here. The rains were violent, and almoft inceffant ;
and the heat fo great as to endanger fuffocation : befides
the inconvenience which w-e fufFered from the weather, we
were inceffantly tormented by the flies in the day, and by
the mufquitos in the night. The ifland alfo fwarms with
centipedes and fcorpions, and a large black ant, fcarcely
inferior to either in the malignity of its bite. Befides thefe,
here were venomous infefts without numbers, altogether
unknown to us, by which many of us fuffered fo feverely,
that we were afraid to lie down in our beds : nor were
thofe on board in a much better fituation than thofe on
fhore, for great numbers of thefe creatures being carried
into the fliip with the wood, they took poffeflion of every
birth, and left the poor feamen no place of reft either
below or upon the deck. Our principal refource for
frefti meat was the wild hog, with which the ifland
abounds. Thefe creatures are very fierce, and fome of
them fo large, that a carcafe frequently weighed 200
pounds. Mr. Gore, one of our mates, at laft difcovered
a pleafant fpot on the north-weft part of the ifland, where
cattle were in great plenty, and whence they might be
brought to the tents by fea. We were now upon the whole

pretty well fupplied with provifions, efpecially as we baked
frefli bread every day for the fick ; and the fatigue of our
people being lefs, there were fewer ill with the fever j but
feveral of them were fo difordered by eating a very fins-
looking fifli which we caught iiere, that their recovery was
for a long time doubtful." The author of lord Anfon's
voyage fays, that the people on board the Centurion
thought it prudent to abflain from fifli, as the few which
they caught at their firft arrival furfeited thofe who eat of
them. Befides the fruit tliat has been mentioned already,
this ifland produces cotton and indigo in abundance, and
would certainly be of great value if it were fituated in the
Weft Indies. The furgeon of the Tamar enclofed a large
fpot of ground here, and made a very pretty garden, but
he did not ilay long enough to derive any advantage from
it. Captain WaUis touched upon this ifland in 1767 ; and
obtained beef, pork, poultry, papaw apples, bread-fruit,
limes, oranges, and every refrefliment mentioned in the
account of lord Anfon's voyage. The fick began to re-
cover as foon as they went on fliore ; but fleflj meat would
not keep fweet for fcarcely one day. N. lat. 14° 55'. W.
long. 214° 7'.

TINICUM, a township of Pennfylvania, ia the county
of Bucks, containing 1017 inhabitants; 20 miles N. of
Philadelphia — Alfo, a townfliip of Pennfylvania, in the
county of Delaware, containing 249 inhabitants.

TINIETZ, a town of Auftrian Poland ; 4 miles W. of
Cracow.

TINIMA, a town of the ifland of Cuba ; 22 miles
W.N.W. of Bayamo.

TINING, in Agriculture. See TiNE. See alfo Til-
lage.

TININGBURG, in Geography, a town of Hungary ;
16 miles N. of Preftjurg.

TINISSI, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigin-
gratz ; 10 miles S.E. of Konigingratz.

TINIT, a town of Africa, in Zanhaga, on the coaft ;
25 miles S.S.E. of Cape Mirik.

TINJULEEN, a town of Africa, in the country of
Darah ; 105 miles S.E. of Morocco. N. lat. 29° 30'.
W. long. 5° 30'.

TINKER'S Island, one of the Ehzabeth's Iflands,
near the coaft of America.

TINKLING or Tingling of the Ear. See Tin-
nitus.

TINMOUTH, in Geography, a poft-town of the ftate
of Vermont, in the county of Rutland, cohtaining lOOI
inhabitants ; 8 miles S. of Rutland. — Alfo, a town of
Nova Scotia, on the eaft coaft, formerly called PiBou.

TINNA, or Tina, in yincient Geography, a river of the
ifle of Albion, between the gulfs Taua and Boderia, ac-
cording to Ptolemy, fuppofed to be the river Eden, in Fife.
— Alfo, a fmall river of Italy, in Picenum.

TINNE', in Geography, a town of Africa, in Mafina, on
the north fide of the Niger ; 130 miles W.S.W. of Tom-
buftoo.

TINNING, the covering or lining any thing with melted
tin, or with tin reduced to a very thin leaf.

Looking-glafles are fohated or tinned with thin leaves of
beaten tin, applied and faflened to them by means of quick-
filver. See Looking-glass.

Kitchen utenfils are tinned with melted tin ; and locks,
bitts, fpurs, &c. with leaf-tin, by the help of fire.

For the method of tinning iron-plates, fee Lattin and
TiN-P/ates.

Copper and brafs are covered over with tin by the help of

fal atnmoniac, the acid of which cleans the furface of the

4X2 metals

T I N

metals to be tinned, and the oily matter contained in it
funiifhcs the phlogiftoQ (accordinjr to the old fyftem) that
is nccclTary in this operation. Tlic copper, or brafs, being
made hot eiiough to melt tin laid upon it, is llrewed over with
fal anmioiiiac, and the melted tin rubbed about the plate.
The fal ammoniac takes up the drofs of the tin, and leaves
the tin to flow freely upon the metal. As the furface of cop-
per is continually altered by the mere attion of the air, the
workmen, before the tinning of any veflel, fcrapc its furface
with a ftcel inftrument till it be clean and bright ; then they
place the veffel upon kindled coals, and heat it to a certain
degree : as foon as it is hot, in fome proceffes of tinning,
they rub it with pitch, and apply the melted tin, which
they fpread upon the furface of the copper by means of
hai'ds. For this pui'pofe pure tin is feldom ided ; but,
in general, two parts of tin are alloyed with one part of lead.

The pitch ufed in this latter mode of tinning is quite
neceffary, becaufe the degree of heat given to the copper
is fufficient to calcine its furface in fome degree : and this
alteration, however flight, would prevent the perfect adhe-
fion of the tin, unlefs by means of the pitch the phlogifton
was reftored to it at the very inftant of the application of
the tin. The pitch alfo prevents the (light calcination
which would happen on the furface of the tin, or revives
the fmall particles of calx which are formed during the
operation. In either way, or in the method of tinning iron
plates, the fuccefs of the operation depends on the faciUty
with which tin unites with thefe metals, which incorporates
with them, diffolves in fome meafure their furface, and forms
a kind of alloy, at leaft when the tinning is well perfonned ;
and moreover, on the cleannefs of the iurfaces, both of the
melted tin, and of the copper or iron to which it is applied ;
for the metals cannot perfedlly unite unlefs they are in a
metallic ftate, and free even from their own earth or calx.

It has been alleged that copper veflels, fo pernicious
in themfelves, are not perfeftly preferred from ruft or ver-
digris by tinning ; and, befides, tin itfelf is combined with
arlenic, and lead is alfo ufed in tinning. M. Malouin has,
tUerefore, propofed in his Memoirs on Zinc (Mem. de
I'Acad. Sc. 1742.) to fubftitute that femi-metal in place
of lead and tin, for the tinning of iron and copper velFels ;
the greater hardnefs of the zinc, it is thought, would render
it lels hable to be worn, and the dangerous efFecls of lead and
tin would be avoided. Macquer's Dift. Chem. Engl. edit.

The plumbers, on fome occafions, tin or whiten their
fheets of lead : in order to which they have a tinning furnace,
filled with live coal, at the two fides of which two men are
placed, who hold up the fheets over the fire to heat : and
tlic tin-leaves being laid over them, as faft as the fhects grow
hot, and the tin melts, they fpread it, and make it take by
rubbing it with tow and refin.

TINNITUS AURIUM. A very common difeafe in the
fenfe of hearing, is when certain founds, like thofe of a drum,
a bell, the falhng of water, &c. are heard, wlien no fuch
noifes aaually exift, or can be heard by other perfons.
This affeftion is called tinnitus aurium, of which vainous kinds
have been obferved. For the moil part, it is a very (light
tranfient diforder ; but fometimes it is molt obftinate, long
contmued, and troublefome. It fometimes arifes from the
flighteft canfe, fuch as any thing partially (lopping up the
meatus auditorius, or Euftachian tube itfelf, fo that the free
paffage of air into the cavity of the tympanum is inter-
rupted. A kind of tinnitus is heard by the moil healthy
•when they yawn.

A much more frequent and troublefome fpecies of tin-
intus accompanies many difeafes both of the febrile and
ucrvous kind. This is faid to be occafioned partly by the

T I N

increafed impetus of the blood towards the head, with an
increafe of fcnfibility in the nervous fyllem itfelf, fo that the
very beatings of the arteries are heard ; and partly by the
augmented irritabihty and fpafmodic motions of the little muf-
cles within the organ of he.iring. In fevers, the throbbing
of the carotid arteries at the fides of the fella turcica has
produced excelfive annoyantc in particular individuals, efpe-
cially when they were in the recumbent pofture ; and the
celebrated Haller informs us, that when he was afflifted
with fever, he fuffered much from the beating fenfation
caufed in his ears, as he fuppofed, from the pulfation of the
carotids in the neighbourhood of thofe organs.

According to writers, tinnitus aurium fometimes arifes
from a vehement affeftion of the mind ; fometimes from a
diforder in the ftomach ; fometimes from rheumatifm ex-
tending its effefts to the ears and head ; or from a catarrh,
producing a temporary obftruAion in the Euftachian tube.
In the foregoing examples, the cure of the affeftion of the
ear depends upon the removal of the other diforders, of
which it is merely an effeft.

In certain caics, tinnitus aurium occurs as a feparale
independent diforder, and may be the caufe of long-continued,
diftreffing fuffering. The exiftence of unreal founds in
the organ of hearing generally prevents the patient from
hearing diftinftly other fonorous impreifions, and, of courfe,
more or lefs deafnefs is a common attendant of the complaint.

The writer of this article lately had a patient, who is
attacked five or fix times every year with tinnitus aurium,
which caufes for feveral days the moft annoying fenfations
in the ears, and a confiderable degree of deafnefs. The
diforder is always accompanied with fevere pain in the
branches of the nerve coming out of the infra-orbitary
foramen, head-ache, indigeftion, and many fymptoms of the
nervous and bilious kind.

In this cafe, relief is obtained by fomenting the affedled
ear with a decoftion of'poppies, and wafhing out the meatus
auditorius with a fyringe and warm water. However, thefe
means are always afiifted with a few dofes of calomel and
rhubarb, without which, in all probabihty, the local appli-
cations would not entirely anfwer.

We have alfo had other cafes, in which a ftrong folution
of opium in water, camphorated oil, bliilers, &c. were the
remedies employed.

The tinnitus aurium, produced by fevers, fometimes
does not fubfide at their termination, but lafts, either in a
continued or periodical form, during life. Two fuch
inftances are now within our own recolledlion ; and every
man of experience muft have witneffed the fame thing.

TINNUNCULUS, in Ornithology, the name of one of
the long-winged hawks, called by Linnseus Falco tinnun-
culus ; which fee.

It is about the fize of a common pigeon. Its bill is
fhort, crooked, and very (harp, and covered with yellow
tlcin at the top ; near this the bill is white, elfewhere it is
blue ; its tongue is bifid ; its mouth very wide, and its
palate blue ; its head is large and flatted, and is of an a(h-
colour, with longitudinal ureaks of black ; its back and
wings are brown, variegated with black fpots ; its rump is
grey, with fome tranlVerfe black fpots ; and its bread and
belly of a pale ruft-colour, with a few longitudinal ftreaks
of black ; its tail is long and pointed, its tip of a pale fer-
ruginous hue, with a broad tranfverfe ftreak of black over
it ; and the reft of the tail is a mixed grey and brown,
with black fpots and ftreaks ; its legs and feet are of a fine
yellow.

The tinnunculus, or keftrel, breeds in the hollows of
trees, in the holes of high rocks, towers, and ruinated

buildings :

T I N

fciuldings : it lays four eggs, which arc wliite, variegated
wi'th a number of red fpots ; its food is iield-mice, fmall
birds, and infeCls.

This is tile hawk which we fo frequently obferve in the
air fixed in one place, and as it were fanning with its wings,
at which time it is watching for its prey. It flings up the
indigefted fur and feathers in form of a round ball. Ray
and Pennant.

TINO, in Geography, a fmall ifland near the coaft of
Genoa, at the entrance of the \r\x\i of Spezza ; 8 miles S.
of Spezza. N. lat. 44° 3'. E. long. 9° 40'. See Tineto.

TiNO. Sec Tenos.

The form of this idand is oval, about 60 miles in circum-
ference. It is mountainous, but its rich plains are decked
by the opulence of induftry. Its fruits are excellent and its
wine good ; but the moft abundant of its productions is
filk, which is manufaftured by the females, who are highly
commended for the beauty of their perfons and the elegance
of their drefs. The inhabitants are aftive and induilrious,
moft of whom are of the Greek church, though it is the
fee of a Roman Catholic bifhop. It is reckoned one of the
moft agreeable iflands of Greece, but has no good harbour.
The fmall town of San Nicolo is built on the ruins of the
ancient Tenos. Its capital bears the name of the ifland.
^f. lat. 37°36'. E. long. 25° 7'.

TINPHADUM, or TiMPHADUM, in ^Indent Geography,
a place of Africa, in Numidia, upon the route from The-
Vefte to Sltiiis, between Thevefte and Vegefela. Ant. Itin.

TINSEDA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
counlry of Darah. N. lat. 27° 30'. W. long. 5° 46'.

TINTA, a town of Peru, in the bifhopric of Cufco,
and jurifdiftion of Canas y Canches, fometimes alfo called
Tinta ; 60 miles S. of Cufco.

TINTENIAC, a town of France, in the department of
the lUe and Vilaine ; 9 miles S.S.E. of Dinan.

TINTINNABULUM, among the ^indents. See Bell.

TINTO, in Geography, a river of Spain, in the province
of Seville, which owes its name to its waters being tinged of
a yellow colour. It is alfo of a petrifying quality ; and it
is laid that it dcftroys all verdure, and that no fifh can live
in it. Its nature, however, is changed by the confluence
of other rivulets ; for when it patles by Niebla, it is not dif-
ferent from other rivers : and it falls into the Atlantic, fix
leagues lower down, at the town of Huelva, where it is two
leagues broad, and admits the paflTage of large velfels as
high as San Juan del Puerto, three leagues above Huelva.

TINTON, a town of the ftatc of Nev? Jerfey, near the
fea ; 12 miles E. of Freehold, in the county of Monmouth.

TINTOQUE, a town of Mexico, in the province of
Xalifco ; 45 miles S.vS.W. of Compoftella.

TINTORETTO, II, in Biography, the cognomen of
) celebrated Venetian painter, whofe real name was Giacopo
Robufti. He was born at Venice in 1512, the fon of a
dyer ; from whence he acquired the name of II Tintoretto.
His natural difpofition towards the art of drawing manifefted
itfelf very early, and his father had the wifdom to indulge
it ; and feeing it likely to lead to fomething decilive, caufed
him to be inftrufted in painting, and finally placed him as a
pupil with Titian, then in the prime enjoyment of his re-
putation and power. It is a painful thing to relate, and a
fevere leffon to the pride of the moft able, that where fo
much ability, fo much honour and wealth abode, the mean
and degrading palfion of jealoufy fliould have found en-
couragement. Titian, the great, the honoured Titian, that
man who poffefTed a mind capable of grafping almoft all the
art of painting required, who was richly and highly ho-
ioij/cd, courted, and employed, is faid (and the truth of

T 1 N

the flory rcfts upon too found authority) to have fcen with
the corroding pangs of jealoufy the early effays of his pupil
Tnitorefto, and to liavc permitted it to operate fo ftrongly
upon him, t'hat he excluded the dreaded objeft from his
houfe, about ten days after his admiifion.

But the afpiring talents of the young painter were not to
be damped by fo mean a meafure, though even in the
powerful hands of Titian. To him difmiffion from the eye
of a mafler was emancipation. He dared to think ft)r liim-
felf, and boldly aimed at fcleftion in art, and an union un-

thought of till then ; and as Lanzi fays, generoufly afpired
at the honour of being the founder of a Ichool and flyle of
his own, by combining the form of the great Florentine,
M. Angelo, with the colour of his former mailer. To
maintain a due excitation to the performance of fo bold an
undertaking, he wrote upon the wall of his ftudy, " II di-
fegno di Michel Angelo e il colorito di Tiziano ;" and with
all the ardour of an intrepid mind, endeavoured to perfeA
the tafl< he had alTigned himfelf, by copying whatever pic-
tures of Titian he could procure during the day, and draw-
ing by night from calls taken from the works of M. Angelo,
together with many others he procured from ancient baftb-
relievos and ftatucs. It is doubtlefs to his ftudies by night
and the lamp, that he acquired that perfeft mattery of chiaro-
fcuro, tliofe decided maftes of light and fliade, which dif-
tinguifh his works, both in their groups and fingle figures.
Add to thefe labours, that he modelled in wax and clay,
and clothed his figures ftudioufly, arranging them in dif-
ferent lights, and iometimes hanging them from the ceiling,
to acquire, by drawing from them in that pofition, the
knowledge of the fotlo in fu, then much in ufe for the
adornment of ceilings, and m the houfes of the grandees.
By thefe deep ftudies, and a perfeft knowledge of anatomy,
he was enabled to exert the exubta'ant and glowing fancy
with which nature had blelfed him, in the freeft and boldeft
manner ; and had he always applied his powers with equal
intenftnefs, with a careful difcrimination of what was due
to his own honour, there can be no doubt but that he would
have left a name unrivalled in art. This for fome time he
attended to, and fome of his beft works lack only charafter
and expreffion to place them in the higheft rank. The large
pifture which lately adorned the walls of the Louvre, but
is now returned to its original ftation, the Scuola di S.
Marco at Venice, is a work of this clafs, which he painted
when only 36 years old ; and another is the Crucifixion, in
the Scuola di S. Rocco. The former is known by the name
of 11 Servo, and reprefents the miracle of St. Mark defcend-
mg, and breaking the bonds of a flave condemned to death
by Turks. Grand but not correft in its ftyle of defign,
aftonifliing the mind by the intrepid boldnefs of its colour
and execution, it difplays more complete mattery of the
xnaterials of art than is to be found in the works of any
other painter. If (here be any fault in this aftonilhing per-
formance, it is that the fubjeft is loft in the fplendour of
the execution, the fpirit in tlie matter in which it is em-
bodied. The fame cannot be faid of-the Crucifixion above
mentioned, in which the louring deep and ominous tone
preferved through the whole, produces the moft perfeft
unity, gives ftrength of expreffion to the pifture, and over-
whelms the fpeftator with terror. All ieems to be hufhed
in filence round the central figure of the Saviour fufpendcd
on the crofs, with his fainting mother, and a group of male
and female mourners at his feet ; and though many are the
improprieties of coitume and of aftion, yet all vanilh in the
power which compreffes them to a fingle point, and we do
not deteft them till v/e recover from the firft impreffion.
Unhappily for his fame, he was not always fo careful iu his

labours 5

T I N

hbours ; and the impetuofity of his mind, or perhaps the
foehnKS ol" his employcrj, who were numerous, did not
idlo>» him fufficicnt time to do juftice to hrnifelf; and he
pcnnitted many piftures to leave his eafel, poffeflinff only
the freedom of colour and execution which peculiarly be-
longed to his pencil. i • r -j

Tintoretto was fo certain of his execution, that he is laid
by Sandrart to have frequently wrought without a previous
(ketch, or any preparatory outline, finiihmg as he went on,
and adapting his labours to the price he was to receive ; not
fufficicntly confidering that his works would outlive their
anthor, and deprive him of a large portion of the fame fo
juttly due to his power, when efficiently exercifed. It
was, therefore, truly obfcrved by An. Caracci, that in
fome of his works, Tintoretto was not inferior to Titian,
while in others he fell below himfelf.

One remarkable inftancc of his intrepidity and impetuofity
of genius, and promptnefs of execution, is related by Va-
fari, I'jc. : The confraternity of S. Rocco at Venice had
determined to decorate their church with a pifture of the
apotheofis of their patron faint, and, defirous of having the
choice of good defigns, commifiioned fome of the moll
eminent artids to make compofitions for their feleftioii.
Paulo Veronefe, A. Schiavone, Salviati, Zucchero, and
Tintoretto, were the competitors. On the day appointed
for their decifion, the good fathers were aftonifhed to find a
finifhed pifture by Tintoretto placed in the appointed fitua-
tion ; and when they remonftrated upon fo extraordinary
a proceeding, as they had only required a defign from
him, he told tliem that was his way of making defigns, and
that if they hefitated to pay him for his trouble, they were
welcome to the pifture, which was allowed to keep pof-
feflion of its honours. His compeers rendered due juftice
to fo extraordinary an exertion, and denominated him
II furiofo Tintoretto.

To do juftice to the power of Tintoretto, he muft be
contemplated oa the grand theatre of his piftorial exiftence,
•viz. at Venice, where alone his grander works are to be
found ; and there the pubhc buildmgs are filled with them,
in the higher and lower degrees of excellence. In ftyle,
the grandeur which he borrowed of Michael Angelo was
rather mufcular enlargement of hne, and that not always
correft, than feleft or charafteriftic ; and it is not often
that he rifes above common nature ; moftly fo in his female
charaftcrs, though they are often too flender for truth of
aftion, and too aft"efted for grace. His touch is delight-
fully free, with a full impafto of colour, and his chiaro-
fcuro of the richeft and moft brilliant kind. He Kved to
thegreat age of 82, and died at Venice in 1594.

Tintoretto left a daughter named Marietta Robufti,
who was born at Venice in 1 560, and whom he inftrufted in
the art of painting, principally in portraiture, in which fhe
acquired confiderable praftice and reputation ; painting
many of the principal perfonages in her native city. She
had the honour to be invited to the courts of the emperor
Maximihan and of Philip king of Spain ; but her father
would not be prevailed upon to part with her. She died
foon after him, in 1590. He left alfo a fon, Domenico
Robufti, who praftifed the art with confiderable fuccefs,
though not with the fire of invention or execution which
charafterife his father's productions. He was born at
Venice alfo, in 1562. His priacipal works are in the Sala
di Configlio and the Scuola di San Marco at Venice, Por-
traiture was, however, his principal occupation, and moft
fuited to his genius ; and he had the honour of being emi-
nently patronized. He died in 1637.

TiNURTIUM, TouRNUs, in Ancient Geography, a

T I

O

from

Lugdunum to Gel

I

town of Gaul, on the route
foriacum. Anton. Itin.

TINUS, in Botany, a name in Pliny, book 15, chap 30, fori
what he fays is fometimes termed a fort of wild laurel, and is dif- }
tinguifhed by the blue colour of its berries. This defcription .
is univerfally agreed to apply to our Laurus-tinus, Fiiurntim
Tinus of Linnseus ; a plant likewife indicated by Ovid's

Et bicolor myrtus, et baccis asrula tinus.

Linnaeus has transferred this name to a Weft Indian fhruh^j
fuppofed by him to conftitute a new genus, having fome re.
femblance to the above fhrub. — Linn. Gen. 200. Schreb.i
270. JulT. 264 and 451. — Clafs and order, Enneandria
Monogynia.

The charafters of this however were difcovered by
Swartz to be founded in error, the plant being a genuine
fpecies of Clethra ; fee that article, n. 5.

The origin of the word7/«!;j has been fought by VaiUant
in the Greek Tivo-r, Jmall, or dwarf, as meaning a fmaller or
more humble kind of laurel ; but this is fcarcely correft, uor
does the derivation by any means fatisfy us.

TINZ, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in the princi-
pality of Brieg ; 22 miles W. of Brieg. 1

TINZULIN. See TiNjuLEEN. |

TIO, a town of South America, in the province of Cor- 1
dova ; 70 miles E. of Cordova. !"

TIOGA, a county of New York, erefted from Mont-
gomery county in 1 791, and from the E. part of this
county. The county of Brome was erefted in 1806. Tioga.
is bounded N. by a fmall angle of Steuben county, and by .
Seneca and Cayuga counties, E. by Brome county, S. by
the ftate of Pennfylvania, and W. by Steuben county.
Its form is nearly that of a fquare, 26 by 34 miles ; its
area 571,306 acres : between 42° and 42° 25' N. lat., and
2° 14' and 3° W. long, from New York. Its towns are
Condor, Carohne,Catharinas,Cayuta, Chemung, Denby, El-
mira, Owego, and Spencer its capital. Its eaftern part is tra-
verfed by the Sufquchanna ; and the Tioga, the principal
W. branch cf that river, waters the S.W. part. The furface i
is confiderably broken and hilly. It is rapidly increafing
in population, and contains a large proportion of good farm-
ing land. Rafts, arks, and fmall boats defcend the waters of ,
this county, and find the principal market at Baltimore, in j
Maryland. Tioga fends one member to the houfe of aflembly. ,

Tioga, a large townftiip in the S.W. corner of Brome
county, 1 3 miles W. of Chenango Point ; bounded N. by
Berkftiire, E.by Union, S. by the ftate of Pennfylvania, and
W. by Tioga county ; about 15 miles long from N. to S.,
and 7 broad, having the Sufquehanna running W. acrofs ,
its centre. The foil is various, and the furface uneven. It .
yields various kinds of trees, grain, and pafture. Fruit in ;
general fucceeds well, and apples are no where better. This
town has been fettled fince about 1790. — Alfo, a river of
New York, which runs into the Sufquehanna at Tioga Point,
N. lat. 41° 56'. W. long. 76° 33'.

TIOL.O, a town of Italy, in the Valteline ; 10 miles
S.W. of Bormio.

TION, a river of France, which runs from the lake of
Annecy to the Siers.

TIOOKEA, one of King George's iflands, in the South :
Pacific ocean, difcovered by commodore Byron. It is a low
ifland, with a large lake in the centre. Captain Cook fent
to examine a creek, which he fuppofed communicated with
the lake. They found the creek fifty fathoms wide at the ;
entrance, and tliirty deep ; farther in thirty wide and twelve
deep ; the bottom every where focky, and the fides bounded
with coral rocks : dogs feemed to be in great plenty, but no ■

fruit

TIP

TIP

fruit was feen but cocoa-nuts. The iahabitacts of this temple of Hercules, whofe feaft was annuaUy celebrated
ifland, and perhaps of all tlie low ones, are of a much darker Paufanias.

colour than thofe of the higher iflands, and feem to be of a
more favage difpofitioii. This may be owing to their fitu-
ation, nature- not having beftowed her favours on thcfc low
iflands with that profufion flie had dt)nf to fome of the
others. The inhabitants are chiefly beholden to tlie fea for their
fubfiftenco ; confequently are much expofcd to the fun and
weather, and by that means become more dark in colour,
and more hardy and robuft, for there is no doubt of their
being of the fame nation. Captain Cook's people ob-
ferved tliat they were ftout well-made men, and had marked
on their bodies the figure of a fifh, a very good emblem of
their profeffion. S. lat. 14° 27'. W. long. 144° 56'.

TIORA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in the
country of the Sabines, on the route from Reate to Lifta,
between Vatia and Lifta.

TIORN, in Geography, an ifland in the North fea, near the
weft coaft of Sweden, about 25 miles in circumference, con-
taining three parifties, and abounding in excellent paftures.
N. lat. 58°. E. long. 11° 29'.

TIORNEBIERG, a fmall ifland in the Baltic, near
the fouth coaft of Laland. N. lat. C4° 42'. E. lone.
11° 18'. ^

TIORNEHOLM, a fmall ifland in the Baltic, near the
fouth coaft of Laland. N. lat. 54° 39'. E. long. 1 1° 37'.

TIOS, TiEUM, or Tion, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Afia, in Paphlagonia, which lay, according to Ptolemy, on
the coaft of the Euxine fea, between Pfyllium and the
mouth of the river Parthenius.

TIOUGHNIOGA, in Geography, a river of New York,
which runs into the Chenango, N. lat. 41° 56'. W. long.

76° 53'-

TIPARA, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 10 miles
S.E. of Gooracpour.

TIPARENUS Insula, now Specia, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, the ifle of Tiparena, fituated in the Argolic gulf,
feparated by a fmall canal from the continent, which efta-
bliftied a communication between the gulfs Hermione and
ArgoLc.

TIPASA, TiPSA, a town of Africa, in Mauritania Cafa-
riana, according to Ptolemy and the Itin. Anton, having
the title of colony, and fituated on the route from Carthage
to Tingis, between Caefarea Colonia and Cafas Caluenti.
It ftill preferves its ancient port, and has fome remains of
ancient walls.

TIPE, or Type, in R^ral Economy, a trap or device of
the wooden box, or excavated earth kind, for catching or
taking rabbits, &c. Thefe tipes or traps are fet or formed
in a particular track at the time the rabbits have departed
from the warrens, or parts of them, in fearch of food, all the
other holes or ways of return being ftopped up. Dogs are
then employed in forcing the rabbits to return, when they
are taken in the tipes or traps. The tipes are formed of dif-
ferent numbers and fizes, according to the nature and extent
of the warren.

TIPER, or TiPRA, in Geography, a country of Afia, an-
nexed to Bengal, bounded on the N. by Silhet, on the E.
by Ava, on the S. by Chittigong, and on the W. by
Dacca, about 100 miles long, and 50 broad : the inhabitants
are faid to be moft fubjeCt to goitres or wens in the throat,
a difeafe generally attributed to the water drank. Comillah
feems the chief town. A town of the fame name is laid
down in fome maps, as fituated on the river. N. lat. 24° 20'.
E. long. 1 10°.

TIPHA, in Ancient Geography, a fmall town of Greece,
in Boeotia, fituated on the gulf of Corinth, in which was a

TIPHCA PRiNCEPs,one of the Hebrew accents, fome-
times ferving for a comma, and marked under a letter

thus (' ).

TIPHlA,in.En/OOTo/o5'ji, a genus of the Hymenoptera order
of infefts, in the Gmelinian fyftcm of Linnasus ; the characters
of which are, that the mouth has a membranaceous roundifh
jaw, a mandible arched, and acute, a ftiort tridentated lip,
and no tongue ; the feelers are four, filiform, unequal,
ftretched out in the middle of the lip ; and the antennjc un-
filiform and arched. This genus includes the following
Species.

Vespiformis. Black, with a ferruginous abdomen,
black at the bafe, and cyaneous wings. The fphex vcfpi-
formis of Fabricius. Found in Malabar.

Crassicornis. Black, the abdomen with three bands, the
legs ferruginous, and the wings cyaneous. Found in Spain.
Nigra. Black, without fpots. An European infeft.
Femorata. Black, with the four hinder thighs angu-
lated and red. Found in England.

HisTRiONiCA. Black, thorax maculated, abdomen with
five yellow bands, the two foremoft interrupted. Found in
China.

QuiNQUECiNCTA. Black, thorax fpotted, abdomen with
five yellow bands, the fecond interrupted. Found in
England.

Variegata. Thorax black, varied with yellow, ab-
domen yellow. A Siberian infedl.

Ciliata. Black, the fegments of the abdo;nen yellow,
with ciliated margin. Found in Spain.

H/EMORRHOiD.A.Lis. Black, the abdomen with five yel-
low fpots on each fide, the toes and legs red. Found in
South America.

Epiiippium. Black, the thorax with a red dorfal fpot.
Found in South America.

Radula. Hairs black, thorax reddiflr before, the fecond
and third fegments of the abdomen yellow. Found in New
Holland.

DoRSATA. Black, the fecond and third fegments of the
abdomen yellow. A Coromandel infeft.

RuFicoRNis. Ferruginous fpotted with black, yellow
abdomen, and four black bands. Found in Tranquebar.

Tricincta. Black, the abdomen with three yellow
bands, the anus and legs ferruginous. Found in South
America.

Collaris. Black, the thorax on the fore-part cinereous
villous, behind retufe, with cinereous wings. Found in
Malabar.

MoRio. Black, with brown wings, pofterior thighs
banded with cinereous. Found in Spain.

Pedestrls. Apterous, black variegated with yellow,
thorax comprefled. Found in New Holland.

TIPHLE, in Ichthyology, a name by which fome authors
exprefs the acus, or tobacco-pipe tifti.

TIPICA, in Geography, a town of Peru ; 30 miles E. of
Lipes.

TIPING, a town of Corea ; 25 miles S.E. of King-
ki-tao.

TIPIOCA, or Tapioca, a name given by fome authors
to a fort of cream or flour made from the yucca or manihot-
root, by maceration of it in water, after expreffing the
juice.

TIPOR, in Geography, a town on the weft coaft of
Celebes. S. lat. 2° 5'. E. long. 1 19° 22'

TIPPACANOE Ckee£, a river of North America,

which

T I P

which runs into th« Wabafh, N. lat. 40" 18'. W. long.
S6' 56'.

TIPPAI,, a river of Englaud, in Northumberland, which
runs into the Tyne, near Haltwhiftle.

TIPPERARY, a county in the province of Munfter,
Ireland, extending in a very irregular form between the
King's aiid Queen's counties on the north, the latter county
and that of Kilkenny on tlie eail, the counties of Waterford
and Cork on the fouth, and thofe of Limerick, Clare, and
Galway on the weft. From the two latter counties, the
river Sliannon forms a natural boundary ; as the river Suir
docs from Waterford for about 15 miles on the fouth. The
length from north to fouth is 52 Irifli (or Y^i Englilh ) miles,
and its breadth 31 Irifli (or 39! Englilh) miles. It con-
tains 5J4,950 acres, or 867 fquare Iridi miles, equal to
882,398 acres, or 1420 fquare Englifli miles, including
bogs, mountain, and waftc. There are twelve baronies, two
of which, Upper and Lower Orniond, gave the title of
duke, as they now do that of earl, to the family of Boteler,
or Butler, fo diftinguidied in Iri(h hiilory. The popula-
tion of Ireland not having yet been fatisfadiorily afccrtained,
little can be faid on the fubjeft. Dr. Beaufort rtttted the
number of houfes in 1792, at 30,705; and from the means
of information he had, and his ufual accuracy, there can be
little doubt of his corrcftnefs : but from the great increafe
of tillage fmce that time, the number of houfes mull have
increafcd, though Tipperary has liad more caufes to retard
this increafe than any other county in Ireland : 30,703
hcmfes, at an average of 5, fouls per houfe, would be
about 1 69,000 ; but if, according to Mr. Bufhe's opinion,
as given in the Tranfadlions of the Irifh Academy, we take
64 as the average, it would exoeed 190,000, a very fmall
population for fuch an extent of ground. The number of
pariflies is 187, which, when Dr. Beaufcrt wrote, were com-
prifed in 63 benefices, and had only 46 churches. A number
of churches have however been fince built, as well as feveral
glebe-houfes, and fome benefices have been divided ; to which
the exertions of the prefent archbifhop of Cafhel ( Brodrick )
have greatly contributed. Unions of parifhes which were
formed, when from the ftate of the country the income of a
parifli was very fmall, and the number of inhabitants very
few, are now as unnecelTary as they are injurious. The
archbifliopric of Cafliel, and bifliopric of Emly, which are
united, contain 116 pariflies, Waterford 32, and Kil-
laloe 41. Tipperary returns four members to the imperial
parliament, two knights of the fliire, and two for the
boroughs of Clonmell and Caftiel. This redutlion was lefs
than in moft other counties, as Tipperary had only three
boroughs before the Union, of which Featherd was dif-
franchifed. Though the towns reprefented are confider-
able ones, efpecially Clonmell, yet the boroughs are both
what are called clofe ones, the proprietors in faft exercifing
an undifputed right of chufing the member. The lands of
Tipperary have been always ranked amongft the moft pro-
ductive in Ireland, and one traft in particular, including the
iicighbourhoods of Tipperary and Cafliel, has been called
the GnJden vale, on account of its extraordinary fertihty.
It has however been always a great grazing country ; and
as this fyftem drives the peafantry into barren mountains, or
forces them to crowd into towns and villages, that they may
procure a precarious and wretched fubfiftence, they too
commonly become turbulent, violent, and difcontented.
Whether this be the caufe or not, fuch is certainly the cha-
rafter of the peafantry of this county, who have been en-
gaged in every difturbance, and who are now groaning under
an infurreAion aft, attended with enormous cxpence, which
the ufual parliamentary opponents of governnient could not

T I P

objeft to, and which, though there is an apparent calm, it
would be yet unfafe to repeal. The increafe of tillage
would operate favourably, but the exemption of grazing
land from every kind of tithe, operates as an encourage-
ment to it, which the prefent ftate of the market for grain
is not likely to counteraft. Whilft, however, Tipperary
contains a confiderable portion of very fertile land, it has
alfo extenfive trafts of bog and mountain. Of the former,
the moft extenfive is a traft lying in the north-eaft of the
county, between the towns of Rofcrea, Templemore, Ur-
lingford, Littleton, and New Birmingham, and forming a
part of the Great Bog of Allen. This was furveyed by
Mr. Ather, of Caftle-comer, under the direftions of the
commifBoners for enquiring into the nature, extent, &c. of
the bogs of Ireland ; and from his report it would appear,
that about 36,000 acres, moftly in this county, might be
eafily reclaimed, and at a moderate expence, on account of
the favourable fituation for draining, and the abundance of
limeftone gravel, of which the diftrift is principally com-
pofed, and vt'hich is the beft material for reclaiming them.
To the fouth of this range of bog, and fituated between the
fmall town of Killenaule and the county of Kilkenny, is the
coal diftrift. It refembles wliat has been called the Leinfter
coal diftrift in the very able geological and mining report
lately given of that diftrift by Richard Griffith, efq.
mining engineer to the Dublin Society. It feems indeed to
be only a continuation of that diftrift, and is feparated from
it by a fecondary limeftone country. The fpecies of coal
is the carbonaceous or ftone-coal, better known by the name
of Kilkenny coal. To the fouth of this, and in the fouth-
eaftern angle of the county, is Shebh-na-man mountain.
On the borders of the county of Waterford, over the town
of Cloghen, are the Knockmele-down mountains, which ■
occupy a confiderable fpace in both counties. Nearly
parallel to thefe, and north of them, are the lofty Galtecs,
extending ffom the borders of Cork and Limerick to the
town of Cahier. Between thefe and the town of Tippe-
rary is the lower range, called Sliebh-na-muck ; but the
greateft extent of mountain croflijs the county from fouth-
weft to north-eaft, running from the county of Limerick to
the Queen's county, and completely feparating the two
Ormonds from the reft of the county. The high hills ad-
joining Limerick are called the Keepe mountains, from the
higheft of them, which is a remarkable objeft to the tra- ,
veller and the adjoining country. The hills near the fmall
town of Silvermines, have been marked in fome maps as the
Silvermines mountains ; others have been called the Devil's
Bit ; and adjoining the Queen's county, they take the name
of the Sliebh-bloom mountains. In this diftrift, lead and
copper mines have been wrought with various fuccefs ; and
fome parts of it afford fine miU-ftones. The river Suir rifes
in the north of the county, near Rofcrea, and flows from
north to fouth, when it takes an eaftern direftion, and be-
comes the boundary between it and Waterford. This and
its tributary ftreams afford an abundant fupply of water ;
and turn a very great number of boulting-mills. The
weftern divifion of the county has the Shannon for its
boundary, and is well watered by the ftreams which flow to
it from the range of mountains above mentioned. Clonmell,
on the Suir, and at the fouthern extremity of the county, is
the fliire-town, and though very inconveniently fituated for
the aflizes, has an excellent gaol, court -houfe, &c. It is a
place of confiderable trade, and one of the principal inland
towns of Ireland, Cafhel, Rofcrea, Nenegh, Tipperary,
Carrick, and fome others mentioned in their proper places,
are of refpeftable fize, but none of them diftinguiftied for
trade or manufaftures, imlefs we except the manufafture of

ratteens

T I P

ratteens at Carrick. Tipperary was, previous to the arrival
of the Englirti, a part of the kingdom of Muniler ; fome-
times feparated as an independent fovereignty under the
kings or princes of Cafhel. The name Ormond is a cor-
ruption of Oir Momond, /. e. Eafl Munfter, and was fo
called in oppofition to Defmond, South Munfter, and
Thomond, North Munfter. After the Englifli fettlement,
the O'Briens were confined to Thomond, the Fitzgcralds
eftabliflied themfelves in Defmond, and the Butlers became
the pofleftbrs of Ormond and Kilkenny, acknowledging
indeed the fovereignty of England, but maintaining fuch
authority as rendered it only nominal. The counties of
Kilkenny and Tipperary were palatinates ; and it was not
till the attainder of the duke of Ormond, in 1716, that this
diftinft jurifdiftion was abolifhed. As the inhabitants of
Tipperary were aftively engaged againft the Proteftants in
1 64 1 and the fucceeding years, great forfeitures took place
on Cromwell's fuccefs, and many of the preCent landholders
are defcendants from his ofBcers. Tipperary abounds with
ruins. The number of old caftles is very great, fome of
them boldly fituated, and forming very ftriking objefts to
the traveller : fuch as the caftle of Ardfinnan, built by
king John, and that of Cahier, on an ifland in the Suir.
The chief ecclefiaftical ruins are thofe of Holycrofs, Mo-
naincha, and Caftiel, which all deferve to be vifited by the
curious. No ftatiftical account hag been publifted of the
county of Tipperary, and there appear to be very fcanty
materials for its hiftory.

Tipperary, a market and poft-town in the county of the
fame name, 87 miles S.W. from Dublin, and about 20
miles N.W. from Clonmell, on the road to Limerick. Its
name is faid to be in Irifti Tiobrad-arain, fignifying the nuell
of the territory called Arain. The town is not large, and
appears to be in a ruinous condition, though it was formerly
of fufficient importance to give its name to the county.
The adjoining county is very rich, and there are fome fine
feats, cfpecially Thomaftown, the fplendid feat of the earl
of Llandaff, defcended from the Mr. Matthew whom Swift
viDted ; and Darners-Court, a feat of the earl of Dor-
chcfter. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of Emly, the
church of which was once the metropolitan church of
Munfter, and which ftill gives name to a bidiopric, united
to the arcliiepifcopal fee of Cafhel.
TIPRA. See TiPERA.

TIPREE, a dry meafure at Bombay ; where the candy
contains 8 parahs, the parah 16 adowlies, 64 feers, or 128
tiprees. Rice is fold by the batty meafure, in which the
morah is = 4 candies, or 25 parahs, the parah 20 adowlies,
150 feers, or 300 tipree*. A candy is = 25 Wincheller
bufticls nearly^

TIPSA, in Geography, a town of Algiers, in the province
of Conftantina, on the borders of Tunis, near the banks of the
Melagge, anciently called Tipafa ; at prefent a frontier city
and garriion of the Algerines. This place, which enjoys a
fine fituation, with fome mountains at a fmall dillance, ftill
preferves the principal gate, feveral fragments of old walls,
and other marks of the rank and figure it formerly obtained
amongft the cities of Numidia ; 85 miles S.E. of Conftantina.
N. lat. 35°2 7'. E. long. 8°.

TIPSTAVES, officers appointed by the m.arftial of the
king's bench, to attend the judges with a rod or ftafF tipped
with filver, and take charge of fuch perfons as are either
committed, or turned over at the judge's chambers.

The denomination is alfo fometimes given to thofe more

frequently called bojloiis ; who are the wai^dens of the Fleet's

officers, attending the king's court with a painted ftaff", for

the taking into cuftody fuch prifoners as are committed by

Not. XXXV.

T I P

the court ; and to attei.d fu^k prifoners as go at large h\
lice;ice.

TIPUL, in Natural H'tflory, a name given by ihc people
of the Philippine idands, to a fpecies of crane common there,
and fo tall, that when it ftands ereft, it can look over a man's
head. See Dongon.

TIPUL A, in Entomology, a genus of the Diptera order of
infeifls, the charafters of wliicli arc, that the mouth has a very
fhort probofcis, membranaceous, canaliculated on the back,
receiving a briftle ; the hauftellum fhort, without a vagina ;
the feelers two, incurved, equal, filiform, longer than the
head : the antenna; are moftly filiform.

The fmaller fpecies of this genus fo much refemble gnats,
that the generality of authors, not excepting even Goedart
and Swammerdam, have confounded the two genera, and
defcribed thefe among the gnats.

The long form of the body, the pofition of the wings, and
the length and pofition of the legs, are the circumltanccs
that make the refemblance between the gnats and tipulae ;
but the ftrufture and organs of the head are alone a very
fufficient diftinftion.

As the tipulx differ from the gnats in the figure of the
mouth, and in being without a trunk, they differ as much
from the other flies of that charafter, by their refembling the
gnat in the ftiape of their body. They differ alfo in the
conformation of the mouth, and its feveral parts and organs.
The opening of the mouth is a flit extending itfelf from the
fore part of the head toward the hinder part, and its lips
cannot be called upper and lower ; but they are lateral ones.
When the body of the creature is preffed, this mouth opens,
and (liews what feem to be a fecond pair of lips within.
Thefe are more firmly clofed than the others, andrefemble only
certain duphcations of the flcfti. The exterior lips are carti-
laginous, and are furniftied with ftiort hairs ; the interior are
perfeftly fmooth, and of a fleftiy texture. The head of the
tipula is of a long and flender figure ; the lips are articulated
at the extremity of this head, and on each fide there ftands,
on the upper part, a fort of beard, which, when minutely exa-
mined, is found to be articulated in the manner of the an-
tennae of infe<fts. Thefe two beards, in their ufual po-
fition, are placed clofe together, and bent forwards over
the head ; their office feems to be the covering of the
aperture of the mouth. Thefe feem conftantly to be found
in all fpecies of the tipulse, and placed exaftly in the fame
manner.

The largeft fpecies of tipulae are ufually found in our
meadows, and thefe are in no danger of being confounded
with the gnat kind, their fize alone being a fufficient obvious
diftinftion. Thefe are often found of nearly an inch in
length from head to tail ; but their bodies are very flender,
and are compofed of only nine rings. The male tipula is
eafily diftinguiftied, at fight, from the female ; it is much
(horter in the body, and is thicker at the tail than any where
elfe ; this tail alfo ufually turns upwards, whereas that of
the female is placed in the fame line with the body, and is
flender, and compofed of feveral fcaly parts, proceeding from
the laft ring of the body. Thefe creatures are found in our
meadows through the whole fummer ; but the end of Sep-
tember and beginning of Oftober is the time when they are
moft of all plentiful.

The legs of thefe creatures are greatly difproportioncd to
the body, according to the common rules of nature, cfpe-
cially the hinder pair, which are in the larger fpecies ufually
three times the length of the body.

This large fpecies is a creature of no great beauty ; its

body is of a brownifti colour, and its corcelet is fo elevated,

that the creature feems hump-backed ; the head is fmall, and

4 Y the

TirULA.

the neck vcn- f^-^' • ^'"" reticulated eycR are fo large, that
thev cover ofiuoa the whole furlace of the head ; thefe are
of i preenift* colour, wiih a cail of purple, when viewed m
fome lights. Reaumur fuppofes that two vcrj' lucid Ipecks,
on tlie anterior part of the breall, are eyes, though placed
in fo very fingular a manner ; the wings of this creature are
long, but very narrow, and feeni fcarccly well proportioned
to the fi/e of the animal ; they are tranfparent, but have a
/light call of brown ; and their ribs, when viewed by the
microfcope, appear bcfet with fcalcs, or feathers, in the
manner of thofe of the gnat kind. Some fpecies of the
tipula: have them .alfo fringed with thefe fcales at the edges ;
there are no ailerons, or petty wings, at the origin of thefe,
but in the place of them there are two very fine balancers or
mallets ; thefe have long pedicles, and roundifli or oval heads ;
the ftigmata of the corcelet are four ; one pair is placed im-
mediately underneath thefe balancers, and the other imme-
diately below tiie firil pair of legs ; the firft pair is very
long, the others fmall, and thofe on the rings of the body, if
there be any, are too fmall for our fight, even with good
glaffes. Each ring of tlie body is compofed of two half
cylinders, which are joined into one, by means of a mem-
brane, which gives them room to diftend or clofe up at the
creature's pleafure. The large tipulce all carry two anten-
nx, or horns, upon their heads ; but thefe are of no remark-
able IlriiAure, they are only compofed of a great number of
joints, each covered with a fine downy hairinefs ; and at the
joining of each to the next, there is a tuft of longer and
more ftiff hairs. This is the defcription of the common large
tipulae which we find in the meadows, and in almoft all its
parts is applicable to the generality of the larger fpecies of
thefe infefts.

The fmaller kinds are very numerous, and of great variety.
Thefe are frequent in all places, and at all feafons of the
year ; the fpring fhewsus immenfe clouds of them, and even
the coldeft winter's day fhews a great number of them in the
fun-fhine about noon. Thefe creatures fly much better than
the larger tipulas ; they feem indeed to be almoft continually
upon the wing, and their manner of fliglit is very fingular ;
they are continually mounting and defcending again, and that
without quitting the direction of the line in which they go
forward ; this they will often do for many hours together.
In tracing thefe flies from their origin, they ai-e all found to
be produced from worms which have no legs, and have a regu-
lar fcaly head. Thofe from which the larger tipulse are pro-
duced live under ground ; they ai-e mofl: fond of marfhy
places, but any ground will do that is not often difturbed.
They ufually are found at about an inch under the furface,
and are fo plentiful in fome places as greatly to injure the
herbage.

Thefe creatures do not find it neceflary to their hving,
that plants fliould be upon the furface of the earth in which
they live. There is frequently found in the hollows of the
ftumps of old trees, a fort of earth which feldom produces any,
vegetables ; yet the female flies of this fpecies well know that
their young will find a proper fubfifl;ence there ; and there
are ufually found great numbers of them in all thefe places.
The hollow elms and willows, fo common in our hedges, and
by ditch fides, aftord innumerable proofs of this : but it
muft be obferved, that they are only found in fuch earth of
this kind as is continually fomewhat moift.

M. Reaumur mentions a very fingular fpecies of large
tipula;, which was produced with him from one of the
worms found in the earth of an old elm ; this was of the
larger kind, and had fome beautiful fpots on the wings. It
had alfo a very elegant tufted antenna ; whereas, in the
<;ommon large tipulae, thefe are plain and fimply granulated
2

ones, as well in the males as females. Reaumur's Hill. Ini.
vol. ix. p. 7, &c.

The numerous fpecies are diltributed, by Gmelin, into
feveral claffes, as follow ;

* JV'ilh patent Wings.

Pectixicorms. With petlinated antenna; ; the wings
with a black fpot ; the thorax yellowifh. Found in moift
places in Europe.

RivosA. With hyaline wings ; rivules brown, with a
fnowy fpot. Frequent in Europe.

SiNUATA. With white wings, finuated margin and fpots
brown ; cinereous body, and ferruginous feet. Found in
the north of Europe.

QuADlu.MACULATA. With wings brown-veiny, margin
and four fpots brown ; abdomen above yellowifti. There is
a variety denominated calmar'uujis. Found ia the meadows
of Europe.

Crocata. With wings having a brown fpot ; ab-
domen black, yellow bands. Frequent in the north of
Europe.

Oleracea. With hyaline wings ; the margin of the rib
brown. Found in Europe at the roots of pot-herbs, grain,
S:c. &c.

HoRTORUM. With hyaline wings ; fcattered obfolete
fpots. Found amon;; the pot-herb plants of Europe.

Tricolor. With whitifii wings ; the exterior margin
and bifid apex brown. Found in North America.

Triangularis. With wincrs dimidiate-brown, and
white triangular fpot. Found in Scotland.

Variegata. Black ; bafe and fides of the abdomen red,
fpotted with yellow. Found in the gardens of Europe.

Contaminata. Black, with white wings ; two bands,
and a point black. Found in moifl places ot Europe.

LuNATA. With a(h-coloured wings, and white mai-ginal
lunule. Found in the meadows of Europe.

Turcica. With veiny wings ; white marginal lunule ;
cinereous body, and abdomen with a black dorfal line.

Pratexsis. With variegated thorax ; brown abdomen ;
fides fpotted with yellow ; front tawny. Found in the mea-
dow's of Europe, deftroying the roots of grafies.

DoKsALls. Yellowilh ; brown back ; hyahne wings ;
marginal fpot black. Found in Germany and Italy.

Plumbea. Brown-cinereous, with white wings ; rib and
nerves black. An Italian infeft.

Terhestris. With hyaline wings ; brown marginal
point ; back of the abdomen cinei'cous. Found in Europe.
See Craxe-F/)'.

Corxicina. With hyaline wings, marginal point brown :
abdomen yellow ; three lines brown. Found in Europe at
the roots of plants.

Nigra. With brown wings, and black body. Found
among the plants of Europe.

Albimana. Black, with teftaceous thighs, and hinder
tarfi white.

Cos PALIS. Sordidly yellow ; with antenna: twice longer
than the body ; hyaline wings, andbrowniih colla. Found
in Van Diemen's Land.

Clavipes. Brown ; with tarfi annulated with white in
the middle ; ovated, incraflated. Found in North America.

Atrata. With glaucous wings ; marginal point and
body black ;, firft fegment of the abdomen and feet red. An
European infeft.

BlMACULATA. With hyaline wings ; two brown fpots ;
the middle of the abdomen fpotted ferruginous ; plumofe an-
tennse ; as the former.

Annulata.

TJPULA.

Ann'ulata. With wings variegated with brown ; thiglis
with white rings ; as the former.

OrELLARis. With whitifh wings, very numerous, blackifh,
ocellar fpots. North of Europe.

CiXEKEA. With whitifli wmgs, three brown fpots, ci-
nereous unfpotted body. A Norwegian infeft.

Fasciata. With whitifh wings, four brown flexuofe
bands ; abdomen and feet yellowifh. Found in the marfhcs
■ if Sweden.

MELASOf'EPHALA. Tetlaceous ; head and dorfal line of
0.\e thorax black ; wings hyaline ; three brown (beaks. A
Cayenne infeft.

Sexpuxctata. With white wings ; three marginal
brown points ; thorax comprefled, yellow ; dorfal line black.
Found in Italy.

Flavipes. Brown, witlx obfcure wings fpotted cine-
reous, and three brown coftal fpots ; feet yellowiih ; joints
brown.

Tripunctata. With hyaline wings ; three marginal
points brown ; yellow body. Found in Italy.

Flavescexs. With unfpotted wings ; yellow body ;
brown back. Found in the fields of Europe.

En.siformis. With lanceolate ferrulate antennae ; wings,
veins, and fpot black. Found in Sweden.

Regelationis. With hyaline gloffy wings ; cinereous
brown body. Found frequently in Europe.

PiLlPEs. Cinereous; with ftriated brownifh wings ; fore-
moft legs hairy

MoRlo. Black ; with white wings ; marginal point
brown ; pallid feet.

Replicata. With hyaline wings ; margin flender, re-
curved ; body brown ; fimple antcnnje. Found in the
waters of the north of Europe.

MoN'OPTEKA. Black ; with feet and feelers pallid. North
of Europe.

Arundin'eti. Whitifli ; villofe antennie ; black eyes.
Found among the reeds of Europe.

Barbicorxis. Black ; with pluinofe antennae ; firaple
at the apex. Found occafionally in Europe.

Gigantea. With wings brown, hyaline, waved longi-
tudinally in the middle. Found in the gardens of Auilria
and France.

Vexosa. With hyaline wings ; veins brown, and brown
marcjin. In Upper Auilria.

Plicata. Cinereous ; with hyaline wings ; brown veins ;
external margin and middle line interwoven in fmall folds.
Upper Aufiria.

PuxcTATA. With hyaline wings, pointed with black ;
exterior margin fpotted with black. As the former.

Phragoxitidis. Yellow ; with black head, hyahne
wings, and three black points. Found among the reeds in
Auilria.

Lixeata. Yellow ; pointed with three lines on the
thorax, and four on the abdomen. Auilria and Carniola.

Ocreata. Black ; with hyahne wings, fpotted and
pointed with black ; the band before the hinder tarti white.
Upper Auilria.

Bi FASCIATA. Yellow; with hyaline wings, fubfafciated
with brown. Upper Auilria.

Depressa. With cinereous thorax ; abdomen yellow,
depreiFed ; wings yellowifh -brown ; four marginal fpots
■brown. An European infedt.

Discolor. Cinereous ; abdomen on both fides yellowilh ;
wings with brown and white fpot. As the former.

Pectinata. Black ; with antennas femi-peftinated ;
glaucous wings ; marginal point and apex large ; thighs and
legs red ; apices black. As before.

Versicolor. Yellow ; thorax yellow, fpotted with
black ; abdomen and back, beneath and fides, cinereous •
wings, veins, and fpot brown. As before.

Maculosa. Black ; bill, legs, and apex of abdomen
yellowilh ; wings with fcattered brown fpots. As before.

LuTEA. Pale yellow ; with yellowilh wings. As
before.

FusciPEs. Black ; with two yellowifli bands on the ab-
domen ; white wings, fpotted with black ; yellowilh legs,
joints, and foles ; with the toes brown. As before.

QuADKU-AsciATA. Ciuercous-yellowifli ; with grey
wings ; four yellowilh bands, and margin of coila pointed ;
with yellow legs ; black joints. As before.

OcTOPiNCTATA. With white wings ; eight black
points ; black abdomen ; thorax and legs palilh. Found
at Paris.

Parisiexsis. Green ; with hyaline wings ; brown
band ; the two bands of the abdomen and anus black. As
before.

Secalis. Cinereous ; with ciliated wings ; eyes, anten-
nse annulated with white ; the apex of the abdomen and
feet black; Found in fields of rye. Gmehn queries whe-
ther the two lalt fpecies belong to this tribe of infe&s.

* IVith incumbent JV'ings : " Culiciform."

PLUiMOSA. With greeniih thorax ; white wings ; brown
point ; and plumofe antennas. In the marflics of Europe.

LiTTORALis. Grecnifli ; with unfpotted wings ; and
fore-legs very long. In the maritime parts of Europe.

ClxcTA. Livid ; with wings and three marginal fpots
black ; the abdomen black, annulated with white. Found
in Sweden.

MoTiTATRix. With fore-legs very large and motatory ;
witli white ring. Frequent in Europe, yellow-green.

PlLicoRxis. Blackifh ; fore-legs as before ; thorax li-
neated ; white wings unfpotted.

Fascicolata. Black ; fore-legs as before ; fides of the
abdomen fpotted with ferruginous. Found in Germany.

Texdex^s. Ferruginous ; with white unfpotted wings ;
fore-legs very long and pale. In marflies of Denmark.

Vibratoria. Fore-legs very large, motatory ; white
at the apex. Found in marflies of Europe.

Varia. Brown ; fore-legs elongated ; abdomen yel-
lowiflt ; wings varied with white and black.

Tre.mula. Fore-legs very long, motatory ; black, with
white wings. In the marfhes of Sweden.

Flexilis. Fore-legs motatory, all pallid ; wings with
dufl<yifli band. In the watery places of Europe.

MoxiLis. With white legs, nine black rings ; wings
varied with white and cinereous. In the gardens of Eu-
rope.

ZoxATA. Pallid ; with wings, two bands, and three
points brown ; thighs with brown anffle. Found in
Orford. ^

Virexs. Green; with unfpotted wings; brown foles.
A Swedifli infeel.

ViRiDULA. Green ; with antennse verticillate, hairy ;
palhd legs. North of Europe.

Gexiculata. Beneath yellowifli ; lines of the thorax
and back of the abdomen black, with white immaculate
wings.

Pallipes. Smooth-brown ; with hyaline tmfpotted
wings, and palifli legs.

Macrocephala. Greenifti ; with eyes and back of
the thorax black. In the marflics and moiil fliores of
Europe.

PusiLLA. Green ; with thrc-e black fpots on the hinder
4 7 2 pJU't

T 1 P

part of il.e ihorax ; inieanae of die male plumofe. In the
lakes of Europe. ,,,,/, r .

NUkci. Black, fmooth; w.th black.fh wings; forc-
-l.iKhs furrowed inwards. In the dunghills and putrefcent
foil of Europe : probably a variety of hortulana ?

Tiiom.t:. Black, fmooth ; with black wings ; fides ot
the .ibdomen marked with a faffron line. At Upfal.

CiiRVSANTilEMl. Black, fmooth ; the abdomen red at
rhe bafc ; the antennx incraflated, pilofe. On the chryfan-
thomus coronarius of Spain.

FEunuciN ATA. Black, fmooth ; brown wnngs ; abdomen
brown-ferruginous. South of Europe.

lonANNis. Black, fmooth ; white wings ; black point ;
(hort antennae ; black legs. In fhady parts of Europe.

P0.MOV.B. Black, fmooth ; hyaline wings ; black point ;
ferruginous thighs. In the plains of England and
Norway. ,

RuFicoLMs. Black, fmooth; red thorax. At the
Cape of Good Hope. , , , n.

Brevicornis. Black, fmooth ; with wings blackifh at
the margin ; abdomen brown ; fore-flianks fpinofe. In the
fhady gardens of Europe.

PuTRls. Brown ; the bafe of the wings cinereous. In
the teeming foil at the commencement of fpring.

Febrilis. Black, oblong, hairy ; with blackiih wings.
An European infeft in clofe places.

Insularis. Black, hairy ; with ferruginous legs, hinder
elongated.

FoRciFATA. With cylindric black abdomen ; wings
brown-hyaline ; anus appendiculated. An Englifh infeft.

Vern'aks. Cinereous ; thorax black-hneated ; white
wings fpotted with brown. In meadows of Denmark.

Flobilega. Black, filken. On the apple-flowers of
Europe, which it deftroys.

HoRTULANA. With hyaUne wings ; exterior margin
black. In the flowers of afparagus and apple.

Phal^inoides. With wings deflexed, cinereous, ovate-
knceolated, cihated. In the walls of dunghills and mixens
of Europe.

HiRTA. Hairy ; with wings deflexed, ovate-ciliated,
teffellated with white and black. In Lapland.

Persicarije. Black ; with wings incumbent, fubci-
liated ; under the leaves of the peach-tree.

Notata. Black ; with white wmgs ; with a white fpot
in tiront of the fides of the abdomen. In Europe.

JuNiPEKlNA. Cinereous ; with white wings ; margin
villous ; found in the juniper.

CULICIFORMIS. Cinereous, with pallid legs ; wings
marked with two blackilh fpots. At Upfal.

Incarnata. Incarnated ; with moderate antennae. At
Upfal.

Palustris. Pallid ; black head ; reddifti abdomen. In
marflies of Europe.

LoNGicoRNis. With antennae longer than the incarnated
body. In moifl: places of Europe.

Ro'FiPES. Black ; with red legs ; wings black in the
middle ; yellowifli at the bafe. North of Europe.

Stictica. Black ; fegments of the abdomen white at
the apex ; wings with a brown point. In Germany.

Pallida. Pallid, pilofe ; legs punftated with black.
In Germany.

Hafxiensis. Brown ; lateral line of the thorax and
legs whitifli, unfpotted.

Flabellicornis. Pallid ; abdomen annulated vsrith
black ; wings fpotted. Germany.

BiPUNCTATA. Brown ; wings cinereous ; marginal
point white. Found in Europe.

T I R

Slricea. Black ; back black ; fides of the thorax
bare ; balancers yellow. In Sweden.

MiNLfTissiMA. Yellow ; eyes concurring in the vertex
black. In the ditches of Sweden and Auftria.

PuLicARis. Black ; fides of the thorax, fcutellum, and
abdomen yellow. In the ditches of Europe.

Pennicornis. With antennae bipeftinate ; black body;
halteres, or balancers, white. In the flowers of ai-illolochia
clematis.

ScATHOPSE. Black ; antennae moniliform ; with wings
incumbent hyaline. In the privies of Auftria.

Buxi. Yellow ; head and thorax black ; wings brown
incumbent. In the box-tree of Europe.

Berberina. With wings incumbent, fuliginous ;
fpotted white at the bafe and margin. In the excrefcences
of the barbery.

LuTESCENS. Yellowifh ; three brown fpots on the back ;
antennas plumofe. Found in Europe.

Trifasciata. Ferruginous ; with three bands on the
wings. In Europe.

Multicolor. Yellowifh body ; greenifh abdomen ;
white wings with a brown band. As before.

Alba. Grey ; with white wings and abdomen ; the
apex of the latter brown. As before.

Carsonabia. Black ; legs ferruginous ; wings hya-
line. As before.

Plumicornis. Brown ; antenna brownifh-plumofe ;
legs yellowifh. As before.

DiCHROA. Black ; legs ferruginous. As before.

Leucoptera. Brown ; apex of abdomen and legs pale
yellowifh ; wings white. As before.

Moschifera. Wings cinereous ; thorax and abdomen
yellow. Found in Chili.

TIPULA Wasp. See Wasp Tipula.

TIQUADRA, in Ancient Geography, one of the fmall
iflands fituated near the Balearic iHands, near the town of
Palma.

TIQUINA, in Geography, a town of Peru, in the dio-
cefe of La Paz ; 55 miles N.N.W. of La Paz.

TIR, a town of Perfia, in the province of KhorafFan ;
40 miles N. of Herat. — Alfo, a town of Perfia, in the pro-'
vince of Farfiftan ; 50 miles N.E. of Schiras.

TIRABOSCHI, GiROLAMO, ylbate, in Biography,
author of the beft hiftory of Italian literature which that
country, fertile in men of learning, talle, and talents, has
produced. He was born at Bergamo in 1 731, and is
ftyled Cava/iere by his biographer, and the lail editor of
his Hiftory, in a life prefixed to the index of the fecond
edition, publiflied at Modena in 1794. He had his educa-
tion in the Jefuits' college from fifteen till the abolition of
the order. He was profeffor of eloquence in the univerfity
of Brera at Milan till the year 1770, when he was appointed
prxfeft of the Efte library at Modena, by the intereft of
count Firmian. He firft diftinguifhed himfelf, after this
appointment, by a new edition of the Italian and Latin
Vocabulary of Mandofio ; which work was almoft wholly
new written by him, and correfted and augmented with
the moft refined purity of the two languages ; and the
Latin and Italian orations which he dehvered publicly at
Milan, two of which were printed, and eftabhfhed his
reputation for eloquence.

He dift;inguilhed himfelf during the firft years of his prae-
feftorfhip of the duke of Modena's library, by drawing
up a new catalogue of the manufcripts, books, medals,
gems, and rarities of that celebrated library, and com-
piled the firft volume of his Hiftory of Italian Literature,
publifhed in 1771, which manifefted fuch tafte and folid

learning

T 1 R

T I R

learning as aftonifhed his readers ; but the public in general
was dill more aftonifhed at his finifhing the whole work
in eleven years, confiding of thirteen large volumes in 4to. ;
a work which, by its immcnfe erudition, profound critical
liifcufTions, and judgment in every kind of literature, ac-
quired him tlK- praife of the whole republic of letters.

Befides this threat work, he produced during the fame
period the life of St. Olympia ; ? letter on the comparative
excellence of Italian and Spanilh literature ; the life of Ful-
vio Tello ; the two firft volumes of the Biblioteca Modenefe ;
and all the articles which he furniflied to the twenty-three
iirft volumes of the Giornale di Modena, a kind of review
and hiftory of new books and difcoveries in arts and fciences
within the year.

He was knighted by the duke of Modena, though a re-
■j;ular ecclcfiaftic, and ennobled by his fellow-citizens at
Bergamo. To enable him to proceed in his great work
with more convenience, his patron augmented his appoint-
ment, and gave him an alTiftant in the library.

His correfpondence with the learned throughout Europe
mull have occupied much of his time : as at his deceafe, among
Iiis papers were found materials for twenty-eiglit volumes of
original letters addrelTcd to him as author of the Literary
Hiftory of Italy, and editor of the Giornale di Modena.
In his numerous minor produftions, as well as in thofe of
greater volume and importance, he difcovers himfelf to have
been gifted with a quick penetration, and poffefFed of great
facility in writing, as well as a clear conception of the
works of others, which to have acquired, muft have been
ftudied with conftant application.

This admirable writer died at the age of fixty-two, of a
bloody flux, in 1794.

From this celebrated work, we expefted to acquire new
and authentic information concerning the rife and progrefs
of mufic previous to the fevcnteenth century, in a country
which has taught every other part of Europe all the refine-
ments of the art, a country in which we fought in vain, by
travelling, converfation, and the perufal of all the books
written by the natives which we could procure on the fub-
jeft, to trace the origin of Italian melody. Dull and pe-
dantic elementary books we procured in abundance ; but
fcarcely any that we could read with pleafure, previous to
the eftablilhment of the opera at the beginning of the feven-
teenth century. Quadrio's heavy volumes are filled without
tafte, feleftion, or folicitude concerning the authenticity
of fafts. Padre Martini, unfortunately for modern mufical
hiftory, did not live to finilh his plan ; having advanced no
farther than the ancient mufic of the Greeks.

Tirabofchi is copious on all other parts of literature,
arts, and fciences. It is only on mufic, and mufical writers,
our peculiar refearch, that we have ever found him unfatis-
fadlory : we never confulted him on any other fubjeft
unprofitably. The little he tells us of Pythagoras, Arif-
toxenus, the Etrufcans, and Guido, we had often previoufly
read in innumerable books in various languages.

He fpeaks of the Lyric poetry of the Greeks and Ro-
mans ; but that of the Italians has not furniftied an ar-
ticle. We did hope to be informed what kind of melodies
were fet to the fongs of Dante, Petrarca, and Boccaccio.
We could not reafonably expeft fpecimens of this melody
in notation, any more than prints of piftures and buildings
that are mentioned in his work ; but when a capital work
of Raphael, Michael Angelo, or Palladio is mentioned, we
are generally told where it is to be feen, or at leaft where
it has been feen. Had Tirabofchi told his readers where
the original melodies to the fongs of the old Italian poets

6

were to be found, it would have been a grpat '..tikfadtion
to thofe who confult books for ufcful and lolid information,
or feek in them for any thing but mere ainufement.

Of the laft century he fays nothing, as his plan went
no farther than the end of the fevcnteenth century. And,
indeed, of that period, his information is very fcanty ;
neither Cariffimi nor Stradella, the two bell compofers
which Italy had then produced ; nor among contemporary
theorifts, or writers on harmonics, is any notice taken of
Lemme Rofli, or Daniel Bartoli, authors of two books,
which in a general hiftory of literature ought to have been
mentioned. See Bartoli, and Rossi.

TIRACHEA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Judea,
in the Decapolis, on the coail of the fea of Galilee.

TIRADE, in French Mufic, formerly implied what the
Greeks meant by aywyw, agogo, Huflus, the filling up a wide
interval by the intermediate diatonic notes. (See Greek
Miijic.) But, at prefent, /;V(7(/c feems nearly equivalent to
•volata in Italian ; a divifion, a flight.

TIRAGPIT, in Geography, an ifland in the Atlantic,
near the W. coaft of Ireland ; 8 miles S.W. of Dunmore-
Head.

TIRAMANGALUM, a town of Hindooftan, in Ma-
dura ; 10 miles S.W. of Madura.

TIRAMANY-MUTOO, a river of Hindooftan, which
runs into the Cauvcry ; 8 miles N. of Carroor.

TIRAN. See Tyran.

TIRANADUM, or Tirinadum, in Ancient Geogra-
phy, a town of Africa, in Mauritania Caefariana, on the
route from Carthage to Cjefarea, between Rapidum and
Caput-Cillanum. Anton. Itin.

TIRANDURG, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Myfore ; 12 miles S.S.E. of Ouflbor.

TIRANO, a town of Italy, in the department of the
Lano, late belonging to the Grifons, the capital of the
Upper Terzero, and refidence of a governor called Podefta,
on the Adda, which divides it into two parts, conncfted by a
ftone bridge of a fingle arch : formerly furrounded with walls
by Ludovico Sforza, as a defence againft the Grifons, who de-
ftroyed the fortifications when they gained poftelfion of the
Valtehne. The chief trade is in wine and filk, which is not
confiderable. The wine is fent into the country of the Grifons,
to Bormio, and into the territories of Venice ; the filk, which
is drawn from this diftrift of the Valteline, is not of the befl:
quality, nor very abundant ; part is forwarded to Venice,
and the remainder, through Chiavenna, to Germany. About
half a mile from the town, on the other fide of the Adda,
is the church of the Madonna, or Virgin, much vifited by
Catholic pilgrims ; the modern building annexed to what re-
mains of the old edifice is in an elegant ftyle of architeAure,
and the era of it is 1533, the ancient part having been
erefted in 1 206. In the area before the church is hold the
fair of Tirano, remarkable for the number of cattle brought
hither for fale ; they are fed upon the higheft Alps, where
they continue until the fnow begins to fall, and are chiefly
fent from hence into Italy. The fair is in Oftober, and
lafts three days, during which time the authority of the
podefta is fufpended, and the governor of the Valteline hag
abfolute jurifdiAion over the town and the diftrift ; 24
miles E.N.E. of Morbegno.

TIRANY, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ;
3 miles N. of Ootatore.

TIRATA, in old Italian Mujic, implied a regular af-
cent or defcent of notes of the fame kind ; but, at prefent,
the term has a more extenfive acceptation than its original
import, draivn out: as when a fubjeft is weU treated, pro-

dudive

T r R

T 1 R

dite^ivc of beautiful pafl'.igcs, mack- the molt of by a com-
pofer ; it is liicn faid to be ben Itnilo.

TIRBl A, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Catalonia ;
l6 miles N.VV. of Urgel."

TIRE, or, as the feamcn pronounce it, tier of guns.
See TiKii.

TIREBOLI, in Geography, a river of Turkiai Aimc-
nia, which runs into the Black fea at Tireboli. — AUo, a
town of Tiirkilh Armenia, on the Black fea, at the mouth
of a river of the fame name ; 20 miles N.E. of Kei-efour.

TIREH, a town of Afiatic Tmkey, in Natolia, lituated
on tile Meinder ; the inhabitants are chiefly Turks: 32
miles S.S.E. of Smyrna. N. lat. 38° 8'. E. long, zf 40'.

TIRES of lyheels, in Rural Economy, the ilr.ips, flips,
bands, or hoops of iron which are put round them for the
purpofe of guarding and protecting them againft the effetts
of the roads, as well as fecuring and keeping them tight in
their different parts. The molt advantageous and beneficial
form of tire for wheels of different kinds and breadths in
different points of view, have probably not yet been well al-
certaincd. It is obvious, however, that it (hould be fuch
as may have the lead poflible tendency to penetrate and
deltroy the furfaces on which tiie wheels aft and move. It
woidd appear, that almolt all of thofe who have written on
this fubjeft, have gone upon a wrong or falfe principle ;
nearly all having directed that the exterior furface,
wlien more bands than one are ufed, as in the cafe of
broad-whcelcd waggons, fiiould be unequal ; in fuch a man-
ner as that tlie centre band may receive the whole of the
preffure, when the road is even and compofed of hard ma-
terials ; the other bands being only in readinefs to fuitain
their portions of the burthen, when, either from unevennefs
or the want of firmnefs in it, they may be brought into
contadt with it.

It is well known, however, to every one, that it is the
nature of a wedge to work its way, when forcibly applied
to a cleft or opening ; and that the extent of its penetration
will depend on the fliarpnefs or acutenefs of its wedge-
form, and the power by which it is impelled. Admitting
this to be the faCt, it is plain that every wheel, the tire of
which afts in the fmalleit degree as a wedge, muft enter a
loofe foil, furface, or road, more or lefs, in proportion as
its edge or projection is more or lefs acute and protruding,
or the contrary.

A roUing cylinder is not eafily capable of penetrating
below the furface, for tliis reafon, that it prefents no one
protruding point ; but where a rolling body fw-ells out in a
projefting manner in the middle, it will unqueftionably aft
or work deeper in that part where it is the moil promi-
nent, than in any other, as it is a fort of obtufe wedge.
And fuch muft be the cafe in every wheel of which the
tire is not cylindrical ; as when its protruding part gets
in, the whole body foon finds its way.

A broad flat tire is not, however, without its inconve-
nience ; as, whether the road be good or bad, it prefents
the fame furface, and, of courfe, is as much refifted in its
front, while on a hard furface, as while on one into which it
finks. Confequently, the cylindrical tire can never draw
light and free, though it will not by any means penetrate
deeply into any tolerably found furface.

Flat tires are probably, however, the befl of any for
narrow wheels.

In confequence of the above, it has been propofed by
fomc, that every wheel fhould be furnifhed with a conca-ve
or hollow tire which is cylindrical ; but, that after leaving
two rims, of proportionate breadth, at the edges, the whole

intermediate fpace (hould be fcooped out, or otherwife hol-
lowed. By this means, on hard roads, the wheel would
ride on the two rims only : while on foft roads, the whole
would bear up the burthen. All fuch wheels, the tires
of which have even the fmalleft tendency to a wedge-hke
form, invariably, it is faid, throw the foil or earth from
tiiem ; fquee/.ing it out at the fides, and burying them-
felves, not only in the furrows they make, but under the
very mud which they force from out of them : while, on
the contrary, the concave tire, it is fuppofed, keeps in the
fott foil, unlefs, indeed, it be in an abfolutely floppy Hate,
and forces it, by compreihon, to bear up tlie weight or
burthen. It is obferved, that let two wheels be tried on
a meadow which is not very firm in its furface, the cylin-
drical tired wheel will, an"uredly, aft better than that with
a receding or convex edged fort of tire ; but that the con-
cave tired wheel could not, it is believed, fail to difplay
its fuperiority in feveral of the molt defirable points and
refpefts.

Let it be fuppofed that the tire of a waggon-wheel is
nine inches in breadth, and cylindrical : at the two edges
leave a band of one inch in breadth, or more ; then groove
out the intermediate fpace, to an inch and a half in depth
iu the centre, rounding it in gradually. Such a tired
wheel would, it is faid, on a hard road, prefent only two
inches of bearing ; while the refiilance would gradually in-
creafe in proportion as the incumbent weight, and the
foftnefs of the furface over which it may be proceeding,
fliould bring the whole to bear in an equal manner. The
foft foil could not elcape fo calily, at leaft, it is conceived,
from under a concave tire, as thofe of the oppofite kind,
confequently it could not add to the exterior impediments
of wheels.

It mult neverthelefs be admitted, it is faid, that the con-
cav" tire is liable to fome diladvantage ; for inftance, it will
at times clog, and, poffibly, not only choke its own groove,
but even accumulate confiderably more ; which will adhere
to the clay and other matters with which the groove may
be filled. In this way, it would, iu faft, it is thought, be-
come, iu a certain meafure, cylindrical. But that if it did
no more than fill its groove on heavy foils, it would not
prove fo highly objeftionable ; for, on fuch, the whole
breadth of the tire ought to prefs the foil or furface.

The remedy fuggelled for the above inconvenience, in
fuch cafes, is that of a fuitable fixed fcraper, which has no
difficulty in it, at leaft, for carriages on one pair of wheels,
or for the hind wheels of waggons. Such a fcraper, and
the mode of fixing it in fuch cafes, may be feen defcribed in
fpeaking of fcrapers for different kinds of implements,
tools, &;c.

Thefe hints and fuggeitions may be ufeful in leading to
farther improvements on the tires of wheels, which is a
matter of great importance in different points of view, and
which, as has been feen, has yet been thought but little
upon in a proper manner. See Wheel.

TIREYMEG Lake, in Geography, a lake of North
America. N. lat. 61° 52'. W. long. 107°.

TIRGUBIS, or TiGUBl, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Afia, in Mefopotamia, on the banks of the river Cha-
boras, according to the Thcodofian table and Ptolemy ;
fituated N.W. of Refaina.

TIRGUL, in Geography, a town of European Turkeyj
in Moldavia ; 62 miles W. of Jaffy.

TIRGULFORMOSA, a town of European Turkey,
in Moldavia ; 20 miles W. of Jaffy.

TIRING.

T I R

T J R

TIRING, in Falconry, is the giving a hawk the leg or
pinion of a fowl to pluck at. Didl. Rull.

TIRIPANGADA, in Ancient Geogrtiphy, a town of
India, on this fide of the Ganges. PtoL

TIRIPIN, in Geography, a fea-port of South America,
in the province of Cumana.

TIRISTA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Lower
Myfia, near the Danube, between Trimaninm and Duruf-
torum, Ptol.

TIRISTRIA, or Tetrisia, a promontory of Lower
Myfia, on the Euxine fea, between Dionyfopolis and
Odcffus. Ptol.

TIRKA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the king-
dom of Ghana, on the north fide of the Niger ; 120 miles
E. of Ghana. N. lat. 15° 20'. E. long. 14° 30'.

TIRLEMONT, a town of France, in the department
of the Dyle, called by the people of the country T'lenen ;
on the Geete. It was anciently one of the prnicipal cities
of Brabant, and made a fourth quarter in the affembly of
the States ; but that precedence was afterwards removed
to Bois-le-Dnc. It certainly has been a very flounfhing
and populous city, and many veftiges of its grandeur are
yet vifible ; but it has fuffered much by war, and other ca-
lamities ; 9 miles S.E. of Louvaine.

TIRMAKUL, a fort of Hindooftan, near Gooty,
taken by the Britifh in 180 1.

TIRMANIZ, a mountain extending from Bnkovina to
Tranfylvania.

TIRNA, a river of Hungary, which runs into the Da-
nube, a few miles below Prefburg.

TIRNAU,atown of Hungary, containing nine churches,
and as many convents. This town was built in the thir-
teenth century ; 20 miles E.N.E. of Prefburg. N. lat.
48-2.'. E. long. I 7° 44'.

TIROAN. See Tarox.

TIROCOOR, a tovsn of Plindooftan, in Golconda ;
8 miles S. of Calloor.

TIRRETO, a town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra ;
15 miles E.S.E. of Reggio.

TIRROUP-MEW, a town of the Birman empire : the
meaning of the word is the Chinefe city, and the appellation
was derived from a viftory obtained over the Chinefe fome
centuries ago, when they invaded Birmali ; 35 miles N.E.
of Paghan.

TIRSjE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Macedonia,
in Mygdonia.

TI'RSCHENRIED, in Geography, a town of Bavar/a ;
28 miles N.N.E. of Amberg.

TIRSCHNITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Kaurzim ; 4 miles N.W. of Koftcletz.

TIRSIO, in Ichthyology, a name given by Gaza and fome
other authors to the phocasna of Willughby and others,
the porpcjfe or marfum. Phny, Bellonius, and many others
call It tiirfio.

TIRSRUM, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Eaft
Gothland ; 25 miles S. of Linkioping.

TIRUA, a fmall ifiand in the Pacific ocean, near the
coall of Chili. N. lat. 38° 30'.

TIRUAN, a town of Hindooftan, in Bundelcund ; 20
miles N.E. of Callinger.

TIRUMBORE, a town of Hindooftan, in Madura;
7 miles N.E. of Madura.

TIRUN, or Tedong, a name given to tribes who live
chiefly on the N.E. coaft of Borneo, and are reckoned a
favage and piratical race, addicted to eating the flefh of
their enemies. Their language is peculiar. It is probable,

however, that they are only a tribe of Idan, who are ima-
gined to be only a race of Haraforas or Alfoers, as they
are termed by the Dutch, who fecm to be the moft original
race of all the caftern iflands, excepting perhaps the Papuas.
Tlie Idan are fometimes termed Marut ; they are certainly
the original inhabitants of Borneo, and refcmble the Hara-
foras equally in ftature, agility, colour, and manners. The
Haraforas are indigenous in almoll all the eallern ifles, and
are fometimes found on the fame ifiand with the Papuas or
oriental negroes. They are often lighter in colour than the
Mahometan races, and generally excel them in ftrength
and activity. They are univerfally rude and unlettered, and
where they have not been reduced to the ftate of flaves of
the foil, their manners have a general refcmblance. In their
manners, the moft fingular feature is the neceffity impofed
on every perfon, of lomc time in his life cmbruing his hands
in human blood ; and, in general, among all their tribes, as
well as the Idan, no perfon is permitted to marry, till he
can ftiew the flcuU of a man whom he has flaughtered.
They cat the flefli of their enemies, like the Battas, and
drink out of their fivulls ; and the ornaments of their houfes
are human flf ulls and teeth, which are confequently in great
requeft among them, as formerly in Sumatra, the ancient
inhabitants of which are faid to have originally had no other
money than the flfulls of their enemies. The Haraforas are
found in all the Moluccas, in Celebes, the Philippines, ar.d
Mag-indano, where they are termed Subano or Manubo ;
and the ferocious race mentioned by Marfden, who live
inland from Samanka in Sumatra, and are accuftomed to
atone their own faults by offering the heads of ftrangers to
the chiefs of their villages, are probably of the fame de-
fcription. Af. Rcf. vol. x.

TIRUVELORE, a town of Hindooftan, in the Car-
natic ; 30 miles E. of Tanjore.

TIR-Y, or Tyuie, one of the ifl.inds of the Hebrides,
fituated in the diftrift of Mull, and fliire of Argyle, Scot-
land, is about 1 1 miles in length, and 2-| miles in breadth.
Its coaft is moftly rocky, and interfefted with many beautiful
fandy bays, fome of them a mile broad. About one-half of
the furface is arable, interfperfed with fmall rocks and rifing
grounds, none of which are above 250 feet above the fea-
level ; but the furface in general is fo even, that the
waves are often feen from the one fhore rifing apparently
feveral feet above the level of the other. In the centre of
the ifiand is a large plain, which contains about 1200 Scotch
acres, and is elevated about fix feet only above high-water
mark : confequently, in ftormy weather the fea often meets
acrofs this plain, and is produ£live of bad confequences.
The inhabitants have endeavoured to avert this evil by
building a defence of ftone and earth on the one fide,
while the fea, on the other, has raifed a confiderable barrier
of bowlder ftones ; yet neither has been fufficient to re-
fift the waves of the Atlantic. Here are fevei-al lakes,
covering in all about 600 acres : in one of thefe is a fmall
ifiand, on which are the ruins of an ancient caftle, on the
fcitc whereof a neat houfe has been eredted for the refidence
of the faftor of the duke of Argyle, who is proprietor of
the whole ifiand. The fifiteries employ a number of hands,
as well as the manufacture of kelp, of which .^bout 245
tons are annually made. The hill of Cean-Mharra, the
weftern point of the ifiand, is remarkable for a great num-
ber of large natural caves, frequented by innumerable flocks
of fea-fowls. Here are the remains of many Danifli forts,
and alfo of feveral old chapels, at fome of which burying-
grounds and croftes are ftill vifible. In the time of St.
Columba, this appears to have been part of the patrimony

of

T I S

T I T

o( tint churcli. Here i« a parochial fchool, and alfo one
ertablilhed by the Society tor Promoting Chriftian Know-
ledge, both of which are well attended. The population
of the parilh (which compreliends the iflands of Coll,
Gunna, and Tir-y) was, in the year 1811, eftimated at
3 1 86. There is a regular ferry from Tir-y to CoU, three
miles dillant, which is often dangerous, owing to a heavy
fwell from the Atlantic, and a rapid current over rocks and
Ihifting fands. The two iflands appear to have been for-
merly united : the ifle of Gunna, which lies in the found,
being apparently part of the intermediate land which has
efcaped dcllruftion. — Beauties of Scotland, vol. v. Car-
lille's Topographical DitHonary of Scotland, vol. ii.

TIRYNS, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Argo-
lide, N. of Midea, fituated in an cnclofurc ot the moun-
tains ; called anciently Halicis, or the town of filhermen,
from its having been the abode of the Hermionean fifher-
men. In the time of Paufanias it was in ruins.

TISiEUS, or Tis.'EUM, a very lofty mountain of
Theffaly.

TISALPHATA, a town of Mefopotamia, fituated W.
of the Tigris, on one of the fmall rivers which difcharged
themfelves into the Mygdonius.

TISBURY, in Geography, a fmall fifliing town on the
N. coaft of Martha's Vineyard, belonging to the ftate of
Mafiachufetts.

TISCHNOWITZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle
of Brunn ; 13 miles N.W. of Brunn.

TISDRA, TuSDRO, or Thyfdrus, in jlncient Geography,
a town of Africa, fix leagues S.W. of Sarfura and five
hagues S.W. of Achola. It has many ancient relics of
altars, infcriptions, columns, and fragments of marble (latues ;
and alfo the remains of an amphitheatre.

TISEBARICA, a country of Ethiopia, according to
Arrian, which commenced near the port of Berenice, and
extended along the Red fea, as far as the country of the
Mofchophagi.

TISHEET, in Geography, a town of Africa, with a
fait -mine ; 150 miles N. of Benown. N. lat. 17° 20".
W. long. 26^ 50'.

TISHOLTZ, a town of Hungary ; 10 miles E.N.E.
of Libctcn.

TISIDIUMj in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa,
the command of which, according to Salluft, was given by
Metellus to Jugurtha.

TISIPHONE, in Mythology, one of the three Furies.
■She is reprefented by the poets with vipers, fometimes as
loofe ferpents, intermixed with her hair, and fometimes as
fcrpents growing from her head inftead of hair. As (lie is
one of the chief of all the infernal executioners, her robe
is defcribed either as dropping with frefii blood, or ftiff
with human gore : this robe is faftened round her with a
f'-rpcnt inllead of a girdle ; and (lie has fometimes vipers
twifted round her arms inftead of bracelets. They fome-
times give her a torch in her hand wet with blood ; fome-
times a torch in one hand and a ferpent in the other ; and
fometimes ferpents in both. Statins, Thcb. i. v. 91. v. 1 1 1.
V. 113. Theb. vii. v. 467. Ovid. Met. iv. v. 483. v. 490.
T. 495. v. 510.

TISMANA, in Geography, a town of Walachia, at the
fourcc of a river of the fame name ; 18 miles W. of Ter-
gofyl — Alfo, a river of Walachia, which runs into the
Syl, 15 miles S. of Tergofyl.

TISQUIUU Lake, a lake of North America. N, lat.
56' 10'. W, long. 95° 45'.

TISRI, or lizRi, in Chronology, the firft Hebrew

month of the civil year, and the feventh of the ecclefiaftical
or facred year.

The Hebrews call it rajh-hajhanna, that is, the beginning
of the year. It anfwered to part of our September and
Oftober. On the firft day of this month was kept the
feaft of trumpets, becaufe the beginning of the year was
then proclaimed by found of trumpets. On this day they
refrained from all forts of fervile bufinefs, and offered in
facrifice a calf, a ram, and feven lambs. Levit. xxiii. 24.
Numb. xxix. 1.

The tenth day of this month was the great day of expia-
tion, and on the fifteenth the feaft of Tabernacles began,
which lafted till the twenty-fecond day inclufively. See

SCENOPEGIA.

TISSA, in Ancient Geography, -d. fmall town of Sicily,
at the northern foot of jEtna, near the river Onobala.
Ptol.

TISSANAH, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Sumbul ; 16 miles S.W. of Sumbul.

TISSIA, a town of Bengal ; 35 miles S.E. of Pa-
lamow.

TISSUE, Cellular, in Anatomy, the cellular fub-
ftance. It is an expreflion borrowed from the tiffu cellulaire
of the French, who alfo often call it tijju muqneuv. S^re
Cellular Subjlance.

TISTE, in Geography, a poft-town of Germany, in thu
county of Verden ; 20 miles N.E. of Rotenburg.

TISURUS, TozER, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Africa Propria, S. of Adrametum, and 4 leagues S.W.
of Tichafa. It has fome Roman remains.

TIT, in Geography, a town of Morocco, near the At-
lantic ocean ; 8 miles S.W. of Mazagan.

Tit, in Rural Economy, a term provincially applied to a
fmall ftiff horfe, or fort of poncy, and fometimes to other
horfes, as a handfome or ugly tit, &c.

TITALBARY, in Geography, a town of Bengal j 20
miles N.N.W. of Goragot.

TITALEEA, a town of Bengal ; 6 miles E. of Moor-
ftiedabad.

TITALLYA, a town of Bengal; 50 miles N. of
Dinagepour.

TITAN. See Levant.

TITANA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Sicyonia,
E. of the river Sitas, and W. of the river Afopus ; fitu-
ated on a mountain, and regarded as a fortified town. Here
was a temple of Efculapius, and a ftatue of this god ; and
alfo a ftatue of Hygeia. In the temple of Efculapius were
noui'ilhed facred ferpents Alfo, a fmall country of Sicy-
onia. — Alfo, a river of Afia, which had its fource in
mount Zagrus, and flowed into the river Sillas.

TITANIA, Tnaiix, in Antiquity, a feftival in memory
of the Titans.

TITANID.S, or Artemid.=e, the feven daughters of
Chronus, fon of Uranu5, by Aftarte.

TITANIS, in Ancient Geography, a port on the wcftern
coaft of Corfica, between the mouth of the river Ticarius
and the town of Fifera. Ptol.

TITANIUM, in Mineralogy, a metal originally dif-
covered by Mr. Gregor of Cornwall, in the grains of a
black mineral found in the bed of a rivulet in the valley of
Menaian, in that county. It occurs alfo in different ftates
of oxydation or intermixture in various parts of the world;
and, according to the recent obfervations of M. Cordier, is
a conftituent part of moft volcanic rocks. The oxyd of
titanium is reduced by expofure to an intenfe heat, being
previoufly moiftened with oil and furrounded by powdered

charcoal.

TITANIUM.

aarcoal. A blaekilh bliftered fubllance is obtained, which

as a reddith colour in fome points. According to Lampa-
Jius, its colour rofembles that of copper, but is deeper, and
the luftre is confiderablc. It is brittle, but when in thin'
plates, its eiaftlcity is confiderable, r

When titanium is boiled witii nitric acid, no remarkable
efFeft enfues, but the briglit fpots difapprar, and are fuc-
ceeded by a white compound. Nitro-niuriatic acid forms
alfo a white powder, which remains fufpended in it. Sul-
phuric acid exliibits a fimilar appearance, fulphurous acid
is difengagcd, and the titanium is partly changed to a white
oxyd, and partly diflblved. Muriatic acid ditTolves tita-
nium, but not its oxyd.

The folution of titanium gives a white precipitate with
alkaline carbonates, a grafs-green mixed with brown with
pruffiate of pota(h, and a dirty dark green with the hydro-
fulphurets. Infufiou of galls precipitates a reddifh-brown
fubllance, which, if the folution be concentrated, has the
appearance of blood. A rod of tin immerfed in the folu-
tion imparts to the liquid round it a fine red colour, and a
rod of zinc a deep blue.

Titanium tarniflies by expofure to the air, and is oxy-
dized when heated in contaA with it. It can exift in three
ftates of oxydation ; the firll is blue or purple, the fecond
red, and the third white. The white oxyd is the only one
the compofition of which is accurately known. It has
been (liewn by Vauquelin and Hecht to confift of eighty
parts of red oxyd, and eleven of oxygen. Titanium has
not yet been combined with fulphur, but has been com-
bined by Mr. Chenevix with phofphorUs.

The only alloy of any confequence which it forms is with
iron ; it is of a grey colour, interfperfed with brilliant par-
ticles, and is quite infufible. The above are the principal
properties of this metal which have yet been difcovered :
it has not hitherto been applied to any ufeful purpofe in the
arts.

The ores of titanium have been divided into fix fpecies
by mineralogifts ; viz. menachanite, iferine, nigrine, fphene,
rutile, and oftahedrite.

Menachanite is fo called from the valley of Menaian, in
Cornwall, where it was originally foimd. It occurs alfo
on the (hores of the ifland of Providence, and in the vici-
nity of Richmond, in the United States of America ; and
alfo at Botany Bay, in New South Wales. It is found in
fmall angular grains, which are of a greyifli or iron-black
colour, and have a rough glimmering furface. From its
appearance it has been confounded with iron-fand, but its
magnetic attraftion is much v.-eaker : it is lefs hai-d, and may
be diftinguilhed by its frafture, and particularly by the
lufti-e, which approaches to femi-metallic. The fraAure is
imperfeftly foliated : the fragments are angulai' and fharp-
edged, and it is pcrfeftly opaque. It yields to the knife,
retaining its colour in the (Ireak. It is opaque and brittle.
The fpecific gravity, according to Gregor, is 4.427 ; but as
given by Lampadius, is 4.270. Menachanite is infufible by
the blowpipe without addition, but tinges borax of a
greenifh-brown colour. Its conlUtuent parts, according to
Klaproth, are

Cornivall.

Oxyd of iron
Oxyd of titanium
Oxyd of manganefe
Silex

5 1. CO

45-25
0.25

3-50

100

Botany Bay,

According to Chenevix :

Oxyd of iron

Oxyd of titanium -

Silex ...

49
40
II

lOO

Ifcnne is fo called from having been originally found near
the fource of the river Ifer, in Silefia: it is dilfeminated in
granitic fand, with iron-fand. It occurs alfo with fimilar
fand in the bed of the river Don, in Aberdeenfhire. It is
fufpeAed by profelfor Jamefoii to be afTociated with trap,
rocks ; and from the obfervations of M. Cordier, that it is
found as a conllituent part of lava, this opinion is rendered
the more probable. Iferine is of a brownifli iron-black colour.
It is found in fmall grains and rolled pieces, with a rough
and glinimeriiig furface. The internal luftre is femi-nwtallic.
Its frafture is conchoidal, which diilinguifhes it from mena-
chanite, to which it bears a near refeniblance. The fpe-
cific gravity is 4.5. Before the blowpipe it melts into a
blacki ill -brown coloured glafs, which is fliglitly attrafted
by the magnet. The mineral acids have no fenfible effeft
on it, but the acid of fugar extrafts a portion of the
titanium. According to Dr. Thompfon, its conftituent
parts are

Oxyd of titanium - - 48
Oxyd of iron - - 48

Oxyd of uranium - - 4

Nigrine ; Titane oxycle ferrifere of Haiiy, is fo called on
account of its colour, which inclines to a velvet -black. It
occurs, like the preceding fpecies, in angular grains and in
rolled pieces. The external luftre is ghftening, that of the
frafture fhining : the ftrufture is imperfeSly foliated. It is
opaque, and harder than menachanite. Nigrine is brittle, and
gives a yellowifti ftreak. The fpecific gravity varies from
3.700 to 4.740. It is not attrafted by the magnet, and is
infufible by the blowpipe, but with the addition of borax
melts to a tranfparent hyacinth red globule. The acid of
fugar extrafts the titanium from this ore. It is found in
alluvial ground in Tranfylvania, Bavaria, and the ifland
of Ceylon : it occurs alfo in the granite of the Uralian
mountains.

The conftituent parts of nigrine are given as tinder :

Tranfylvai

Oxyd of titanium
Oxyd of iron
Oxyd of manganefe

Klaproth.
84

14

2

100

The Uralian Mountains.

Oxyd of titanium

Oxyd of iron ...

Low it z.

53

47

100

Vol. XXXV.

OUahedrite ; Scharl l!eu, Rome de Lifie ; Titaite anatafe,

Haiiy. This ore of titanium is fo called from its conftant

occurrence in cryftallized forms, which are varieties of the

4 Z odlaliedron.

T I T

oAaJiedron. The crydals are fmall ; the fiirface i» tranf-
verfely llri:iti-J, and lias a femi-metallic luftrc : the internal
1 iJlre is alfo fpiciident. The llnithire is foliated. This
mineral is more or Icfs femi-tranfparent ; it fcratches glafs,
and is brittle. The fprcifie gravity, according to Haiiy,
is 3.8571. The colour of oAahidrite is indigo-blue, paffing
through many fli.ides to brown. It is infufible by the blow-
pipe, but with borax it forms a reddilli-brown coloured
glafs. At the extremity of the flame, the brown colour
changes to blue, and becomes opaque ; by the continued
aAion of the blowpipe, the brown colour reappears, and
may be again changed by variation of temperature. This
mineral is rare : it occurs in veins with felfpar, axinite,
rock-cryrt.il, and chlorite, in the primitive rocks of Dau-
phiny, and in drufy cavities in limeftone, at Hadeland, in
Norway.

Sphiiit- and Rul'iL: — Thcfe ores of titanium have been al-
ready defcribed. (See Sphexe and RuTiLE.) In addition
to thofe articles we may ftate, that common fpheiie has been
difcOTCred in fmall cryftals In the fienite of the mountains in
Galloway, and on the fouth fide of Loch-Nefs ; in the
granite of Bennevis and Aberdeen ; and alfo in other parts
of Scotland. Rutile has alfo been difcovered in the granite
of Cairngorum, and near to Beddgelert, in Carnarvonlhire.

TITANOS, a word ufed by fome authors to exprefs
lime; by others for the calx of burnt gypfum or plafter of
Paris, and by others a lixivium of quicklime.

TITANS, TiTANES, TiTK.-!, in the Ancient Mythology,
the fons of Uranus or Coelus, and Vefta, or Titsa, or Terra,
i. e. of Heaven and Earth, according to Hefiod and Apollo-
dorus ; or, which comes to the fame thing, of ^thcr and
Tellus, according to Hyginus. They are faid to have
derived their name from their mother, and hence the moft
ancient fabulous hiftories have made them pafs for fons of
the Earth. ApoUodorus reckons fix Titans ; Oceanus,
Coelus, Hyperion, Crius, lapetus, and Saturn or Cronus :
Hyginus alfo reckons fix, w'z. Briareus, Gyges, Sterope,
Atlas, Hyperion, and Cottus ; but he feems to include
the hundred-handed giants in the number, which ApoUodorus,
and the generality of mythologifts, diftinguifh from the
Titans.

The tradition is, that Coelus, by the fame wife Vefta,
had Briareus, Gyges, and Cottus, the hundred-handed
giant;, and had chained them up in Tartarus : Vefta, the
earth, their mother, refenting this treatment, raifed the
Titans againft their father, her hufband : all, excepting
Oceanus, made war upon him and dethroned him, letting up
Saturn in his place.

Saturn, it fecms, proved no more favourable to them
than his father ; but continued the giants in their prifon.
Upon this, Jupiter revolted againft Saturn ; ferving him as
he had done Coelus ; and refcued the three giants ; who
afterw^ards proved of great fervice to him in the war which
the Titans waged againft him.

This war lafted ten years : but at length the Titans were
vanquiftied ; Jupiter remained in peaceable poffeflion of
heaven ; and the Titans were buried under huge mountains
thrown on their heads.

Hyginus gives another origin of the Titans : he derives
them from Titan, Saturn's eldeft brother, by Coelus and
Vefta; who, though prefumptive heir of heaven, yet finding
his father and mother more inclined for Saturn than for him,
furrendered to him his right of fucceflion, on condition he
ftiould not bring up any male child, that the empire of heaven
might revert to liis own iffue the Titans.

But Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, having been afterwards
Javed by the artifice of Ops, Titan, and liis fons the Titans,

T I T

made war on Saturn, who had difpoflefled his father Uranus
of the throne, and acquired an extenfive empire, vanquiftif'
and imprifoned him ; thus he continued in the power of Ir.
enemies, till Jupiter, who had been conveyed by his mothei;
Rhea for fafety to the ifle of Crete, being grown up,
left Crete, m ide war on the Titans, and delivered his
father.

Having re-eftabliflied him on the throne, he returned to
the place of his retreat. Saturn afterwards reigned for fome
time in tranquillity ; but upon confulting an oracle, he re-
ceived information that he would be cxpofed to danger
from the yoangeft of his fons. Accordingly he recurred to
all poflible means for getting aid of Jupiter. Having fought
him in Crete, he was betrayed and conftrained to make a
hafty retreat into the Pelopounefus. Thither Jupiter pur-
fued him, and obliged him to take fanctuary in Italy, under
the protetlion of Janus.

The Titans, thus difperfed through feveral countries of
Greece, being jealous of the power of this new conqueror,
as they had been of his father's, levied troops againft Saturn,
and gave him battle ; but being defeated, they retired into
the interior parts of Spain, whither Saturn followed them.
Jupiter fought them out in their retreat, and beat them for
the laft time near Tarteffus, and with this battle terminated
the vi'ar, which had lafted ten years. Saturn made his efcape
into Sicily, and there, as it is faid, died from grief. With
this laft viftory, and the death of Saturn, commenced the
reign of Jupiter. During the war of the Titans, Atlas
feized on thofe provinces of Africa which were remote from -
the centre of the empire. Pluto was fettled governor of
the weftern parts of the empire of the Titans, of the Gauls,
and Spain, which government, after the death of Pluto, was
given to Mercury, who is faid to have become the great
divinity of the Celta; ; and Jupiter referved to himfelt the
whole Eaft, that is, Greece, the Ifles, and that part of
Afia whence his anceftors came. For the explication of
the fable that reprefents the Titans as thruft down to
Tartarus by Saturn, fee Tartarus.

The moll judicious among our mythologifts, fuch as
Gerard VofTius, Marfliam, Bochart, and father Thomaflln,
are of opinion that the partition of the world among the fons
of Noah, Shem, Ham, and Japhet, was the original of the
tradition of the fame partition among Jupiter, Neptune, and
Pluto; and hence they have been led to form comparifons
between the three fabulous princes, and the three fons of the
patriarch. Accordingly the learned Pezron contends that the
divifion which was made of this vaft empire, came in after-
times to be taken for the partition of the world : that Afia
remaining in the hands of Jupiter, the moft potent of the
three brothers, made him be looked upon as the god of
Olympus, a celebrated mountain where he had his refidence,
and which was afterwards taken for heaven itfelf : that the
fea and iflands which fell to Neptune, occafioncd their givang
him the title of god of the fea : and that Spain, the ex-
tremity of the then known world, thought to be a very low
country in refpeft of Afia, and famous for its excellent
mines of gold and filver, falling to Pluto, occafioned him to
be taken for the god of the infernal regions. However
this be, the empire of the Titans, according to the ancients,
was very extenfive. Thefe princes were poffefled of
Phrygia, Thrace, a part of Greece, the ifland of Crete, and
feveral other provinces, to the inmoft receffes of Spain. To
thefe Sanchoniathon feems to join Syria ; and Diodorus adds
a part of Africa and the kingdoms of Mauritania.

F. Pezron, in his Antiquity of the Celts, makes that
people to be the fame with the Titans ; and their princes
the fame with the giants in Scripture. According to him,

the

T I T

tlie Titans were the dcfcendants of Gomer, the fon of
Japhet. He adds, that tlie word Titan is perfett Celtic,

• and derives it from t'lt, earth, and (hn or ten, man : and hence
it was the Greeks alfo called them very properly •ynyivsis, q. d.
teirigiiitt, earth-born.

Banicr obferves, that although moft of the ancients have
confounded the giants (fee RM Giants) with the
Titans, they ought to be' dilliiiguiflied. The latter, he
fays, were of an illuftrious family, and extended their empire
over one part of the world ; the others were fo many banditti
difperfed over ThefTaly, who occafioned great trouble to
the Titans. Hefiod diiliiiguiflies them from one another,
and Hates' that the giants were not born till long after tlie

~ overthrow of the Titans, and after the wars which thefe
carried on againft the others. The occafion of confounding
them feems to have been, that both the giants and the
Titans made war upon the gods ; with this difference, that
the Titans, though of the fame race, had often feparate
interells ; fome taking part with Saturn, and others of them
with Jupiter : whereas the giants were a gang of robbers,
who had a defign equally upon all the Titans. Both giants
and Titans were reprefented as fons of Heaven and Earth,
and hence they have been confounded, for want of con-
fidering, what Apollodorus fays, that Earth brought fortli
the giants only bccaufe flie was incenfed againll Jupiter
for keeping the Titans flint up in Tartarus. Thus the
Titans were born long before the giants.

The Titans, according to the learned Mr. Bryant, were
thofe Cuthites, or fons of Chus, called giants, who were
employed in building the tower of Babel, and who were
afterwards <lifperfed. See Dispersion of Mankind.

He fuppofes that they were denominated from their reli-
gion and place of worfliip, T'lt^ta, which is reprefented as
the mother of thefe people, being compounded of Th-a'ia,
and fignifying literally a breajl of earth, analogous to tjtOos
«i.-;.: of the Greeks, and therefore expreffing the figure as
well as the materials of the ancient altars, which confifted of

, a conical hill of earth, in the fhape of a woman's breafl.
Thefe altars were alfo called Ttt-an and Tit-anis, from the
great fountain of light, flyled y/« and ylnls. Hence many
places were called Titanis and Tltana, where the worfhip of
the fun prevailed ; for Anes and Hanes fignified the fountain
of light or fire. Titana was fometimes expreffed Tithana,
and by the lonians Tithena ; and Tilhena was faid to be the
nurfe of the Titans. But Titaea their mother, and Tithena
their nurfe, were all of the fame nature, I'/c. altars raifed of
foil. Hefiod, in his account of the difperfion of the Titans,
and of the feuds which preceded (Thcogon. ver. 676, 5:c.),
fays that the Deity at laft interpofed, and put the Titans to
flight, and condemned them to refide in Tartarus at the ex-
tremities of the earth ; but Mr. Bryant obferves, that he has
confounded the hiftory by fuppofing the giants and Titans to
have been different perfons. The fons of Chus, he fays,
•were the aggreffors in thofe afts of rebelhon defcribed by
the poets as the vv'ar of the giants, who were alfo reprefented
under the charafter of the Titanians. The fiftions of the
poets with regard to the banifhment of the Titans after
their war againfl heaven, took their rife from this true
hiftory. A large body of Titanians, after the difperfion,
fettled in Mauritania, upon the Atlantic ocean, which is the
region flyled Tartarus, and reprefented as the realms of
night, becaufe it was fituated in refpedl fo Greece towards
the regions of the fetting fun. The term ^o'a;, by which
it was expreffed, fignified both the well and darknefs ; as
did alio Ereb, ^"ly, whence Erebus, which was alfo
another name for Tartarus, to which the poets condemned
the Titans and giants. The firfl war of the Titans, accord-

r 1 T

ing to this ir.^-enious writer, confiflcd in afts of apo/lasy
and rebellion againll heaven : and this refers to that part of
the hiflory of the fons of Chus, which reprefents them as
building a miglity city in the region, wliich they liad
ufurped, and crefting a lofty tower, to prevent their being
fcattered abroad : but there was another war in vviiich they
were engaged with men, which happened in coiifecjuence of
the difperfion. This was no other than the war mentioned
by Mofes, which was carried on by four kings of tlie family
of Shcni, againll tiic fons of Ham and Chus, to avenge
themfelves of thefe enemies by whom they had been greatly
aggrieved. See Bryant's Analyfis of Ancient Mythology,
vol. iii. p. 48, S:c. p. 71, &c.

The word Titan is alfo ufed by the poets for the fun ;
in which cafe it is likewife Celtic, though from another
root, being formed from //, houfe or habitation, and tan, f re.

Hefycliius obferves, that Titan is likewife ufed for fodo-
mite. He adds, that it is alfo one of the names of auti-
chriil ; in which fenfe it mufl be written Teilan, in Greek,
to contain the numeral letters of 666, which in the Apo-
calypfe, xiii. iS. is the number of the beall.

TiTANUS, in ylncient Geography, a town of Afia Mi-
nor, on the coaft of the .lEolide, on the banks of a river of
the fame name.

TITARESSUS, a town of Afia, in Leffer Armenia, in
tlie country named Melitane. Ptol.

TITARESUS, or TiTARESsus, a river of Theflaly,
mentioned by Homer, which had its fourcc in mount Ti-
tarus.

TITATY, hi Geography, a town of Bengal ; ^^ miles
N. of Dinagepour.

TITCHFIELD, a fmall market-town in the hundred
of the fame name, in the Portfdown divifion of the county
of Hants, England ; is fituated near the Titchfie'd river,
3 miles W. from Fareham, and 78 miles SiW. from London.
It is inhabited by many refpeftable families. The church,,
which is the only objedl of particular notice, is a fpacious
edifice, of the workman fhip of different ages -^ the N. fide
is faid to have been built by Wilham of Wykeham ; but the
S. fide is more ancient. In the S. chancel is an interefling
monument to the memory of fir Thomas Wriothefley, firfl
earl of Southampton, Jane his lady, and Henry their fon,
the fecond earl ; all of whom are reprefented by effigies on
the tomb. Four annual fairs are held in Titchfield ; and a
weekly market on Saturdays. The population of the parifh,
under the aft of 18 11, was returned as 3227, the number of
houfes at 553.

At a fhort diflance from the town, on the N., are the ruins
of Titchfield Houfe, the ancient feat of the Wriothefleys.
It was erefted, by the firfl earl of Southampton, on the fcite,
and with the materials of an abbey, founded for Premonftra-
tenfian canons, by bifliop Peter de Rupibus, in the year
1 23 1. The annual revenues of this eilabhlhment, at the
period of the diffolution, amounted, according to Dugdale,
to 246/. lbs. id.; but according to Speed, to 280/. igs. ^\d.
Its poffeffions were then granted by Henry VIII. to his
favourite fecretary, Wriothefley, who built here, Leland
reports, " a righte flatelie houfe embattled, and having a
goodlie gate, and a condufte caftelid in the middle of the
court of it, in the very fame place wlier the late monaftelie
floode." This building is now in a very dilapidated flate :
the entrance gateway is the principal part left ftanding ; fix-
teen rooms having been recently pulled down for the fake
of the materials. The eflate is the property of John Delm^,
efq. of Cam's Hall. In Titchfield Houfe, Charles I. was
concealed after his efcape from Hampton Court in 1647,
and previous to his refigning himfelf to colonel Hammond,,
jj Z 2 who.

T I T

who coniluaed him to the Ifle of Wight— Beauties of
Enj,'luiid aiid Wales, vol. vi. Hampfhire ; by J. Bntton and
E.W. Braylcy. ^ . .

TITCHVIN, a town of Rufiia, in the government ot
Novgorod, on the river Sias ; 84 miles N.N.E. of Novgo-
rod. N. lat. 59' sz'. E. long. 33" 14'-

TITE. See Tight.

TITEA, in Mythology, tlie svife of Uranus or Coelus, by
whom he is faid lo'have had eighteen children, each of which
had his own name, though they were generally defignated
by the appellation of Tilans ; which fee. This princefs, after
her death, received divine honours, and (he was called after
her name.

TITERUD, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the
province of Aggerhuus ; 38 miles N. of Chriftiana.

TITHENIDIA, T.9wJ.a, in Antiquity, a Spartan fefti-
val, fo called from TiS^vai, nurfes, who at this time carried
the male infants committed to their charge to the temple of
Diana Corythallia. For the ceremonies obferved on this
occafion, fee Potter, Archaeol. Gra:c. lib. ii. cap. 20. torn. i.
p. 432, feq.

TITHES, Tythes, Tenths, Dec'ima, <fc Diximes, the
tenth part of the increafe, yearly arifing and renewing from
the profits of lands, the ftock. upon lands, and the perfonal
induftry of the inhabitants ; allotted to the clergy for their
maintenance.

Tithes effentially differ from offerings, oblations, and oiven-
liont, whicli are the cuftomary payments for communicants
at Eafter, for marriages, chriftenings, churching of women,
burials, and fuch like. See Oblation's.

Tithes, with regard to their feveral kinds or natures, are
ptrfnnal, predial, and mixl.

Tithes, Perfonal, are thofe due or accruing from the
profits of labour, art, trade, navigation, and induftry of
men ; and of thefe, only the tenth part of the clear gains and
profits is due ; after charges dedufted.

Tithes, Predial, are tiiofe which arife merely and imme-
diately from the ground ; as grain of all forts, hay, wood,
fruits, herbs ; for a piece of land or ground, being called
in Latin preedium (whether it be arable, meadow, or paf-
ture), the fruit or produce of it is cdHlleA predial.

Tithes, Mixt, are thofe which arife not immediately
from the ground, but from things immediately nourifhed by
the ground, as from beads, and other animals fed with the
fruits of the earth ; as colts, calves, lambs, chickens, milk,
cheefe, eggs.

Tithes, with regard to their value, are divided into great
zndfmall.

Tithes, Great, are thofe of corn, hay, and wood.

Tithes, Small, zre the predial tithes oi other kinds, to-
gether with thofe that are called mixt and perfonal. It is
faid, that this divifion may be altered by cuftom, which will
make wood a fmall tithe in the endowment of the vicar ; by
quantity, which will convert a fmall tithe into great, if the
parifh is generally cultivated with it ; and by change of
place, which makes the fame things, e. g. hops in gardens,
fmall tithes, in fields great tithes. But it has been admitted,
that the quantity of land within any parifli, that is cultivated
for a particular produce, cannot change the nature of the
tithe : and, according to this opinion, the law is now fettled,
that the tithes are to be denominated great or fmall, accord-
ing to the nature and quality of them, and not according to
the quantity.

It has been faid by lord Coke and many others, that be-
fore the council of Lateran in the year 1180, a man might
have given his tithes to what chiu-ch or monaftery he pleafed ;
but this 18 denied by Dr. Prideaux. It is now certain, that

TIT

titlies of common light do belong to that church, withir
the precinfts of whofe parifli they arife ; and this regulation,
correfponding with the ancient law of the land, was enjoined
by a decretal epiftle of Innocent III. to the archbiftiop of
Canterbury, in the year 1 200. (2 Inft. 641. 2 Blackft.
Com. 27.) But though one pcrfon may prefcribe to have
tithes within the parifh of another ; this is what is called a
" portion of tithes." (Gibf. 663.) Tithes extra-parochial,
or within the compafs of no certain parifh, belong to the
crown, and may be granted to whom the king will, i Roll's
Abr. 657. 2 Infl. 647.

It is a general rule, that of common right tithes are to
be paid for every thing that yields an annual increafe ; but
this rule admits of exceptions, e. g. tithe is due from faflTron,
though gathered but once in three years ; and on wood that
is felled or lopped, ciWeAfylva Cocdua, though it is not re-
newed every year : and on the other hand, tithes Ihall be
paid for the produce of feeds, as of clover, fown on tlu:
fame ground, though renewed oftener than once a year
No tithes Ihall be paid of common right for any thing that
is of the fubftance of the earth, or which is not of annual
increafe, as ftone, lime, coal, tin, lead, and fuch like ; nor
for creatures that are ferrt naturir, or of a wild nature, as
deer, hawks, fifh, &c. whofe increafe fo as to profit the
owner is not annual, but cafual ; unlefs tithes in either of
thefe cafes are payable by cufloni. Dcgge, p. 2. c. 8.
: Inft. 6jl. 664.

Lands, and their occupiers, may be exempted or dii-
charged from the payment of tithes, either in part or totally,
by a real compofition, or by cuftom and prefcription.

A real compofition is when an agreement is made between
the owner of the lands, and the parfon or vicar, with the
confent of the ordinary or patron, that fuch lands fhall for
the future be difcharged from payment of tithes, by reafon
of fome land, or other real recompence given to the parfon,
in heu and fatisfaftion thereof. But thefe compofitions are
now reftrained by the difabling ftatute 13 Eliz. cap. 10.
See Composition.

A parfon may bind himfelf by deed to accept of a com-
pofition for tithes during life, or incumbency of a par-
ticular living. It is alio very common to agree by parol
for an annual compofition for tithes, which binds the
parties to it till fufficient notice given of dilTent from the
agreement, but what is fufficient notice to determine fuch
an agreement, has never been decided in terms. See Leases
by Statute.

A difcharge by cuftom or prefcription is, where time out
of mind fuch perfons, or fuch lands, have been either par-
tially or totally difcharged from the payment of tithes. The
difference between eujtom and prefcription is this : Ctiflom is
that which gives right to a province, county, hundred, city,
or town, and is common to all within the refpeftive limits ;
in pleading of which it is alleged, that in fuch a county or
the like, there is, and time out of m.emory hath been, fuch
a cuftom ufed and approved therein. Prefcription is that
which gives a right to fome particular houfe, farm, or other
thing ; in pleading of which it is alleged, that all they
whofe eftate is had in fuch land, have time out of mind paid
fo much yearly, or the like, in full fatisfaftion of all tithes
arifing on thofe lands. ( Gibfon, 674. ) And there is this
difference between a prefcriptive and cuftomary modus, that
the former is annexed to the lands v.-hich it covers, whereas
the latter exifts in aftion of law, independent of the lands
by force of the cuftom of the diftrift. In a prefcriptive
modus, therefore, the lands muft be definite, and not liable
to fhift. And therefore a bill to eftablifh a modus for every
ancient farm, but nut fetting out the abuttals of each, was

difmiffed.

TITHES.

difmifled, althoueh it was dated tbat the whole parifh con-
fided of ancient farms. (See Custom and PRESCRirxiox.)
This cuftom, or prefcription, is either de inoJo lUdmandi,
(fee Modus Dccimandi,) or de non decimando. No modus
can be eflabhOied at tliis day, but by aft of parhament. A
modus founded upon good confiderations may be in various
ways difchargcd, and tithes become due in kind : as,

) . Wliere land is converted to other ufes : fo, when the
prefcription is for hay and grafs, fpecially, in fo many acres
of land ; if the land is converted into a hop-garden or til-
lage, the prefcription is gone.

z- By the alteration or deftruftion of the thing for which
the muney was paid : as where two fulling-mills were under
the fajne roof, and turned into a corn-mill ; where alfo there
was one pair of ftones in a mill, and another pair was added ;
and where the water-courfe was altered by the owner, and the
mill was pulled down and re-edified upon it ; in all thefe
cafes, it was adjudged that the modus was gone. But where
a man was feifed of eight acres of meadow and one of paf-
ture, for the tithes whereof he had paid time out of mind
5j. 4(/. and afterwards the owner built a corn-mill upon the
fame ; it was adjudged that he (hould pay no tithes for the
corn-mill, becaufe the land was difcharged by the modus.
2 Inft. 490.

3. By non-payment of the confideration, or payment of
tithes in kind, for fo long a time as to deftroy the polTibility
of making proof that fuch cuftom or prefcription was : but
an interruption for fome (hort time only, will not difcharge
it ; efpecially if made by the leflee, to the prejudice of the
leflbr. Watf. c. 47.

The rule is, that the modus is to be fued for in the ec-
clefiaftical court, as well as the very tithe ; and if it be al-
lowed between the parties, they (hall proceed there ; but if
the cuftom be denied, it muft be tried at the common law :
and if it be found for the cuftom, then a confultation muft
go ; otherwife the prohibition ftandeth. The like is af-
firmed, in cafe a jury upon an iflue joined in a prohibition
upon a modus decimaudi, find a different modus ; fince a
modus is found, they ftiall not have confultation. 2 Intt. 490.

The principal reafon why the courts of common law pro-
hibit the fphitual court from trying of modufes, is, that
whereas every modus is lefs than the real value, the rule of
the canon law is, that lefs than the real value {hall not be
taken, and that a cuftom to the contrary is void ; and that
the ecclefiaftical and temporal laws differ in the times of
limitation, forty years or under making a good cuftom by
the ecclefiaftical laws, whereas by the temporal laws it muft
be beyond the time of memory. Gibf. 691.

But the fpiritual courts have commonly allowed and do
allow pleas of modus decimandi ; and the averment in the
prohibition is not that they do take cognizance, but that
the plea hath been offered and refufed ; which fnppofeth,
that if the plea be admitted, the prohibition ought not to
go. And accordingly it hath been affirmed by Doderidge
and others, that the fpiritual court may as well try the mo-
dus, as the right of tithes, and that a prohibition is not to
be granted, till the fpiritual court either refufe to admit the
plea, or proceed to try it by methods different from the rules
of the temporal law, as to the time of limitation, or num-
ber of witneffes, or the like. And where lord Coke con-
tended for the contrary doftrine, it was declared by Kelynge
and Twifden, that in cafe one hbel for a modus decimandi,
if the fpiritual court allow the plea, they may try it.
Gibf. 691.

But, notwithllanding, it feemeth now to be clearly fet-
tled, that if a modus decimandi be fued for in the ecclefi-
aftical court, a prohibition lies to ftop the trial of it, if the
10

modus be denied ; and the reafon is not upon the account
that the fpiritual court wnnt6 jurifdidtion, but in rcgnrd of
the notion the temporal law hath of cuftom, different from
the fpiritual : and feeing that every modus is due by cuftom,
it is the common law only that can determine, what lime
and ufage with us (liall be fufficient to create fuch cuftom,
that is, time beyond all memory to the contrary. Whereas
by tiie fpiritual law, fometimes ten years, fometimes twenty,
they will adjudge fufficient to create a cuftom. And pro-
hibitions in fuch cafes are granted, not becaufe the fpiritual
court hath not jurifditlion of the matter, but in refpedl of
the trial which is to be by the temporal law only ; and if
upon the trial it be found for the modus, the proceedings
ftiall go on in the fpiritual court ; if againft the modus, the
prohibition ftiall ftand. Watf. c. 56.

If in the trial of a modus, the defendant permits the fpi-
ritual court to proceed to fentence, he is then too late to
come for a prohibition ; becaufe it is only for defeft of
trial, and not for defcft of jurifdidlion : but a man is never
too late for a prohibition, where it is for defedl of jurifdic-
tion. Bunb. 17. 10 Eaft's Rep. 349.

A bill in equity, in the nature of a bill of peace, will alfo
lie to cftablifii a modus, where a fuit has been inftituted for
tithes in kind ; but a bill to eftablifti a modus or cuftomary
payment in lieu of tithes, cannot be fupported, where there
has been no attempt to enforce the payment of tithes in
kind. 4 Gwill. 1596.

The following modufes have been eftabliftied as good, by
decifions in the courts of law : One penny for ancient gardens
and orchards. (Bunb. 79.) Seventeen-pence for every cow
having a calf, for the tithe of the milk and calf; eleven -pence
for the tithe of the milk of a milk cow, milked without a
calf; for every heifer, the firft year flie has a calf, thirteen-
pence for the milk and calf — thefe payable at Michaelmas.
Eight-pence for every hogftiead of cyder, made of apples
grown in the parifti ; for hoard apples, one penny ; for fire-
wood fpent on the farm, one hearth penny ; for fruit, herbs,
roots, and other garden ftuff, a garden penny ; for a colt,
one penny ; — thefe payable at Eafter. (Bunb. 57.) Eight-
pence for a cow, four-pence for an heifer ; three fliillings
and four-pence, payable at Eafter, for every fcore of ftiecp
ftiorn out of the parifti, and fo proportionably for a lefs
number than twenty, or for a lefs time than a year, for
their wool and lambs. (Bunb. 171.) Two-pence an hog-
ftiead for cyder. ( Roll. Abr. 649. ) The non-rcfident oc-
cupiers of land in B. and W. to pay on Good Friday, or as
foon after as demanded, four-pence an acre for the tithe of
hay, and the herbage of pafture lands not ploughed or fown ;
but, if refident, to pay tithes in kind. (2 P- Wins. 565.)
Four -pence an acre for high land, and three-pence an acre
for low land. ( Ibid. ) Twelve -pence for an acre of low
meadow, and eight-pence for an acre of high meadow, for
tithe of hay. ( l Bro. P. C. 214.) One penny for hay for
an ancient meffuage, with the demefne lands thereunto be-
longing, containing 60 acres, &c. One pound fix ftiillings
and eight-pence for an ancient tenement, containing 625
acres, for hay, fmall tithes, and Eafter offerings. ( Bunb.
161.) Nine cart-loads of logwood, delivered to the reftor
by the lord of the manor, for himfelf and tenants, in lieu
of all tithes. (Bunb. 279.) So of fix pounds />«• annum.
(Cro. EKz. 559.) A halfpenny for each calf, in lieu of
calves, payable on Wednefday before Eafter. A fmoak
penny for fire -wood. An halfpenny, payable on Shear-day,
for the wool of each ftieep dying between Candlemas antj
Shear-day. Four-pence a month, payable on Shear-day,
for the tithe wool of every hundred ftieep ftiorn in the parifti,
which were brought in after the 2d day of February.

Three

TITHRS.

i

Three egjrs for ever)- cock and h«n, duck and drake, pay-
able on Wednefday before Ealler, in lieu of tithe eggs,
and chicken' and ducks hatched in the panfh. ( Bunb. 307. )
Tliirty eggs for all tithes of eggs. ( i Roll's Abr. 648. 65 1 .
2 Salk. 656.) The tenth cheefe made from the ill of May
until the fall of Aiiguft, in difcharge of the tithe of milk.
'Cro. Eli/.. 609.) An halfpenny for the wool of flieep
.old after (hearing, and before Michaelmas. (Moore, 91 1.)
One penny /.<■;• head for (heep brought into the parilh after
Candlemas, and dipt in the paridi, in lieu of tithe of wool ;
three-pence per head for flieep in the parifli before Candle-
mas, and carried out before (hearing time, though the wool
titlie is not then adually due. ( i Anil. 341 . ) It is a good
modus for an innkeeper, that in confideration that he and
all, &c. have paid tithe hay and grain growing upon the land
belonging to tlie faid inn, and have paid tithe for all their
own cattle feedini{ upon the land, that they have been time,
S:c. difcharged of the tjthes of the horfes of their guefts
Rgilled in the faid land, when they travel by the faid inn ;
for fome have faid that this was but a perfonal tilhe, and
others have faid that no tithes (hould be paid for fuch a^ijl-
mrnl bv the common law, without any modus. 9 Vin.
Ab. 13.

The tilings that are titheable are, for the moft part, as
follow : corn is a predial great tithe, and titheable according
to the cuftom of the place, commonly by the tenth fhock,
cock, or fheaf. Beans and peafe, expended in the houfe, are
fuLjeCl to no tithes ; but if they are gathered to be fold, or
to feed hogs, they are titheable, and are in their nature great
tithes. Hay is a predial great tithe, and is to be tithed in
fwathcs or cocks, according to the cuftom of the place.
Clover, rape, and woad, are fmall tithes ; heath, furze, and
broom are alfo titheable : but no tithe fhallbe paid of fern.
(2 Inft. 652.) The tithe agijlmmtk a fmall tithe, and due
of common right. Wood is a predial tithe, but whether
great or fmall, hath been queftioned between the parfons and
the vicars ; but it has been refolved, that if a vicar be only
endowed with the fmall tithes, and has always had tithe-
wood, in fuch cafe it fhall be accounted a fmall tithe, other-
wife it is to be accounted among the great tithes. Timber
fit for building of houfes and fhips, and comprehending oak,
elm, and afh, are exempted from tithes, by 45 Edw. III.
c. 3 ; but timber-trees, cut and corded for fuel, have been
adjudged to pay tithes, as well as under-wood ; however, no
tithe (hall be paid for the roots of trees, for wood cut for
huibandry or fuel, for hurdles of fheep, for hop-poles, and
for making of bricks, and alfo fruit-trees. When the wood
is titheable, it is fet out while Handing by the tenth acre, pole,
or perch ; or, when cut down, by the tenth faggot or billet.
Of under-woods fold ftanding, the tithe fhall be paid, not by
the feller, but by the buyer. The tithe of flax and hemp is
a fmall tithe, and by ftatute this is charged at 5^. per acre.

ill & 12 Will. c. 16.) The tithe of madder is alfo a
mall tithe, and charged at ^s. per acre, by 31 Geo. II.
C. 12. The tithe of hops is predial, and reckoned among
fmall tithes ; it is not to be paid till after they are picked,
and before they are dried, every tenth meafure. Out of
gardens is pmd tithe of all garden herbs and plants, which
are fmall tithes, and may be demanded in kind : potatoes
aad turnips arc alfo fmall tithes, as are likewife tobacco and
faffron. However, in Keu of the tithes of gardens, a cer-
tain confideration in money is paid, either by cuftom, or by
a^cement with the parfon. Fruits of trees, as apples, pears,
plums, cherries, and the like, are predial tithes, to be paid
in kind when they are gathered, unlefs there is fome modus,
or rate-tithe, paid in lieu of them. The tenth calf is due
to the parfoii of common right ; and if there are feven, he.

ftiall have one ; if under feven, a halfpenny, or what eul-
tom (hall direft, for each calf. But in moft places, at tliis
day, the cuftom hath obtained, that if there are five, the
parfon fhall have the value of half a calf, lamb, or other fuch
like ; if there are fix, he fliall have one entire ; and fhall
receive or pay out refpcftively a proportionable fum for each
number under five, or above fix. Colts and pigs are titheable
in the fame manner as calves ; and the time of payment of
thcfe tithes is when they are fo old that they may be weaned.
Wool and lamb are generally reckoned mixt fmall tithes.
Milk is a mixt tithe : where tithe-milk is paid in kind, no
tithe-chccfe is due ; and where tithe-checfe is paid in kind, no
tithe-milk is due. The tithe of milk is to be paid, not by
the tenth part of every meal, but by every tenth meal en-
tire. Deer and conies, being fene nalurts, are not titheable
of common right, but by fpecial cuftom. Of fowls, which
are domeftic, as geefe, hens, and ducks, tithes are to be
paid, either by paying the tenth egg, or the tenth of their
young, according to cuftom. It hath been adjudged, that
the paying of thirty eggs in Lent, is a good modus for all
tithes of eggs. Bees are free of tithes, but the wax and
honey arc chargeable at the rate of the tenth meafure of
honey, and the tenth weight of wax. By the books of com-
mon law it appears, that fome tithe or other is due for a
mill. Fi(h in ponds and private fifheries, and in common
rivers, are titheable only by cuftom. Fifh taken in the lea are
chargeable by cuftom as a perfonal tithe. Perfonal tithes are
regulated by ttat. 2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 13 ; but perfonal
tithes are now fcarcely any where paid in England, unlefs for
mills or fifh caught in the fea, and then payable where the
party hears divine fervice, and receives the facrament.

The manner or form of fetting out or payment of tithes,
is for the moft part governed by the cuftom of the plaee.
The parfon, vicar, impropriator, or farmer, cannot come
himfelf, and fet forth his tithes, without the licence and con-
fent of the owner ; for if of his own head he fhall tithe the
corn or hay of any land-holder within his parilh, and carry it
away, he is a trefpafrer,and an aftion will he againft him for it.
But every perfon is bound of common right, to cut down,
and fet out the .tithes of his own lands. And that it may
be done faithfully and without fraud, the laws of the church
entitle the parfon to have notice given him ; but by the de-
claration of the common law, fuch notice is not neceflary.
Yet neverthelefs, the common law declareth a cuftom of
tithing without view to be an abfurd cuftom : and by the
ftatute of 2 & 3 Ed. VI. c. 13. it is enafted, that at all
times whenfoever, and as often as any predial tithes fhall be
due at the tithing of the fame, it fhall be lawful to every
party to whom any of the faid tithes ought to be paid, or
his deputy or fervSnt, to view and fee their faid tithes to be
juftly and truly fet forth and fevered from the nine parts.

The care of the tithes, as to wafte or fpoiling, after fever-
ance, refts upon the parfon, and not upon the owner of the
land. For it feemeth that the parfon is at his peril to take
notice of the tithes being fet out ; and fo it hath been de-
clared, that although the parifhioner ought de jure to reap
the corn, yet he is not bound to guard the tithes of the
parfon. Gibf. 689.

But after the tithes are fet forth, he may of common right
come hmifelf, or his fervants, and fpread abroad, dry and
ftack his corn, hay, or the like, in any convenient place or
places upon the ground where the fame grew, till it be fuffi-
ciently weathered and fit to be carried into the barn. But
he muft not take a longer time for the doing thereof,
than what is convenient and necen"ary ; and what iTiall be
deemed a convenient and neceflary time, the laiw doth not nor
can define ; for the quantity of the corn or hay, and the wea-
ther.

TITHES.

ther, •in ihu cafe are to he oonfiJered ; and what fliall in this
and all other cafes of like nature be faid to be a reafonablc
and convenient time, is to be determined by the jury, if the
point come in iffiic triable by a jury ; but if it come to be
determined upon a demurrer, or other maticr of law, the
judges of the court where the caufe depends are to refolvc
the lame. Deg. p. 2. c. 14. Str. 245.

And it fliall be lawful quietly to take and carry the fame
away. And if ^.^y perfon carry away his com or hay, or
his other prrdial tithes, before the tithe thereof be fet
forth ; or willingly withdraw iiis tithes of the fame, or of
fuch other things whereof predi;J tithes ought to be paid ;
and if any perfon do ftop or let the parfon, vicar, propi'ie-
tor, owner, or other their deputies or farmers, to view, take,
and carry away their tithes, as is above faid ; he fliall forfeit
double value, with colls ; to be recovered in the ccclcfiafti-
cal court. 2 & 3 Ed. VI. c. 13.

And he may carry his tithes from the ground where
they grew, either by the common way, or any fuch way as
the owner of the land ufeth to carry away his nine parts.
But if there are more ways than one, and the queftion is,
which is the right way, this is cognizable in the temporal
court. Deg. p. 2. c. 14,

It feems, that if tithes fet forth remain too long upon the
land, the owner of the foil may take them damage feafant ;
but then, if he be fued for them, in order to juftify, he
mull fet forth how long they had remained before he took
them ; and when they fliall be faid to remain too long is
triable by the jury. Watf. c. 54.

Or an aftion upon the cafe will lie againft the parfon for
his negligence in this behalf : but no aftion in fuch cafe
■will lie, unlefs the parifhioner hath duly fet forth his tithes,
and hath alfo given notice to the parfon, that they are fo
fet forth. Deg. p. 2. c. 14. L. Raym. 187.

But the occupier of the ground cannot put in his cattle
and deftroy the corn or other tithe ; for that is to make him-
felf a judge, what (hall be deemed a convenient time for
taking it away : but the court and jury, upon an aflion
brought, are to determine of the reafonablencfs of the time,
and of the recompence to be made for the injury fuilained.
L. Raym. 189.

Tithes are recoverable in the fpiritual court by the ca-
non law, and by divers ftatiites, as the ftatute of circum-
fpeSe agatis, 13 Edw. I. fl. 4 ; the ftatute of artkult cler't,
9 Edw. II. ft. I. c. I. 18 Edw. III. ft. 3. c. 7. I Rich II.
c. 13, 14. 27 Hen. VIII. cap. 20. 32 Hen. VIII. c. 7.
3 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 13. 7 & 8 Win. III. c. 6. 34. 1 Geo.
ft. 2. c. 6. 27 Geo. II. c. 20.

Tithes in London are fubjeft to particular regulations.
By a decree made in 1545, according to the ftatute 37
Hen. VIII. c. 12. it is ordered, that the citizens and inha-
bitants of London and its liberties, fhall yearly pay their
tithes to the parfons, vicars, and curates, after the rate of
i6i(/. for every los. annual rent, and 2j. <)d. for every 20s.
rent, and fo above the rent of 10s. by the year, afcending
from lOs. to los., according to the faid rate. The wife,
children, fervants, or others of their family, taking the rites
of the church at Eafter, fliall pay id. for their four offering
days yearly, &c. Notwithftanding the fettlement of this
decree, divers prefcriptions for the payment of leffer rates
than the parfons might require by it (as to pay lOs. for the
tithe of a houfe, although its rent was 40/. a year, or more)
have been gained and allowed. But by 22 & 23 Ch. II.
c. 15. after the fire of London, annual certain tithes, or
fums of money in lieu of tithes, for fifty-one churches,
were appointed to be raifed by affefrments, m the manner pre-
fcjtibcd by the faid aft. For the ftipends of the minifters of

the fifty new churches, provifion is made by the fevcral aftj
of parliament relating to them, to be raifed from the duties
on coals. There are alfo particular ftatutes for particular
churches, in London and in other places.

Original and Hijiory ef Tithes. — The cudom of giving or
paying tithe is very ancient ; in Gen. xiv. 20. Abraham
gives jMelchifedech the tenth of all the fpoils he had taken
from the four kings he had defeated : in Gen. xxviii. 22.
Jacob makes a vow at Bethel, to give the tenth of all the
riches he fhall gather in that fojourn, to God.

But thcfe tithes were free and voluntary, and, befides, dif-
fered in divers other refpefts from what was afterwards called
tithe : what Melchifedech received, was only the tenth of
the fpoils, not of Abraham's poftenions ; and this once, not
annually ; and befidc, not as matntenance, which Melchiie-
dech wanted not, but as homage : add, that this was only
from one prieft to another ; for Abraham had not only a
prieft in his loins, but was a prieft himfelf. And as to
Jacob, who was alfo a prieft, what he did was the elfett
of a vow, voluntarily taken, to offer the tenth of all he
fliould poffefs ; not to any other prieft, but to God himfelf
upon an altar.

Tithe was firft legally enjoined by Mofes, Lev. xxvii. 30.
Numb, xviii. 21. Deut. xiv. 22. That legiflator obliged
the Ifraelites to the payment of feveral kinds of tithes : as,

1. The JlrJ tithe fltJ^Kin ItyVD' which was a tithe of
all the fruits given to the Levites : this was not taken tfll
after the oblation called njSTID terumah, which was a
tenth part allotted to the priefts, had been made.

2. The fecond tithe was a tenth part of the nine remain-
ing, after payment of the firft tithe. This tithe was fet
apart in each family, and the mafter of the family was
obliged to carry it to Jerufalem, and to ufe it there ; or, in
cafe he could not, he was to redeem it, or convert it into
money : in which cafe he was to add a fifth to it, and carry
the money to Jerufalem.

3. The tithe of the tithe, was the tenth part of all the
tithes that had been given to tlie Levites by the people : for
the Levites, after they had got all their tithes of the people,
divided the whole into ten parts ; and in their turn gave a
tithe to the priefts.

4. The tithe of the third year was another kind of tithe,
not much different from the fecond tithe, excepting that it
waslefs troublefome ; becaufe they did not carry it to Jeru-
falem either in kind, or in money, but kept it by them, to
be fpent by the Levites, the ftrangers, the fatherlefs, and the
widows of the phice, Deut. xiv. 28, 29. This was alfo
called the tithe of the poor, znithe third tithe ; and thefe third
years when it was paid, were called the tithe-years. Several
learned Jews and Chriftians, however, conceived that this
was not a diftinft tithe, but the fame as the fecond ; fo that,
as Mr. Mede apprehends, what was wont in other years to
be fpent in feafting, was every third year fpent upon the
poor. All thefe tithes are calculated to amount to above
one-fixth of the revenue of each perfon.

Thefe matters are all farther explained in the Talmud,
in which are two books ou tithes ; alfo in the book of bene-
diftions, J012> '" '^e commentaries of Bartenora, Mai-
monides, R. Schelomoh Jarrhi, in Scaliger, Amama, Sel-
den, Frifchmuth, Quenfted, Varenius, Hottinger, Sigo-
nius, CunjEUS, Godwyn, Leidecker, &c.

Under the new law, tithes are not eftablifhed by Jefus
Chrift, or Chriftian difpenfation, as they were under the
old law by the miniftry of Mofes ; the Chriftian priefts, and
the minifters of the altar of the new covenant, lived at firft:
wholly upon the alms and oblations of the devout.

In after-times, the laity gave a certain proportion of their
o revenues

TITHES.

revenues to ll.e ckrgy, but voluntarily, and not out of any
conilraint or obligation : tlic tirft inftances we have of this,
are in the fourth and fifth centuries.

This pift was called tithe, not tliat it was really a tenth
part of their income, or near fo much ; but only in imita-
tion of the tithes of the old law.

In the following age, the prelates in their councils, in
concert with tlie princes, made an exprefs law to the pur-
pofe ; and obhged the laity to give a full tenth part of their
revenues, their fruits, &c. to the eccleftaftics.

This the church enjoyed without difturbance for two or
three centuries ; but in the eighth century the laity got hold
of part of thefe tithes, either by their own authority, or
by grants and donations of the princes ; and appropriated
them to their own ufcs.

Some time afterwards tliey reftored them, or applied them
to the founding of monafteries or chapters, and the church
confented, at leall tacitly, to this reftitution. In 1 179, the
third council of Latcran, iield under Alexander III. com-
manded the laymen to rellore all the tithes they yet held to
the church.

In 1 2 15, the fourth council of Latcran, held under
Innocent III., moderated the matter a little ; and, without
faying any thing of the tithes which the laity already pof-
feffed, forbad them to appropriate or take any more for the
future.

We may obferve, that, upon the firft introduftion of
tithes, though every man was obliged to pay tithes in general,
yat he might give tiicm to what priefts he pleafed, which
were called arbitrary conjecrailons of tithes : or he might pay
them into the hands of tlie bifliop, who dillributed among
his diocefan clergy the revenues of the church, which were
then in common. But when diocefes were divided into
parifhes, the tithes of each pari(h were allotted to its own
particular minifter ; firft by common confent, or the ap-
pointments of lords of the manors, and afterwards by the
written law of the land. However, arbitrary confecrations
of tithes took place again afterwards, and became in general
ufe with us tiU tlie time of king John. This was probably
owing to the intrigues of the regular clergy, or monks of
the Benedicline and other rules, and will account for the
number and riches of the monafteries and religious houfes
which were founded in thofe days, and which were fre-
quently endowed with tithes. But in procefs of years,
the income of the laborious parifti-priefts being fcandaloufly
reduced by thefe arbitrary confecrations of tithes, it was
remedied by pope Innocent III. about the year 1200, in a
decretal epiftle, fent to the archbilhop of Canterbury, and
dated from the palace of Lateran, which enjoined the pay-
ment of tithes to the parfons of the refpedive parifhes,
where every man inhabited, agreeably to what was after-
wards direfted by the fame pope in other countries. This
epiftle, being reaConable and juft, and correfpondent to the
ancient law, was allowed of, and became lex terra. This
put an efFeftual ftop to all the arbitrary confecrations of
tithes ; except fome footfteps which ftill continue in thofe
portions of tithes, which the parfon of one parifh hath,
though rarely, a right to claim in another : for it is now
univerfally held that tithes are due, of common right, to
the parfon of the parifli, unlefs there be a fpecial exemption.
This parfon of the parifh may be either the aftual incnm-
bcnt, or elfe the appropriator of the benefice : appropri-
ations being a method of endowing monafteries, which
fccms to have been devifed by the regular clergy, by/ way
of fubftitution to arbitrary confecrations of tithes.

Fa. Paolo, in his " Treatife of Beneficiary Matters," is
•f opinion, that the cuftom of paying tithes, under the new

law, began in France ; and affirms, that there are no in-
ftances of it before the eighth and ninth centuries : but he
muft be miftaken ; for in the fecond council of Matifcona,
held in 585, it is faid exprefsly, that the Chriftians had a
long time kept inviolate that law -of God, by which tithe of
all their fruits was enjoined to be given to the holy places,
&c.

In effeft, Origen (Horn. xi. on Numb.) thinks, that the
old laws of Mofes, touching the hrft-fruits and tithes, both
of cattle and of the fruits of the earth, are not abrogated
by the gofpel ; but ought to be obferved on their ancient
footing.

The jth canon of the council of Matifcona orders tithe
to be paid to the minifters of tue ciiurch according to the
law of God, and the immemorial cuftoni of the Chriftians,
for the ufe of the poor, and ihe redemption of captives,
and that upmi penalty of excommunication : which is the
firft penalty we find impofed on fuch as would not pay
tithe. On which grounds it is that many among the modern
clergy hold their tithes to he jure Jivino.

Others, on the contrary, plead, that the recompence to
be given church minifters, is diffei-putly ordained by God,
according to the differences he has put between his two
great difpenfations, the law and the gofpel : under the law
he gave them tithes ; under the gofpel, having left all
things in his church to charity, and Chriftian freedom,
he has given them only what (hall be given them freely, and
in charity. ' That the law of tithes is in force under the
gofpel, all the Proteftant divines, except fome among the
Englifti, deny ; for though hire to the labourer be of moral
and perpetual right, yet that fpecial kind of hire, the tenth,
can be of no right or neceffity, but to the fpecial labour for
which God ordained it ; that fpecial labour was the Levi-
tical and ceremonial fervice of the tabernacle, (Numb, xviii.
21. 31.) which was ai)oU{hed : the right, therefore, of the
fpecial hire muft be aboliflied too.

That tithes were ceremonial, is evident from their not
being given to the Levites till they had been firft offered
as an heave-offering to the Lord, ver. 24. 28.

He, then, who by the law brings tithes into the gofpel,
brings in likewife a facrifice, and an altar ; without which,
tithes, by the law, were unfanftified and polluted, ver. 32.
And, therefore, they were never thought of in the firft
Chriftian times, till ceremonial altars and oblations had been
brought back.

The Jews themfelves, ever fince their temple was de-
ftroyed, though they have rabbies, and teachers of the
law, yet pay no tithes, as having no proper Levites to whom,
nor any altar upon which to hallow them ; which argues
that the Jews themfelves never looked on tithes as moral,
but merely ceremonial. Add, that tithes were not allowed
to the priefts and Levites merely for their labour in the
tabernacle ; but in confideration of this likewife, that they
were not allowed to have any other part or inheritance
in the land (ver. 20. 24.), and, by that means, for a tenth,
loft a twelfth.

Befides, it has been urged, that the priefts and Levites
were properly the officers and minifters of ftate ur^der God
as king of Ifrael ; and the Ifraelites paying through their
hands one-tenth to him, was agreeable to the cuftom of
almoft all nations to pay one-tenth to their king. Tithes,
therefore, are to be confidered as an appendage to the
theocracy, and it has been faid, that it will be extremely
difficult to prove, that Chriftian minifters have a divine
right to demand them, from this circumftance of a confti-
tution peculiar to the Jewilh nation. As to the original
of tithes, judge Blackftone obferves, that he will not put

the

TITHES.

tlie title of tlie clorgy to tlicm upon any divine right ;
though fuch a right certainly commenced, and, as he appro-
liends, as certainly ceafed, with the Je\v4fh theocracy ; yet
an honourable and competent maintenance for the minifters
of the gofpel is, vnidoubtedly, jure tJivino ; whatever the
p?rticular mode of that maintenance may be. Accordingly,
all municipal laws have provided a liberal and decent main-
tenance for their national prieils or clergy : ours, in par-
ticular, have eftablithed this of tithes, probably in imitation
of the Jewifh law ; and, perhaps, confidering the degenerate
ftate of the world in general, it may be more beneficial to
the Englilh clergy to found their title on the law of the
land, than upon any divine right whatfoever, unacknow-
ledged and unfupported by temporal fanClions. But, how-
ever beneficial tliis appointment may be to the clergy, it
has been complained of as impolitic in a variety of refpefts,
and peculiarly burdenfome to the ftate.

Mr. Smith obferves (Nature and Caufes of the Wealth
of Nations, vol. iii.), that tithes, as well as other fimilar
taxes on the produce of the land, are in reality taxes upon
the rent, and, under the appearance of equality, are very
unequal taxes ; a certain portion of the produce being in
different fituations, equivalent to a very different portion of
the rent. In fome very rich lands the produce is fo great,
that the one-half of it is fully fufficicnt to replace to the
farmer his capital employed in cultivation, together with
the ordinary profits of farming-ftock in the neighbourhood.
The other half, or, what comes to the fame thing, the value
of the other half, he could afford to pay as rent to the
landlord, if there was no tithe. But if a tenth of the pro-
duce is taken from him in the way of tithe, he muft require
an abatement of the fifth part of his rent, otherwife he can-
not get back his capital with the ordinary profit. lu this
cafe the rent of the landlord, inftead of amounting to a half,
or five-tenths of the whole produce, will amount only to
four-tenths of it. In poorer lands, on the contrary, the
produce is fometimes fo fmall, and the expence of cultiva-
tion fo great, that it requires four-fifths of the whole pro-
duce to replace to the farmer his capital with the ordinary
profit. In this cafe, though there was no tithe, the rent of
the landlord could amount to no more than one-fifth or
two-tenths of the whole produce. But if the farmer pays
one-tenth of the produce in the way of tithe, he muft re-
quire an equal abatement of the rent of the landlord, which
Tvill thus be reduced to one-tenth only of the whole produce.
Upon the rent of rich lands, the tithe may fometimes be a
tax of no more than one-fifth part, or four (hillings in the
pound ; whereas, upon that of poorer lands, it may fome-
times be a tax of one-half, or of ten ftiillings in the pound.
It is a great difcouragement to the improvement of land,
that a tenth part of the clear produce, without any deduc-
tion for the advanced expence of raifing that produce,
fliould be alienated from the cultivator of the land to any
other perfon whatever. The improvements of the landlord
and the cultivation of the farmer are both checked by this
unequal tax upon the rent. The one cannot venture to
make the moft important, which are generally the moft
expenfive improvements ; nor the other to raife the moft
valuable, which are generally too the moft expenfive
crops ; when the church, which lays out no part of the
expence, is to (hare fo very largely in the profit. When,
inftead either of a certain portion of the produce of
, land, or of the price of a certain portion, a certain
fum of money is to be paid in full compenfation for all
tax or tithe ; the tax becomes, in this cafe, exaftly of
the fame nature with the land-tax of England. It nei-
VOL. XXXV.

ther rifes nor falls with the rent of the land. It ncithtr
encourages nor difcouragcs improvement. The tithe in
the greater part of thofe parifhes which pay what is called
a modus in lieu of all other tithes, is a tax of this kind.
Some have propofed, as a better method for raifing a re-
venue for the clergy, to lay an equivalent tax upon all
eftates, cultivated or not cultivated. It is well known, and
has often been lamented, even by the clergy thcmfelves,
that this method of raifing a revenue for their fubfiftencc,
is a continual fource of difpute between the clergy and their
parifhioners, and contributes to obftruft the ufcfuhiefs of
their miniftry. In Holland, and fome other Proteftant
countries, the civil magiftrates have adopted what fome
have thought a better plan, by allowing their minifters a
fixed ftipend, paid out of the public funds.

In efieft, for the firft three hundred years after Chrift,
no mention is made in all ecclcfiaftical hiftory of any fuch
thing as tithes ; though, in that time, altars and oblations
had been recalled, and the church had mifcrably judaized in
many other things. The churchmen confcfTedly lived all
that time on free-will offerings : nor could the defeft of
paying tithes be owing to this, that there were wanting
civil magiftrates to enjoin it ; fince Chriftians, having lands,
might have given out of them what they pleafed ; and the
firft Chriftian emperors, who did all things by advice of
the bifliops, fupplied what was wanting to the clergy, not
out of tithes, which were never propofed, but out of their
own imperial revenues.

The firft authority produced, fetting afide the Apoftolical
Conftitntions, which few of the patrons of the tithes will
infift on, is a provincial fynod at CuUen in 356, where
tithes are voted to be God's rent : but before that time,
divers other abufes and complaints had got ground, as
altars, candles at noon, &c. And thus one complaint be-
gat another ; as it is certain that tithes fuppofe altars.

It is not eafy to afcertain the time when tithes were firft
introduced into this country. About the year 794, Offa,
king of the Mercians, made a law, by which he gave to
the church the tithes of all his kingdom, in order, as it is
faid, to atone for the death of Ethelbert, king of the Eaft
Angles, whom, in the preceding year, he had caufed to be
bafely murdered. But that they were paid in England
before this time, by way of offering, according to the ancient
iifage and decrees of the church, appears from the canons
of Egbert, archbifhop of York, about the year yjo, and
from an epiftle of Boniface, archbifhop of Mentz, written
about the fame time to Cuthbert, archbifhop of Canter-
bury, and from the 17th canon of the general council held
for the whole kingdom at Chalchuth, in the year 787. Dot
the law of Offa firft gave the church a civil right to them
in this land by way of property and inheritance, and enabled
the clergy to recover them as their legal due, by the coer-
cion of the civil power. However, this eftabUfhmcnt of
Offa reached no farther than to the kingdom of Mercia,
over which he reigned ; luitil Ethelwulph, about fixty
years after, enlarged it for the whole realm of England.
See Revenue.

Judge Blackftone fays, that pofllbly tithes in this country
were contemporary with the planting of Chriftianity among
the Saxons, by Auguftinc, the monk, about the end of the
fixth century. But the firft mention of them, which he has
met with in any written Englifh law, is in a conftitutional de-
cree, made in a fynod held (as he fays) A. D. 786, in which
the payment of tithes in general is ftrongly enjoined. This
canon or decree, which did not at firft bind the laity, was effec-
tually confirmed by two kingdoms of the heptarchy, in their
5 A peilia-

TIT 11 1:?^.

parljamf ntary conventions of ellatcs, rcfpeftively confiding
of the kings of Mercia and Northumberland, the bifhops,
Jukes, fenators, and people. This was a few years later
than the time when Charlemagne cftab!ifhcd the payment of
them in France, A.D. 778, and made the famous divifion of
them into four parts ; one to maintain the edifice of the
church, the fecond to fupport the poor, the third the bilhop,
and the fourth the ])arochial clergy.

The next authentic mention of them is in the Foedus
Edwardi et Guthruni, or the laws agreed upon between
king Guthrun, the Dane, and Alfred and his fon Edward
the Elder, fuccefTive kings of England, about the year 900.
Tliis treaty may be found at large in the Anglo-Saxon laws,
«nd il not only enjoins the payment of tithes, but adds a
penalty upon non-obfcrvance ; which law is feconded by the
laws of Athenian, cap. i. about the year 930. This, he
fays, is as much as can be certainly traced out, with regard
to their legal original. Blackft. Com. b. ii. c. iii. feit 2.
Burn's Eccl. Law, vol. iii. article Tithes.

The cuHom of paying tithes, or of offering a tenth of
what a man enjoys, or of what he reaps from it, has not only
been praftifed under the old and tlie new law, but we alio
find (omething like it among the heathens.

Xenophon, in the fifth book of the expedition of Cyrus,
gives us an infcription upon a column, near the temple of
Diana, by which the people were warned to offer the tenth
part of their revenues every year to that goddefs.

The Babylonians and Egyptians gave their kings a tenth
of their revenues : fee Ariftotle in his Oeconomics, lib. ii.
Diodorus Siculus, lib. v. and Strabo, lib. xv.

Afterwards the Romans exafted of the Sicilians a tenth
of the corn they reaped ; and Appian tells us, that thofe
who broke up, or tilled any new grounds, were obliged to
carry a tenth of their produce to the treafury.

The Romans offered a tenth of all they took from their
enemies to the gods ; whence the name of Jupiter Predator :
the Gauls, in like manner, gave a tenth to their god iVInrs,

as we learn in the Commentaries of Casfar And Feflus, de

Verb. Signif. alTures us, that the ancients ufed to give tithe
of every thing to their gods : " Decima quxque veteres diis
luis offerebant."

_ Authors have been flrangely perplexed to find the ori-
ginal of a cuftom eftablifhed among fo many people of dif-
ferent manners and rehgions to give a tenth to their kings,
their gods, or their minifters of religion. Grotius takes it
to arife hence, that the number ten is the moft; known, and
the moft common among all nations ; by reafon of the
number of fingers, which is ten. On this account he thinks
it is, that the commandments of God were reduced to ten,
for people to retain them with greater eafe ; that the philo-
lophers eftabhfhed ten categories, &c.

Tithes, Extra-parochial, denote tithes which are not
within the compafs of any diftinft parifh. By the canon
law, thefe were to be difpofed of at the difcretion of the
l>ifhop; but by the law of England, all extra-parochial
tithes, as in feveral forefts, belong to the king, and may be
granted to whom he pleafes. Accordingly they have been
adjudged to him, not only by feveral refolutions of law, but
alfo m parliament 1 8th Ed w. I. But extra-parochial waftes
and marfh lands, when improved and drained, are by 17th
Geo. II. c. 37, to be affefTed to all parochial rates in the
panlh next adjoining.

_ Tithes, impropriated and aptropriated, called alfo infeodated
Mhcs, are thofe aUenated to fome temporal or ecclefiaftical
lord, umted to their fee, and poffelTed as fecular goods.
oec Appropriation and Impropiii.mion.

By the council of Laler.-m, held under Alexander III. in
1 1 79, the alienation or infeodation of tithes is prohibited for
the future : whence all infeodations made fmce that time are
generally held, by the canonifts, illegal.

Some attribute the original of thefe impropriated tithes
to Charles Martel ; and hold him damned for firft giving the
revenues of benefices to fecular noble&. But Baronius will
have this to be a fable, and refers their origin to the wars in
the Holy Land ; which is alfo the opinion of Pafquier.

The tribute, it feems, which the Romans impofed on all
the provinces of their empire, was a tenth part of all the
fruits : hence feveral authors obferve, that the Franks,
having conquered the Gauls, and finding the impofition
eftablifhed, they kept it on foot, and gave thofe tithes in fee
to their foldiers ; and this, fay they, was the origin of in-
feoffed or impropri.ated or appropriated tithes. But the
truth is, they are not fo ancient ; nor do we find any men-
tion of them before the reign of Hugh Capet ; even the
very council of Clermont, held in 1097, as hot as it was in
the interefl of the church, does not fay one word of them ;
which yet would undoubtedly have made loud complaints of
fuch an ufurpation, had it been then known.

Tithes, Portion of, denotes tithes which the parfon of
one parifh hath a right to claim in the parifh of another.
Thefe portions, which might probably, at leaft in part, have
been owing to the lord of a manor's eftate, extending into
diftrifts which are now apportioned into diftinft parifhes,
are in law fo diflinft from the reftory, that if one who has
them purchafes the reftory, the portion is not extinct, but
remaineth grantable. The cognizance of thefe belongs, like
that of other tithes, to the ecclefiaftical court.

Tithes, as Ohflruflio-ns to Agriculture, the impedimentr;
and hindrances which they throw in the way of the pix)-
grefs and improvement of the land and its cultivation and
amendment. It has been faid to be the inftruflion of
natural as well as revealed religion, that a portion of out-
property is due for the maintenance and fupport of the v/or-
fliip of God, and that " thofe who ferve at the altar, fliould
live by the altar ;" but that whether a fpecial proportion of
one-tenth of our yearly income from land is due to the
clergy by divine and unalterable right, is a point which has
been warmly agitated, and much controverted. Under the
Jewifh government, it is well known that tithes were di-
refted to be paid by divine appointment. And it has been
ftated by bifhop Butler, that under the Mofaic difpenfa-
tion, God himfelf affigned to the priefts and Levites, tithes
and other pofTelllons, and that in thefe poffeflions they had
a divine right ; a property quite fuperior to all human laws,
ecclefiaftical as well as civil. But that every donation to
the Chriftian church is that of a human donation, and no
more ; and therefore cannot give a- divine right, but fuch a
right only as muft be fubjeft, in common with all other pro-
perty, to the regulation of human laws. How far the
claim to tithes on the principle of divine right remains ftill
eilablilTied in Catholic countries, is not well known ; but
this fort of claim to tithes has long fince ceafed in this
country. And it is remarked by a late writer, that the
conduft of Henry VIII. of England, and of Charles I. of
Scotland, furnifhes indubitable proofs of their holding a
different opinion ; as thofe kings, on the abolition of
popery, in place of transferring the tithes from the Roman
Catholic clergy to their fucceffors in office, affuraed the
right of granting the greateft part of them to the nobility
and great laymen of the time ; and in the latter kingdom in
particular, with the burden only of reafonable ftipends to
the Proteftant clergy. And further, that the grants of

tithes

TITHES.

lUcs made by thsfc kings and their fuccefTors having been
either dircftly and indircClly ratified by parliament, are now
to all intents and purpofes the property of the fucceflbrs of
thefe original grantees.

The hiftorian Gibbon has ftated that tithes appear to
have been common in all ages. That the firft Chriftian
eniperor, Conftantinc the Great, was very liberal to the
church ; and in the year 321, publifhed an edift, granting
his fubjefts full liberty to bequeath any extent of property
they chofe to the clergy. But that this, in place of proving
that a tenth of the produce was payable to the clergy in the
early ages of Chriftianity, flicv.s, it is thought, the direft
contrary ; — that the clergy, inflead of having any legal right
tb tithes, were fupported by charitable or gratuitous do-
nations, and not by afTeirments made either under divine or
human laws. The period or time, however, when the pay-
ment of tithes was eftablilhed by law, is noticed by Mon-
tefqtiicu, in his Spirit of Laws, who ftates that no one
qu::ftions but the clergy opened the bible before the time of
Charlemagne, and preached tlie gifts and offerings of the
Leviticus. But that he dares fay, before that prince's
reign, though the tithes might have been preached up, they
were never edablifhed. And the above hiftorian not only
fixes this period, but the reafon of it too, in the manner
below : the fynod of Frankfort, held under Charlemagne in
the year 794, furnifhed, it is faid, a cogent motive to pay
the tithes. A capitulary (ftatute) was made in it, wherein
it is faid, that in the laft famine the ears of corn were found
to contain no fe«d, the infernal fpirits having devoured it all ;
and that thofe fpirits had been heard to reproach the people
with not having paid tithes ; in confequence of which it was
ordained, that all thofe who were feifed of church-lands
ftiould pay the tithes ; and the next confequence was, the
obligation extended to all.

The writer of a late agricultural report has ft;ated, that in
this country, tithes,, or a tenth of the produce of the fruits
of the earth, as well as of cattle, have been fo long efta-
bhfhed, that without aflerting their divine right, it may be
maintained, that every eftate in the kingdom was once fub-
je£t to them, and that every exoneration has arifen either
from encroachment, from royal grant on the diffolution of
the abbeys, or from impolitic conceflion, by accepting a
fpecific fum of money in lieu of them, which, as it does not
vary with the times, has left the clergy in many parifhes and
diftrifts of the kingdom without any adequate provifion.
All modufes and compofitions real, are, it is faid, of this
nature ; but that, as many of thefe are fixed and irrevocable,
it muft be left to the difcretion of the patrons, or the inter-
ference of the legiflature, to reflify the evils which they have
produced, and to fulfil the fcripture maxim, that " the la-
bourer is worthy of his hire."

And that when it is confidered, that the title by which a
tenth of the produce of agriculture is appropriated to the
church, is far more ancient and better afcertamed than that
to the other nine parts, it will appear furprifing that the
dues of the clergy /hould in general be paid with reluflance,
and that by proprietors, on the contrary, (hould find little
difficulty, either in obtaining a fair rent for their lands, or a
reafonable compofition for their tithes. Yet the faft is in-
difputable, it is faid, that incumbents, however moderate in
their demands, can feldom advance the compofition for their
.tithes in any proportion to their value, without expofing
themfelves to obloquy and oppofition ; or if they take their
tithes up, are frequently fubjedi to expences and incon-
veniences, befides producing an unfavourable edeGt on agri-
cultural improvement, to encourage which ought to be no
lefs the objeft of private than 01 public policy.

That the farmer, wlieu he takes a bargain of the /arm
kind, which is fubjeCl to tithes, will undoubtedly eftimat*
the proportion he is to pay to tlie incumbent, not according
to what may have been demanded twenty or thirty years
ago, but what it is aftually worth at the prefent moment ;
and that if, by the lenity or forbearance of the reftor or
vicar of his parifh, he may pay lefs, he ought to confider it as
a facrifice that often can be ill afforded, and as laying him
under an obligation whicli he fhould endeavour to return by
every means in his power. Were this the cafe, that har-
mony which the good of religion, and the intereft of the
parties require, would, it is thought, be preferved inviolate ;
and that none but the extortionate incumbent would be the
object of deferved enmity and reproach. The writer too has
feen many good effefts refulting from the proprietors of
titheable land becoming perfonally refponfible to the clergy-
man, and letting their eftates, efpecially when there are no
leafes, tithe-free. The advantage is mutual ; and it prevents
mifunderftandings as well as an oppofition of interefts, whicli
frequently arife, when the tenant and the incumbent are left
to themfelves.

That, upon the whole, the rights of the clergy are exafted
with extreme moderation, fmalT as many of their livings arc,
in moft parts of this portion of the country. That no very
great part of their tithes is taken in kind, in many places ;
yet that notwithftanding, complaints exift of the hardfhip of
tithes from the farmer, and of the unpleafant fituation in
which the incumbent is fometimes placed, by trying to raife
his humble benefice to two-thirds, or even one -half of its
real wortk. Hence, it is conceived, there muft be fomc-
thing radically wrong in a fyftem, which excites prejudices
in the moft liberal and enlightened minds, and which equally
militates again ft the interefts of religion and thofe of agri-
culture.

Having thus briefly ftated the nature of the origin of
tithes, and the difficulties which attend them, as they refpedl
the clergyman and farmer, it may be proper and neceffary
to inquire to what ufes they were applied, after a legal
right to demand them had been obtained, and how far the
clergy of the prefent day follow out in pra£lice the principle
on which they were originally made payable. It has been
remarked by the writer of the work on Modern Agriculture,
that in regard to the queftion, whether the tithes in this
part of this country be now appropriated to the ufes for
which they were at firft paid, whether voluntarily or by
compuhion ? it will be neceffary to go back to the firft in-
trodudlion of the tithing fyftem into the country. Bede
ftates, it is faid, that about the year 597, Gregory the
Great, then pope, fent a monk of the nameiof Auftin into
England, to propagate the gofpel, and to introduce a fyf-
tem of church-government among the people. Auftin
having fucceeded to the utmoft of his wifhes, and having
received a grant of land from the then king of Kent, befides
donations from private individuals, for the fupport of him-
felf and the priefts whom he had brought along with him,
found it neceffary to apply to the pope for direftions in
regard to the manner in which thefe royal and private dona-
tions fhould be applied. Gregory folved the monk's quef-
tion, by replying, that it was the cuftom of the church to
divide fuch voluntary gifts as Chriftians were pleafed to be-
ftow in four parts : to give one to the bifhop, another to
the inferior clergy, a third to the poor, and to fet afide the
fourth for erefting and upholding churches or places of
worfhip. And in confirmation of this, it may be noticed,
that Blackftone has remarked, that at the firfl eftabhfhment
of parochial clergy, the tithes of the pariih were diftributed
in n fourfold divifion ; one for the ufe of the bifhop, another
5 A 2 . for

TITHES.

for maintaiiung the fabric of the church, a third for the
poor, and the fourth to provide for the incumbent : but that
wk-n the fees of llie biftops became otherwife amply en-
dowed, the bifhops were prohibited from demanding their
ufual fliare of ihrle tithes, and the divifion was in three parts
ouh-. In confidering the Hate of tithes in the fourteenth
centur)-, he hkewife takes notice of an zS. of Richard II.
enjoining the bifhops to allocate a proper fum out of the
tithes of each dioccfe, for the fuftcnance of poor pa-
ri(bioners ; remarking, in addition, that it feems the people
were frequently fufferers by withholding of thofe alms, for
which, among other purpofes, the payment of tithes was
originally impofed.

The lirll of the above two writers obfcrvcs farther, that
at what period the fuperior clergy of England firll polTefTed
themfelves of the tithes, in defiance of the original deftina-
tion, and of many ftatutcs made to enforce an application of
them to the ufcs for which they were firft made payable, it
is unneceflary to inquire. It will not be denied, however,
it is thought, by the keeneft llicklcr for the prerogatives of
the church, that in place of one-third of them being applied
for the ufe of the officiating clergy, one-third for the
fupport of the poor, and the remaining third for the re-
pairs of the churches, which, when the bifhops had ac-
quired land in mortmain, or free alms, fuf&cient to fup-
port their dignity, was the deftination originally intended ;
the tithes payable in England are now very differently,
although not, it is faid, fo leg.illy, appropriated. Thofe
people, fays the writer, who are moll difpofed to cry out
" the church is in danger," when the real or fuppofed
rights of the clergy are invaded by the (lighteft attempts to
alienate the tithes, ought to refleft that the third of all the
tithes in England, whether in poncffion of the church or of
the laity, ought to be allowed for the fupport of the poor ;
that another third ought to be expended in the repairs of
the churches, the expence of which is now defrayed, in al-
moft every inftance, by an afreffment on the parifhioners ;
and that the lall third ought to fall to the officiating clergy-
men, many of whom are the moil miferable of the fons
of men.

But it is not by any means, it is faid, intended to cenfure
the prcfent members of the church of England for aliena-
tions of rightc that took place centuries ago ; fai- lefs to in-
finuate tliat that rcfpeftable body have not an unqueftionable
right to the value of fuch a proportion of the produce of
the foil, as will enable them to fill the ftations in which they
arc placed with dignity and honour. The objedl which is
here aimed at, is the giving a fuccindl account of the par-
ticulars and circumftances in which the payment of tithes in
kind operates againft the introduiSion of improvements in
agriculture, and the advancement of rehgion ; and by (hew-
ing the manner in which the alteration in the tithing fyftem
was effeclcd in Scotland, to endeavoiy- to point out a way
in which the future payment of tithes in England may be
arranged, fo as to meet the purpofes, and moft effeftually
promote the interefls of agriculture, without in the fmaUeft
degree infringing on the rights of the individuals concerned
in paying or receiving them.

There are many different ways in which the payment of
tithes in kind operates unfavourably to the general advance-
ment and prolperity of the hufbandry of this country.
According to the writer of the EfTays on rural affairs, it is
univerfally confidered as a grievance ; there being, it is faid,
fcarcely an agricultural furvey of a county, in which it is
not ftated as an evil that ought to be removed. And this
the author thinks no wonder, as the drawing of tithes in
iind, when it is examined willi attention, wiU be found to

operate dircAly, in the ftrifteft fenfe of tlie word, as a t3S
on induftry ; and to be, at the fame time, more vexatiou* j
in the mode of collefting than perhaps any tax that has ever I
been adopted, or had recourfe to, on any occafion.

It is conceived to be a meafure that has an injurious and
unfavourable effeft on four different defcriptions of fociety,
as the farmer, the landholder, the clergyman or impropriator
of the titiie, and the public.

As to the firlt, or the farmer, he is more or lefs affefted,
according to tlie differences of the nature, circumtlances,
and fituation of tlie land which he may hold. The intelli-
gent writer on Modern Agriculture, noticed above, confiders
it unfortunate, though certainly the cafe, that the payment
of tithes in kind operates more againft the fpirited improver
than againft the flovenly and indolent ; and that tithes, as
the law now ftands, cannot be confidered fo much the tenth
of the natural produce of the foil, as a tenth of the capital
employed by the farmer in its cultivation and improvement.
For inftance, if a farmer pays his ploughman ten pounds a
year of wages, his labourer ten-pence a day for liis labour,
or the landlord a hundred pounds of rent, he muft conCder
himfelf as advancing one-tenth part of thefe fums for the
purpofe of promoting the intereft of die tithe-owner, who
not only receives annually a fum equivalent to the tenth
part of this capital, but that tenth improved to the highefl
degree which the unremitting exertion of the tenant is able
to effeft. Mr. Locke, it is continued, in his Treatife on
Civil Government, remarks, that it is labour which puts
the greateft part of the value upon land, without which it
would fcarcely be worth any thing. That it is to that we
owe the greateft part of all its ufeful produfts ; for all that
the produce of an acre of wheat is more worth than the
produce of an acre of as good land which hes wafte, is
the effeft of labour. Hence, it is thought, the farmer
furnifhes a fund to purchafe the neceffary labour, where-
by an acre of land is rendered fo produftive as to af- .
ford fix, or eight, or ten fhillings yearly of clear revenue to
the tithe-owner, which, but for the application of that'
labour, would have remained unproduftive for ever, in fo
far at leaft as he was concerned. So much is this the cafe,
it is faid, that if a farmer expends one hundred pounds on
the purchafe of manure, the improvement and cultivation
of his farm, and the payment of the rent ; and if the value
of the crop, when fold, amounts to one hundred and ten
pounds, he is aftually a lofer to the extent of five pounds,
or what may be the intereft of one hundred pounds for a
year. He indeed" gets his capital of one hundred pounds
returned, but the tithe-owner draws the ten pounds, or
rather more, or, which is the fame thing, the value ; fo
that the farmer has employed his capital to enable the titlie-
owner to draw a dividend of lo fer cent, on that capital;
whereas had he lent it on mortgage, or placed it in the
funds, he would have benefited himfelf and his family to
the extent of the intereft or the dividend which he, in either
of thefe cafes, would have liimfelf received, tio much, it
is faid, for the abfurdity of attempting to improve lands
under fuch circumftances. The able writer of the above
named EfTays hkewife, after ftating different ways in which
tithes operate againft the tillage or corn-farmer, ftrongly
remarks, that in this country, befides commons and waftes,
much very fine land is allowed to remain in grafs in a very
unprodudiive ftate, which, with a very little or moderate
degree of induftry and outlay of money upon it, might be
made to yield abundant crops of corn : and the reafon af-
figned for this difgraccful ftate of management and want of
produftioa, which is fo called, becaufe, were it altered,
even tlie grafs-land might be eafily made twice as produc-
tive

TITHES.

.;ve as it is by a juJicious ufe of the pkiiigh, is, that the
litlic of corn-land is fo very heavy, as deters the fjirmer
r:om having recourfe to the plough : whereas in Scotland,
wliere tlie corn-tithe is never drawn in kind, immenfe trafts
I'f country, which thirty years ago were covered with
heath, and totally unproduftive even of grafs itfelf, arc
now converted into fertile fields that yield abundant crops
of corn and grafs ; and which, if the tithe-laws had there

xifted, mull, in all probability, have continued unpro-
'iaftive until the end of time. This is a contrail that is
very linking to every one, it is faid, who travels through
thefe parts of that country ; and that it brings forward a
pradlical faft, which ought, it is thought, to outweigh a
million of fpeculative arguments.

The intelligent author of the Prefent State of Hufbandry
in Great Britain flates, that another grievance to which
farmers are fubjefted, in the payment of tithes in kind,
arifes from the har(h and oppreflive manner in which the
payments are fometimes exa<Sed. The nature and extent
of this grievance may, it is faid, be learned by a perufal of
the extract which is given below, from the fame writer's
Agricultural Report of the County of Northampton ; where
it is ftated, that it has happened, (though, to the credit of
the tithe-owners be it faid, the inftances are very few or
rare,) where, when the tithes have been let for the purpofe
of oppreffion, the tithing-man has been known to exert that
authoiity with which he was invefted ; that he lias not only
taken the tenth fhock of corn, and the tenth cole of hay,
but alfo the tenth lamb, pig, hen, egg, &c. ; nay, has even
gone into the garden, and taken not only the tenth part of
the fruit, but likewife the tenth of the produce of the
kitchen-garden. Under fuch circumftances as thefe, it may
be aflced, who is the farmer that would not feel himfelf
acjgrieved ? From this it mud appear, it is thought, ob-
vious, that whether the farmer's intereft or happinefs be
confidered, it muft be equally his defire that fome arrange-
ment rtiould be efFefted, whereby the payment of tithes in
kind Ihould for ever be aboliflied ; for, as the writer of the
Agricultural Report of the County of Buckingham very
juuly, it is faid, obferves, it may be laid down as a pro-
pofition, that whatever profit arifes to the cultivator of the
toil, by the force, of fupcrior ingenuity and induftry, fliould
be held facred by the church and government. If it be
otherwife, it difcourages the improvement of the foil ; and
thereby the church prevents the future increafe of her
tithes, and the government the future increafe of its taxes.

It has been ably contended by the writer of the Eflays on
rural fubjefts, already noticed, that though the tithe-laws
are hurtful to the farmer, they are perhaps ftill more fo to
the proprietor or land-holder. Whatever checks, it is faid,
the induiiry of tlie farmer, muft, in a direft manner, diminifli

he income of the landlord ; and as the energy of a farmer,
when once excited, is well known to augment in proportion
to the advances he has made, whatever checks that energy
in the bud, occafions in time a diminution of income to the
proprietor, much greater than can be eafily conceived. And
tliat, as it is fuppofed the proportion of rent which can be
afforded for arable land, increafes with the produftivenefs of
that land in a much higher degree than in the ratio of the
quantum of the crop ; whatever tends to render land per-
manently more productive than before, if no deduftion be
made from it, tends, at the fame time, to augment the income
of the proprietor in a ftill higher degree than that of its pro-
duce. But as it is obvious that the tithe operates as a dead
bar to the commencement of improvements in agriculture
vpon any foil of no great degree of fertility, fo as to pre-
vent the beginning of that motion, from the acceleration of

7

which alone the proprietor can hope to derive confideraWc
increafe of rent ; in all cafes his rent is diminilhed in a much
higher ratio than one-tenth, as it might feem to do by thofe
who take only a flight view of the matter. It is added, that
fliould the proprietor of poor lands, feeing the impofFibihty
of the tenant's improving tlicm, attempt to render thefe more
permanently fertile by the outlay of ilock upon them, that
he never cxpeftcd to draw back ; but would content himfelf
with a reafonable return of intcrcll on the capitiJ in the
name of rent, lie would not find the cafe much altered. He
fets out, it may be fuppofed, with this principle, that if he
can fccure a permanent rent, equal to 5 per cent, on the
money expended upon them, he will be very well fatisfied
with it. Let us fay, then, that twelve buftiels of grain
were the neat expence of culture, &c. which, on an aver-
age of all forts of corn, was valued at ^. the bufhel ; and
that h^ had expended 2c/. the acre, the interell of which,
at 5 />;'»■ ff/;/., is 20s. or in other words, five buftiels. Bat
that before he can draw this rent free of tithe, the average
produce mull be, at leaft, eighteen buftiels, out of which
mull be takeu one buftiel and nine-tenths, fo that inftead
of five, his rent will be reduced to 3 percent, nearly ; while
the tithe-owner will be entitled to draw nearly 2 per cent.
for ever, on the capital which the improver i]ad thus ex-
pended. It is almoft needlcfs to add, it is faid, that under
fuch circumftances it is vain to look for a general fpirit of
agriculture, either among proprietors or tenants, to both of
which defcriptioiis of perfons the operation of the tithe-laws
are, it is contended, highly oppreffive.

And another inllance is ftated of very mat.^rial import-
ance, in which tithe becomes Iingularly pernicious and pre-
judicial to proprietors of land. The importance of keeping
and preferving the whole produce of the ground upon the
farm where it was raifed, for the purpofe of making manure,
feems, it is faid, to be very generally underllood ; as a claufe
to that eff'eft is univerfally found inferted in the leafes ia
every county of England, wherever leafco are granted at all.
What puniftiment, it is aflced, would the proprietors of thefe
lands deem adequate to the crime of felling off^ the whole
prouuce of the farm every tenth year ? Yet great as tliis
crime would be, it would not be adequate, in point of da-
mage to them, to the right of drawing tithe in kind from
their arable lands ; becaule the farmer who fold the pro'duce
would, at leaft, become poftefled of money to replace, in
fome degree, by means of extraneous manures, the lofs he
had incurred by the abftraftion of the home-dung. Thofe
who are entitled to draw the tithe in kind are, in faft, by
this means, vefted with a power of enriching themfelves,
or their own private property, if they be fo inclined, at
the expence of every other proprietor around them. In
this point of view, therefore, tithes are Iingularly perni-
cious to proprietors of land. This is unquellionably an
objection to the drawing of tithes in kind that can pro-
bably never be well got over by any of thofe who arc fo
favourable to the prelent tithing fyftem. It ftrikes at the
very vitals of all our improvements in hulbandry and rural
bufinefs.

Befides, the writer of the work on modern hufljandry con-
fiders that infomuch as the fpirit of improvemert is depreffed
and checked, tlie land-holder muft be injured ; and that as
there are no regulations or laws cxifting in this country
which have fuch a tendency to impede the introduftion
of new or improved modes of huftDandry as thofe of ex-
afting the payment of tithes in kind, there are, of courfe,
none that operate fo decidedly againll the landed intereft of
the kingdom. If, it is faid, the farmer be reftrained from
inclofing, draining, purchafing manure, in ftiort, from cul-
tivating

TITHES.

livaliiig ami improving his laml to the liigheft degree, who
will deny that the intcicit of the owiicr is afFcftcil ? And
tliat this is the cafe in a vai icty of iiiftances, from the opera-
tion of the titiie.laws, is admitted by every one who is
perfiraiy acquainted witli the prefent ftate of agriculture m
tliii country.

In refpeft to the impropriators of tithes, it may be no-
ticed that, if the intcrefts of religion and the clergy be
confidcred, it will be found that the fyRem of taking the
tithes in kind h equally produftivc of bad confequences. It
wdl be difcovercd to dillurb the harmony of fociety, and to
be often die means of creating fuch dliputes and divifions
between the clerg^'man and his parifhioncrs, as renders the
religious in(lru<aions of the former of little avail. Among
the many inftances which might be mentioned of the tcaf-
ing and vexatious circumRanccs of this nature that occur to
uaUmgc the harmony which ought to fiibfdl between the
clctgyman and his parifhioners, that which is given below,
from the Agricultural Report of the County of Hants, may
be fufficicnt. In this cafe the clergyman and the farmer
were at variance ; and the farmer, determined to be even
with the clergyman, gave liim notice that he w.^s going to
draw a field of turnips on a certain day. The clergyman
accordingly fent his team and fervaiU at the time appointed,
wlien the farmer drew ten turnips, and defired the other to
take one of them ; faying he fhould not draw any more
that day, but would let hira know when he did. This fully
(hews the vexatioufnefs of the praftice of tithing in this
manner.

Further, that in a political point of view it is alfo ijiju-
riout, as tending to loofen that chain of intercourfe and
connection whicn, it is conceived, is of fo much importance
to keep united. The interefl of the clergy would Lkewife
be greatly promoted, were they to receive an equitable com-
penlation for their tithes, in place of drawing them in kind,
or of making annual arrangements with the farmers.

But it is the lay proprietors, it is faid, that are the moft
blameable in refpeft to tlie rigorous manner in which the
tithes are coUefted. It is faid that clergymen, who
a£i up to the charafter in which they Hand in the fcale
of fociety, (and the moft. violent Jeclaimer againft. them
will not pretend that a very great majority of that refpeft-
able body do not fo aft,) very generally facrifice fo great a
portion of their juft demands for the fake of peace and
quiet, that, if the expence of coUefling be added, there is
fcarcely any compofition that can be propofed which it
would not be for their intereft to accept. Some inftances
there no doubt are, where the clergyman, being of a turbu-
lent, avaricious difpofition, lays hold of every advantage, and
coUcfts hh tithes to the value of the uttermoft farthing :
but it ought to be remembered, that a clergyman who docs
fo, nay, that a clergyman who fubnuts to the drudgery of
coUrfting tithes in kind, muft lofe, in the opinion of the
p*iihioners, a great rtiare of that refpeftablility of cha-
racter, which it is his indifpenfable duty to fupport and
keep up.

And in relation to the public, the effeft which this inju-
dicious regulation has, is equally prejudicial and mifchievous.
It comes in, according to the author of Modern Agricul-
ture, for its ftiare of the lofs arifing from the effeft which
the tithe-laws have on the hufbandiy of the country, as, by
their operation, the quantity of corn that might be culti-
vated, did not fuch laws exift, is diminiflied to an immenfe
degree, and other branches of the art of farming are greatly
impeded Befides, they check induftrv, by depreffing the
tanner's [pint, and by preventing the circulation of money
that would be expended in improvements, and in the pur-

chafe of the manufaftures of tl;e country. Were no fucL
laws in force, the proprietors and farmers, in confequence
of the fuccefs of the improvements which in that event
would be undertaken, would be enabled to purchafe
more of tlie manufaftures of the country, pay a greater
fliare of the taxes for the fupport of the ftate, and after
all, live in a greater ftate of eafe and comfort, than under
the exifting circumftances they are able to do. In (liort,
it is confidered that the abolition of thefe laws is the
only mcafure that can be adopted with any probability of
fuccefs, at leaft the firft one that ought to be attended to,
with a view of again bringing the oorn-trade to turn once
more in favour of this country. When all thefe various
circumftances are conjoined ; and when it is further con-
fidered that, except in Spain and Portugal, there is fcarcely.
a civilized nation in the world where this fyftem of church-
llavery is .illowed to exift ; and that even in Ruffia tithes
are aboliftied ; it may be reafonably hoped that the period is
not far diftant when England will be relieved by legal and
conftitutional means, and in confequence of arrangements
made on liberal principles, from this almoft Egyptian
bondage.

It further likewife appears, from the accounts given by
different writers on the fubjeft of tithes, that they were
paid in the latter end and ages of the Romifti church with
great reluftance ; and even in this country during the reign
of Henry VIII. Therefore it is faid, that if, when im-
provements in agriculture were in their infancy, and at a
period too when men's minds were held in flavifli fervitude
by the clergy, the payment of tithes in kind could hardly
be enforced, can it be fuppofed wonderful, that in thefe
enlightened days it fliould be confidered as a grievance ?
At a period when the principles of religion and of real

fenuine liberty are better afcertained, and more generally
nown, than in any former age, it is not furprifing that laws
compelling the payment of tithes in kind, laws which ori-
ginated in ediflsiffued bybigotted kings under the influence
of defigning priefts, ftiould now be found inimical to the beft
interefts of the country, and to the happinefs of fo many
thoufands. That this is the cafe, every inhabitant of this
ifland has ample opportunities of fatisfying himfelf by a pe-
rufal of the agricultural reports of the difi^erent counties of
England and Wales, which have been lately-pubhftied And
that as thefe reports, after having been circulated among the
proprietors of land and farmers for their correftion and
amendment, ftill contain, in their i-epublication, the fame or
fimilar complaints in refpecl to the hardfhips which the
farmers are fubjefted to, and the injury which agriculture
fuftains, by the continuance of the payment of tithes in kind,
fuch complaints may juftly be deemed the voice of the people
proclaimed in a conftitutional way ; and as fuch, merit the
moft ferious and fpeedy attention of the legiflature and of
the clergy.

A few of the injurious effefts of the prafticeof paying tithes
in kind have been noticed above, and many more of the hard-
ftiips proceeding from it arc recorded in the different agricul-
tural county furveys and other works which have been only
flightly touched upon in what has been already faid upon the
fubjeft. And the necelTity of fomething effeftual being
done, in order to the removal of fo inconvenient and opprel-
five a regulation, has been ftrongly fhewn in the writings of
the various advocates of the improvements of Britifh huf-
bandry and farming, as well as by many other able and
intelligent writers on matters connefted with them, but
which, for want of room, cannot be confidered here.

As, therefore, fome reform in the mode of paying tithes
in this country muft be admitted to be indifpenfably necef-

fary,

TITHES.

lary, it it to be wi{Ked that the legiflature, efpecially at the
prefent time, would devote that attention and confideration
to the fubjeft which its importance and neceflity demand,
and the clirgy come forward with fuch reafonable propo-
fitions for the adjuftment of the bufinefs a3 may be fuitable,
as by fuch means the matter might, and no doubt would, be
foon calily fettled to the fatisfaftion of all the parties con-
cerned.

In the view of affording a proper knowledge of the moil
fuitable means ot effefting fo important an alteration, the
author of the " Prefent State of Hufbaudry" in this ifland,
gives the following clear account of the beneficial arrange-
ment which took place in refpeft to tithes in Scotland,
and of the circumllances which led to it. It is ftated, on
the authority of Erlkine's " Inftitutes of the Law of Scot-
land," that the payment of tithes in kind was continued
for many ages in that kingdom ; and that, owing to the
precarioufnefs of the climate, it was attended with more
grievous hardfliips than could have taken place in the
fouthern part of the idand. Every Scotch proprietor or
fanner, who prefumed, after reaping their corns, to carry off
any part of them from the field, until the perfon having
right to the tithe had drawn his fliare, were, from the firlt
eftablifhment of this right, fubjeft to fevere penalties. The
tithe-owner, on the contrary, either from indolence, a
defire to opprefs, or with a view of compelling the proprietor
or farmer to purchafe his tithes annually at a high price,
frequently delayed drawing his (hare until a great part
of the crop or produce was rotten. Notwithftanding feve-
ral ftatutes wereenafted with a view of checking the oppref-
five difpofition which fo often evinced itfelf in the conduct
of the clergy in this refpeft, yet thefe grievances continued
to exift, more or lefs, until the year 1633 ; when a decree-
arbitral, paffed by Charles I. in 1629, for arranging and
determining a mode, to be afterwards adopted, for the pay-
ment of tithes, was ratified by parliament.

That during the ftruggle for the eftablirnment of this or
that form of church-government, great alterations had taken
place, both in regard to thofe having right to the tithes,
and to the manner in which they were exafted. On the
Reformation, the benefices of the chmxh fell to the crown,
and were, at different periods, gifted for ferviccs, or other
confiderations ; fuch as for fupporting univerfities, hofpitals,
&c. ; and the perfons obtaining them were denominated
lords of ereftion, and fometimes called by other names.
They likewife -got, or affumed, the right of nominating
officiating clergy on all vacancies. Thefe alienations were,
by aft of parliament, 1587, put a flop to ; and fuch tithes
as had not been previoully dilpofcd of, remained with the
crown unalienably. The tithes, which were then annexed
to the crown, may be valued and leafed by tlie proprietor of
the lands, but cannot be purchafed. The officers of the
crown are in ufe to grant leafes of this defcription of tithes
for nineteen years, and which are renewed as matters of
courfe on paying a reafonable fum on fuch renewal. The
fum demanded is regulated by the yearly value of the
tithes ; fo that a capital equal to between five and fix years'
amount of the tithes, laid out at the commencement of the
leafe, and improved by compound intereft, is fufficicnt to
, produce fuch a fum at the expiry as will obtain renewals to
I perpetuity.

Some of the clergy remained, it is faid, in poffeffion of
i their benefices after the Reformation ; and the vacancies
' that happened in fuch benefices were filled up by thofe
> who affumed the right of prefentation. An aft of parlia-
! ment was foon afterwards paffed, whereby the patrons were
< deprived of the right of patronage : but in compenfation

for this fuppofed hardlliip, it was enaftcd, th.it the right of
all tithes, fo polfeffed by the clergy, ftiould be vriud in
thofe who had exercifed the right of patronage. Patrons
having acquired tithes in this way, are compelled by law
to fell them M. nine years' purchafe of the yearly value of
the tithes.

The fyftem of tithes and tithmg having, however, got
into great confufion, in conlecpience of the various alterations
that took place in tlie government of the church of Scot-
land, thofe interefled found it neceffary to fnbmil their
feveral rights and claims to the determination and final
award of Charles I., who, on the 2d of September, 1629,
pronounced two decrees-arbitral, or judgments, which kid
the foundation of that arrangement refpefting tithes, and
the payment of the ellablidied clergy in Scotland, which
has been produftive of fo many good confcquences.

The moft important .article in thefe two decrees-arbitral,
is that which direfts the valuation and fale of tithes ; after
which, the land-holder is entitled to the whole crop upon pay-
ment to the proprietor of the tithes of a yearly rent, or to
purchafe them at an eafy rate, fubjcft to a reafonable pro-
vifion to the clergy. The words of this famous decree are,
it is faid, that " the rule of all tithes, where they are
valued jointly with the flock, fhall be a fifth part of the
conflant yearly rent that is paid for tlie lands." Another
material circumflance in the valuation of tithes in Scotland
is, that the rents of mills, thofe anfing from recent improve-
ments, and fome others of lefs importance, are dedufted
from the grofs amount.

By tliefe decrees, which were ratified in parliament in
1633, the proprietors of land not having right to tlie tithes,
were not only found entitled to fne the titular in an aftion
at law to afcertain their value, but", unlefs veiled in the
crown, to obtain a purchafe of them on eflabhflied terms,
as mentioned above. Thus, ever fince 1633, 6^^'')' land-
holder in Scotland has had it in his power to acquire right
to his own tithes, either by purchafe, or leafe, fo that they
fhould be no longer payable in kind. Neverthelefs, thofe
who iiegleft to fue for a valuation may ftill be fubjefted to
all the inconveniencies of the former law ; as under fuch
circumflances, thofe having right to the tithes may draw
them in the manner commonly praftifed in England. The
remedy is, however, fo eafy, that he muft be a fool indeed
who would fubjeft himfelf or his tenants to fuch a llavifh
fervitude, while he has it in his power, by a fimple appli-
cation to the fupreme court of the country, to abolifli it
for ever.

Some inftances are, however, recollefted, whgpe pro-
prietors in the north of Scotland, having a right to the
tithes, and being unwilling to forego all the power of
haraffing their tenants, which attached itfelf to the ancient
feudal tiarons, ftill continued to draw the tithes for fome
time. But they at lafl became afnamed of fuch conduft ;
and there is not now, it is faid, one inftance where tithes
are paid in kind, or where the tenants have any concern,
either dircftly or indireftly, with or in the payment of
tithes on the north fide of the Tweed. How then, it may
be afked, are the Scotch clergy provided for ? The anfwer
is, it is faid, eafy ; the flipends provided by law for the
maintenance of the Scotch clergy are ftill payable out of
the tithes. The judges of the court of feffions, who aft
as commiflioners for the arrangement of tithes, have a right
to modify reafonable ftipends to the paroclilal clergy. And
accordingly, in all fuch cafes, where the clergyman can
fhew that the parifh is a place of more than ordinary refort,
that the cure is burdenfome, or that the neceffaries of life
give a high price in that part of the country, or that the

fcanty

TITHES.

Icaiitv allowance of ftipcnd in tliat paiini bears too fmall a
proportion to the weight of the charge, provided there arc
free and unappropriated tithes in the paridi, the comjriii-
fioners, on the application of the clergyman, grant an addi-
tional ftipcnd, cither in money, but more generally, where
pra6ticablc, in grain, as being lefs fluftuating in value than
money. But that owing to the free tithe in the pariiii
having been previoudy alfigned to the clergyman, fomc
inftances do occur, where tlic commifiioners have it not m
their power to augment his ftipend, although it be too fmall
for the decent maintenance of a numerous family. In all
fuch cafes it would, it is thought, be highly proper to
apply part of tlie bifhop's tithes, fuch as are now payable
to the crown, to the purpofe of rendering the fituation of
thefe clergymen, who arc fo unfortunately fituated, more
decent .ind refpeftable.

In order to the introduftion of a fuitable arrangement
in regard to tithes in this part of the country, it is remarked,
that the queftion has been for fome time paft very popular,
and much agitated ; and that many difficulties have been
ftarted, apparently for the purpofe of rendering it more
perplexed and complicated than it is in reality. Holding
it as a facred and inviolable principle, that tithes, as now
payable in England, were formerly appropriated for par-
ticular purpofcs, and that although in many inftances alien-
ations were made at different periods ; yet that as thele are
cxprefsly or virtually confirmed by thofe laws which proteft
national and individual property ; therefore tithes, as now
payable in the fouthern part of the ifland, are payable in
conformity to the laws of the country. This being granted,
no man who has a regard for juftice, who venerates the
conftitution, or who would not wifli to fee the rights of
property invaded, but mull be fatisfied, that if the prefent
mode of paying tithes is abohlhed, the clergy and the lay-
proprietors of tithes are> in law, juftice, and equity, en-
titled to an equivalent. What that equivalent ought to be,
and in what manner afcertained, becomes the queftion. It
is obferved, that it is not by appeals to quarter-fefiions,
nor by fpecial aAs of parliament for this or that particular
diocefc or parifti, that this great national queftion can be
determined with propriety : it is only by a fubmiffion of
all rights and claims of both parties to the determination of
fome one refpeftable individual, that the matter can be
amicably or equitably decided. And it is thought, that the
moft proper individual to be made choice of is the fovereign,
or perfon holding the government of the country.

The clergy, it is faid, need not be afraid to appeal to
fuch an arbiter, as in the courfe of a great length of time
there has been no inftance of any degree of infringement of
or upon their rights. The land-holders and lay tithe-
owners may keep their minds at eafe, as though the moft
facred regard for religion has been evinced, yet it has been
divefted of fuperftition or bigotry. If, it is continued,
Charles I. during the anarchy of church-government that
prevailed in his time, found no difficulty in paffing a decree
in a fimilar cafe, which, having received the fanftion of
parliament as a matter of courfe, laid the foundation for a
juft and equitable arrangement of the tithes, the bufinefs
may unqucftionably be accomplidicd with much lefs diffi-
culty at the prefent period. The probable confequences of
fuch a fubmiffion would, it is thought, be, that the arbiter
would no doubt appoint commiffioners to examine and
afcertain the yearly value of all the landed property in
England, the produce of which is fubjcft to the payment
of tithes. Were the yearly value of the lands afcertained
by a corn-rent in place of one in money, and which, it is
fuppofcd, might be eafily done by taking the average price

of corn for the feven or ton years or more laft paft, with
the exception, however, of 1795, and fome other fcarce
and dear years, the clergy could fuftain no lofs, nor would
after valuations in confequence of the depreciation in the
value of money, be rendered ncceifary.

Tliis being done, a fifth, a fixth, or any other given pro-
portion of the free rent, after the payment of parliamentary
taxes affefting land, would be declared due to tiie tithe-
owner in lieu of the payment of tithes in kind. One claufe
of the decree would probably, it is thought, be, to compel
every lay-owner of tithes to fell his right to the land-holder,
at a fair and equitable, but regulated price ; and another
would moft likely be, declaring the clergy entitled for ever
to a fifth or fixth, or fome other determinate proportion of
the prefent real free rent of all titheable lands, to v»hich
they may have right, and fubjefting the proprietors to the
regular payment thereof. Thus at once would, it is faid,
a load which has for many ages prefied down the fpirit of
the Enghfli farmers, be removed, and that while all ranks
and degrees muft applaud the equity and the propriety of
the arrangement, a fpirit for agricultural improvements
would evince itfelf fuperior, it is thought, to any of which
the records of this country make mention.

It is fuppofed that this mode is the lefs exceptionable, as
it is almoft fimilar to that adopted when afts of parliament
are pafled for enclofing particular parilhes. At the firft
meeting of the commiffioners named in fuch afts, they direft,
that all having intereft may deliver in their claims, and the
rights or grounds on which they claim, againft a certain
day. Thofe being afterwards examined by the commif-
fioners, who are neither more nor lefs than arbiters appointed
by the legiflature, their decifion conftitutes the law in
regard to the right by which the individual proprietors
hold the lands, which by the arbiter's award is affigned to
them. In place, therefore, of multiplying afts of parha-
mcnt refpcfting the adjuftment of tithes ad infinitum, one
only, and that a very fhort one, feems neceffary, authorizing
the governing perfon to arbitrate between the owners of
the tithes and the land-holders ; and whofe award, like that
of the commiffioners appointed under afts of parliament for
enclofures, ftiould be final, and have the eScft of law.
Having thus laid down the general principle, it will not
be expefted that any attempt will be made to combat the
little difficulties that may be ftarted againft the praftica-
bility of carrying the meafures founded thereon into effeft.
Thefe the wifdom of the arbitrator will be fully fufficient
to obviate and direft. One thing is certain, it is fuppofed,
namely, that a decree-arbitral or judgment, pronounced by
fuch high authority, and founded on thefe principles, would
give univerfal fatisfaftion to every party concerned.

On a matter which is fo very interefting and important
to the Englifh land-holder and farmer, it will be ncceifary
and ufeful to bring to the inquirer's notice and attention a
few of the different other modes and plans which have been
fuggcfted at different times by different writers for effetling
the buiinefs and adjuftment of the matter of tithes.

The intelligent writer of the Effays on rural affairs has
fuppofed, that the tithes of or in England and Wales ftiould
be converted, fo as to make a payment in money be univer-
fally received in lieu of the payments in kind that are at pre-
fent exigeable ; but under fuch modifications as to prevent
the poffibility of thofe who are entitled to draw the tithes
from fuffering by the depreciation in the value of money,
which we have feen for a long time paft has been going on in
a regular progreffion ; and which may be expefted to con-
tinue ; or may, perhaps, as at this time in a neighbouring
country, be funk almoft to nothing by fome political (hock

that

TITHK.S.

that cannot at prcfcnt be forcfeen. With thefe views, might
not, it is afked, a law be obtained, authorizing the valuation
of tithes, in every cai'e where either of the parties interefted
in it fliould fo incline ? This might be done, it is faid, by a
fummons raifed againll all the parties concerned, either be-
fore the (herifF of the county where the property lay, or be-
fore any other judge that (hould be thought more proper for
executing the office ; who, after hearing the parties, (hould
proceed to make a legal inqueft to obtain a clear proof what
had been the amount of the tithes, adtually paid and drawn,
for five, ten, fifteen, or twenty years lad pad, as (hould be
judged the moft proper, out of the feveral lands in queftion ;
fpecifying diftindlly the quantity of each denomination of
grain, or other titheable produce. But as it may eafily be
torefeen, that it would be a matter of ^reat difficulty, in
many cafes, to get at thefe fafts with precifion, might it
not be put in the power of the judge, if the parties could
not agree as to that particular, to appoint two or more per-
fons of good charafter in the neighbourhood, to gather up
the tithes in kind themfelves, fairly and honeftly, for five
years next to come, without favour to any perfon; the
amount to be delivered to the perfons having a right to re-
ceive them, after the quantities had been re£pe£lively afcer-
tained, fo as to admit of the colleftors making up an ac-
count of the whole, upon oath, to be delivered to the judge ;
who, from that account fo made up, (hould caufe an
average to be llruck of the quantities of each particular ar-
ticle ; which average quantities, after dedufting a juft pro-
portion for the expence of collefting, and taxes affefting the
tithe, (hould be declared by him to be the legal tithe exigeable
from the land in queftion in all time to come ? But as there
is room to fufpeft that the money prices of corn, wool,
&c. of different denominations, may rife to be much
higher in fome future period than it was at that time ; in-
ftead of then afcertaining the price of thefe articles, let it
be declared, that the quantities of grain and other articles
refulting from the averages refpeAively, are payable out of
the refpeftive lands, leaving the average prices of fuch grain,
&c. to be fettled and afcertained each year, as is fpecified
below ; declaring that the money which (hall arife from the
average prices thus afcertained, (hould be in lieu of the
whole tithe that could be exafted each year ; the time of
payment too to be fpecified. And, in order to prevent all
difputes as to the average prices of thefe articles in time to
come, let the fheriff of each county be authorized and re-
quired to make an inqueft at a certain period each year of
what has been the aftual ready money felling price of corn
of the preceding year's crop, from the time the crops were
reaped till this time, and of wool, as well as of all other
titheable articles for the former year, by examining witnefTes
before a jury to be appointed for that purpofe, which prices,
after being thus afcertained, (hould be publifhed and de-
clared to be thofe by which the quantity of tithe-corn of
each particular defcription, and other titheable articles, con-
tained in any degree of valuation, (hould be payable for the
crop of the preceding year. Thus, it is faid, would the
tithe-owner be entitled to receive payment of his tithes,
without any extraordinary expence or trouble, or unjuft de-
duftion or difpute whatever : the farmer would be allowed
to carry on his operations uncramped by thofe galling re-
ftraints which the tithe-laws at prefent perpetually throw
in his way : the proprietor would be at liberty to apply
fuch part of his capital as he might incline, towards pro-
moting agricultural improvements, with a reafonable pro-
fpeft of being benefited by his exertion : and the public
would become poffefTed of a quantity of furplut produce of
land, which it can have no profpeft of ever othcrvsrifc en-
Vol. XXXV,

joying, which would be tlie means of difTufiiig a perpetual
plenty llirougli every corner of tlie land.

Mr. Pitt too, in his account of the agriculture of a
midland diftrift, fuggcfts, that the mode or fcheme to
be adopted as the outline of an exchange of tithes, (hould
be for land, in the manner directed below, as land will
always bear a value proportionate to that of its jiroduco, and
that even tlie price or value of labour is meafurcd by the
fame ftandard. This is, that an aft of parliament (liould
appoint, in every diocefe, an equal number of the moft re-
fpeftable clergy and country gentlemen commilTioners and
truftces, with a power of nominating furveyors, to value all
the tithes belonging either to tlie clergy or laity within the
diocefe ; and lliat tliis aft (hould be let give an option to the
land-owners of purchafing their refpeftive tithes, at the va-
luation fixed on them by luch commiffioncrs and furveyors ;
the money arifing from fuch redemption being inverted in
the funds, or other more proper fecurities, until a fuitable
opportunity fhould offer of laying it out in the purchafc of
land ; and that, where the land-owners (hould refufe to pur-
chafe fuch tithes, the commilTioners (hould have the power
of mortgaging them, or of taking up money on their fecu-
rity, to be inverted in the fame way with that arifing from the
tithes aftually fold ; or after a given time, the trullees might
be impowered to fet apart an allotment of the land of thofe
owners who refufe to purchafe, and which, if conveniently
fituated for the former tithe-owner, might be fo applied,
otherwife fold ; and the money arifing from fuch fale in-
verted as before, until it could be laid out in the purchafe
of land. The execution of fome fuch plan or mode as
this, would, it is fuppofed, be attended with infinitely lefs
trouble and expence than now incurred by the annual valua-
tion of tithes ; as, (hould fuch a regulation be once effefted,
the bufinefs would be fettled for ever : while under the pre-
fent fyftem, the furveyor or valuer's bufinefs is never done,
but continued from year to year ; and, if it (hould remain,
will be from generation to generation. An equivalent in
land murt certainly, it is thought, be a more folid property
than tithes. Land too may be improved in any degree by
good management and induftry : tithes fluftuate or fink in
value at the will of the cultivator. Some fuch commutation
as this may, it is thought, be readily and eafily effefted,
and that all parties would be pleafed with the alteration.

The concluding remarks and fuggeftions on this greatly
interefting matter, are the refult of the invertigations and en-
quiries of two clergymen, who have been lately engaged in
drawing up accounts of the ftate of the agriculture of two
large counties of the kingdom ; thofe of Hereford and
Berks. The former ftates, that of the various modes pro-
pofed to effeft the defirable objeft of a general commutation
of tithes, that of a corn-rent feems to have met lefs objeftion
than mofl others which have been yet propofed ; ftill, how-
ever, nothing has been ferioufly attempted, and the matter
remains open to further difcullion. It has not, perhaps, it
is faid, occurred to every one, that tithes, in their prefent
form, have a direft and powerful tendency towards increafing
the prices of wheat and of every other grain, by creating
obrtacle« to its culture, and thus diminiming the quantity
which would otherwife be grown. But that the finele faft,
that an acre of land under the culture of ^heat, is liable to
a deduftion on account of tithes, in nearly a ten-fold pro-
portion to that of an acre of land grazed by cattle or (heep,
is furely fufficient evidence that tithes muft operate unfa-
vourably to the culture of grain, and confequently to its
abundance and cheapnef*. How defirable then is, it is faid,
fuch a. commutation as Wotild render this payment equally
heavy on every acre of land, according to its value, whether

5 B it

TITHES.

it bf applied to the cukuro of grain, or to the produftion
of animal food. Under this impreffion it is here propofed,
that in lieu of tithe, a tax be impofed, on the principle of
an equal land-tax, upon every ellate, according to its value,
for the fupport of tlie clergy. The wifdom of parliament
would, it is fuppofed, calily determine how many (hillmgs
in every pound of rent would be equal to the revenues to
which the clergy have a claim, and that the meafure would
be greatly facilitated by tlie inveiligations oceafioned by the
income or property i\t\ lately in force. Tlie tenant migiit
be made liable in the firll inilance to tlie payment of the
duty propofed as a fubllitute for the tithe, but in cafe of
his defalcation, the landlord might be made ultimately re-
fponfiblc.

In this mode of arrangement, the clergy, it is fuppofed,
would receive what is tlieir due, a full equivalent for titlies
in its prcfent ftatc ; the fecurity would ilill attach to the
foil itfelf, and their revenues would Hill increafe with the
increafe of the value of land and its produce. Encourage-
ment would thus be afforded to increafe the culture of grain ;
theindullrious farmer would not have to contribute more than
is jull proportion ; the tithe-owners too would obtain the
fair value of their property ; the clergy of the church of
England would acquire that degree of refpeft and efteem to
which few will deny that they are, in the aggregate, enti-
tled ; and, above all, they would be enabled to fulfil the
valuable purpofe of their inllitution : while at prefent, the
clergyman who demands but the fair value of his property,
becomes hated, and often infultcd ; and, to ufe the ftrong
language of fome, his " integrity becomes fufpefted ; his
every a<5lion is feen through a falfe medium ; and the paftor'
is loft in the coUeftorof tithes !" If it fhould beobjedled,
that under this or any other mode of commutation, the
farmer would not eventually be benefited, becaufe the land-
lord would then receive what is now paid to tlie tithe-owner ;
and that the fanner has no juft ground of complaint, as he
engaged his farm fubjedt to the deduflion or payment of
tithes : let it be underllood that the intereft of the commu-
nity at large, not of any one branch of it, is here contended
for.

The writer maintains, that the great objeft of a commu-
tation i^f tithes, beyond a religious view of it, is the relief
of the corn-field, and not the farmer. Perhaps, it is faid,
if the fubjeft be well confidered, the farmer would gain lefs
in a commutation than any one clafs of fociety. Tithes, in
their prefent form, may check his improvements, may con-
traft his fyftem of farming and his capital, may harafs his
mind, and lead to perfonal animofities and expenfive litiga-
tions ; but probably his mere payments in lieu of tithe
would, on the whole, be as heavy under any commutation,
as thofe to which he is now hable. The public, it is faid,
muft give that price for grain, at which it will anfwer the
farmer to raife it ; and that fuppofing it pofiible that the
farmers throughout the ifland were to engage in a combina-
tion, to convert fo much of their prefent tillage into paf-
ture, as would leave only half the ufual number of acres
under corn, the inevitable confequence would be, that grain
would fell at an enormous price, and the farmer would re-
ceive that increafed price, at a time when his expences were
diminifhed in the proportion of his tiUage. Thus the con-
fumer, which is the public, and not the farmer, would
fuffer; and if a tax, fuch as tithes, added to the increafed
price of timber, iron-work, and labour, ftiould induce the
farmer gradually but materially to contraft his tillage, there
could be no hope that grain would be fold during any confi-
derable period at a moderate price ; nor could there be an
adequate fupply for the wants of the country, without the

aid of large importations, which are always precarious, and
fometimes impoffible : and as animal food invariably rifes in
value with the increafed value of grain, the farmer might
thus be enriched at the expence of every other branch of the
community. The plan or mode here propofed for a com-
mutation would, it is prefiimed, counteraft or prevent thefe
ferious evils ; encouragement would be given to an extended
culture of grain ; and a new motive to induftry and exertion
would be found in the confideration, that the moft indolent
farmer mull contribute an equal fum with the moil aftive
and fuccefsful cultivator.

The latter of thefe clergymen thinks, that in reg.ird to
titliej in fecular hands, though the church may fuffer in the
amount of its income, it derives a confiderable degree of fe-
curity for what it ilill poffefles, from this very circumllance;
and confequently only touches on the fubjeiit fo far as to
propofe that they fliould be commuted for land, according
to their value. To this no reafonable objection is feen, er
any infuperable difficulty, if a legiflative plan were once
chalked out for its accompli lliment. But as for tithes in the
hands of the clergy, whether great or fmall, it is fuppofed
they might be beneficially commuted, by firll taking their
fair valuation by two competent fworn commiffioners, one of
whom fhould be named by the incumbent, and thus fixing a
fum to be paid according to the combined prices of corn,
meat, as mutton and beef, and malt, to be taken on the
average of the feven preceding years, and to vary with
the times every fubfequent feven years. And in order to
prevent any thing perfonal between the incumbent and his
parifhioners, except in the duties of his vocation, the over-
feers and churchwardens to be made the refponfible agents in
collefting and paying the fum to be raifed, with certain
provifoes and fecurities againft mifapplication and lofs. A
corn-i-ent alone is, it is faid, found to be an inadequate mode
of commutation ; but that taking the three great articles of
life in every family, bread, ?neat, and malt, the clergyman
would be fecure from injury, and the farmer, paying only
in proportion to the value of his produce, would have no
reafon to complain. It is to be obferved, however, that it is
vvilhed for the laws to aft uniformly for the benefit and fe-
curity of the parochial minifter, without fubjefting him to
the necefiity of coming forward in a perfonal and partial
light. By thefe means, what he might lofe in the influence
of fear, would, it is thought, be amply compenfated for on
the principle of love ; without which he can feldom be happy
himfelf, or difcharge the duties of his facred office with
effeft and fatisfaftion.

Where lands have been exonerated from tithes by an aft
of parliament, and an allotment made in land in lieu of
them, even where an adequate value has been given, which
in no inftance that has fallen under the writer's notice is, it
is faid, really the cafe, it is throwing too much land into
mortmain, it is fubjefting the incumbent to all the cares and
incumbrances of landed property, and driving him to the
neceffity of becoming a farmer, for which he is often ill
qualified, or of letting lands, according to the exilling laws,
on fuch conditions, that improvement muft be checked, and
induftry languish.

In order, however, to obviate fome of the evils refulting
from a praftice that has already, it is faid, become too
general, it is propofed, that after having referved a fufficient
glebe, which in every inftance ftiould be done, with a due
regard to the value of the hving, the incumbent ftiould be
allowed to leafe the remainder, at the full value, with the
confent of the patron and the biftiop, on a running leafe,
determinable every three or feven years, at the option of
eiUier of the two principal contrafting parties. A new in-
cumbent

T 1 T

T 1 T

cumbcnt would thus, it is fuppofed, without waitiiiij too
long, have an opportunity of improving his property, if he
thought it capable of being fo ; and the tenant, having a fair
profpeft of occupying tlic land under any change, would
feel himfelf equally fafe in making improvements, as if lie
rented of a layman. All dilapidations and repairs on the
farm, however, (hould fall on the tenant ; who ought not
only to be bound in proper covenants, but be obliged to
give due fecurity for their performance, as well as the pay-
ment of the rent.

Or, to land belonging to the clergy, the corn, meat, and
malt rents might, it is faid, be applied as well as to tithes
with leafes for twenty-one years certain, which would pro-
bably be the mod eligible mode, as it would give uniformity
to the plan of clerical provi lion, and would always afford an
income according to the times.

Upon the whole confideration of the fubjeft, there cannot
be any doubt but that great advantage and improvement
would arifc to agriculture, from fome meafure of this nature
being had recourfe to and carried into execution ; and
though the farmer might not perhaps, on the whole, ex-
perience any great diminution in the quantity of moaey
which he would have to pay, he would be wholly freed
from the anxiety, trouble, and vexation, which conftantly
attend the taking of tithes in kind, and at the fame time,
which is much more important and material, be left at full
liberty to exert his utmoil endeavours to promote all kinds
of improvements, which the nature of his farm may witli
propriety admit. And in this way, and by fuch means,
the art of agriculture would be carried forward to fuch a
ftate of improvement and perfedion as cannot be eafily
conceived. Befidcs, fuch a meafure might have a confider-
able effect in promoting the inclofure and cultivation of
much land ftill in the difgraceful fituation of wafte, all
which are defirable objcdls on various accounts in the pre-
fent ftate of the country.

TiTiiE-i?rt/<°. See R-ATE-TiV/jf.

'Ynu-E'^, SubtraBioji of. See Subtraction.

TITHING, Decenna, or Deciiry, a number or com-
pany of ten men, with their families, knit together in a kind
of fociety, and all bound to the king, for the peaceable
behaviour of each other.

Anciently no man was fuffered to abide in England above
forty days, unlefs he were enrolled in fome tithing. — One
of the principal inhabitants of the tithing is annually ap-
pointed to prciide over the reft, being called the tithiiig-man,
the head-borough, and in feme countries the borlholder, or
borough's elder, being fuppofed the difcrcctcft man in the
borough, town, or tithing. The diftribution of England
into tithings and hundreds is owing to king Alfred. See
Deciners, VR,\tiK-Pk(Jge, and Friburgh.

TITHONIA, in Botany, was fo named by profeflbr
Desfontaines, in allufion to the glowing light -orange tint of
its flowers, which the French call couleur aurore. The
fabled favourite of Aurora, Tithonus, is therefore here
meant to be commemorated. The allufion would have
been ftill more happy, had the flower been one of the ever-

lafting kind Desfont. Ann. du Muf. v. i. 49. Willd.

Sp. PI. V. 3. 2246. Juff. 189. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 708.
Poirct in Lam. Dift. v. 7. 690. — Clafs and order, Synge-
tufta Polygamta-frujlt-anea. Nat. Ord. Compofttit oppoJittfoUii,
Linn. Corymbifem, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx cylindrical, of a double row
pf ovate-oblong, acute, flat, nearly equal, ereft fcales. Cor.
compound, radiated. Florets of the diflc numerous, all
perfect, level-topped, tubular ; limb five-toothed ; tube in-
fliited near the bafe. Thofe of the radius female but abor»

live, about twelve ; limb elliptic-lanceolate, acute, entire,
horizontal, flat. Slam, in the diflc only. Filaments five,
capillary, fliorter than the tube ; anthers united into a
cylinder of the fame length. Pijl. in the dilk, Germen ob-
long, (lender ; ftyle thread-ftiaped, the length of the partial
corolla ; ftigmas two, recurved, obtufe ; in the radius,
germen very fmall ; llyle fcarccly any. Pcric. none, ex-
cept the unchanged calyx. Seeds in the florets of the diflc
only, foMtary, ovate, fmooth ; their crown of five fliort,
acute, ercft, membranous fcales. Recept. convex, chaffy,
its fcales concave, acute, rather taller than the feeds.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle chaffy, convex. Seed-crown of
live chaffy fcales. Calyx cylindrical; its fcales equal, con-
verging, in two rows. Florets of the diflc inflated at the
bafe ; thofe of the radius elliptic-lanceolate.

l.T.tagettflora. Marigold Tithonia. Desfont. as above,

t. 4. Willd. n. I Native of Vera Cruz. i?oo/ annual.

Stem ereft, alternately branched, leafy, a foot high. Leaves
alternate, on long ftalks, downy, crenate, reticulated with
veins, triple-ribbed ; the lower ones deeply thrce-lobed ;
upper undivided, ovate, or fomewhat heart-fliaped, acute.
Flowers on long fohtary ftalks, at the end of each branch,
orange-coloured, about the fize of a French mangold.

TITHOREA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece,
in the Phocide, on mount Parnaffus, 80 ftadia from Delphi.
This place was famous for its facred grove dedicated to
Minerva, a temple with the ftatue of this goddefs, and the
tomb of Antiope and Phocus. The temple of Efculapius
Archagetes vi'as fituated 70 ftadia from Tithorea. The
inclofure which contained the chapel of Ifis was 40 ftadia
farther diftant than the temple of Efcuhpius.

TITHRASUS, a town of Africa, in Libya, bordered
by a river of the fame name.

TITHRONIUM, a town of Greece, in the Phocide, in
which was a grove facred to Apollo, with fome altars and a
temple, but without a ftatue. This town was fituated 15
ftadia from Amphicea and 20 from Drymea, near the river
Cephiffus. Paufanias.

TITHYMALOIDES, in Botany, fo called from its
affinity to Tithymahis, the Euphorbia of modern botanifts,
differs from that indeed merely in having the calyx gibbous

on one fide at the bafe Tourn. Inft. 654. — Two or tliree

Weft Indian fpecies of Euphorbia come under this defcrip-
tion.

TITHYMALUS, ti^vi^xXo; of Diofcorides, fuppofed to
be derived from tit5o,-, the Ireajl, in allufion to the milkinefs
of the plant. Tourn. t. 1 8. See Euphorbia.

TITI, Santi di, in Biography, was born at Citta
S. Sepolero, in the Florentine ftate, in 1538. He firft ac-
quired a knowledge of painting under the tuition of A. Bron-
zino, and afterwards of Bandinelli, but ower, the greater part
of his fame to his ftudies at Rome, where he long refided,
and from whence, as Lanzi obferves, he carried back to his
native country a graceful and fcientilic ftyle of art, not fup-
ported by much ideal beauty, but chiefly charaAerized by
the truth and freflinefs of nature ; and in expreffton he had
few fuperiors in any fchool, none in his own. He adorned
his pidlures with pieces of architecture, which fcience he in
a meafure profeffed, and by its means gave groat rehef to hi»
figures, and increafed the dignity and beauty of his com-
pofitions. His principal works are, the Supper at Emmaus,
painted for the church of St. Croce, at Florence ; the Refur-
reftion of Lazarus, in the Duomo di Volterra; and the
Defcent of the Holy Spirit, painted for a convent at Citta
di Caftello. He died at Florence in 1603, aged 65, leaving
a fon, Tiberio Titi, born at Florence in 1578, who followed
the fame art with his father, but not with equal fuccefs. In

5 B 2 general

TITIAN.

reneral he painted fmall portraits very (k.lfully, and rnade
Srawings in black-lead ; of which there is a large coUea.on
in the Florentine gallery, mad*, originally for the cardinal
Leopold de Medici. Ho died in 1637.

TITIAN, the name by which we are acquainted with
that Kreat mailer, who is umverfally regarded as the head
of the Venetian fchool of painting, T.ziano Vecelli da
Cidore. This juftly diftinguifhed artift was born of noble
pan.-nt5 at the caiUe of Cadore, in Fnuli, in 1480, accord-
Cig to Vafari and Sandrart ; though Ridolfi, and others alter
him, place the date of his birth three years earlier, in 1477 :
but as Giorgione was confefTedly older than he, and was
born in 1478, we have preferred the authority of the former,
as mod likely to be correA. The education he received,
firft from Sebaftiano Zuccati of Trevigi, and afterwards
from Giovanni Bellini at Venice, rendered him a diligent
and fubtle obferver of nature. His early works exhibit the
greatcft correftnefs of imitation, but in a laboured and
nunute ftyle, with a finith fo highly wrought, that when,
at a maturer age, he painted a pifture for Ferrara of the
tribute-money, in competition with Albert Durer, he ex-
celled in nicety of pencilling that mailer of minutenefs ;
with this difference, that his finifh did not, like the Ger-
man's, obtrude itfelf, and impede the general effecl, but
obtained grandeur by diftance. This pifture, to which he
made no companion, as he foon after changed his ftyle,
now adorns the gallery of Drefden, and remains a proof of
the fenfe this great artift enteruined of the falfity of that
tafte, which feeks for gratification in mere finifh, and wliich
he deferted for the adoption of a ftyle conveying general
charadler inftead of identity. It was from the better tafte
of his fellow pupil, Giorgione, that Titian imbibed a more
exalted view of art, and was induced to quit the meaner
and more confined ftyle with which he commenced his
praftice ; and fome portraits which he painted about this
time are fcarcely to be diftinguifhed from thofe of Giorgione
himfelf. But he feems to have found it not exaftly to his
mind, and foon difcovered a variety of ftyle more congenial
to Ws own feelings ; lefs foftened, and perhaps lefs grand,
but more agreeable ; a ftyle which delights the fpeftator
lels by novelty of effeft, than by the exaftnefs of truth.
His firft work in this ftyle, which is entirely his own, and
may be denominated Tizianefque, is the archangel Raphael
leading Tobiah, painted in his thirtieth yeai- for the facrifty
of S. Marciale ; and foon after he painted the Prefentation
of the Vu-gin, at the Carita ; one of the richeft and moft
numerous of his compofitions remaining.

When only eighteen years of age, he had painted a por-
trait of the head of the Barbarigo family, which excited
univerfal adniiratioB ; and he v/as foon afterwards employed,
ia concert, or rather in rivalry, with Giorgione, to paint
one of the fronts of the Fondaco de Tedelchi, when un-
happily the jealoufy already fubfifting between thefe great
artifts was ftrengthened by the fuperior encomiums beftowed
upon Titian. On the death of Giorgione in 15 11, Titian
fucceeded him in feveral important commiffions, and con-
tinuing to increafe in renown, was invited to the court of
Alfonfo, duke of Ferrara, for whom he painted the cele-
brated picture of Bacchus and Ariadne, now in England.
Here he became acquainted with the poet Ariofto, whofe
portrait he painted, and in return was celebrated by him in
his Orlando Furiofo.

About 1523, Titian produced the work which, above all
others, elevates him in the fcale of merit among painters ;
viz. the celebrated pifture of the Death of St. Peter the
Martyr, for the church of S. Giovanni and S. Paolo at
Venice, which has by almoft all a:tifts and connoiffeurs

been confidered his chef-d'oeuvre in hiftory. This extra-
ordinary piAure was one oi the firft objeAs of French
fpoliation at Venice. It was painted originally on wood,
but was transferred to canvas in France, in confequcnce
of its having been much bliftered from the wood by the
effeft of fea-water in its voyage to Marfeilles ; and it is
now returned to its original ftation in a more agreeable, if
not more perfeft condition, than when it was firft removed.
The excellence of this pi&ure procured him, according to
Vafari, a commiflion from the fenate to paint the battle of
Cadore between the Venetians and the Imperialifts, or the
rout of Giaradadda, in which the adlion proceeded during
a tremendous ftorm of rain. This grand work was de-
ftroyed by fire, but the compofition is preferved to us by
the print engraved by Fontana. Befides thefe, he painted
feveral other pubLc works, which, together with the friendly
afiiilance of Pietro Aretino, whofe pen delighted to dwell
upon the powers of this great artift's pencil, fpread hi«
fame in every direAion, ana he was honoured with a fuper-
abundance of employment. In 1530, when Charles V.
came to Bologna to be crowned by pope Clement VII.
Titian was fent for by the cardinal Hippolito de Medici to
paint the jxirtrait of the monarch, which he did on horfe-
back and in armour ; which fo pleafed Charles, that he
gave the painter 1000 crowns or gold, and declared he
would never be painted by any body elfe. When Titian
returned to Venice, he found Pordenone much employed
and fupported by feveral of the principal perfons ; but his
great fuperiority foon became too manifeft to be refifted,
and he was more than ever employed, both publicly and in
private.

In IJ41 the emperor returned to Bologna, to hold a con-
ference with the pope, and was again painted by Titian, as
was alfo the cardinal Hippohto de Medici in a Hungarian
drefs. He alfo painted his friend P. Aretino, who about
this time introduced him to Fred. Gonzaga, duke of
Mantua, whom he painted, and alfo, for him, a feries of
the twelve Cxiars for a faloon in the palace ; underneath
each of which, Julio Romano afterwards painted a fubje^
from each of their hiftories.

Titian had foon after the honour of painting pope
Paul III., when he vifited Ferrara in 1543, and was in-
vited by that pontiff to Rome ; but he excufed himfelf at
that time on account of an engagement with the duke of
Urbino, whofe portrait he painted with fo much fire and
truth, that Aretino honoured it with a fonnet, comparing
it with that of Alexander by Apelles. He painted alfo
feveral other piftures for the lame duke of Urbino ( Fran-
cefco Maria), and when he had completed his engagement
there, accepted another invitation to Rome, fent by the
pope, through the medium of cardinal Bembo.

He arrived there in 1546, according to Vafari, who was
already known to Titian, having feen him at Venice, and
was on this occafion honoured by the cardinal's appointing
him Cicerone to this great painter ; to conduft him through
the city, and to (hew him its beauties. Nothing could be
more flattering than his reception by the pope, who imme-
diately upon his arrival ailigned him apartments in the Pa-
lazzo Belvidere, and employed him in painting his portrait at
whole length, and thofe of the cardinal and the duke Ottavia,
which gave univerfal fatisfadlion ; but an Ecce Homo, which
he painted as a prelent to the pope, was not ell;emed by
the Roman artills, whofe minds were accullomed to the
works of Raphael and M. Augelo. The latter is laid to .
have remarked to Vafari, after feeing Titian at work on his
Dan'ae, that it was a great pity the Venetian painters applied
therafelves fo little to defign, and had not a better mode of

ftudy,

TITIAN.

ftudy, being fo perfcdlly (kilfiil in colour and imitation.
Adding, " if this man were as much aided by art in defign
as he is by nature, and mod particularly fo in giving jiift
refemblance of natural objefts, he would be perfeft ; as he
has a noble fpirit, and a beautiful and lively manner."

He did not remain long in Rome, but on his return to
Venice vifited Florence, where he beheld with delight the
great works of art with which it is adorned, and vifitod
tne grand duke Cofmo, who declined his offer to paint his
portrait, perhaps, as Vafari obferves, that he might not
give umbrage to the ingenious artifts of his own city and
aominions.

Immediately upon his arrival at Florence, he received an
invitation from his patron, Charles V., to vifit Spain, and
accordingly went to Madrid, where he arrived in 1550.
He remamed there three years, during which time he painted
a great number of portraits and hiftoric;J pifturcs. For
the portrait which he painted of the emperor, he received
. 1000 crowns of gold, and was created a knight of the
order of St. Jago, and a count palatine of the empire,
with a llipend from the treafury of Naples of 200 crowns
annually ; and to this, Philip II. added afterwards 200 more,
befides paying him munificently for each of his produftions.
When Charles had devoted his life to the aufterities of a
convent, he commifEoned him to paint a large pitlure of
the Trinity, accompanied by the Holy Virgin, and fur-
rounded by faints and angels, in which the emperor, and
the emprefs his wife, were reprefented elevated to the
heavens, and in the aft of adoration. There is a fltetch of
it in England, and a print lias been engraven from the
pi^ure, by which it appears to have been a very grand
work.

Though Titian had returned to his native place before
Philip II. came into pofTeffion of the throne, and was as
much engaged as he could be, yet that monarch, when he
had built the Efcurial, and conceived the idea of enriching
it with the mod fplendid materials, reforted to his father's
favourite painter to affift him in perfefting it ; and though
it does not appear that Titian returned to Spain, yet Tie
mufl have employed his pencil very adiduoufly in its fervice
from the very great number of his piftures which are to
be found there, many of them among his very fined pro-
duftions. Several of thefe have been withdrawn by the
fcruples of bigotry from public view ; and among them his
picture of a fleeping Venus, which was preiented by
Philip IV. to our Charles I., when prince of Wales, on his
viiit to Spain, and which after his death was purchafed by
the Spanifh ambaffador, then refident here.

Titian was invited by Henry VIII. to England, but his
numerous engagements on the continent prevented him from
coming. He painted, however, two piftures for Henry,
which now adorn Cleveland Houfe (the marquis of Staf-
ford's). Their fubjefts are the Bath of Diana, with the
unfortunate intrufion of Afteon, and the Difcovery of ihe
crime of Calida, and both are exquifite performances, and
in tolerably good prefervation. They continued in the
royal colleftion till it was difperfed on the death of
Charles I., and found their way into the gallery of the
duke of Orleans ; and on the purchafe of the Italian part
of that colleftion being efFefted by the duke of Bridge-
water, the earl of Carhde, and lord Gower, thefe piftures
fell to the lot of the former of thefe noblemen.

This great painter is one of the happy few, for whom
nature and circumdances have combined in fortunate con-
junftion. " For him," as Vafari judly obferves, " health
and fortune laboured, and he received of heaven only happi-
»efs and bleflings." By him the higheft among mcr., the

mod learned, and the mod beautiful, were proud to liave
their portraits tranfmitted to poderity. Ho was handfome
in perfon an<l graceful in manners, and lived in a dylc
worthy of one fo honoured and beloved. Thefe blcflingg
he was permitted to enjoy through a very uncommon por-
tion of human exidence, which was at length interrupted
by the plague in his 96th year. He appears to have been
able to purfue his delightful art to a very advanced period,
for Vafari found him painting in 1566, when he vifited him
at Venice, .and fpeaks of it with pleafure ; and though it
may well be imagined that the latter produftions of his
pencil exhibit the ilrong hand of time, yet they are free

and maderly in every thing in which a perfeft knowledge

;ak only
in the execution.

of the principles of the art are concerned, and wea

Had Giorgione lived but to one-half of the lengthened
years of his great rival, Titian might not perhaps have dood
fo completely at the head of the Venetian fchool of paint-
ing, as from his numerous excellent produftions he now
does. That noble work, the death of S. Pietro Martire,
alone fully entitles him to this didinftion and honour : per-
haps no other produftioii of the pencil is fo perfeft in the
combination of every requifite quality of a hue painting j
compofition, dcfign, atlion, expreffion, chiaro-fcuro, and
colour. The clioice of the fcene, and the accompaniments,
are every way adapted to aflid in creating alarm and difmay ;
the tone of evening or twilight fpread over the whole, and
contraded to the briUiant ray of heavenly light from above,
aids the impreflion ; and the execution is in every part cor-
refpondent to the grandeur of form felefted. Tliis pifture
he painted, as we have faid, in the prime of his life, when he
was about forty-three ; and he continued long after to work
in the fame dyle, which is of his own creation, and totally
different from both his former laboured one, and his latter
loofe and vague manner. In this pifture, every part is
wrought to an «xaft charafter of reprefentation, though
without minutenefs, or in any degree trefpalling upon tne
heroic nature of the tragic fubjeft ; and there is no intro-
duftion of heterogeneous matter, as is too frequently to be
found in his hidonc produftions. Here he appears to have
caught a glimpfe of tne grandeur of Michael Angelo's dyle,
and to have employed it more effeftaaliy than in any other
of his works, except perhaps in the figures on the ceiling of
the Salute at Venice, and the martyrdom of St. Laurence
in the Jefuits'. In general, his feleftion of form is but Uttle
improved upon his model | his male figures being too
flefhy for charafter or aftion, and his females too full for
elegance.

The mind of Titian appears to have been of a fedate and
rather ferious charafter. There is, as fir Jodiua Reynolds
has obferved, " a fenatorial dignity about him," which dif-
tinguifhes him from his compeers of the Venetian fchool.
All his compofitions are arranged with gravity ; even the gay
and fometimes licentious fubjefts which he now and then
amufed himfelf with, are condufted with fncli a fcale of
chiaro-fcuro and colour, as gives an air of morality to their
effeft, which impofes upon the fpeftator a tone ot fobriety,
and induces him to difcard thufe loofe thouglits which the
gay luxuriance of the Hyle of Rubens, treating the fame
compofitions, would inevitably excite.

Colouring appears to have been the grand foundation of
the fuccefs of Titian. He knew better than any other
painter the juil power of each colour of his pallette ; and by
this knowkdjje, produced a fpecies of chiaro-fcuro inde-
pendent of liglit and diade, and perfeftly didinft from thjt
of Corregio and Lionardo da Vinci, and more immediately
imitative of the general effefts of r.ature. Mafter of the
8 means

TIT

mfans of imitating the moft fubtle combinations of colour
in vifibU- obieas, and fully comprehending the degrees of
purity or of tone with whicli colours might be employed
individually or coUedively, to affift in projeding or with-
drawing the various parts of a picture, he never fails to gra-
tify the eye with a full and true relief, correfpondent with
the nature of the fubjca. In this quality lie was as much
ideal, as the Greeks and Florentines were in form ; for
though the harmony and richncfs wliich he produced are to
be found occafionally in nature, it is neither her every day
atth-c, nor is it to be comprehended by fuperficial obfcrvcrs.
There is a fcience of exceeding import to painting in the
arrangements of colours, by which a (Icilful artift will create
attrattion or difguft, as it pleafes him. Change the pofition
of the colours of that moft beautifvd of nature's works, the
rainbow ; let the blue and the green occupy the centre, and
the red and yellow the edges of it ; and judge how far it will
decreafe in its power of attraclion. Of this fcience, Titian
was the firll great poflbnor ; and as he poffeffed the
knowledge of the value of colours, fo alfo did he that of
the nature of (hade ; that colour (to the painter at leaft,
though it be the abfence of it to the philofopher) which
deftroys all colours, and renders all alike obfcure ; and
which is the moft difficult of attainment in all that re-
lates to the art of colouring. The tone of ftiade that
Titian employed, whatever be the fubftance which pro-
duced it, was ufed by no other fo fuccefsfuUy, except Tin-
toretto. It feems, in its union with the local colours of ob-
jefts.to have produced the half teints without further labour ;
or at leaft to have laid fuch a foundation, as to have made
that of the fubfequent tinting very trifling ; and doubtlefs
this mode of proceeding rendered him able to produce fuch
an infinity of works as appear to have iffued from his pencil.
His errors flowed naturally, from the eale with which he
produced the beauties of his ftyle ; and as the mind was
filled with gratification by the delightful harmony and rich-
nefs of colour his works prefented, fo it fought the lefs for
the qualities of expreffion, and appropriate drefs and aftion
in the figures ; and would not condemn too rudely the fre-
quent admiflion of heterogeneous matter.

To the accufations of exhibiting defefts like thefe, the
works of Titian are far lefs juftly iubjetl than thofe of his
imitators and fucceflbrs in the Venetian fchool of painting ;
none of whom poflefTed the tafte and judgment of this great
matter, though many were eminently (kilful in their refpec-
tive departments.

TITIANO, GinoLAMO Dante, called //. According
to Ridolfi, he was brought up in the fchool of Titian, and was
employed by that mafter to afliil him in feveral of his works.
By frequently painting in conjunftion with him, and fome-
times copying his works, fome of his piftures, retouched by
Titian, have paded for originals by tliat mailer. He fome-
times painted from his own defigns, and his pifture in the
church of St. Giovanni at Venice, reprefenting S. S. Cofmo
and Damiano, is worthy of the fchool in which he was
educated. Bryan's Did.

TITICACA, or Chucuito, in Geography, a lake of
South America, in the v-iceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, dio-
ccfe of La Paz, and jurifdiftion of Chucuito, the figure of
which is oval, inclining nearly from N.W. to S.E., its cir-
cumference being about 80 leagues, and depth near the
ihore from four to fix fathoms, and towards the middle forty
or fifty, without any ftioals. Ten or twelve large rivers,
befide a great number of fmaller ftreams, difcharge them-
felves into it. The water, though neither bitter nor
brackifti, is fomewhat turbid, and its tafte is fo naufeous
that it cannot be drank. It abounds with fifh of two very

T I T

different kinds ; one large and palatable, called by the
Indians Suchis, and the other fmal), infipid and bony, long
fince called by the Spaniards Boyas. It has alfo a great
number of geefe, and other wild fowl, and the (hores are
covered with flags and rufhes, the materials of which the
bridges are made. The weftern borders of this lake are
called Chucuito, and thofe on the E- are denominated.
Omafcuyo. It contains feveral iflands, from one to another
of which the Indians pafs on their balfas, a kind of rafts,
fupported by inflated (kins. One of thefe iflands is very
large, and was anciently one mountain, fince levelled by
order of the Incas : this gave to the lake its own name of
Titicaca, which, in the Indian language, fignifies a moun-
tain of lead. In this ifland the firtl Inca, Mancho-Capac,
the illullrious founder of the empire of Peru, invented his
political fable, that the fun, his father, had placed him,
together with his fifter and confort Mama Oello Hiiaco,
there, enjoining them to draw the neighbouring people from
the ignorance, rudeneis, and barbarity in which they livedo
and humanize them by cuftoms, laws, and religious rite*
didlated by himfelf ; and in return for the benefits refulting
from this artful ftrat.igcm, the ifland has, by all the Indians,
been confidercd as facred ; and the Incas, determining to
creft on it a temple to the fun, caufed it to be levelled, that
the fituation might be more delightful and commodious.

This was one of the moft fplendid temples in the whole
empire. Befides the plates of gold and filver with which
its walls were magnificently adorned, it contained an immenfe
coUeftion of nches, all the inhabitants of provinces which
depended on the empire, being under an indilpenfible obliga-
tion of vifiting it once a year, and offering fome gift. Ac-
cordingly, they always brought in proportion to their zeal
or abi'ity, gold, filver, or jewels. This immenfe mafs of
riches, the Indians, on feeing the rapacious violence of the
Spaniards, are thought to have thrown into the lake ; as it
is certainly known they did with regard to a great part of
thofe at Cufco, among which was the famous golden chain
made by order of the Inca Huayna-Capac, to celebrate the
feflival of giving name to his eldeil fon. But thefe valuable
efFefts were thrown into another lake, fix leagues S. of
Cufco, in the valley of Orcos : and though numbers of
Spaniards, animated with the flattering hopes of fuch
immenfe treafures, made frequent attempts to recover them,
the great depth of the water, and the bottom being covered
with flime and mud, rendered all their endeavours abortive.
For notwithftanding the circuit is not above half 3 league,
yet the depth of water is in moft places not lefs than
twenty-three or twenty-four fathoms.

Towards the S. part of the lake Titicaca, the banks
approach each other, fo as to form a kind of bay, which
terminates in a river called El Defaguadero, or the drain,
and afterwards forms the lake of Paria, which has no vifible
outlet ; but the many whirl-pools fufficiendy indicate that
tlic water iflfues by a fubterraneous pafTage. Over the river
Defaguadero is ftill remaining the bridge of rufhes, invented
by Capac Yupanqui, the fifth Inca, for tranfporting his
army to the other fide, in order to conquer the provinces of
Collafuyo. S. lat. 16^ 10'. W. long. 69° 56'.

TITILLARES Vjzx.e, a name given by fome authors
to the iliac veins.

TITILLATION, Titili.atio, the aft of tickling, i. e.
exciting a fort of pleafurable idea, by a gentle apphcation of
fome foft body, upon a nervous part ; and which ufually
tends to produce laughter.

TITILLICUM, a word ufed by fome anatomical writers
for the arm-pit.

TITIN Ara, in Geography, a mountain of RufTia, in

the

T I T

the government of Upha. N. lat. 52° 25'. E. long.
61° 14'.

TITIOPOLIS, in indent GfOgraphy, a town of Afia,
in Ifauria, or the focond Cilicia, one of tlic twenty-three
towns, which, according to the Notitia of Hierocles, were
tnider the metropolis of Seleucia ; named Titopolis by
William of Tyre.

TITISNESS, in Geography, a fmall ifland near the coaft
of Lapland, at the entrance of a bay called Titsfiord.
N. lat. 67° 36'.

TITIUM Fl.w L^f, in Ancient Geography, a river of II-
lyria, which difcharged itfelf into t!ie fea at Scardona, and
ferved as a boundary between Liburnia and Dalmatia.
Pliny. It is named Titus by Ptolemy.

TITIZIGHE, in Geography, a feaport town of the prin-
cipality of Guricl, witli a good harbour, on the Black fea.
This place is alfo called Pgliino ; 10 miles S. of Puti.

TITLARK, in Oni'uhology. See Alauda Pratenjis.

TITLE, TiTUi.us, an infcription put over any thing, to
make it known.

The word is more particularly ufed for the infcription in
the firft page of a book, exprefling the fubjed of it, the
author's name, &c.

What tortures abundance of authors, is to find fpecious
titles for their books : a title (hould be fimple, and yet clear :
thefe are the two genuine chara£lers of this kind of com-
pofition. AiTuming titles are prepoffeffion againft the
authors.

Title, Titulus, in the Civil and Canon Laiu, denotes a
chapter or divilion of a book.

A title is fubdivided into paragraphs, &c. — Each of the
fifty books of the Digeft confiils of a number of titles ;
fome of more, others of lefs.

Title is alfo an appellation of dignity, diftinftion, or
pre-eminence, given to perfons pofTelTed of the fame.

The titles of order or dignity, Loyfeau obferves, fliould
always come immediately after the name, and before the
titles of office.

The king of Spain has a whole page of titles, to cxprefs the
feveral kingdoms and fignories of which he is mailer. The
king of England takes the title of king of Great Britain and
Ireland: the king of France, the title of ling of France and
Navarre : the king of Sweden intitles himfelf iing of the
Siuedes and Goths : the king of Denmark, king of Denmark
and Norway : the king of Sardinia, among his titles, takes
that of king of Cyprus and Jeriifalem : the duke of Lorrain,
the title of king of Jerufalem, Sicily, &c.

The cardinals take titles from the names of fome churches
in Rome : as of St. CeciUa, St. Sabina, &c. and they are
called cardinals of the title of St. Cecilia, Sec.

The emperor can confer the title of prince, or count of
the empire ; but the right of fuffrage in afTemblies of the
empire depends on the confent of the eftates.

The Romans gave the titles of Africanus, Afiaticus,
Macedonicus, Numidicus, Creticus, Parthicus, Dacicus, &c.
in memory of the viftories obtained over the people of thofe
countries. The king of Spain, after the like manner, gives
honourable titles to his cities, in recompence for their fer-
vices, or their fidelity.

Title exprefles alfo a certain quality afcribed by way of
refpeft to certain princes, &c.

The pope has the title of hoUnefs ; a cardinal prince of
the blood, that of royal highnefs, or mojl ferene highnefs, ac-
cording to his nearnefs to the throne ; other cardinal princes,
mojl eminent highnefs ; an archbifhop, grace and mojl reverend;
a biihop, right reverend; abbots, pricfts, religious, &c.
reverend.

TIT

As to fccular powers, to the emperor is given the title of
imperial niajefly ; \.o king, majefly ; to the king of France,
moft chrifl'um majefly ; to the king of Spain, catholic majefly;
to the king of England, that of defender of the faith ;
to the Turks, grand fignor and highnefs ; to the prince of
Wales, royal highnefs ; to the dauphin of Tnncc, ferene high-
nefs ; t() clcftors, electoral highnefs ; to the grand duke, mofi
ferene highnefs; to the other princes of Italy and Germany,
highnefs ; to the doge of Venice, mojl ferene prince; to the
republic or fenate of Venice, flgnory ; to the grand-mafter
of M.ilta, eminence; to nuncios, and to ambaffadors of
crowned heads, excellency.

The emperor of China, among his titles, takes that of
tienfi, fon of heaven. The Orientals, it is obferved, are ex-
ceedingly fond of titles : the fimple governor of Schiras, for
inilance, after a pompous enumeration of quaUties, lord-
fliips, &c. adds the titles afjotver of court efy, nutmeg of con-
flation, and rofe of delight.

Title, in Laiu, denotes a right which a perfon has to
the polfeflion of any thing.

A title to lands is thus defined by fir Edward Coke :
titulus cfljufla caufa pojfidendi id quod noflrum ejl, or it is the
means by which the owner of lands hath the juft poireflion
of his property. There are feveral ftages or degrees requi-
fite to form a complete title to lands and tenements. The
lowed and moft imperfeft degree of title confifts in the mere
naked pofTeirion, or aAual occupation of the eftate, without
any apparent right, or any (hadow or pretence of right, to
hold and continue fuch pofieffion. See Disseisin.

The next ftep to a good and perfeft title is the right of
pofTciTion, which may refide in one man, while the aftual
pofiefnon is cither in himfelf or another. The third cir-
cumftance attending a title is the mere right of property,
the jus proprietatis, without either pofTeflion or even the
right of pofieffion. It is poffible that one man may have
the pofieffion, another the right of poffi;ffion, and a third the
right of property. But in the union of thcfe three qualifi-
cations confifts a complete title to lands, tenements, and
hereditaments. For it is an ancient maxim of the law, that
no title is completely good, unlefs the right of poffeffion
be joined with the right of property > which right is then de-
nominated a double right, jus dupUcatum, or droit droit.
And when to this double right the aftual pofieffion is alfo
united, when there is, according to the expreffion of Fleta,
juris et feifintt conjunSio, then, and then only, is the title com-
pletely legal.

The ftatute 32 Hen. VIII. c. 9, hath provided, that no
one fliall fell or purchafe any prefented right or title to
land, unlefs the vendor hath received the profits thereof for
one whole year before fuch grant, or hath been in a£lual
pofieffion of the land, or the reverfion or remainder ; on pain
that both the purchafer and vendor fliall each forfeit the
value of fuch land to the king and the profecutor.

A title to things perfonal may be acquired or loft by oc-
cupancy, by prerogative, by forfeiture, by cuftom, by fuc-
ceffion, by marriage, by judgment, by gift, by contraft, by
bankruptcy, by teftimony, and by adminiftration. Blackft.
Com. b. ii. See Possessiox aud Property.

Title is alfo an authentic inftrument, by which a man can
prove and make appear his right.

There muft be at leaft colourable title to come into pof-
feffion of a benefice, otherwife the perfon is deemed an in-
truder. For prcfcription with title, fee Prescriptiox.

Title, in the Canon Law, is that by virtue of which a
beneficiary holds a benefice : fuch is the collation of an or-
dinary, or a provifion in the court of Rome, founded on a
refignation, permutation, or other legal caufe. The title

of

T I T

T 1 T

of a bcncficp, or beiu-Aciary, u i-ithor s true or a colour-
able one. A Irui or valid title is that wiiicli gives a right to
the benefice : fuch is that received from a collator who has
a right to confer the benefice on a pcrfon capable of it, the
ufual folemnitics being obferved. See Collation, &c.

CJoiiraHe title is a fceming one ; /. c. fuch an one as ap-
pears valid, and is not. Such would that be founded on tlic
collation of a bifliop, in cafe tlie beneiice in queftion were
not in his collation.

By the canons, a colourable title, though falfe, produces
twr3 very confidcrable effcds. l. That, alter peaceable pof-
fcflion for three years, the incumbent may defend himfelf
hy the T\x\e de Irlennall pojfejtone, againft fuch as would dif-
pute the benefice with him. 2. That in cafe he be profe-
cuted within three years, and obliged to funender the bene-
fice, he (hall not be obliged to reftore the produce of it,
during the time he pofTcfled it.

Title is alfo ufed, in fcveral ancient fynods and councilsj
for the church to which a prieft was ordained, and where he
vas coiiftantly to refidc.

" Nullus in prclbyterum, nullus in diaconum, nifi ad cer-
ium titulum ordinetur." Concil. Londin. ann. 112J.

There are many reafons why a church might be called
liiulu4, title : the moft probable Cowel takes to be this, that
in ancient days the name of the faint to whom the church
was dedicated was engraved on the porch, as a token that
the faint had a title to that church : whence the church itfelf
became afterwards to be called titulus.

Titles, or Titular Churches, M. Fleury obferves, were
formerly the denomination of a particular kind of churches
at Rome.

In the fixth and feventh centuries, there were four forts
of churches in that metropolis ; v'i%. patriarchal, titular,
diaconal, and Qratoriai. The tituli, titular, were, as it were,
parirties, each afligned to a cardinal-prieft, with a certain
diftrift or quarter depending on them, and a font for the
adminiftration of baptifm in cafe of neceffity.

Title, Clerical or Sacerdotal, denotes a yearly revenue or
income of the value of fifty crowns, which the candidates
for priefthood were anciently obliged to have of their own,
that they might be affured of a fubfiltence.

By the ancient difcipline there were no clerks made, but
in proportion as they were wanted for the fervice of the
church, which is ftill obferved with regard to bilhops ; none
being confecrated, but to fill fome vacant fee.

But for priefts, and other clerks, they began to make
vague ordinations in the Eaft as early as in the fifth century :
this occafioned the council of Chalcedon to declare all vague
and abfolute ordinations null.

Accordingly the difcipline was pretty well obferved till
towards the end of the eleventh century ; but then it bewan
to relax, and the number of priefts was exceedingly in-
creafed ; either becaufe the people became defirous of the
privileges of the clcricate, or becaufe the bifhops fought to
extend their jurifdiftion.

One of the great inconveniences of thefe vague ordina-
tions was poverty, which frequently reduced the priefts to
fordid occupations, and even to a (haraeful begging. To
remedy this, the council of Lateran laid it on the bifhops
to provide for the fubfiftence of fuch as they fhould ordain
without title, till fuch time as they had got a place in the
church that would afford them a fettled maintenance,

1 here was alfo another expedient found out to elude the
canon of the council of Chalcedon ; and it was appointed,
that a pnea might be ordained on the title of his patri-
pwny ; that i», ,t was not neceffary he had any certain place

in the church, provided he had a patrimony fufEcient for a
creditable fubfiftence.

The council of Trent retrieved the ancient difcipline in
this refpeft, forbidding all ordination, where the candidate
was not in peaceable pofrcffion of a benefice fufficient to
fubfift him ; and allowing nobody to be ordained on patri-
mony or penfion, unlefs where the biftiop declares it to be
expedient for the good of the church : fo that the benefice
is the rule, and the patrimony the exception. See Okd: -

NATION.

But this rule is not regarded, even in fome Catholic coun-
tries, particularly France, where the patrimonial title is the
moft frequent ; and the title is even fixed to a very moderate
fum.

As to religious, the profeffion they make in a monaftei y
ferves them for a title, in regard no convent is obliged to
maintain them : and as to mendicants, they are maintained
upon the title of poverty.

Thofe of the noufe and fociety of the Sorbonne are alfo
ordained without any patrimonial title, and on the fole titl^
of poverty ; it being fuppofed a doftor of the Sorbonne
can never want a benefice.

Title for Orders. See Deacon, Ordination, aad
Priest.

TITLIS, in Geography, a mountain of Switzerland, in
the canton of Uri, the moft elevated in thofe parts, and
fcarcely inferior to the Schreekhorn and Jungfrauhorn : it
was for a long time confidered as inaceeflible. The fummit
of this mountain is called Nollen, and commands a very
pidlurefque fcene of mountains and valiies ; 1 1 miles S.S.W.
of Altorff.

TITMEG, a lake of North America. N. lat. 63' ly'.
W. long. 99°.

TITMOUSE, in Ornithology. See Parus.
TITOLO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the pro-
vince of Bafilicata ; 6 miles S.W. of Potenza.

TITONEUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain fituated
on the confines of Thrace and Macedonia.

TITOVO, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, in the go-
vernment of Kaluga ; 40 miles E.S.E. of Kaluga.

TITSCHEIN, New, or Noivi Giezi, a town of Mo-
ravia, in the circle of Prerau, well built and defended by
walls; 24 miles E.N.E. of Prerau. N. lat. 49° 32'. E.
long. 18° I o".

Titschein, Alt, a town of Moravia ; t miles S.W. of
New Titfchein.

TITSCHIN, a town of Moravia, in the circle of 01-
mutz ; 16 miles S. of Olmutz. — Alfo, a town of Moravia,
in the circle of Prerau ; 8 miles S.W. of Freyberg.

TITTERIE, a fouthem province of Algiers, which
extends from the river MafafFran, on the W., to the river
Booberak, on the E. : northward it is bounded by the Me-
diterranean, and fouthward by Sahara ; about 60 miles long
and 40 broad.

Titterie Getvle, a lake of Algiers, fituated near moun-
tains ; 60 miles S. of Algiers.

Titterie Dq/b, or Hadjar Titterie, a ridge of precipices
in Algiers : on the fummit is a large plain, with only one
narrow road leading up to it, where a tribe of Arabs keep
their granaries ; 50 miles S. of Algiers.

TITTING, or Dietting, a town of Bavaria, in the
bifhopric of Aichftatt ; 5 miles N. of Aichftatt,

TITTIUS, in Botany, a name given by Rumphiue,

Amboyn. v. 3. t. 19, and t. 20, to two very different kind*

of trees, the latter of which is fuppofed by Juflieu to be a

CoRNDTlA. See that article.

TITTMANING, or Djtjmaking, in Cecgraphy, a

tOWTi

TIT

T 1 T

town of the archbifhopi'ic of Salzburg, oa the Salza. In
the year 1310, a peftilential difeafe made fuch ravages in this
town, that 1300 perfons died between the i ith of November
'and the 2d of February following. In the year 1571, al-
inoil the whole town was burned down by hghtning ; 20
miles N.N.W. of Salzburg. N. lat. 48° i'. E. long.
12° 44'.

TITTUA, in Ancient Geography, a town of India, on
this fide of the Ganges, which belonged to the Carxans. Ptol,

TITUBATION, m AjJrcwmy. See Tkki-idation.

TITUL, in Geography, a town of Hungary, on the
Theyfle. This town has often been taken and retaken by
the Imperialifts and Turks; 24 miles E.S.E. of Peter
Warden.

TITULAR, or Titulary, denotes a pcrfon invelled
with a title, in virtue of which he holds an olHce or benefice,
whether he performs the funftions of it or not. In this
fenfe the term is ufed in oppofition to furvivor, and to a
per£on only aiSing by procuration, or commiflion. An
officer is always reputed titular till he liath rcfigncd his
office, and the rcfignation hath been admitted.

Titular is alfo fometimcs applied adjeftively to a pcrfon
who has the title and right of an office or dignity, but with-
out having polFeffion, or difcharging the fundlion of it..

It is fometimes alfo ufed abufively for a pcrfon who af-
fumes and pretends a title to a thing, without either a right
to it, or a pofleffion of it.

Titular Churches. See Titles.

Titulars of Tithes, a term fometimes applied to perfons
who had the pofTeffion of tithes under the crown in Scotland.
They had alfo other names or titles applied to them in fome
cafes. See Tithes.

TITULCIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania
Citerior, between Mantua to the N.E. and Toletum to the
S.W. ; marked in Anton. Itin. on the route from Saragofla
to Emerita.

TITUS, in Scripture Biography, a difciple and companion
of the apoftle Paul, who attended him in many peregrinations
to Jerufalem, Ephefus, and Crete, and who was deputed by
him on feveral important fervices. For^an account of the
epiftle addrefled to him by St. Paul, fee Epistle.

Titus Vespasianus, in Biography, a Roman emperor,
was the eldeft fon of Vefpafian, and born A.D. 40. In the
courfe of his education at the court of Nero, he made a great
proficiency in the ftudy of eloquence and poetry. In his
military fervice he firft; ranked as tribune in Germany, and
afterwards in Britain ; and by his valour and flcill, as well as
by the graces of his perfon and manners, obtained great
applaufe. On his return to Rome, he acquired reputation
in the forum as a fuccefsful pleader. His firft wife was the
daughter of a Roman knight, and after her death he married
a lady of illuftrious defcent, whom he divorced after {he had
borne him one daughter. Having diftinguifhed himfelf as
qua:fl:or, he ferved as lieutenant under his father in the war
of Judea, during which he gained renown, not only by his
military enterprifcs, but by the mildnefs and gencrofity of
his temper ; and though he did not abftain from tlie in-
dulgences of youthful propenfities, he did not negleft ferious
occupations. When Vefpafian, after the death of Otho,
was deliberating about afTuming the purple, he afted as
mediator in the confederacy between him and Marianus, the
governor of Syria ; and when Vefpafian marched to Italy,
Titus was entrufted with the profecution of the war in Ju-
dza. When his father took pofleffion of the imperial au-
thority, he declared Titus his colleague in the confulate,
A.D. 70. In that year Jerufalem was taken after a cala-
mitous fiege, and the deflxuftion of the temple, which

Vol. XXXV.

Titus wilhcd to have prcfervcd. After the reduftion of
Jerufalem, he went to Alexandria, and took part in the
fupcrftitious confecration of the ox Apia ; and after having
given audience to the ambaifadors of the king of Parlhia,
he hallened to Romu with a view of eounterafting fome un-
favourable rumours, and was honoured with a magnificent
triumph. Vefpafian admitted him to a participation of the
empire, and they continued to co-operate in the exercife of
the imperial power, and hved together in amicable intcr-
courfe. Suetonius, however, intimates that Titus's conduA
vv-as in a variety of refpefts very far from being irreproachable,
either in private life or in his public charaAer. During the
war in Judvea, he had indulged a violent paffion for Berenice,
daughter of Agnppa I. king of the Jews, and widow of
Herod, king of Chalcis ; and as flic followed him to Rome,
he gave ofl"encc to the people by his attachment to a foreign
queen of doubtful reputation ; and, as Suetonius fays, fufpi-
cions were entertained that Titus would eventually prove a
fecond Nero.

Upon the death of Vefpafian, A.D. 79, Titus imme-
diately fuccceded hira ; and by his conduct towards his
rival Domitian, and to thofe who adhered to his intcreft, he
gained the afi"e£lion of the people, and eftabhflied a charac-
ter, which has caufcd him to be recorded under the glorious
title of " The Delight of the Human Race." . Although
his reign was fliort, it was diftinguiflied by a feries of bene-
ficent aftions ; not always, perhaps, equally hberal in tJie
principle from which they originated. This courfe of bene-
ficence was commenced by a confirmation of all the grants
and donations made by his predeceflbrs. And he thus efta-
bhflied a precedent, which governed the conduft of his fuc-
ccflbrs. Upon afluming the office of chief pontiff, he
avowed it to be a folemn engagement not to ftied the blood
of a citizen, and to this refolution he adhered in a con-
fpiracy againfl; himfelf. In the cafe of one of the tvi'o pa-
tricians imphcated in this crime, he calmed the anxiety of his
mother by deputing a fpecial mefienger to alTure her that
her fon's life was in no danger. Befides, he abrogated the
law of high-treafon with refpeft to all conviftions for words
or writings againft the perfon or dignity of the emperor.

It was one of his maxims, " that no one ought to depart
difcontented from the perfon of his prince ;" and on this he
founded his praftice of giving hopes to petitioners when lie
thought it neceflary to refufe their requefts. If we conneft
this maxim with his well-known exclamation at the clofe of
a day on which he had conferred no benefit, " My friends I
have loft a day," we cannot forbear fufpefting tliat the be-
nefits to which he referred were rather afta of private bounty
to courtiers or importunate fuitors, than the performance
of public duties. Many inftances occur of his love of po-
pularity, and of the excefs in which he indulged it. 'I'he
public calamities that happened during his reign gave occa-
fion for the exercife and difplay of his compaffion and
bounty ; fuch were the great eruption of mount Vefuvius,
which deftroyed Herculaneum, Pompeii, and other towns :
and the conflagration of Rome, which was followed by a
fatal epidemic diforder. His general conduft entitled him
to the affeftion of his fubjefts ; nor does he feem to have
deferved reproach for any aft of injuftice or oppreffion.
Whilfl: he was on a journey to the country of the Sabines,
he was feizedVith a fever, which terminated fatally, on the
13th of September, A.D. 81, in the 41 11 year of his age,
and after a reign of two years and lefs than three months.
Apprehending his diflblution, he lamented his early and pre-
mature doom ; and yet, though his death was deplored at
Rome as a general calamity, it was perhaps, confidering the
flexibility of liis difpofition, and his inclination to profufe
5 C c.tpen-

T I V

expciidituro, favourable to his own reputation and to the
public profperity and happinefs. Suetonius. Anc. Un.
Hill. Crcvicr's Rom. Emp.

TITWALLA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
ill B:ii;lana : 28 miles E. of Baffecn.

TITYRl'S MoNS, in ^Indent Geography, a mountain in
the wcllern part of the ifle of Crete, in the country named
Cvdonia, according to Strabo. On this mountain was a
temple named Didynnaeum Templum. In fome copies of
Strabo, this mountain and temple are placed in the town of
Cvdonia.

TITZ, in Geography, a town of France, in the department
of tlie Roer; 4 miles N.N.E. of Juliers.

TITZLA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania,
on a fait lake ; 60 miles S.W. of Kirfhchr.

TIVA, a town of the Arabian Irak ; 130 miles W. of
Balforah.

TIVER, in Rural Economy, the provincial name of a fub-
(lancc of the colouring ochre kind, ufed for marking (heap
in fome places.

TIVERING, a term applied to the ad or operation of
marking (heep and lambs in difFtrent ways, with the material
of the tiver kind, in fome diftrifts and places, for particu-
lar ufes and purpofes. Thus, it is a praftice with fome
coiTeft flieep-farmcrs to have their fheep tivered fo as to
afccrtain different points in their management with great
exa£lnefs. The bows or breafts of the rams are tivered
every two or three days in the tupping or riding feafon,
and tlie ewes which are put to them, the firfl week, marked
with one ftroke of tiver, thofe of the fecond week, with two
llrokes, and fo on. The tivering of fheep is alfo ufeful on
many other occafions for marking and diftinguifhing the ob-
jefts and views of the (heep-farmer. The practice of it is
very common in the Romney-marfli fyftem of flieep-grazing.
See Sheep.

TIVERTON, in Geosraphy, anciently called Twyford-
town, a borough and market-town in the hundred of the
fame name, and county of Devon, England ; is fituated on
the flope of a hill between the rivers Exe and Loman, 14
miles N. by E. from Exeter, and 163 miles W. by S. from
London. In the time of Alfred it was only a village, but
had twelve tithings belonging to it, and was governed by a
portreve. Henry I. granted the manor and lordfliip to
Rjchard Rivers, afterwards earl of Devon, by whom a
calUe was erected here about the year iio6, which
continued to be the baronial refidence for a confiderable
number of years. The attraftions of the caflle occalioned
a great increafe in the buildings and population of Tiverton ;
and by the favourof the lords, it was inveftedwith the privilege
of a market as early as the year 1 200. About fifty years
afterwards, the ftrcam of water, now called the Town-Leat,
was condufted from the dillance of five miles to fupply tlie
inhabitants ; and a piece of wafte land, called Elmore Com-
mon, was given for the benefit of the poorer clafles, either
for pafturage or for cultivation. Thefe advantages continued
to attraft new fettlers ; but the mod rapid augmentation of
the town took place on the final eftablifhment of the woollen
manufacture about the year 1500. Towards the clofe of
Elizabeth's reign, Tiverton was the principal place in the
county for the manufafture of woollen goods ; particularly
kerfeys, which Hill continue to be the chief article made
here. About this period, the profperity of the town re-
ceived a t'.-mporary check : in 1591 it was vifited by the
plague, to which 550 perfons fell viftims ; numbers fled for
fafety ; and the inhabitants were fo thinned, that the growing
of grafs in the llreets is particularly recorded. Scarcely had
t},e town recovered, when it \7a6 nearly deftroyed by fire,

T I V

April 3, 1598, when more than four hundred iioufca were
confumed, and thirty-three perlbns perifhed in the flames :
the value of the property deftroyed was eftimated at 1 50,000/.
In about a dozen years from that time, Tiverton was again
efteemed a town of great importance, and called the chief
market-town of the Weft. Many rich clothiers and mer-
chants livid in it, and 8000 people were conftantly employed
in its woollen manufaftures. The buildings were iiicreafing
in number and refpcftability, and Tiverton would have pro-
bably bfcome one of the greateft manufafturing towns in
the kingdom, but for a fecond conflagration, which deftroyed
nearly all the property of the inhabitants, and wholly blatted
their flonrifliing expeftation. In this fire, which happened
Auguft 5, 1612, fix hundred houfes were deftroyed, with
goods and merchandize to the amount of 200,000/. ; and
the inhabitants of every defcription were reduced to the
greateft diftrefs. Tlie poor manufafturers were diftributedtn
diff"erciit towns, by which means the advantages of the cloth-
ing trade that had hitherto been cxclufively enjoyed by Ti-
verton, were extended to other parts of the county. In
the year 1615, Tiverton received its firft charter of incor-
poration from king James ; and its government was vefted in
a mayor, twelve capital burgefles, and twelve afliftant bur-
geffes. The right of returning two members to parliament
was alfo granted to the fame perfons. This charter con-
tinued in force till 1723, when it was forfeited by negledl,
and a new one, exaftly fimilar, was granted by George I.
In 1731,3 third deftruftive fire occuixed, which again nearly-
laid wafte the town. During the 17th century, the trade
and population progreftively increafed : but in the following
century, rapidly declined : a favourable alteration has re-
cently taken place, and the general trade of the town is now
on a refpeftable bafis. By the parliamentary return of the
year 181 1, the number of houfes is ftated to be 1303, the
inhabitants 6732. A weekly market is held on Tuefdays,
and two fairs annually. The fpot of ground on which
Tiverton is built, partakes of a triangular form, from the
courfe of the rivers by which it is bounded. Its greateft
length is nearly one mile ; its breadth exaftly three quarters.
The four principal ftreets form a quandrangle, inclofing an
area of gardens, in the centre of which is a bowling-green.
Moft of the houfes are of red brick, or of ftone, and are
generally covered with blue (late. Thofe on the outfliirts
of the town, and at the ends of the ftreets, which efcaped
the fire of 1731, are of earth or cobb, covered with thatch.
The principal buildings are the caftle, the church, and the
free grammar-fchool. The caftle, from the prefent remains,
appears to have been nearly of a quadrangular form, inclof-
ing an area of about an acre, and furroundcd by ftrong
walls, from twenty to twenty-five feet in height. At the
angles were embattled towers, about thirty-five feet high.
This fortrefs was fecured from attack on the W. fide by a
fteep declivity of about fixty feet, on the edge of which
a lofty wall was built. Two wide and deep moats, filled
with water from the Town-Leat, defended the whole of the
N. and S. walls to each fide of the caufeway leading to the
gate on the E. This caftle has been frequently expofed to
iieges : during the reign of Stephen, and in the conteft
between the houfes of York and Lancafter, it was feveral
times fubjeft to the afl'aults of the contending parties ; and
in the civil war of Charles I. being garrifoned for the king,
it was befieged and taken by the parliamentary forces.
From this period the caftle has been faUing to decay ; and
feveral of the ancient buildings have been converted into
the offices of a farm. Great part of the S. and VV. walls,
with parts of the towers at the angles, are ftill ftanding.
The moat at the S. fide is converted into a good kitchen

garden ;

T I U

garden ; tlvat on the N. fide is filled up, and made part of
a court-yard. The church is fituated on an eminence, at a
fiiort diftance from the caiUc ; and though the work of dif-
ferent ages, is more regular than might have been expefted.
Tlie S. fide is ornamented witii much curious fculpture.
The tower is a plain ftone ilrufture, ornamented with bat-
tlements and pinnacles : the height is ii6 feet. Tlie inte-
rior of the church is fpacious, and its chancel is feparated from
tlie bod)- of tlie church by a fcrcon, ornamented with elegant
tracery. The church being too fmall for the reception of the
inhabitants of the town, a chapel of eafe was erefted about tlie
year 1733 ; and here arc alfo feveral mceting-houfes for dif-
fcnters of various denominations. A free grainmar-fchool
was erefted about tlie year 1604, purfuaiit to the will of
Peter Blundell, a native, and eminent clothier of this town ;
who, from a very low origin, by a long life of fuccefsful in-
duftry acquired an ample fortune ; and bequeathed 40,000/.
to vaiious charitable purpofes. In this fchool he provided
for the inftrutlion of 150 boys: with maintenance for
three fcholars in each of the univerfities of Oxford and
Cambridge, to be chofen out of his fchool. Here are alfo a
charity-fchool, a free Englifli fchool, feveral alms-houfes, and
other endowments for the benefit of the poor inhabitants.
The other public buildings are : the town-houfe, a fpacious
edifice, appropriated to the meetings of the corporation,
grand juries, and other public bodies ; the maiket-houfe, a
large quadrangular fabric, for the (landing and fale of corn ;
and the hofpital or poor-houfe, an extenfive ftrufture,
eretled in 1704, and containing various workfhops for the
employment of thofe whom indigence or misfortune may
oblige to have recourfe to it. The paridi of Tiverton is
upwards erf nine miles in length, and about eight miles in
breadth.

At a (hort diflance to the fouth of Tiverton is CoUiprieft
Houfe, formerly the feat of the Blundell family, but now
the property of Thomas Window, efq. who recently rebuilt
and enlarged the manfion. It ftands on the fide of an emi-
nence near the river Exe, having a Hoping lawn in front,
and a hanging wood behind. — Hiftorical Memoirs of the
Town and Parilh of Tiverton, Sec. ; by Martin Ehinsford,
Exeter, 410. 1790. Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. iv. Devonshire ; by J. Britton and E. W. Brayley,
1803.

Tiverton, a town of Rhode ifland, in the county of
Newport, containing 2837 inhabitants, fituated on the Taun-
to» river; 15 miles S.E. of Providence.

TIUHOLM, a fmall ifland of Denmark, in the Catte-
gat ; 4 miles N.N.E. of Fladftrand.

TIVIQA, a town of Spain, in Catalonia ; 15 miles
N.N.E. of Tortofa.

TIVIOT, a river of Scotland, which rifes about 12 miles
S.W. from Hawick, and runs into the Tweed, at Kelfoe.
The valley which it waters is called Tiviotdale.

TIUKI-KARAGAN, a cape on the E. fide of the
Cafpian fea; 156 miles S.E. of Aftrachan. N. lat. 44° 20'.
E. long. 50° 14'.

TIULIT, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Fez ;
12 miles S.W. of Fez.

TIUMEN, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Tobolfli, at the union of the Pifchma and the Tura. This
town is not built parallel to the river Tura, but at right
angles with it ; and the little river Pifchma runs through the
town, and falls into the Tura at the extremity of it. Over
the river is a bridge of eighty-three fathoms in length ; and
a little below it ftands a fort, built with ftone, in which is a
church of the fame materials. Without this fortification,
and towards the lower bank of the Tura, are fix wooden

TLA

chwches, a convent of nuns, with a church, and 500 dweUing-
houfes. At the lower end of the town is an oftrog. Be-
yond the Tumenka lies the Yamflcaia floboda, or fuburb,
confining of 250 houfes, inhabited by people of all ranks
and protedions ; and at the extremity of this fuburb ftands
a monaftery : it lias hkewifc three churches, built with ftone.
Another fuburb lies oppofite to Tiumen, on the N. fide of
the Tura, wliich is iniiabited by Ruflians, Mahometan Tar-
tars, and Buchanans; 112 miles W.S.W. of Tobol(]<.
N. lat. 57". E. long. 65" 14'.

TIVOL.I, anciently called Tilur, a town of the Pope-
dom, in the Campagna di Roma, fituated on a rocky moun-
tain, planted with olive-trees, which are faid to yield the
bell oil in Italy ; the fee of a biftiop held immediately under
the pope. The town itfelf is mean, and contains a great
number of forges. The cathedral is built on the ruins of
a temple of Hercules. In the market-place are two images
of Oriental granite, reprefenting Ifis, the Egyptian deity.
The principal beauty of this place arifes from the river Te-
verone, which falling headlong about fifty feet down the
rock, forms a noble cafcade, and feveral lefler ones, called
Le Cafcadelle. The latter are extremely pidlurefque ; as
is alfo a deep ravine in the hill, called La Grottadi Nettuno,
into which the great cafcade falls. To enrich the view,
here are fome remains of ancient buildings, as the villa of
Ma;cenas, and particularly the little round temple of the
Sibyl, as it is commonly called, but rather of Vefta ; one
of the moft elegant remains of the Grecian architefture.
The naturalift will here take pleafure in obferving the con-
tinual formation of new Tiburtine ftone from the depofit
of water defcending from the calcareous Apennines; ij;
miles E.N.E. of Rome. N. lat. 41° 58'. E. long.
12° 46'.

TIURANEN, a fmaU ifland on the E, fide of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 65° 3^. E. long. 24° 46'.

TIUTERS, an ifland of Ruflia, in the gulf of Finland;
80 miles E.N.E. of Revel. N. lat. 59° 40'. E. long.
27' 14'.

TIVY, a river of Soutli^Wales, which rifes about 5 miles
N. from Tregaron, and runs into the fea about 5 miles be-
low Cardigan.

TIXIER, John, (Lat. Ravijius Textor), in Biography,
a perfon of literary charafter in France, was lord of Ravify
in the Nivernois, and educated in the college of Navarre at
Paris, where he taught the belles-lettres, and whence iflued
many of his publications for the ufe of his ftudents. In
1500 he was appointed reftor of the univerfity of Paris, and
he died, as fome fay in the hofpital, in 1522. His works
are, " A Colleftion of Latin Letters," " Dialogues,"
" Poems," " Epigrams," " Orations," &.C. in Latin,
written in good ftyle ; " OfRcina, feu potius Naturs Hif-
toria, &c." feveral times reprinted ; " De Memorabili-
bus et Claris Muheribus, ahquot diverforum Scriptoriun
Opera," to which he has annexed the life of Joan of France,
written by himfelf. Moreri.

TIZ, in Geography. See Tliz.

TIZRI, in Chronology. See TlSRl.

TIZZANO, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Parma j 1 3 miles S. of Parma.

TIZZONAIOS, in the Glafs Jrt, are two apertures,
one on each fide of the working-furnace, by which a fervitor
night and day puts on coals to maintain the fire.

TLACOOZELOTL, in Zoology. See OcELOT.

TLAM, or Slam, in the Alum-lVorks, a word ufed by

the workmen to exprefs a fort of mud or foulnefs which

does great hurt to the alum, rendering it foul and coarfc.

The flam is a muddy fubflaxice fettling to the bottom of

5 C 2 the

TLA

the vfffcls : but in the boiUng of the liquor it gives a red-
ilith colour, and diforders the whole works when in any
jfr,-at quantity. They always pafs their hquor over lour
parcrU of the alum-rock, and the laft, if not carefuUy ca-
nned, gen.raliy gives it this difadvantagcous mixture. I'm!.

'I'ranf. N' 142. , , . , r

TLANHQUACHUL, in Ornithology, the name ot a
Brufilian bird, vcr)- much approaching to the nature of the
European platea, or fpoonbill.

It is a very voracious bird, and feeds on live filh, but will
not take or meddle «-ith dead ones, and is all over of a
beautiful red. It has a black ring round the upper part
of its neck, and is common about the fhores of the iea
and rivers. ,

TLAQUACUM, in Zoology, the name given by the
Spaniards, and fome others, to a very remarkable animal in
America, commonly known among us by the name of the
poiTum or opoffum.

TLAQUATZIN, a name by which the natives in fome
parts of America call the opofTum.

T1.AQUATZIN Spinofum., the name by which Hernandez
has called the cuanda, a fort of Brafilian porcupine.

TLASCALA, in Geography, a province of North
America, in the government of Mexico ; bounded on the
N. by Guafteca, on tlie E. by the gulf of Mexico and the
province of Guaxaca, on the S. by the Pacific ocean, and
on the W. by the province of Mexico Proper ; about 320
miles in length, and from 40 to 120 in breadth. The cli-
mate, foil, and produce, are much the fame with thofe of
Mexico Proper. On the W. fide there is a chain of moun-
tains for the fpace of eighteen leagues, very well cultivated ;
and on the N. is alfo a great ridge of mountains, covered
with perpetual fnow, the neighbourhood of which expofes
it to horrid tempells, hurricanes, and frequent inundations,
whereby houfes, even on the top of eminences, are fome-
timea endangered. Yet this is allowed to be the moft po-
pulous country of all America : and this is partly afcribed
to its having been originally an ally to Cortez, in the con-
queft of Mexico, who obtained a grant of it from the em-
peror Charles VI. alfo king of Spain, by which it is ftill ex-
empt from any fervice or duty whatfoever to that crown, only
paying the king of Spain a handful of maize for each head,
as an acknowledgment ; which inconfiderable parcels were
faid, upwards of fifty years ago, to make up 1 3,000 bufhels ;
for it produces fo much of the Indian corn, that hence it
had the name of Tlafcala, that is, the Land of Bread. By
this means the towns and villages fwarm with Indians. This
province was anciently a monarchy, till civil wars arifing
among the inhabitants, they formed themfelves into an arif-
tocracy of many princes, in order to get rid of one. They
divided their towns into different diftricts 5 each of them no-
minated one of their chiefs to refide in the court of Tlafcala,
where they formed a fenate, whofe refolutions were a law to
the whole. Under this form of government they maintained
themfelves a long while againil the kings of Mexico, and
continued in it till the reception of the Spaniards under
Cortez.

Tlascala, a town of North America, and anciently
the capital of a province to which it gives name, fituated on
a river, which runs into the Pacific ocean. When the Spa-
niards firft arrived here, it is faid to have contained 300,000
inhabitants : and Acofta affirms, that it had a market-place
large enough to hold 30,000 buyers and fellers ; tliat in the
fhambleswere feldom lefs than 1500 fheep, 4000 oxen, and
2000 hogs. But matters were fo much altered, that Ge-
melli, who was here in 1698, fays it was then become an
ordinary village, with a parifti-church, in whieh hangs up a

T M E

picture of the fhip which brought Cortez to La Vera Cruz.
The inhabitants formerly offered up human facriftces, and
when the Spaniards Hrft arrived here, we are told by Diaz
del CaftiUo, that they found wooden cages, in which pri-
foners were confined to be fatted for viftims ; 20 miles N.
of Puebla de los Angelos. N. lat. 19° 45'. W. long.
98° 30'.

TLAYOTIC, in Natural Hiftory. See CoLlc-Stone.

TLEMSAM, or Telemsen, in Geography. See TnE-

MECEN.

TLETSCH, a town of Ruflia, in the government of To-
boldc, on the Irtifch ; 72 miles E.S.E. of Tobolflf.

TLEUQUECHOLTOTOTL, in Ornithology, the
Mexican name of a bird of the wood-pecker kind, defcribed
by Nieremberg under the name of the avis falutiferus ; the
feathers of a red crcft it carries on its head being fuppofed a
remedy for head-aches.

TLOS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor, in
Lycia, at the pafs of a mountain, on the fide of Cybara, ac-
cording to Strabo. It is placed by Ptolemy in the number
of the interior towns of Lycia, in the vicinity of mount
Cragas. — Alfo, a town of Afia, in Pifidia.

TLUMACZOW, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in
the circle of Hradifch ; 15 miles N. of Hradifch.

TMAIE', a town of Egypt; 12 miles S.E. of an-
fora.

TMARUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of Epirus,
in Thefprotia, at the foot of which was a temple. Strabo.
It was alfo called Tamarus and Tomarus.

TMATARACAN, or Tamatercan, literally denot-
ing the " fwarm of beetles," called in Theodofius's Itine-
rary " Tamatarce," a name anciently given to the city of
Taman, over the fuburbs of which extend all the ruins
of the ancient city of Phanogoria. The diflance acrofs
the Bofphorus from Tmataracan to Kertchy,/. e. from Pha-
nogoria to Panticapaeum, is found to correfpond with the
adlual diftance from Taman jto Kertchy. Among other
antiquities of Taman, one of the moft remarkable is the Nau-
machia, or amphitheatre for naval combats, not lefs than
1000 paces in diameter, with its whole area paved. The
fubterraneous conduits for conveying water ttill remain, but
are applied to other ufes. The materials of the ruined build-
ings do not exift in the ifie of Taman, but mud have been
brought from the Crimea, from Greece, or in later ages,
by the Genoefe from Italy. The diftance from Taman to
Yenikele, on the oppofite (hore, is about 1 2 miles. Clarke's
Travels, vol. ii.

TMESCHEDE, or Mu.schede, a town of Germany, in
the county of Arenn)crg, on the left fide of the Roer ; 3 miles
N.W. of Arenfberg.

TMESIPTERIS, in Botany, an uncouth, however
leai-ned, name, compofed of TiJ-mi;, a notch, or incifion, and
Trlffi?, a fern, becaufe the capfules are feated in the notches

of the frond Bernhardi in Schrad. Journ. for 1800, 131.

t. 2. f. 5. WiUd. Sp. PI. V. 5. 56. Swartz Fil. 187. Labill.
Nov. Holl. V. 2. 105. t. 2J2. This fern is referred by
Mr. Brown to Psilotum. ( Sqe that article. ) We ought
there to have noticed Mr. Brown's remark, that the plant
of Forfter differs from Labillardiere's, in not having abrupt
leaves, and that it was found in New Zeeland, not in the
ifie of Tanna. Willdenow has juftly obferved the difference
between Bernhardi's figure, and that of Labillardiere. Mr.
Brown fays both thefe fpecies are pai-afitical, on the ftems
of arborefcent ferns.

TMESIS, Tjuro-i.-, formej} from rtixva, I cut, in Grammar,
a figure by which a compound word is feparated into two
parts, and one or more words inte;'pofed between them.

Thus,

T O A

10 A

Thus, when Terence fays, " quse mco cunquc aiiimo libi-
•i am ell facere," there is a tmelis ; the word qudcunque
being divided by the interpofition of mco.

Lucretius abounds in tmcfes ; as " faepe falutantum taftu
prsEterque meantum ;" or " diflidio potis eft fejungi, feque
gregari ;" and " difpcftis difque gregatis."

TMOLUS Mons, '\u Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Afia Minor, in Lydia. Strabo fays that the town of Sardis
was commanded by the Tmohis, a rich mountain, on the
fummit of which the Perfians had erefted a turret, from
which might be fecn all the adjacent fields, wliich were
watered by the Ciiyflrus. According to Homer it ob-
tained, from its extraordinary elevatioii, the name of Ventofe,
or windy. From Pliny we learn that tlie Paftolus, Chry-
forrhoas, and the fountain Tame, had their fources in this
mountain, and that it produced excellent wine, highly cont-
mended by PHny and Vitruvius. The fummit is reprefented
as always covered with fnow. It was fometimes denominated
Timolis, as by Ovid,

" Defernere fibi Nymphae ? . . . Timoli."

According to the mythologifts, it was in this mountain that
Apollo puniflied Midas, kmg of Phrygia, by giving him
alTes' ears.

Tmolus, a tov^Tl of Afia Minor, in Lydia, on mount
Tmolus. According to Tacitus, Tmolus was one of the
twelve towns overthrown by an earthquake, in the fifth year
of the reign of Tiberius, A.D. 117, and it was rebuilt by
this prince.

TMORUS, the name of one of the fummits of the Cerau-
nian mountains, in Epirus.

TMULGA, in Geography, a town of Algiers ; 10 miles
E. of Sinaab.

TNYSSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor,
111 Caria.

TOA, in Geography, a river of the ifland of Porto Rico,
wliich runs into the harbour of Porto Rico.

TOAD, Rubetit, Rana Bitfo of Linnaeus, in Zoology, a
creature fufficiently known. See Rana.

The toad has been generally confidered as a poifonous
animal, but Mr. Pennant apprehends without fufficient rea-
son. They have been taken up in the naked hand without
he lead injury, and quacks have even eaten them, and drank
"heir juices without damage. Befides, they are common
lood to many animals, as buzzards, owls, Norfolk plovers,
ducks, and fnakes ; of late, indeed, live toads have been
applied to cancers, with a view of curing them : fafts
)ave been alleged in proof of their efficacy for this pur-
jjofe. The mode of applying them has been to put the
animal into a linen bag, and to hold its head, preffing out of
»he bag, to the part, which it has foon laid hold of and fucked
.vith greedinefs till it dropped off dead. The creature has
' welled and appeared to be in great pain ; often fweats much
and turns pale ; and fometimes difgorges, recovers, and be-
comes lively again. For other particulars, we mufl refer
.0 Mr. Pennant's appendix iibi infra. The time when toads
propagate is early in the fpring ; at which feafon the females
are feen crawling about oppreffed by the males, who con-
tinue on them for fome hours, and adhere fo faft as to tear
the fliin from the part to which they ilick. They impregnate
the fpawn as it is drawn out in long firings, like a necklace.
And the female is afTifted by the male, in difcharging the
fpawn, who with his hinder feet pulls out the eggs, whilft
his fore-feet embraces her breaft. The eggs are included
each in a membranous coat that is very firm, in which is con-
tained the embryo, and thefe eggs, fattened to one another
ny a Ihort but (Irong cord, form a kind of chaplet, the

beads of which are diftant from each other about half ihcir
length. The male, by drawing this cord with his paw,
performs the funftions of a midwife, and acquits himfelf in
it, it is faid, with a dexterity which could not be expefted
from fo lumpifli an animal. Pennant's Brit. Zool. vol. iii.
p. 14. p. 385, 5;c.

The toad of Surinam, or rana pipa of Linnxus, has long
been an objedl of attention to the curious, on account of
its enormous bulk and ugly form. Dr. Fermin, in his
" Traite des Maladies les plus frequentes a Surinam," &c.
publidied at Maeflricht in 1 764, has given fome remarks
on its mode of generation. Having put three males and a
female into an open vefTel of water, he obferved that one of
them had feveral fpots on its back, which were eggs, each
containing an embryo. At the end of three weeks, the ani-
mal feemed much agitated, and one of the cells on his back
burfting open, a young one crept out of it. In five days no
lefs tlian thirty-five of thefe cells opened in the fame manner
and produced as many animals. On the back of one of thefe
whicli was difietled, tliere were no lefs than one hundred and
twenty of thefe cells, each of which he confiders as a real
matrix, in which its eggs are lodged and fecundated ; and,
indeed, in one ofcthcm lie difcovered an embryo completely
formed, enveloped in a kind of placenta, accompanied by
two thin tranfparent membranes, feemingly analogous to the
chorion and amnios in other animals. For other fpecies of
toad, fee Rana.

ToAD-Fi/h, Rana pifcalrix,'m Ichthyology. See LoPHms
Pifcatrix, and Sea-DcvU.

ToAU-Flax, in Botany. ANTIRRHINUM.

ToAD-Stone, in Mineralogy, a variety of trap-rock. (See
Trap.) The toad-ilone of Derby (hire is generally a dark-
brown bafaltic amygdaloid, compofed of an intimate inter-
mixture of bafalt and green earth, and containing oblong
cavities, principally filled with calcareous fpar. It fometimes
an"umes the form and texture of a compaft bafalt, and is alfo
found in a decompofiiig foft (late, approacliiiig to clay. In
compofition and appearance it bears a ilrong refemblance to
fome volcanic rocks ; and there are certain peculiarities in the
geological pofition of this rock, which have excited con-
fiderable attention. Mr. Whitehurft, in his Theory of the
Earth, has given a particular account of the Derbyfhire toad-
ftone ; and has ftated the number of beds, and the thickncfs
of each, with that of the mountain lime-ftone, with which it
alternates, as under :

Firft lime-done - 50 yards.

Firft toad -(lone - 16

Second lime-done - 50

Second toad-done - 46

Third lime-done - 60

Third toad-done - 22

Fourth lime-done - not cut through.

It appears, however, that the thicknefs and extent of the
toad-done beds are by no means fo regular as thofe of the
other drata, in the fame didridl.

In fome fituations, one or more of the beds will become
very thin, or be entirely wanting ; in other fituations, a fingle
bed will be found of vad thicknefs : and ma(res of this fub-
dance, which cannot be referred to any of the three beds,
will be found interpofed in the lime-ftone drata. In fome
indances, particularly near Afliover, nodules of lime-done
may be feen imbedded in toad-ftone. Farcy's Derbylhire
Report, vol. i. p. 276.

The mod remarkable phenomenon which the beds of toad-
ftone prefent in Derbyfhire, is the complete fcparation of the
metallic veins which they generally occafion. The mountain

lime-

T O A

limc-llone of that dillria is interfoctixl by numerous per-
pendicular metallic veins, wliich rife from the loweil lime-
ilone to the uppermotl ; but on finking through the vein in
the firll limc-ilone, down to the firil toad-llonc, the vein will
entirely difappear, but on perforating through the toad-
ftone, it will be found again in the fecond limc-llone; and
the fame appearances will be prefentcd on piercing through
tlic fecond and third beds of lime-llone, and the fecond and
third beds of toad-ftone. See Plate IV. Geology, Jig. l.
where I, 2, 3, 4, reprefent the four beds of lime-ilone ;
h, h, i.^the three beds of toad-ftonc ; and -u, v, v, v, the
metallic vein pafling through the different lime-ilone beds,
but completely cut off or llparated by tlie intervening beds
of toad-ftonc. ' To account for this interruption of the vein
at V, V, V, Mr. Whitehurll fuppofcs tliat the toad-ftonc, in a
ftate of igneous fnfion, has burft through the lower ftrata,
and has forced itfelf between the ftrata of limc-ftonc by a
lateral motion. Were this the cafe, we muft admit that the
toad-ftonc had rifen through filTures or dikes, fimilar to what
exift in many of the northern parts of Britain, and are called
vrhin-dikes. The whin-ftone, or bafalt, bearing a clofe
refcmblance to toad-ftonc, and the ftrata in the peak of
Derbyfhire being mucli fraftured, we fliould feel little
difficulty in admitting the probability of Mr. Whitehurft's
theory, did it apply to the different phenomena which thefe
beds of toad-ftoiie prefent. According to this theory, the
beds of toad-ftone muft have been interpofed fubfequently to
the formation of the metallic veins. There are, however, in-
ftances, in which very large veins extend from the lime-ftone
to fome depth in the toad-ftone, and terminate in fmall
ftringsof ore ; in other inftances, though the ore is not con-
tinued through the toad-ftone, a fmall vein filled with fpar
may be traced from No. i. the firft lime-ftone, through b, to
No. 2. the fecond lime-ftone. Such inftances prove, in the
moft decifive manner, that the formation of the veins was
pofterior to that of the toad-ftone. Hence we are led to
feek for fome other caufe which may explain the abfence of
metallic ores in the beds of toad-ftone. This fubjeft will be
confidered when we treat of metallic veins. See Trap, and
Veins, Mineral and Metallic.

From the experiments of Dr. Withering on this ftone
with different acids, alkalies, and by fufion, it appears that
one hundred parts of it confift of 63I parts of filiceous earth,
16 of calciform iron, 7 J- of calcareous earth, and 14^ of
earth of alum. The aggregate of thefe ingredients is found
to weigh i^ parts more than the original mafs, which is
afcribed to the fubftance capable of uniting with fixable air,
not having been fully faturated with it, as they would be
after their precipitation by the earth of alum. { Phil. Tranf.
vol. Ixxii. part ii. p. 353.) This fubftance differs httle from
bafaltes : it is fofter, contains a fmaller proportion of iron,
and a larger of filex.

TOAGAMALLY, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in the Carnatic ; 17 miles W.S.W. of Trit-
cliinopoly.

TOAHOUTA, one of the fmaller Society idands, near
Otaha.

TOAIREH, a town of Egypt, on the coaft of the Red
fea, where the water is fait ; 3 miles N. of Kolzum.

TOALDO, Joseph, in Biography, a diftinguifhed phi-
lofopher, was born in 17 19 at a final! village near Marof.
tica, in the valley of Vicenza, at the foot of the Alps, and
fcnt, in the year 1733, to the feminary of Padua, where he
ftudied Latin, rhetoric, philofophy, tlieology, and parti-
cularly mathematics. In this feminary he afterwards be-
came n teacher of grammar, rhetoric, philofophy, and
mathrmatics. His firft literary work was a new edition of

T O A

the writings of Galileo, to which he added feveral fragments
ncTcr before publifhed, with a preface and notes. For his
ferviccs to the above-mentioned feminary he was recom-
penfed with the benefice of Montcgalda, which he enjoyed
for 14 years, and wliich he cxchimged for another more
convenient, after his appointment by the fenate of Venice,
in 1762, to the profcfforftiip of aftronomy and meteorology
in the univerfity of Padua. Here he conftrufted an ob-
fervatory, begun in 1767 and completed in 1774. In 1769
he publifhed at Padua a fliort view of plane and fpherical
trigonometry, entitled " Tavole Trigonometriche, Sec."
which was reprinted and ufed in many of the Italian femi-
naries. He next publiftied atreatife on the influence of the
heavenly bodies on the weather and atmofpherc, containing
the refult of a lojig feries of meteorological obfervations.
This work, printed at Padua in 1770, 4to., was tranflated
into difterent languages, and fo w.ll received, that he was
admitted into various learned fucieties. About the fame
time he prefented to the public effays in favour of eleftrical
conduiftors, which caufed them to be erefted in the Venetian
territories ; alfo a chronological view of uncommon changes
in the weather, with tables of the ftate of the barometer,
and the flux and reflux of the fea. His meteorological
journal was begun in 1773, and continued till his death.
His celebrity was augmented in 1774 by an anfwer to a
prize queftion, propofed by the academical fociety of Mont-
pelier, on meteorology applied to agriculture ; and after
this time he laboured inccflantly in diffufing meteorological
fcience. In 1777 he tranflated Lalande's Aftronomical
Tables, and his " Abr^ge de I'Aftronomie ;" and fome
time after, his " Aftronomie des Dames ;" erefting alfo in
his obfcrvatory a marble buft of that eminent aftronomer.
From this time he almoft reftrifted his attention to aftro-
nomy and meteorology, endeavouring to confirm his hypo-
thefis of the influence of the moon on the different changes
of the weather. He alfo publiflied an hiftorical view of the
fervices rendered by the Venetian fchools to aftronomy,
geography, and navigation. In 1783 he obtained, in con-
jundlion with his nephew Chiminello, who was his afliftant
in the obfervatory, the prize offered for the bell treatife on
the conftruftion of a comparative hygrometer; and in 1784
he publiftied a fmall work on the longitude, which was well
received. He proceeded regularly with his journal till the
year 1787, when a fmall woi-k in two ftieets was printed at
Venice ; and in the following year his Tables of Vitality
appeared at Venice and Padua. Of his travels in 1780 and
in 1 788, in the courfe of which he examined the place where
Hannibal croffed the Alps, the refult was inferted in his
difl'ertation on the fubject, printed in the fourth volume of
the Tranfaftions of the Academy of Padua. But our limits
will not allow us to give even the titles of the numerous
effays and papers which he publiftied on various fubjefts,
relating principally to meteorology. The journals of the
period in which he lived contain many curious pieces con-
tributed by this induftrious inquirer into the operations and
phenomena of nature. Befides his publications, he left
in MS. feveral papers, and pai-ticuhtrly obfervations on the
travels of Marco Polo, and on the real epoch of the
Chinefe wall. The termination of Toaldo's life was acce-
lerated by the chagrin which he felt, in confequence of a
fruitlefs attempt to ferve a young man who had been de-
prived of his ofiice. This irritation affefted his health, fo
that in November, 1797, he was attacked by a nervous af-
feftion, which in a few days proved fatal, in the 79th year
of his age.

" Toaldo," fays his bipgrapher, '< was of fmall ftature ;
but, in general, had an engaging appearance that infpired

confidence

T O B

T O li

confidence and refpeft. His deportment was e;ify, and in
his converfation, which was lively, he difplaycd gical know-
ledge, and an extenfive acquaintance with various branches
of fcience. Simple in his manners, open and fincire, he
indulged only the milder patlions ; and fecmcd to have no
other nmhitioii than that of being ufeful. He was Heady in
his frier.ddiip ; always ready to do good ofiices in the mod
dilintercfted manner, and indulgent towards every one
around him. To the talents of a literary man, he added the
virtues of the citizen ; and therefore was univerfally ef-
teemcd, but particularly by thofe who enjoyed his more
intimate acquaintance." Phil. Mag.

TOALOOR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Baramaul ; 3 miles S.E. of Wombinellore.

TOAMENSING, a townfliip of Pennfylvania ; 50 miles
N. of Pluladelphia. — Alfo, a townlhip of Pennfylvania ;
15 miles N. of Pliiladelphia.

TOANA, in jliicient Geography, a town of India, on
this fide of the Ganges, eafl; of this river, among the people
called Nanichce. Ptol.

TOANI, a people of Arabia Felix, in the environs of
the flrait of the Arabic gulf. Pliny.

TOB, or Tlibia, a country on the other fide of Jordan,
in the northern part of the tribe of Manaffeh. It was the
country into which Jephtha retired, as we read in the booJi
of Judges.

TOBA, in Geography, a fmall idand in the Eall In-
dian fea, near the weft coaft of Aroo. S. lat. 5° 8'. E.
long. 135° 9'.

TOBACCO, NicoTiANA, in Botany. See Nico-

TIANA.

Tobacco, Culture and Preparation of. See NiCOTlANA.

Tobacco, Hijiory of. Tobacco was not known in Eu-
rope till after the difcovery of America by the Spaniards,
and firft imported about the year 1560, as fome fay by fir
Francis Drake.

The Americans of the continent call it petun, thofe of
the iflands yoli. The Spaniards, who gave it the name
tobacco, took it from Tabaco, a province of Yucatan, where
they firft found it, and firft learned its ufe ; or, as fome fay,
it derived its name from the ifland of Tabago, or Tobago.

The French, at its firft introdutlion among them, gave
it various names ; as Nicotiaiia, or the ambajfador' s herb,
from John Nicot, then ambaffador of Francis II. in Por-
tugal ; who brought fome of it with him from Lifbon, and
prefented it to a grand prior of the houfe of Lorrain, and
to queen Catherine de Medicis ; whence it was alfo called
queen's herb, and grand prior's herb. They alfo gave it
other names, which arc now all reduced to the original
name of tobaco, or tobacco, from Tabaco, given it by Her-
nandez de Toledo, who firft fent it into Spain and Por-
tugal.

It appears from Lobel, that this plant was cultivated in
Britain before the year 1570; and the introduftion of the
praftice of fmoking it in England has been commonly
afcribed to fir Walter Raleigh, about the year 1584. The
cultivation of it is now common in various parts of th;
globe ; and though prohibited by the laws of this country,
the manufadlure of it forms no inconfiderablc branch of
commerce.

Tobacco might be cultivated with advantage through the
greater part of Europe ; but almoft in every part of Europe
It has become a principal fubjeft of taxation ; and it has
been fuppofed, that it would be more difficult to coUeft a
tax from every farm where this plant might happen to be
cultivated, than to levy one upon its import.-^.tion at the
• cuftomJioufe. The cultivation of tobacco has been, upon

this account, nioft abfurdly, (fays Mr. Smith, Wealth
of Nations,) prohibited tliroiigh the greater part of Europe,
which neceflarily gives a iort of monopoly to the countries
where it is allowed ; and as Virginia and Maryland produce
the grcatcft quantity of it, they fliare largely, though not
without fome competitors, in the advantage of this mono-
poly : the cultivation of it, however, is faid to be lefs pro-
fitable than that of fngar. At the time when the author
publiftied his work above cited, about ninety-fix thoufaiid
hogdicads of tobacco were annually purchafed in Virginia
and Maryland, with a part of the furplus produce of Britilh
induftry ; but the demand of Great Britain does not require,
perhaps, more than fourteen thoufand. If the remaining
eighty-two thoufand, therefore, could not be fent abroad
and exchanged for fomcthing more in demand at home, the
importation of them muft ceafe immediately, and with it
the produftive labour of all thofe inhabitants of Great Bri-
tain, who are at prefent employed in preparing the goods
with which thefe eighty-two thoufand hogfticads arc an-
nually purchafed. Thofe goods, which arc part of the
produce of the land and labour of Great Britain, having no
market at home, and being deprived of that which they had
abroad, muft ceafe to be produced. The moft round-about
foreign trade of confumption, therefore, may, upon fome
occafions, be as neceffary for fupporting the produftive la-
bour of the country, and the value of its annual produce, as
the moft. direft. In order to facilitate the great exportation
which was neceflary, for getting rid of that which remained
after the home confumption, the whole duties were drawn
back, provided the exportation took place within three
years.

The principal kinds of tobacco imported into England
are, as we have already obferved, the Maryland, called
Oroonoko, and the Virginia-tobacco. The former is not
fo agreeable to the Britifh tafte as the fwcet-fcented tobacco
of the latter country ; but the northern nations of Europe
are faid to like it better.

Befides the tobacco of the Weft Indies, there are con-
fiderable quantities cultivated in the Levant, the coafts of
Greece, and the Archipelago, the ifland of Malta, and
Italy. The marks of good twift tobacco are a fine ftiining
cut, an agreeable fmell, and that it has been well kept.

In the ifland of Ceylon, there are two kinds of tobacco
cultivated for profit. They call both kinds dunkol, which
fignifies a leaf, the ufe of which is to be fmoked. The one
kind they call hingele dunkol or Jingele dunkol, for they make
no difference between the letter S and H in their pronuncia-
tion ; the other they call dunkol kappada ; kappada fignifies
gelding, and is a word of Portuguefe origin. This kappada
tobacco is much ftronger and more intoxicating than the
other ; but both kinds are the produce of the fame plant ;
only the fingle tobacco has very little care taken of it, being,
after the fowing, in a manner left to itfelf ; while the other
has great pains beftowcd upon it during the whole time of
its growth, and till it is fit for ufe.

Some of the Ceylonefe chew this ftrong tobacco with
their betel ; and fome, who fmoke it alone, ufe no pipe,
but, taking a long leaf of it, they roll it up into a long
form, and cover it with the leaf of the wattukan-tree ; they
then light one end of it, and fmoke by the otlier, till the
whole is confumed. Phil. Tranf. N° 278, p. 1143-

Although in Rnffia tobacco is not confidercd as one of
the general neceffarics of the lower chifles of the people,
the praftice of fmoking having been held as a fin to the end
of the 17th century ; neverthelefs the confumption of it is
by no means fmall, and of courfe the importation always
much overbalances the exports. In 1 793, the former -at St.

Peterfburg

TOBACCO.

Tclfrlburg alouf amounted to upwards of 47,000 lublei ;
and thf Hitter, from all parts of the empire, barely to
20,000 : however, the confumption muft have increafed, as
the exportation in 1768 is ftated by Guldenftxdt at 21,000,
and the whole of the importation at loH,ooo rubles. The
culture has been profitably carried on, fince the year 1763,
in various dillriAs of the empire. Mod of it is obtained in
the Mulo-RulTun governments, wliere the cultivation was
firft encouraged ; but it has been much cultivated in other
regions, e.g. about the Volga and the Samara, and parti-
cularly by the CofTacks on the Orenburg and Siberian lines.
The greater part of tlie Ruffian tobacco is derived from
American, and fome Turkilh and Perfian feed. In the
generality of the fouthern governments, thefe plantations
admit of being greatly multiplied. Tlie different forts of
tobacco and fnuns prepared from it, which are now in ufe,
are to be attributed to the difference of the chmate and foil
in wiiich it grows, and the peculiar mode of managing and
manufatluring the plant, rather than to any efTcntial dif-
ference in its qualities.

Tobacco, in the Materia Medica, ^c. This is a well-
known drug of a narcotic quality, which it difcovers in all
pcrfons, even in fmall quantity, when firfl applied to them ;
and when ufed in large quantities, its efTefts have fometimes
been more violent. To as to have proved a mortal poifon.
Bcfides its narcotic qualities, it pofTefTes alfo a ftrongly fli-
mulant power, perhaps, as Dr. CuUen obferves, with refpeft
to the whole fyflem, but cfpecially with refpedl to the flo-
mach and intellines ; fo as readily, even in no great dofes,
to prove emetic and purgative.

The leaves of tobacco have a ftrong difagreeable fmell,
and a very acrid burping tafle : diflilled in a retort, with-
out addition, they yield an acrid, empyreumatic, poifonous
oil. They give out their acrid, matter both to water and
fpirit, but mofl perfeftly to the latter : the aqueous infu-
lions are of a yellow or brown colour, the fpirituous of a
deep green. The feveral forts of tobacco imported from
abroad are flronger in tafte than that of our own growth,
and the extrafts made from them much more fiery, but in
lefs quantity.

Tobacco has been employed, in ordinary ufe, by fnuffing,
fmoking, and chewing ; and thefe praftices have been com-
mon for more than 200 years to all Europe, and they have
more or lefs prevailed in other parts of the globe. Like
other narcotics, the ufe of it may be introduced by degrees ;
and its peculiar effefts may hardly at all be manifcfled ; but
beyond certain limits, violent effefts have been fometimes
produced on thofe who have been accuflomed to the ufe of
it. The power of habit is often unequal, even among thofe
who have been addifted to this praftice. Dr. CuUen men-
tions a lady, who had been for more than twenty years ac-
cuflomed to take fnufF at all times of the day ; but fhe found
at length that indulging much in the ufe of fnuff before din-
ner took away her appetite ; and in procefs of time, that a
lingle pinch, taken any time before dinner, palled her appe-
tite for that meal. But when fhe abftained from the ufe of
it, her appetite returned ; and after dinner, for the reft of the
day, fhe took fnufF freely without inconvenience. When
fnuff, that is, tobacco in powder, is firft applied to the nofe,
It proves a flinuilus, and excites fneezing ; but by repetition,
that effcdl entirely ccafes.

Snuff, when firfl employed, if it be not taken in fmall
quantity, and if it be not thrown out immediately by
facczine, occafions fome giddinefs and confufion of head :
but thefe effeas do not occur when perfons are habituated
to the ufe of n. But fuch perfons, if it be taken beyond
the ufual quantity, experience the fame confequences ; and

the effeft 13 manifeft, not only cfn the fenforium, but on »
other parts of the fyflem, particularly the ftomach, occa-
fioning a lofs of appetite, aud other fymptoms of a weakened
tone in that organ. Dr. Cullen fays, that he has obferved
feveral inftances of perfons who take fnuff to excefs, fuffer-
ing from it by a lofs of memory, by a fatuity, and by other
fymptoms of the weakened or fenile flate of the nervous
fyflem, induced before the ufual period. He has alfo found
fymptoms of dyfpepfia, and pains of the flomach, occurring
every day, in confequence of excefs in the praftice of taking
fnuff. Thefe fymptoms have fubfided, when the ufe of
fnuff has been difcoiitinued. A fpecial effedl of fnufSng,
ho fays, is its exciting a confiderable difcharge of mucus
from the nofe ; and there have been feveral inflances of
head-aches, tooth-aches, and ophthalmias thus relieved : and
when this difcharge of mucus is confiderable, the ceafing
or fuppreffion of it, by abftaining from fnuff, is apt to occa-
fion thofe diforders which it had formerly relieved. An-
other eiiedl of taking fnuff is this, that as a part of the
fnuff is often carried back into the fauces, fo a part of this is
carried down into the flomach, and then more certainly pro-
duces the above-mentioned dyfpeptic fymptoms.

Smoking, when firfl praftifed, fliews very ftrongly the
narcotic, vomiting, and even purging powers of tobacco,
and it is very often ufeful as an anodyne ; but by repetition
thefe eflefts difappear, or only fhew themfelves when the
quantity fmoked is beyond what habit had before admitted
of ; and even in perfons much accuftomed to it, it may be
carried fo far as to prove a mortal poifon. From much
fmoking, all the fame effefts may arife which we faid might
arife from the excefs in fnufBng.

With refpeft to the evacuation of mucus which is pro-
duced by fnuffing, there are analogous effefts produced by
fmoking, which commonly ftimulate the mucous follicles of
the mouth and fauces, and particularly the excretories of the
falivafy glands. By the evacuation from both fources, with
the concurrence of the narcotic power, the tooth-ache is often
greatly relieved by it ; but we have not found the fmoking
relieve head-aches and ophthalmias fo much as fnuffing often
does. Sometimes fmoking dries the mouth and fauces, and
occafions a demand for drink ; but, as commonly the ftimu-
lus it applies to the mucous follicles and falivary glands
draws forth their liquids, it occafions on the other hand a
frequent fpitting.

So far as this is of the proper faliva, it occafions a vrafte
of that liquid fo necefTary in the bufinefs of digeftion ; and
both by this wafte, and by the narcotic power at the fame
time applied, the tone of the ftomach is often weakened,
and every kind of dyfpeptic fymptoms is produced.
Though in fmoking a great part of the fmoke is again
blown out of the mouth, flill a part of it muft neceffarily
pafs into the lungs, and its narcotic power applied there often
reheves fpafmodic afthma ; and by its ftimulant power it
there alfo fometimes promotes expedloration, and proves
ufeful in the catarrhal or pituitous difficulty of breathing.

Smoking has been frequently mentioned as a means
of guarding men againft contagion. In the cafe of the
plague, the teftimony of Diemerbroek is very ftrong ; but
Rivinus and others give us many fafts which contradift this ;
and Chenot gives a remarkable inftance of its inutility. We
cannot indeed fuppofe that tobacco contains an antidote of
any contagion, or that in general it has any antifeptic
power ; and therefore we cannot allow that it has any fpecial
ufe in this cafe : but it is very probable that this and other
narcotics, by diminifhing fenfibihty, may render men lefs
liable to contagion ; and by rendering the mind lefs aftive
and anxious, it may alfo render men left liable to fear, whicl»

has

TOBACCO.

has fo often the power of exciting the adlivlty of the conta-
gion. The antiloimic powers of tobacco are therefore on ,
the fame footing with thofe of wine, brandy, and opium.

The third mode of ufing tobacco is that of chewing it,
when it (hews its narcotic quaUties as ftroiigly as in any otlier
way of applying it ; though the naufeous tafte of it com-
monly prevents its being carried far in the firft praftice.
When the praftice, however, is continued, as it is very dif-
ficult to avoid fomc part of it diffolved in tlie faliva from
going down into the ftomach, fo this, with the naufea ex-
cited by the tafte, makes vomiting more readily occafioned
by this than the other modes of applying it. They are the
ftrong, and even difagreeable impreffions repeated, that give
the moft durable and tenacious habits ; and therefore the
chewing of tobacco is apt to become one of thefe : and it is
therefore in this w.Hy that it is ready to be carried to the
greateft excefs, and to flicw all the effefts of the frequent
and large ufe of narcotics. As it conimonly produces a
confidorable evacuation from the mouth and fauces, fo it is
the moft powerful in relieving the rheumatic affeftion of
tooth-ache. This praftice is alfo the occafion of the greateft
wafte of faliva ; and the effofts of this in weakening digef-
tion, and perhaps from thence efpccially, its noted effedi of
producing emaciation, may appear.

The eSefts already recited of the different modes of em-
ploying tobacco depend efpecially upon its narcotic power,
and certain circumftanccs accidentallv attending its applica-
tion to the nofe and mouth : but as we have obferved before,
that befide its narcotic, it poftl-ftes alfo a ftimulant power,
particularly with refpcdt to the alimentary canal : by this it
is frequently employed as a medicine for exciting either vo-
miting or purging, which it does as it happens to be more
immediately applied to the ftomach or to the inteftines.

An infulion of from half a drachm to a drachm of the
dried leaves, or of thefe as they are commonly prepared for
chewing, for an hour or two, in four ounces of boiling
water, affords an emetic which has been employed by fome
praftitioners, but more commonly by the vulgar only. As
it has no peculiar qualities as an emetic, and its operation
is commonly attended with fevere ficknefs, it has not been,
nor is it likely ever to come into common praftice with
phyficians.

By long boiling in water, its deleterious power is faid to
be abated, and at length deftroyed : an extract made by
long coftion, is recommended by Stahl and other German
phyficians, as the moft effeftual and fafe aperient, detergent,
expeftorant, diuretic, &c.; but the medicine muft neceflarily
be precarious in ftrength, and has never come into ufe among
us. Lewis Mat. Med.

It is more commonly employed as a purgative in glyfters ;
and, as generally very effeftual, it is employed in all cafes of
moreobftinate coftivenefs ; and its powers have been celebrated
by many authors. Dr. Cullen lias known it to be in frequent
ufe witli fome praditioners : and he adds, it is indeed a very
effedlual medicine, but attended with this inconvenience,
that when the dofe happens to be in any excefs, it occafions
fevere ficknefs at the ftomach, and it has been known to fre-
quently occafion vomiting.

A ftrong decoftion of tobacco, with proper carminatives
and cathartics, given glyfter-wife, fometimes proves of good
effeft in what is ufually called the ftone colic, and alfo in the
iliac paflion.

It is well known, that in eafes of obftinate coftivenefs, in
ileus and incarcerated hernia, the fmoke of burning tobacco
has been thrown into the anus with great advantage. The
fmoke operates here by the fame qualities that are in the in-
fufions of it above-mentioned : but as the fmoke reaches
• Vol, XXXV.

much farther into the inteftines than injeftionscan commonly
do, it is thereby applied to a larger furface, and may there-
fore be a more powerful medicine than the infufions. In fe-
veral inftances, however, fays Dr. Cullen, I have been dif-
appointed of its effefts, and liave been obliged to have rc-
courfe to other means.

Bates and Fuller give fome receipts, in which tobacco is
an ingredient, with mighty encomiums, in afthmatic cafes.

Hoffman obferves, that liorfes have been often relieved by
this remedy, but in iiuman fubjedls it has been rarely tried ;
and iays he has known fome of the common people, wiio la-
boured under excruciating pains of the inteftines, freed in an
inftant from all pain by fwallowing the fmoke. Both the de-
coftion and the fmoke iiave not unfrequently been injefted in
cafes of incarcerated hernia-, and often with fuccefs. The
fmoke thus applied is recommended as one of the principal
means for the revival of perfons apparently dead from
drowning or other fudden caufes ; but fome fufpeft the nar-
cotic power of tobacco as unfavourable in thefe cafes.

The infufion of tobacco, when it is carried into tiie blood-
veffels, has fometimes iliewn its ftimulant powers exerted in
tlie kidneys ; and very lately we have had it recommended to
us as a powerful diuretic of great fervice in dropfy. Upon
the faith of thefe recommendations we have now employed
this remedy in various cafes of dropfy, but with very little
fuccefs. From tlie fmall dofes that are proper to begin with,
we have hardly obferved any diuretic cffefts ; and though
from larger dofes they have in fomc meafure appeared, we
have feldom found them confiderable : and when, to obtain
thefe in a greater degree, we have gone on increafing the
dofes, we have been conftantly reftrained by the fevere fick-
nefs at ftomach, and even vomiting, which they occafioned :
fo that we have not yet learned the adminiftration of this
remedy, lo as to render it a certain or convenient remedy in
any cafes of dropfy.

Tobacco is fometimes employed externally in unguents
and lotions, for cleanfing foul ulcers, deftroying cutaneous
infefts, and other like purpofes : it appears to be deftruc-
tive to almoft all kinds of infefts, to thofe produced on
vegetables as well as on animals. Lewis.

A ftrong decoftion of the ftalks, with fliarp-pointed
dock, and alum, is faid to be of good fervice, ufed exter-
nally, in cutaneous diftempers, efpecially the itch : fome
boil them for that purpofe in urine. The fame decoftion i$
faid to be infallible in curing the mange in dogs.

Tobacco beat into a mafh with vinegar or brandy, and
laid on the ftomach, has fometimes good effefts in removing
hard tumours of the hypochondria. We have the liiftory of
two cures made by fuch applications in the Med. Eff.
Edinb. vol. ii. p. 41.

The juice of this plant is faid to be good againft ulcers
and mortificajjons. Boyle's Works, Abr. vol. i. p. 56.

Some caution, however, Dr. Lewis obferves, is requifite
even in the external ufes of tobacco, particularly in folutions
of continuity : there are inftances of its being thus tranl-
mitted into the blood, fo as to produces violent effefts.

A drop or two of the chemical oil of tobacco being put
on the tongue of a cat, produces violent convulfions, and
death itfelf in the fpace of a minute ; yet the fame oil ufed
in lint, and applied to tlie tcetli, has been found of fervice
in the tooth-ache ; though it muft be to thofe that have been
ufed to the taking of tobacco, otherwife great ficknefs,
retching, vomiting, &c. happen ; and even in no cafe is the
internal ufe of it warranted by ordinary praftice. See ex
periments on the effefts of oil of tobacco on pigeons, hj
M. Fontana, in which he found vomiting to be a conftant
effedl of this poifon, as he calls it, and the lofs of motioi*
5 D i»

TOBACCO.

in tlif part to which it is applied an occafion:!! or accidental
effect, in rhil. Tranl'. vol. Ixx. part i. append, p. 38, or
Fontana fur K-s Poifons, &c. Florence, quarto.

In cafes of ohllinatc ulcers, the infuiion has been employed
ai a lotion with advantage ; but the many inllances of its
being abforbed, and thus proving a violent poifon, difliuade
from tlic pratlice ; efpecially as there are other medicines of
greater efficacy, that may be ufed more fafely. Bergius re-
commends it to be employed as a fomentation in the para-
pliymofis.

Sim. Paulli, phyfician to the king of Denmark, in an
exprefs treatife on tobacco, obfervcs, that the merchants fre-
quently lay it in bog-houfes, to the end that, becoming im-
pregnated with the volatile fait of the excrements, it may be
rendered the brilker, more fetid, and llronger.

Amurath IV. emperor of the Turks, the grand duke of
Mufcovy, and the emperor of Perfia, have prohibited the
ufe of tobacco in their dates. Our king James I. wrote a
treatife exprcfslyagainft it, entitled " A Counterblaft to To-
bacco." By a bull of pope Urban VIII. fuch are excom-
municated as take tobacco in churches.

Tobacco, Laws and Regulations concerning Tobacco

is not to be planted in England, on forfeiture of 40/.
for every rod of ground thus planted ; but this (liall not
extend to hinder the planting of tobacco in phyfic gardens,
in quantities not exceeding half a pole of ground, and
alfo on forfeiture of 10/. for every rod. (15 Car. II.
c. 7. 12 Car. II. c. 34.) And juftices of peace have
power to iflue warrants to conflables, to fearch after and
examine whether any tobacco be fown or planted, and to
deftroy the fame, which they are to do under penalties, &c.
22 & 23 Car. II. c. 26. 5 Geo. c. 11.

The ad of 29 Geo. III. c. 68. regulating the import-
ation, exportation, and manufadlure of tobacco and fnufF,
and alfo that of 30 Geo. III. c. 40. made to explain and
amend the former, are fo extended, and comprehend fo
great a variety of particular regulations, as not to admit of
minute recital in this place. The former repeals a confider-
able number of preceding ftatutes. By 49 Geo. III. c. 68.
and c. 69. all duties under the refpeftive departments of Cuf-
toms and Excife are repealed, and other duties are granted
in lieu of them. Tobacco and fnufF are alfo fubjeft to
annual duties by the aft for continuing the duties on pen-
fions, offices, &c. ; and certain drawbacks are allowed upon
the exportation of them : which duties are to be under the
management of the commiffioners of the culloms and ex-
cife. 43 Geo. III. c. 68. and c. 69.

No tobacco fhall be imported but from America, on pain
of forfeiture, with the velTel and its contents ; except from
Spain, Portugal, and Ireland, from which it may be im-
ported under certain regulations. (29 Geo. III. c. 68.)
But tobacco of the territories of Ruffia or Turkey may be
imported from thence in Britifh-built fhips, and warehoufed,
and may be exported or entered for home confumption, on
payment of the like duties as tobacco of the United States
of America ; and on its being manufaftured in Great
Britain and exported fhall be entitled to the drawbacks.
(43 Geo. III. c. 68.) By 45 Geo. III. c. 57. tobacco,
the production of the Weft Indies or the continent of
America, belonging to any foreign European ftate, may be
imported into certain ports fpecified in the aft, and ex-
ported to any port of the united kingdom, fubjeft to
the regulations of the aft ; and fuch tobacco fliall pay the
fame duties as that which is the growth of the Britifti
Weft. Indies, or of the United States .of America. By
4.9 Geo. III. c. 25. unmanufaftured tobacco may be im-
ported from any place in Britifli Teffels navigated according

to law, or in foreign fhips navigated i.i any manner whats/?)'
belonging to any ftates in amity with Great Britain ; aad
fuch tobacco ftiall be liable to the fame regulations as
tobacco from the Britifh plantations.

But no tobacco or fnuff fhall be imported in any veflel of
lefs burthen than 120 tons ; nor any tobacco-ilalks, tobacco-
ftalk flour, or fnuff-work, in any veflel whatever ; nor any
tobacco or fnuff in caflcs lefs than 45olbs. on the lik'
penalty ; except loofe tobacco for the crew, not exceeding
ylbs. for each perfon ; nor fliall the veflel be forfeited, if
proof be made from the fmallnefs of the quantity that fuch
tobacco or fnuff was on board without the knowledge of
the ovi-ner or mafter. 29 Geo. III. c. 68.

And no tobacco or fnuff fhall be imported except at
London, Briftol, Liverpool, Lancafter, Cowes, Falmouth,
Whitehaven, and Hull (and by 31 Geo. III. c. 47--
Newcaftle-upon-Tyne) ; on the like forfeiture.

Every manufafturer of tobacco or fnuff fltall
take out a licence from the of&cers of ex-
cife, for which he fhall pay, if the quantity
of tobacco and fnuff-work, weighed by
him for manufafture within the year,
ending the loth of Oftober previous to
his taking out fuch licence, did not £ s. d.

exceed - - - - 20,000 lbs. 200

If above 20,000 and not exceeding 30,000 300

30,000 - - 40,000 400

40,000 - - 50,000 500

50,000 - - 60,000 600

60,000 - - 70,000 700

70,000 - - 80,000 800

80,000 - - 90,000 900

90,000 - - 100,000 10 o o

100,000 - - 120,000 12 o o

120,000 - - 150,000 15 o o

ijo,ooo - - - 20 o o

Every perfon who fliall firft become a manu-
fafturer of tobacco or fnuff, fliall pay for
every fuch licence 2/., and within ten days
after the loth of Oftober next after taking
out fuch hcence, fuch further additional
fum, as with the faid 2/. fliall amount to
the duty herein before direfted to be paid,
according to the quantity of tobacco and
fnuff-work weighed for manufaftui-e within
the preceding year - - -200

and a furcharge.

And every dealer in tobacco and fnuff fhall take out a
licence in like manner, for which he fhall pay, within the
liberties of the chief office in London, 5^., elfewhere 2s. 6d.
43 Geo. III. c. 6g. Sched. (A.)

But perfons licenfed as manufaftuners, who ihall not fell
tobacco in a lefs quantity than four pounds, nor fnuff in
two pounds, need not be licenfed as dealers. 29 Geo. III.
c. 68.

Every perfon who fliall manufafture or deal in tobacco
or fnuff without taking out fuch licence ; or fliall not renew
the fame ten days at leaft before the end of the year, fhall
forfeit, if a manufafturer, 200/., and if a dealer, 50/.

But no perfon fhall be liable to the faid penalty of 50/.
for felling unmanufaftured tobacco or fnuff, whilft remain-
ing in the king's warehoufe.

But perfons in partnerfhip need not take out more than
one licence for one houfe.

Every perfon who fliaU manufafture tobacco, tobacco-
ftalks, or returns of tobacco, or flatten any tobacco-ftalks,

or

TOBACCO.

or cut the fame into SpaniHi, (hall be deemed a manufac-
turer of tobacco. And every pcrfou who (hall grind or
manufafture any tobacco-llalk flour, fnuff-work or fnufT,
fliall be deemed a manufafturer of fnu(f. And every pcr-
fou who fliall foil any tobacco, tobacco-ftalks, or returns
of tobacco, or (lalks flattened or cut into Spanifli, fliall be
deemed a dealer in tobacco. And every perfon who (hall
fell any tobacco-llalk flour, fnuff'-work or fnufl", (hall be
deemed a dealer in fnufl", within the meaning of this aft.

Every manufafturer and dcialer fliall make entry in writ-
ing of his hoiife or place intended to be made ufc of for
manufafturing, keeping, or felling tobacco or fnufl", three
days before he (hall begin, on pain of forfeiting 200/., and
alfo the tobacco and fnu(F there found, together with the
caflts and package, which may be feized by the oflicers of
the cuftoms or cxcife.

Every manufatlurcr, within the limits of the head office,
mull: be an occupier of a tenement of 10/. a-year, and pay
to the parifli rates ; ellewhere, he muft pay to the church
and poor.

Every fuch manufafturer fliall, three days before he be-
gins, make entry in writing at the excife-office of all mills,
prefies, engines, rollers, ftoves, mullers, or fpinning-wheels,
intended to be ufed by him about the manufafturing of
tobacco or fnuff; on pain of forfeiting 50/. for every fuch
utenfd not entered.

Every fuch manufafturer and dealer fliall caufe to be put
up in large legible charafters over his door, or on fonie
confpicuous part of fuch houfe or place, the words Manu-
faRiirer of, and Dealer in Tobacco and Snuff, or Tobacco or
Sniijf, or Manufadurer of, or Dealer in Tobacco and Snuff,
or Tobacco or Snu^ff (as the cafe may be) ; on the penalty
of 50/.

If any perfon, who has not made fuch entry as afore-
faid, (hall put up the faid words, he (hall forfeit 100/.

And by 30 Geo. III. c. 40. no perfon (hall fet up or
begin any manufaftory of tobacco or fnuff within five miles
of the fea-coaft, except in the ports and places aforefaid,
where tobacco may be imported, or places within three
miles thereof; or in cities, or the fuburbs thereof, and
market-towns ; and no entry thereof fliall be of any avail.
But the fame fliall not extend to places duly entered before
the 5th of July, 1789.

But tobacco and fnuff may be manufaftured by any
unlicenfed Spanilh cutter or fnuff-miller at any entered
mill, on account of any licenfed manufafturer, provided
the fame be legally permitted from fuch manufafturer,
and for the fole purpofe of manufafturing or grinding.

29 Geo. III. c. 68.

Every manufafturer fliall give notice in writing to the
officers (if in London fix, in cities and market -towns twelve,
and elfewhere twenty-four hours), before he (hall begin to
ftrip, fpin, or prefs any tobacco for cutting ; or make
any tobacco into carrots, or flatten any ftalks for Spanilh ;
and (hall exprefs therein the weight of each article, and the
time he intends to begin : and the officer (hall attend ac-
cordingly, and he (hall begin within one hour of the time
fo mentioned, and (hall proceed without delay ; and (hall
afterwards deliver a declaration in writing to fuch officer,
of the quantity intended to be ufed for each fort of to-
bacco ; on the penalty of 20/. and fuch notice being, void.

30 Geo. III. c. 40.

Provided, that if fuch tobacco (hall afterwards appear
to be unfit for the purpofe fpecified in fuch declaration,
it may be applied to any other purpofe, on giving 48
hours' notice to the officer of the fort it is intended for.
;9 Geo. III. c. 68. .

.Such manufafturer, at foon as the manufafturing if
fini(hed, fliall deliver to the officer a declaration of tlie
weight of the diff^erent forts of tobacco fo manufaftured,
and the number of the rolls or carrots made, and the weight
thereof, and of the tobacco-ftalks and returns arifing from
the operation ; and fliall keep each fort feparate for twenty-
four hours, or until an account be taken ; on the penalty
of 50/.

If any manufafturer (hall make, or have in his polTeflion,
any roll or carrot tobacco for exportation, which fliall liave
any tobacco-dalks therein, the fame fliall be forfeited, and
may be feized, and he fliall alfo forfeit 50/.

Every perfon who fliall cut any walnut-tree, or other
leaves, herbs, or plants, in imitation of tobacco (not being
tobacco-leaves or plants) ; or (hall colour the fame fo as
to refcmble tobacco ; or (hdll mix any fuch leaves, herbs,
or plants with tobacco ; or Ihall fell, or expofc to fale, or
have in his poflclTion any (uch leaves, herbs, or plants fo cut,
coloured, or mixed, fliall forfeit the fame with the calks
and package, which may be feized ; and alfo 200/.

Provided, that nothing herein fliall extend to prohibit
any fuch manufafturer from dyeing tobacco, or for having
fuch dye in his polFeflion for that purpofe. 30 Geo. III.
c. 40.

Every manufafturer of fnuff (hall provide proper moveable
can<s for preparing, laying down, or putting into bins fnuff-
work and tobacco-ftalks for flour ; and (hall place them fo
as that tho officer may conveniently examine and weigh the
lame at all times ; and (hall mark every fuch caflc with a
progreffive number, and the tare and weight thereof ; and
(hall not lay down any fnuff-work in any calk not fo mark-
ed ; nor put the fame in any bin ; on the penalty of 50/.
29 Geo. III. c. 68.

Such manufafturer of fnuff ffiall, before he begins to
liquor, or cut any tobacco or ftalks, &c. or to lay down
any fnuff-work, give like notice as aforefaid to the officer,
and (hall in fuch notice declare the weights thereof refpec-
tively, and the number of each particular caflc or bin in
which the fame is intended to be laid down ; and fuch officer
(hall attend accordingly ; and fuch perfon fliall begin within
one hour of the time fo mentioned, and fliall without delay
proceed therein, until the whole is weighed ; and fliall then
deliver an account in writing of the quantity intended for
each fort of fnuff or flour ; and when put into caflts, he
(hall give a like notice, and in the prefence of the officer
(hall affix to each caflc a ticket fpecifying the number of
fuch calk, and the weight of the fnuff-work, &c. therein,
and the time when laid down, and what fort of fnuff it i,^
intended for ; which ticket fliall be figned both by fuch
manufafturer or his fervant and the officer ; and when the
fame is intended to be taken out to be ground, like notice
fliall be given, and the fame (hall be weighed out in the pre-
fence of the officer. And no fuch manufafturer fliall mix
fnuff-work or tobacco-ftalks for flour of one making with
another ; on pain of forfeiting for every offence afore-
faid 50/.

Provided always, that if fuch fnuff-work fliall afterwards
appear to be unfit for the purpofes fpecified in fuch de-
claration, or be intended to be manufaftured contrary
theieto, notice thereof in writing (hall be given to the
officer within forty-eight hours after the dehvery of fuch
declaration, and a frelh declaration (hall be given, fpecifying
the fort it is intended for, and fuch manufafturer fliall pro-
ceed therein in manner as aforefaid. 30 Geo. III. c. 40.

Scotch fnuff and tobacco-ftalk flour may be manufaftured

into brown Scotch fnuff, and tobacco-flalk flour into rappee

fnuff, fubjcft to the regulations aforefaid. And on taking

5 D 2 ftock,

TOBACCO.

ilocJc, certain creJitJ ihall bo allowc.l, as let forth in t he
:.a ; and if on taking fuch ftock any exccfs be f"U"d, the
fame (hall *e forfeited, and may be lereed. 30 Geo. lil.

' And to fnuff-work in operation, tobacco, tobacco-ftalks,
or flonr, or returns of tobacco, may be added, on givnig
to the officer, previous to fuch increafe benig made a like
notice, and conforniinj; to the regulations fpecified in the

aft. , . u

The whole of any parcel of fnuff-work m cure, may be
mixed with tlie whole of any other parcel in cure, allhougli
laid down at different times, if tlie fame be mixed in the
prefence of an officer, to whom notice is to be given as
afore faid.

If any manufacturer hasoccafion to fupply his cultomcrs
with manufactured tobacco or fnutf from any parcel in
operation, before the whole is finilhed, he may, in the pre-
fence of an officer, take for the purpofe aforefaid any
manufafturcd tobacco or fnuff not Icfs than aoolbs. But
if taken without conforming to the regulations fpecified in
the aa, he (hall forfeit 50/.

And every mauufaaurer Ihall dihgently manufaaurc lucli
fnuff-work, and ftalks for flour, when taken out of fuch
calk, according to the notice given ; and when the fame is
finifhed, he (hall deliver to the officer a declaration in writ-
ing of the weight of each fort fo made, and (hall keep the
fame feparate for twenty-four hours, or until the officer (hall
have taken an account thereof; on the penalty of 50/.
29 Geo. III. c. 68.

Every manufaaurer may have a ttore-room for keeping
dried Scotch fnuff, but the fame (hall have but one door or
opening, which (hall be locked up, fealed, and fecured by
the officer ; wherein may be depofited Scotch fnuff returned
direaiy from the mill for fix months, without being taken
as part of his ftock. And when the fame is intended to
be taken out of fuch room, notice (hall be given to the
officer, who (hall attend and open fuch room, and fuch
fnuff (hall be taken out in his prefence ; and (hall be kept
feparate one making from another ; on the penalty of 50/.
And if any fuch manufaaurer (hall open fuch ftore-room,
except in the prefence of an officer, he (hall forfeit 200/.

Every pcrfon, who (hall cut any walnut, hop, fycamore,
or other leaves, or any other herbs, plants, or materials (not
being tobacco-leaves or plants) ; or (hall colour or cure any
fuch, to make the fame refemble tobacco ; or (hall fell the

fame, mixed or unmixed, for tobacco ; (hall forfeit

5J. a pound, half to the king (charges of the profecution
firft deduaed), and half with full cofts to him who (hall
fue. I Geo. I. ft. 2. c. 46.

Every pcrfon who (hall make, mix, or colour any fnuff
with ochre, umber, or other colouring, except water tinged
with Venetian red only ; or fhall mix with fnuff any fuftic
or yellow ebony, touchwood, or other wood, or any dirt,
fand, or fmall tobacco fifted from tobacco, — fhall forfeit the
fame, and 3/. for every pound weight, half to the king,
and half to him that fhall fue. i Geo. I. ft. 2. c. 46.
5 Geo. I. c. II.

And all fuch leaves and other materials, and all engines,
utenfils, and tools for working the fame, may be fearched
for and feized, by warrant of three commiffioners of the
treafury or of the cuftoms. I Geo. I. ft. 2. c. 46.

If any pcrfon fhall mix any fuftic, or other wood, or
any leaves, herbs, or plants (other than tobacco), or any
earth, clay, or tobacco-fand, with any fnuff-work or fnuff ;
or fhall colour the fame with any fort of colouring (water
tinged with colour only excepted) ; he Ihall forfeit 200/.
And if any manufafturer or dealer in fnuff fhall fell, or ex-

pofe to fale, or have in liis entered premifes, any fuflic,
yellow ebony, touchwood, logwood, red or Guinea wood,
Braziletto or Jamaica wood, Nicaragua wood, or Saunders
wood ; or any walnut-tree, hop, or fycamore-leaves ; or
fliall have in his pofTcffion any of the aforefaid articles ; or
any other wood, leaves, herbs, plants, eartli, clay, or to-
bacco-fand, mixed witli any fnuff-work or fnuff ; or fuch
fnuff-work or fnuff-coloured (except as aforefaid) ; he (hall
forfeit 50/., and the fame fhall be forfeited, and may be
feized. 29 Geo. III. c. fJ8.

Any manufaaurer of Britifh rappee, Scotch or brown
Scotch fnuff completely finifhed, and of which an account
has been taken by the officer, may hquor the fame, before
mixing with fnuff of a different making, fo as it exceed
not the legal credit. And if fuch manufaaurer (hall in-
tend to liquor fnuff, for which the legal credit has not been
received, he (hall give notice thereof to the officer. But
no fnuff (hall be liquored in lefs pascels than 20olb3.,
nor in more than four different parcels of one making.
30 Geo. III. c. 40.

Snuff, for which fuch allowance (hall have been made,
(liall be kept feparate from all other fnuff, and (hall be Ihewn
to the officer on demand ; on the penalty of 20/.

Every manufaaurer and dealer, who fhall mix Spanifh
with (hort cut tobacco, or any tobacco-ftalk flour with
fnuft, or fnuff of different forts the one with the other,
(hall every day enter in a book or paper, the quantity fold,
fent out, or confumed of two pounds or upwards, and the
grofs weight thereof, and the time when mixed ; on pain
of forfeiting 50/. 29 Geo. III. c. 68.

When any officer fhall diicover that the manufaauring
of tobacco or fnuff is carried on in any unentered place,
and that any perfon knowingly aflifts, or is any ways con-
cerned in carrying on the fame, every fuch perfon fhall for-
feit 30/. over and above all penalties and forfeitures that the
proprietor thereof fliall be liable to ; and fuch officer or his
affiilant, may ftop and arreft fuch perfon, and convey him
before a juftice, who, on his confeflion, or the oath of one
witnefs, may convia fuch perfon fo difcovered, who fhall
immediately pay the faid penalty to fuch officer or perfon
who brought him ; and if not fo paid, fuch juftice (hall
commit him to the houfe of correaion to hard labour for
fix months from the day of conviaion, or until the faid
penalty be paid. And for a fecond offence, he (hall for-
feit 60/., which, if not paid in manner aforefaid, he lliall be
committed in like manner for one year, or until fuch penalty
be paid.

The officers of excife (between five in the morning and
eleven in the evening without a conftable, and between
eleven in the evening and five in the morning with a con-
ftable) may enter into any houfe or place belonging to or
made ufe of by any manufaaurer or dealer, and take an
account of the ftock found therein ; and fliall give credit
(as particularly fct forth in the aa). And if at any time
any excefs in (lock Ihall be found, of which no notice has
been given to the officer, unlefs received by permit, the
fame fhall be deemed and taken to be brought in without
permit.

Every manufaaurer and dealer fhall keep fufficient fcales
and weights for the ufe of the officers, on the penalty of
100/. And if any fuch perfon fhall, in weighing, ufe any
art or device to prevent fuch officer from taking a true
weight of fuch tobacco, &c. he fhall forfeit 200/. toge-
ther with fuch fcales and weights, which may be feized.

And every fucli manufaaurer and dealer fhall with a fuf-
ficient number of his fervants affift fuch officer in taking
fuch account of ftock, on pain of forfeiting 50/.

But

TOBACCO.

But no officer fh.ill weigh any tobacco, tobacco-ftalks,
or fnuft'-work, whilfl aftiially in the operation of manufac-
ture ; except fnuff-work intended to be fent out or received
by permit.

And unmanufadlured tobacco, tobacco in the ftate of
operation, and manufattured tobacco, {hall be kept fepa-
rate from each other ; on the penalty of 50/.

The officers Ihall be permitted to take lamples of tobacco
or fnuff, &c. in the polTcffion of any manufadlurcr or dealer,
paying for the fame (if demanded) tlie value or ufual price ;
on the penalty of lOo/. upon rcfufal.

Every manufacturer and dealer (hall, in a book or paper,
to be furniflied by the officers, keep an account of all to-
bacco, &c. and fnuffs which he (hall have fold, fent out,
or confumed the preceding day, in quantities of 4lbs. or
upwards, of tobacco. Sec. and 2lbs. or upwards of fuuffs;
and alio another book or paper in like manner, if under
4Jbs. of tobacco, &c. or zlbs. of fnuffs. But no fuch
perfon /liall have more than one fuch book or paper of each
fort at the fame time, which is to be returned to the officer,
if in London, or any city or market-town every fix weeks,
elfewhere every fix months, or when the fame is filled up
or demanded ; and (hall be verified on oath. And fuch
books and papers fliall lie open for the infpeftion of the
officer, and (hall be made up at his requeft ; on the penalty
of 100/. for every offence.

If any officer (hall difcovcr any incrcafe in (lock not
legally accounted for, the fame fliall be deemed and taken
to be made by a commodity, for which no duty has been
paid, and privately brought in without permit ; and fuch
increafe (hall be forfeited, and may be feized ; and the per-
fon, in whofe (lock fuch increafe (liall be found, (hall alfo
forfeit 20/.

But Scotch fnuff, in the cuftody of a manufafturer or
dealer, not having gained more than 5lbs. iu the loolbs. by
the moillure of the air, (hall be deemed a fair commodity, and
fuch perfon (hall have credit for the fame in his (lock, and
may remove the fame by permit. And fuch fnuff (hall be
kept feparate from all other fnuff, and (hewn to the' officer
upon demand ; on the penalty of 20/.

If any manufatturer (hall remove any tobacco or fnuff
out of his entered houfe or place, before the fame has been
weighed, and taken an account of by the officer, or (hall
hide or conceal the fame from the view of fuch officer ; he
(hall forfeit 5c/.

And no tobacco (except returns) of 4lbs. and upwards,
nor fnuff of zlhs. and upwards, nor any tobacco-llalks,
Spanilh returns of tobacco, tobacco-flalks for flour, fnuff-
work, or tobacco-ftalk flour, exceeding 2oolbs. (hall be
removed by land or water without a permit, on pain of
forfeiting the fame, with the cades and package, and alfo
the horfes, cattle, boats, barges, and carriages ufed in con-
veying the (ame, which may be feized.

Such officer on requeft (hall grant permits, wherein ffiall
be limited the time for fuch removal ; and if the goods per-
mitted (hall not be delivered within the time fo limited,
the fame (hall be deemed and taken to be removed without
permit.

But no permit fhall be granted or be valid for the removal
of any fnuff-work from one part of the kingdom to another
except from the entered premifes of a manufafturer of
fnuff, where the fame was laid down to the mill for the pur-
pofe of grinding ; on forfeiture thereof, together with the
horfefe, cattle, boats, barges, and carriages, which may be
feized. 30 Geo. III. c. 40.

And no fuch permit (liall be granted or be valid, unlefs
the requeft note from fuch manufafturer or dealer contain

the particulars fpecified in the adl, and fuch permit to cor.
rcfpond with the requell note ; and if for removing un-
maiuifadurcd tobacco (other than famples), except the
fame be in the original package, and be removed according
to the regulations fpecified in the aft : and all tobacco, &c.
removed contrary thereto fhall be forfeited, together with
the ca(l<s and package, and the horfes, cattle, boats, barges,
and carriages ufed in the removal thereof, which may be
feized. 29 Geo. III. c. 68.

Provided always, that permits may be granted for the
removal of any unmanufafturcd tobacco, in any quantity
not lefs than 20olbs. in any package whatfoever, from
the entered premifes of any manufafturer to any mill to
be manufadlurcd, and back to fuch entered premifes.
30 Geo. III. c. 4c.

And every manufafturcr of tobacco or fnuff may manu-
fadlure their tobacco, tobacco-ftalks, fnuff-work, and re-
turns of tobacco, at any entered mill, and may remove the
lame by permit to and from fuch mill.

Provided, that nothing herein (hall extend to prevent
any manufafturcr from (loving or finifiiing tobacco, or
drying fnu(f-work at any mill, provided the officer be al-
lowed to weigh and take an account thereof. 20 Geo. III.
c. 68.

Where any permit (hall be granted for the removal of
any tobacco or fnuff, &c. and the fame (hall not be re-
moved agreeable thereto, fuch permit (liall be returned be-
fore the expiration of the time limited for fuch removal ; on
forfeiture of treble the value of fuch goods. And where
fuch permit (hall not be fo returned as aforefaid, and on
taking ftock a decreafe does not appear to anfwer the con-
tents of fuch permit, a like quantity ffiall be forfeited, and
may be feized.

No manufafturer, unlefs licenfed as a dealer, ffiall have a
permit for, or ffiall fell or fend out, any mamifaftured to-
bacco, Spaniflij or returns of tobacco, in a lefs quantity
than 4lbs., nor fnuff than 2lbs. ; on the penalty of 20/.

No tobacco, &c. or fnuff, &c. ffiall be brought into any
houfe or place of a manufafturer or dealer without a permit,
and alfo notice thereof ffiall be given to the officer ; on pain
of forfeiting the fame, together with the caflcs and package,
which may be feized, and fuch manufafturer or dealer ffiall
alfo forfeit treble the value thereof.

No tobacco or fnuff. Sec. ffiall be removed from any
place without the hmits of the bills of mortality or excife-
office in London, to any place within thofe limits ; nor
from any place without the limits of the ports herein before
enumerated to any place within, or within two miles of
thofe limits ; on forfeiture thereof, with the caflis and
package, and alfo the veffels, horfes, cattle, and carriages
employed in removing the fame, which may be feized. But
the fame ffiall not extend to the legal removal of the feveral ■
articles fpecified in the aft.

By 30 Geo. III. c. 40. tobacco-ftalks ftripped from the
leaf may be removed, by permit, from any entered premifes
out of the hmits of the bills of mortahty, to any place
within thofe limits, fubjecl to the regulations in the afore-
faid a£l, and this aft fpecified.

Any manufaftuier or dealer, who hath received into his
ftock, by permit, any tobacco or fnuff, may return the
fame within forty-eight hours to the perfon from whom he
received it under certain regulations. But if found returned,
or returning without permit, or ffiall not be the fame iden-
tical tobacco or fnuff which had been received, \vithout
any alteration ; the fame ffiall be forfeited, with the ca(ks
and package, which may be feized, and the perfon who
ffiall return the fame ffiall alfo forfeit 50/. 29 Geo. III. c. 68.

If

T O B

I'" jny tobaoco of 4lb8. or upwaids or fnuff of zlba. or up-
wsrdi. or any tobacco-ilalks, &c. ihall be found removing,
unldi'bctwcon fcven in ti.e morning and five in the evening
from 29th Sept. to 25tli March, and between five in tlie
morning and fevcn in the evening from 25th Mai-ch to
19th Sept. (except by a common earner or vend which

T O B

the officer feiiing the fame (hall be allowed one penny z
pound ; and every perfon, who fhall be aflifting or other ■
wife concerned in unfhipping the fame, or to whofe hands
they fhall knowingly come after uiirtiipping, fiialt forfeit
treble value, together with the veffels, bags, caflcs, or other
things, wherein the fame are contained, and the horfes.

Xau7coe6ou7of'thefe hours,) the fame (IliU be forfeited, cattle, carts, and other carriages rnade ufe of in removing
th the calks and package, and the horfts, carriages, and the fame; halt to the king, and half to fucji officer ot

wi
veffels

ade life of in conveying the fame, which may be

feized, whether the fame be accompanied with a permit
or not.

the culloms, who fliall feize, inform, or fuc for the fame,
12 Geo. c. 28. 5 Geo. III. c. 43. 8 Geo. c. 18.

If any perfon whatfoever without a permit, or hawkers
with one, fhall offer any tobacco, See. to falc, he fliall for-
feit the fame, togetlicr with the package, and alfo lol.
And the perfon to whom it fliall be fo offered to fale, may
feize the fame, and carry it to the next warehoufe belong-
ing to the culloms or excife, and fhall bring the perfon fo

offering it to falc before a juflice, who fhall commit him to „ • rt- , ,r • ,_ 1 • j i_ ir

prifon, that he may be profccutod for fuch penalty ; and m the courts at Weitminfter, half to the king, and halt to
the perfon fo feiz.ing the fame fliall be entitled to the fame him_who_fhall fue (unlefs^othcrwife particularly direfted).
rewards as the officers of the culloms or excife ; and in cafe

All feizures of veffels or boats of 15 tons or under, and
of horfes or other cattle and carriages, by virtue of any
aft relating to the culloms, may be profecuted, heard, and
determined, before two juftices refiding near where the
feizure was made. 8 Geo. III. c. 18. 5 Geo. III. c. 43
29 Geo. III. c.68.

And all penalties and forfeitures in the excife may b^

fued for, levied, and mitigated as by the laws of excife, o;

- Sei ' " ' " " "

fuch perfon fliall defire it, the commifTioners may caufe three-
pence for every pound of tobacco, &c. fo feized to be paid
to him, till the fame can be difpofed of, upon a certificate
under the hand and feal of fuch juftice, of fuch offender
being committed to prifon ; and after fale, the money fo
advanced fhall be replaced out of the produce of fuch
fale.

If any perfon fhall counterfeit or forge any permit, he
fhall forfeit 500/.

If any perfon fliall affault, refill, oppofe, molefl, ob-
jlruft, or hinder any officer in the due execution of this or
any other aft ; or fhall refcue any goods which have been
feized ; or any veffel, horfes, cattle, or carriages, which have
been forfeited, and for wlilch no particular penalty is pro-
vided ; he fhall forfeit 200/.

If any perfon fhall give or offer any bribe, recompence,
or reward to any officer to prevent him doing his duty,
whether the fame be accepted or not, he fhall forfeit 500/.

No tobacco, fnuff, &c. fhall be landed, without firft
making entry thereof with the officers of the culloms, on
forfeiture thereof, with the caflvs and package.

If any officer of excife fhall have caufe to fufpeft that
any tobacco, &c. or fnuff, which fhall have been imported
contrary to this a6t, or forfeited by this or any other aft,
is depofited, lodged, hid, or concealed, if within London
or Weftminfter, or the hniits of the chief office, upon oath
made before two commiffioncrs, elfewhere upon oath made
before one juftice fetting forth the ground of his fufpicion,
fuch commifTioners or juflice may, by warrant, authorife
fuch officer by day or night, but if in the night, in the
prefence of a conllablc, to enter into fuch fufpefted place,
and to feize and carry away all fuch tobacco, &c. or fnuff
which fhall be there found, together with the caflis and
package containing the fame. And if any perfon fhall ob-
ftruft or hinder any fuch officer fo authorifed, or perfon
affifling him in the execution of fuch warrant, he fhall for-
feit 100/.

Tobacco and fnuff, taken as prize, are fubjefted to the
regulations of this aft, by 43 Geo. III. c. 1 34.

No manufafturer or dealer in tobacco or fnult, or perfon
anywife interefled or copcerned therein, fhall aft as a ma-
giftrate in the execution of any aft relating to tobacco or
fnuff ; and all afts done by fuch perfon fliall be utterly null
and void.

If any tobacco-flalks or ftcms ftript from the leaf fhall fire until they boil together. The liquor is ufed fn a cold
be imported, the fame fhall be forfeited and burned, and ftate.

Th«

29 Geo.TlI. c. 68. 30 Geo. III. c. 40. 43 Geo. III.
c. 69.

Tobacco-ftalks or ftems, ftripped from the leaf, that aie
imported, fliall be forfeited and burnt, and the officer feizing
the fame fhall bo allowed iri. a pound ; zmd perfons affifling
in unfhipping them, &c. fhall forfeit treble value, with th-?
veffels, horfes, &c. which may be profecuted and deter-
mined before two juftices near the place where the feizu;?
was made. (12 Geo. c. 28. 5 Geo. III. c. 43.
3 Geo, c. 18.) By 24 Geo. II. c. 41. and 26 Geo. II.
c. 13. no tobacco or ftalks exceeding 24lbs. weight, nor any
fnuft exceeding lolbs. fhall be conveyed by land, without
proper certificates, under penalty of forfeiture, together
with horfes and carriages, and commitment of the carrier to
the county -gaol for one month by one juflice. The feizura
of horfes and carriages may be determined by two juftices
near the place where the feizure was made.

Tobacco, EngUJh, Nkotiana minor, or Nicot'tana rufiica
of Linnaeus, is a fpccies of tobacco, which was originally a
native of America, but now propagates itfelf plentifull^nJ
in England and other parts of Europe. The flowers arq
of an herbaceous yellow colour, appearing in July, and ar
fucceeded by roundifh capfules filled with fraall feedsi
which ripen in autumn. The leaves are faid by fome t<f
be of the fame quality with thofe of henbane ; but by othersl
to be fimilar to the preceding, but weaker. They have
been fometimes fubftituted in our markets, inftead of tha
true tobacco ; but are eafily dillinguifhed by their fmalll
iiefs and oval fliape, and by being furnilhed with pedicles
Lewis.

Tobacco, Kanajlcr. See Kanaster.
ToTiACCQ- Water, among Sheep-Farmers, a liquor prepared
by infuCng or boiling tobacco in water. A very ufefiJ
mode of preparing it is, by boiling one pound of tobacco in
two gallons of itrong fait brine, adding, after the liquid has
become cool, about three ounces of the oil of turpentine.
It is fometimes, too, the praftice to diffolve fifteen or
twenty grains, or more, of fublimate or muriated quick-
filver in the turpentine, before it is added to the liquor or
mixture. A fmall proportion of corroilve fublimate, dif-
folved in fpirits of wine, is alfo a fafe and neat mode of in-
corporating it with the tobacco-water or liquid.

Tobacco-water, or liquor, is likewife occafionally mixed
with other fubftances ; as two pints of it have fometimes
three ounces of fulphur mixed in them, being put on a

1 O B

T O B

The South Down flieep-farmers have a docoftion of
tobacco, wildvine-root, and fulphur, which is boiled in
brine for a quarter of an hour, and then ftrained off for ufc.

Tobacco-water, or hquor, is icept ready prepared for the
ufe of farmers in many places where (heep are largely kept,
but it is probably the bell way for them to provide their
own.

This water, or hquor, is a powerfully efficacious remedy
in various cafes of the fcab kind in fheep, and probably in
other animals. It is ufually applied by (bedding or dividing
the wool by the fingers and thumbs, and pourmg a little of
the liquid in along it. It may be uled every night, as there
may be occafion. Such difeafes are readily removed by it
in moil cafes, and efpecially in loug-wooUed (heap, in which
they often take place.

In gardening, the fimple water, or liquor, which is pre-
pared by infuling or boihng tobacco in foft water, without
any admixture, or having any fuch fubllances as above dif-
folved in it, is often found beneficial in dellroying and re-
moving infeCls of different kinds on fruit-trees and fruit-
flirubs, by having it repeatedly fprinkled over them by
means of a watering-pot, or devv-fyringe, or in any other
way. Many forts of thele trees and fhrubs in hot-houfes,
and other places, are treated in this manner with great effeft
and advantage in clearing them of fuch vermin.

Tobacco Key, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the bay of
Honduras, near the coail of Yucatan. N. lat. i6° 45'.
W. long. 88- 35'.

ToBACco-P;/>c. See Tobacco Pipe.

TOSACCO-Pipe Clay. See CiMOLITE.

ToTiACCO-Pipe Fi/h, in Ichthyology, the Engliih name of
)ie ^cus, or the Syngnathus Jicus of Linnaeus; which
fee.

TOB ACTLI, in Ornithology, a name which Nieremberg
lays is often given to the American bird more commonly
■ ailed hoaBl't.

TOBAGO, in Geography, one of the Caribbee iflands,
in the Weft Indies, about 30 miles in length from fouth-
eail to north-weft, and about nine in breadth. This ifland
ivas firft difcovered bv Columbus, in the year 1498 ; but
(hough projeAs were formed for fettling it, particularly by
William, earl of Pembroke, who obtained a grant of it in
the year 1628, and alfo of Barbuda and St. Bernard, they
proved ineff'edlual. About the year 163Z, fome Zealanders,
'laving fitted out a fmall fquadron for trading to thofe
ilands, made fuch a favourable report of this in particular,
upon their return home, that the company of merchants
to which they belonged undertook to fettle it, and gave it
the name of New Walchcren, from one of the iflands in
Zealand. The new colony, in a fliort time, increafed to
ibout 200, who, finding themfelves peftered by the vifits
'f the Caribbean Indians, began to ereft a fort for their
I refei-vation. The Indians had recourfe to the Spaniards,
\:\\o readily granted them affiftance. They fent a force
pon the ifland which demoliflied the rifing fort, and exter-
minated the new colony. It was probably from fome
Dutch merchants who travelled to Courland, that James,
duke of that country, conceived the defign of fettling
Tobago. Being a prince of an adlive difpofition, and find-
ing there was room for fuch a fetllement, he fent over a
colony of his own fubjedls, who fettled upon what has fince
been called Great Courland Bay, and ercdied a fmall regular
"ort, with a town, in the neighbourhood ; and the duke's
;itle was farther confirmed by a grant from Charles II.
king of England, but difputed by the Dutch- Upon the
cxtinftion of the Kettler family, dukes of Courland, in the
2;crfoii of Ferdinand, fon of duke James, the fief of the
9

ilLmd of Tobago reverted to the crown of England in 1737.
By the treaty of Aix-Ia-Chapelle in 1748, St. Vincent, Do-
minica, St. Lucia, and Tobago, were declared neutral, and
tliolo who remained of the ancient proprietors were left in
unmolefted pofl'eflion. By the 9th article of the peace of
Paris, ligned on the 10th of February, 1763, the three
iflands of Dominica, St. Vincent, and Tobago, were afligned
to Great Britain, and St. Lucia to France ; the Charaibes
not being mentioned in the whole tranfaftions, as if no fuch
people cxiiled. The climate of Tobago is far more tem-
perate than could be oxpedted in an ifland that is but i i
degrees 16 minutes north from the equator ; for the heat
is allayed by the fea-breezcs. Tobago has another favour-
able circumftance to recommend it, by its lying out of the
track of thofe hurricanes that prove fo fatal to the other
Weft India iflands. The furface of the ifland is unequal
and agreeably diverfified ; but no part of it is rugged or
impaflable, though its north-weft extremity is mountainous.
Its foil is of difterent kinds, but in general the moidd is
rich and black, and proper for producing, in the greatell
plenty, whatever is raifed in other parts of the Weft Indies.
The abundance of fprings upon the ifland contributes to its
healthfulnefs, and its bays and creeks are fo difpofed as to
be very commodious for all kinds of ftiipping. Its fitua-
tion, however, requires fortifications to render the ifland
fecure againft the vifits of favages and enemies. Befides
its producing the different kinds of wood that are to be
found in the other Weft India iflands, the Dutch affirm,
that both the true nutmeg-tree and the cinnamon-tree,
with that which produces the real gum copal, grows upon
the ifland, but this affertion wants conHrraation. Mr. Blome,
who, in 1687, wrote " The prefent State of our American
Iflands," fays that the foil of Tobago produces Indian
corn, Guinea corn, peafe, beans, French beans, figs, pihe-
apples, pomegranates, oranges, lemons, limes, plantains,
bananas, grapes, guavas, tamarinds, prickly pears, papaws,
and a variety of other fruits, which are not to be found in
Europe. The cocoa-tree grows here to fuch perfeftion,
that the Indians call it God's tree, as producing both meat,
drink, and clothing. Muflc-melons, water-melons, gourds,
cucumbers, and pompions, are raifed to perfedlion : neither
is there any want of potatoes, yams, carrots, turnips, parf-
nips, onions, and manioc. Wild hogs abounded fo much in
Tobago, that the people killed at leaft twenty thoufand of
them every year without their being fenfibly diminifhed.
Here are likewife found peccaros, refembling fwine, arma-
dilloes, guanoes, Indian rabbits, and badgers. Horfes,
cows, afies, fheep, deer, goats, and rabbits, were probably
introduced by the Dutch, and have multiplied exceedingly.
The fea is ftored with excellent fifh, particularly turtle of
every kind, and mullets of a moft delicious talle, with other
kinds unknown in England. In fhort, the commodities
which the country doth, or may produce, are cocoa-nut,
fugar, tobacco, indigo, ginger, farfaparilla, fempervivum,
bees'-wax, venelloes, natural balfam, balm, filk-grafs, green
tar, foap-earth, with many curious fliells, ftones, marcafites,
and minerals. In 1781, the ifland was furrendered to the
French on favourable terms. In 1793, it was again taken
by the French, and foon after retaken by the Britifti. N.
lat. 11° 16'. W. long. 60° 30'.

Tobago, Little, a fmall ifland near the eaft eoaft of
Tobago, about two miles long, and one broad.

TOBAK, a town of European Turkey, in BefTarabia,
on lake Jalpug. In 1789, the Ruffians were defeated by
the Turks, near this town ; 34 miles N.N.W. of Ifmail.

TOBAN, a town of the iilaud of Cuba ; 16 miles N.E.
of Trinidada.

TOBAR,

T O B

TODAR, a town of Spain, in Old Ciiftile ; 18 miles
from Diirgos. r . •

TOBATA, ill Jncifnt Geography, a town of Aiia, in
the interior of Paphlagonia.

TOBATI, in Ceography, a town of Paraguay ; 50
miles N.E. of Affumption.

TOBED NicAURLEDEGH, a river of New Brunfwick,
which runs into the St. John, N. lat. 46'^ 50'. W. long.

67=' ^(J.

TOBIANUS, in Ichthyology, a name given by Schonc-
vcklt and oth^-rs to the ammodytes, or fand-eel.

TOBIR.A, or ToBERA, in Botany, a Japancfe Ihrub,
figured and defcribed by Kxmpfer ; fee Pittosporum,
n. 2. See alfo Euonymus, where its ill-agreement with
the latter genus is noticed.

TOBIS, in Ichthyology, a name given by the Swedes
to the ammodytes, or fand-eel.

TOBITSCHAU, orTowACZOW, in Geography, a town
of Moravia, in the circle of Olmutz ; 10 miles S. of
Olmutz. N. lat. 49° 23'. E. long. 17° 14'.

TOBIUS, in ylnclent Geography, a river of the ifle of
Albion, the mouth of which is placed by Ptolemy on the
weftern coaft, between the promontorj' Oftapitorum and
that of Ratoftathybius.

TOBLER Bach, in Geography, a river of Wurtemberg,
which runs into the Glatt, 2 miles N.W. of Sultz.

TOBLPAD, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 8 miles
S.W. of Gratz.

TOBOL, a river of Ruflia, which rifes in N. lat. 52°
30', and long. 81°, in the country of the Kirghiftzi, in the
chain of mountains that parts it from the government of
Upha. It pours itfelf into the Irtyfh or Irtifch at Tobolflc,
after running a courfe of about 500 verlls, in which it re-
ceives the following rivers ; iiiz. the Ui, the Ifet, the
Tura, and the Tavda, all which fall into it on the left. Of
thcfc, the Tura is the largeft ; it rifes near Verkhoturia, in
the Ural mountains, and ghdes into the Tobol, in lat. 57°
30', after having taken up the rivers Salda, Tagil, Pyfhma,
Nitza, &c. into which laft-mentioned, the Neiva, the JExfh,
and the Irbit flow. By this acceflion of waters, the Tura
becomes a confiderable river, not much inferior to the
Tobol Itfelf. The Ifet is likewife a river of fome confe-
quence, rifing out of a lake two verfts from Ekatarineburg ;
and after having taken up feveral rivers, as the Sifert, the
Sinava, the Tfetfha, and the Miass, falls into the Tobol, in
N. lat. 57°. The Tobol has moftly low ihores ; and in
the fpring fcafon frequently fhade its waters far around.

TOBOLOVO, an oftrog of Ruflia, in the government
of Tobol(l<, on the Enifei. N. lat. 6q° 40'. E. lone.
86° 42'. y ^ S

TOBOLSK, a city of Ruflia, and capital of a govern-
ment, at the confluence of the Irtifch and Tobol. It is the
fee of an archbifhop, and was heretofore the capital of all
Siberia. This city is divided into the Upper and Lower
Towns. The Upper Town ftands very high, on the eaft
fide of the Irtilch ; and the Lower Town lies on a plain,
between the liill on which the former is built, and the river.
Both towns taken together are of a very large circum-
ference ; but the houfes being moftly built with wood, it
was nearly confumed by fire about the year 1786, and
afterwards rebuilt chiefly of ftone. It contains about
15,000 inhabitants. In the Upper Town, which is properly
called the city, fliands the fort, which was built with ftone,
by governor Gagarin. In the fort are the governor's court,
as It IS called, the governor's houfe, the archbilhop's palace,
the exchange, and two of the principal churches, wliich are

T O B

all ftone buildings. The Upper Town, which ftands on the
eaft fide of the fort, and is inclofed within an earthen ram-
part, affords nothing remai-kable, but a market for provi-
fions and all kinds of fmall ware, three wooden churches,
and a convent. The Lower Town contains a market-place
for all kinds of provifions, on which feveral ibops are built.
The Upper Town is out of the reach of inundations from
the river, by its high fituation, which, however, is attended
with this inconveniency, that the inhabitants are under a
neceflity of going down the hill for water. Befides, large
mafles of earth fall from the fide of a hill, on which the
town ftands, towards the river, almoft every year, which
obliges the inhabitants to pull down and rebuild the houfes
that ftand near the declivity. The Lower Town, indeed,
has w.iter at hand, but is expofed to inundations when the
river overflows its banks ; but fuch floods do not happen
ever)' year. The town is very populous, and almoft the
fourth part of its inhabitants is compofed of Tartars, who
are partly defcended from thofe that were fettled there
before the conqueft of Siberia, and partly from the Bu-
charians. Thefe Tartars, in general, behave very quietly,
and carry on fome commerce ; but praftife no mechanic
trades. They are very fober, and averfe from intemper-
ance, and all kinds of riotous living. The reft of the in-
habitants are Ruflians, whofe anceftors were baniihed hither
for their crimes, or fuch as are exiles themfelves. As
every thing is fold here fo exceeding cheap, that a common
man may live very well at Tobolflc at ten rubles a year ; in-
dolence and floth prevail to fuch a degree, that it is a hard
matter to get the leaft; utenfil, &c. made, though the town
abounds with artificers, who want neither tools nor mate-
riak to carry on tlieir refpeftive trades. The commerce
is in a flourifliing condition in this city : and the traffic
which the Bucharian and Kalmuck merchants carry on in
Indian goods, with which they fupply all Siberia, and
part of Ruflia, is very confiderable. All the Chinefe cara-
vans are obliged to pafs through this town ; aad all the
furs furnidicd by Siberia are brought into a warehoufe in
this city, and from hence are forwarded to the Siberian
chancery at Mofcow. Several of the Swedifh officers, who
were taken prifoners at the battle of Pultawa, and fent to
Tobolfl<, fet up fchools here, in the year 17 13, for teaching
the children of Swedes, Ruffians, Coflacks, Tartars, &c.
the German, Latin, and French languages, with geography,
geometry, and drawing. Many of them alfo took in,
boarders. Thefe fchools acquired great reputation ; fol
that children were fent hither for education, from a confider-
able dillance, and the exemplary behaviour of thefe mili«
tary pedagogues was attended with uncommon fuccefs.l
However, when the peace of Nyftadt was concluded, the!
Swedifli officers returned into their own country, and thcal
thefe beneficial feminaries of learning di'opped of courfe.
Some lime after a German fchool was founded here, under!
the aufpices of the emprefs ; 1000 miles E. of Mofcow.f
N. lat. 57°. E. long. 68° 14'.

TOBOLSKIAN Tartars, derive their appellation!
from the river Tobol, on which they dwell ; and they areJ
the defcendaats of the inhabitants of Ifl^er or Sibir, theirl
ancient capital, which being reduced to a heap of ruinsl
after Yormak's conqueft, they abandoned ; and inftead of!
it the Ruffians afterwards built ToboKk. Thefe are dif-|
tinft from the Tartar inhabitants of Tobolili, wlio are al
barbarian colony. Their number amounts to upwards of j
4000 males. f

TOBOLSKOI, a government of Ruffia, extending from |
N. lat. 55*^ to 78°. E. long. 59° to 108°, including a con-
fiderable part of Siberia. Tobolflc is the capital.

TOBORON, I

T O C

T O C

TOBORON, a town of Thibet ; 5^ mile* N. of Tourfas
Hotun.

TOBOSO, El, a town of Spain, in New CalHk- ; 37
miles S. of Huutf.

TOBRON A, a town of the illand of Cuba ; 148 miles
S.W. of Havannah.

TOBRUS, in ylncicnt Geography, a town of Africa
Propria, iu the number of tliofe fituated between the river
BatTradus and the town of Thabraca. Ptolemy.

TOBUI^I>A,in Geography, a town of Africa, on the
E. coall of Tunis ; 8 miles N.W. of Medea.

TOBY, a town of Sweden, in Eall Botlniia, near the
Gulf ; 20 miles N. of Chrilliaufand.

Tony's Criti, a river of Pennfylvania, which runs into
the Allegany, N. lat. 41° 8'. W. long. 79' 40'.

TOCA, a central town of New Granada, E. of Bogota,
the capital.

TOCAIGH, a bay on the W. coall of the idanj of
Owhyhee : the depth of water was 25 fathoms ; the bottom
a ftiff clay, and good holding ground, incommoded by a
patch of rocky bottom, which was found to flioal fuddenly,
and the depth to decreafe to 7, 4, and 3 fathoms, about
the fourth of a mile to the fouth-w ell ward of the anchoring-
place ; and confequently to be a very great inconvenience
to the roadftead, which at beft, in the opinion of captain
Vancouver, is but a very indifferent one, being entirely
expofed to the north-well winds, and the weftern oceanic
fwell, which beats with great violence in the reefs that
encompafs the fhores. Thefe reefs flretch out a mile or
upwards, leaving between them and the land a narrow
channel, that affords comfortable and commodious landing
for fmall boats and canoes ; but the landing is at too
great a diftance from the place of anchorage to allow of
profecuting any debarkation from the (hip. N. lat. 20° 3'.
E. long. 204° 4'.

TOCAIMA, a central town of New Granada, in the
immediate proximity of Bogota, the capital, and W. of it :
founded in 1544, at fome diftance from the river Poti,
called Bogota, not far from its confluence with the river
Magdalena. Its fituation is bad, expofed to great heats,
and numerous venomous creatures, and even deftitute of
water. But the diftrift is very fertile in cacao, tobacco,
fugar, maize, yucas, plantains, potatoes. Sec. and tlie fifh
are abundant in the rivers of Bogota and Fufagafuga,
though there be many alligators. The inhabitants, about
700, are moftly poor. Here are mines of excellent copper,
though not worked.

TOCANTIN's River, a river of South America,
formed by the union of a number of fmall rivers in Brafil,
which rife about the 1 8th or 19th degrees of fouth latitude,
and between the 50th and 51ft degrees of well longitude.
Its courfe is due north to the 2d degree of fouth latitude,
when it joins the Guanapu, about i 20 miles from the fea,
and takes the name of Para, from a city fo called.

TOCAT, or ToKAT, a city of Afiatic Turkey, in the
pachalic of Sivas, anciently a city of Pontus, called Ber'ifa.
It is fituated on the river Tofanlu, in the corner of a valley,
and almolt furrounded with mountains, which afford quarries
of marble, and well fupplied with water from innumerable
fprings. On the top of a lofty rocky mountain, on the
W. fide of the town, are the remains of an old caflle. The
flreets are well paved, but frequently built on uneven
ground. The houfes are tiled, and moflly built with wood.
It is the refidence of a cadi, a waiwode, and an aga, com-
manding a thoufand janizaries, and fome fpahis, The inha-
bitants are computed to be 60,000, conlifting of 20,000
Turkifh families, 4000 Armenians, and about 400 families

Vol. XXXV.

of Greeks. The ArnK'iiians liave fcveu churches, the
Greeks only one. The Armenians ni;Jce an excellent wine,
refembling claret in flavour, but ilronger. Fruits are abun-
dant in this town, and the grape-vines are excellent. It is
the fee of a metropolitan, dependent on the archbifhop of
Nicfara, or Neocx-farea, an ancient city, almoll ruined,
about two days' journey from Tocat. Here are fome
manufadlures of filk and yellow Turkey leather ; but the
chief trade is in copp'r vefTels, kettles, candlefticks, &c.
which are fent to Conllantinoplc, Egypt, &c. Tocat may
be confidered as the centre of trade of Afia Minor. The
copper is obtained from the mines of Gumifcana, at the
dillance of three days' journey from Trebifond, and from
tliofe of Callan Boal, yet richer, and fituated ten days'
journey from Tokal, on the W., towards Angora. The
caravans from Diarbek arrive in eig'liteen days, from Sinob
in fix, from Burfa in twenty, from SmjTna in twenty-feven,
and propt)rlionally lefs ou horfeback, or on mules ; 40
miles N.W. of Sivas. N. lat. 39^ 35'. E. long. 36' 30'.

TOCAYO. See Toct yo.

TOCCATA, Ital. from loccai-c, lo touch: to prelude, to
touch an inllrumcnt, to play a fliort movement extempore,
previous to the performance of a regular piece.

TOCCATINA, a fliort prelude, or trial of an inftru-
ment.

TOCCAVIENSIS Boi.us, Bole ofToLiy, in the Materia
Medlca, a fine medicinal earth, dug about Tokay in
Tranfylvania, and efteemed a powerful allringent. Kent-
man calls it the belus Pannon'tca vera; and Crato, bolut
Htingarica.

This lail author efleemed it fuperior even to the bole
armenic of Galen, and had a great opinion of it in malignant
fevers. It is a fine and pure earth, and very heavy, mode-
rately compadl in its texture, but not very hard ; and in
colour of a confiderably deep and flrong yellow. It is
naturally of a fmooth furface, and does not flain the fingers
in handhng. It ferments violently with acid menflrua, and
does not become red in burning. Hill. See Bole.

TOCHEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
principality of Anhalt Zerbll ; 5 miles W. of Zerbfl.

TOCHU, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Quoja.

TOCKAY, in Zoalogy, the name of a fpecies of Indian
lizard, diftinguilhed from the other kinds, by being fpotted
all over.

TOCKSDORF, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the
province of Bartenland ; fi miles N.W. of Railefiburg.

TOCMIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of ArciJia, in
the fouthern part to the N.W. of Megalopolis, and E. of
the Alpheus. It flood upon an eminence ; but it was in
ruins in the time of Paufanias.

TOCMOL, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by fome to
the common turtle.

TOCOCA, in Botany, a Caribbean name, nfed by
Aublet. — Guian. 437. t. 174. Jufl". 330. Sec Melas-

TOMA.

TOCOLOSIDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Africa, in Mauritania Tingitana. Ptolemy. The Itinerary-
marks it 48 miles from Tingis, and three miles from
Volubilis.

TOCORARY, or Tukorari, in Geography, a town of
Africa, in the country of Ante ; 10 miles E. of Infuma.

TOCORT. See'TtGCURT.

TOCOSANNA, in Ancient Geography, a river of India,
on the other fide of the Ganges. Ptolemy places its mouth
in the Ganges.

TOCOYENA, in Botany, an unexplained name Aubl.

Guian. 131. t. 50. Juff. 201. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 163,
5 E See

T O C

See Gaudenia, of which this is probably a fpecics. The
author calls his onlj- fpfcies T. longifora, and his defcription
contains the following particulars. „ , , , , ,

The j?<-m is three feet high, ercft, fimple, leafy, fcarcely
Ihrubhy. Leavti oppofitc, ercft, phant, fifteen inches
long, Lmceolate, entire, fmooth, tapering at each end, on
fmooth fooljliilks, about an inch and half in length, at-
tached to a pair of triangular, acute, combined, intratolia-
Meaniftipuldj. Flowers about fourteen in a terminal head,
ill oppofite feirilc pairs, each flower accompanied by two
Iniall fcaly braaeas. Calyx fuperior, bell-lhaped, in five
fmall fegnients, nieafuring with the germm not more than
four lines. Corolla with a yellowilh cylindrical tube, as
thick as a goofe-quill, and nine or ten inches long, dilated
at the throat, and terminating in a wliite bell-lhaped limb,
with five ovate, equal, fpreading fcgments. yfnthers nearly
feffile, between the fcgments of the corolla, oblong, incum-
bent. Germai oval, inferior. Style capillary, the length of
the tube, tumid and hairy for an inch below the top.
Stigma of two large, comprefTed, oval lips, included within
the throat of the corolla. Berry oval, an inch long,
crowned with the calyx, of two cells, with numerous
ro\ind\!h feeds, imbedded in vifcid pulp. The foiuers have a
very fweet fmell. Aublet met with feveral plants of this
fpecies in the wood of Aroura in Guiana, flowering in Au-

guft. All the leaves were perforated or gnawed by infecls.

His dried fpecimen of the flower is as black as ink. If
mannia of Thunberg and Salifbury be diftinft from Gardenia,
the prefent plant Ihould feem to belong to the former.

TOCRUM, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 8 miles
S. of Koonda.

TOCRUR, a town of Africa, and capital of a kingdom,
in Nigritia, on the north fide of the Niger, AV. of Calhna ;
270 miles E.N.E. of Tombuftoo. N. lat. 16° 32'. E.
long. 6' 5'.

TOCSON HoTUN, a town of Tliibet ; 20 miles W.S.W.
of Tourfan. N. lat. 43° 26'. E. long. 89'= 14'.

TOCUYO, a city of Soutli America, in the govern-
ment of Venezuela, fitualed in a valley formed by two
mountains. Its divifion and conftruSion are very regular :
the ftreets are on a line, and fulBciently wide. It has a well-
built parifli church, on which depends a chapel of eaie.
The Francifcans have one monaRery, and the Dominicans
another. It is governed by a common-council. The
climate is rather cold than hot ; and though the flcy is
often overcaft, the air is wholefome. The inhabitants are
graziers, agriculturifts, artifans, and traders. The wheat
of its vicinity is reckoned the bell in the province, and
furnifties fufficient for the confumption of many towns of
the interior. They export from 8000 to ro,coo quintals of
flour. From the wool of their flieep they fabricate cover-
lids, and other cloths, which they carry as far as Mara-
caibo and Carthagena. They have alfo tanneries and
taweries, and, like the inhabitants of Carora, work up as
many as they can of the raw materials, and fell the rell.
Another article of commerce, very lucrative to the citizens
of Tocuyo, is fait, which they bring from the fait -ponds of
Coro. In this city are reckoned 10,200 perfons, who
are reproached with the crime of fuicide. Tocuyo is 90
leagues diftant S.W. of Caraccas, and 20 leagues N. of

Truxillo. N. lat. 9" 35'. Long. W. of Paris 72^ 40'

Alfo, a river of Venezuela, which difcharges itfelf into the
lea, 25 leagues E. of the Gaigues, which runs 16 leagues
W. of Coro. The fource of Tocuyo is about 15 leagues
S. of Carora, upwards of 60 leagues from the fea. It is
navigable at far as Banagua, a village fituated on its banks,
at the diftance of 46 leagues from its mouth. Its vicinity

TOD

furniihes abundance of timber of the largeft fize, and fit
for every kind of building. Depons, vol. i. and ii.

TOD of Wool is mentioned in the ftatute 12 Car. II.
c. 32. as a weight containing twenty-eight pounds, or two
Rone. See AVkight.

Some will have the word derived from the French, toilet,
a wrapper, within which, by ufage, two (lone of wool are
folded.

A lad of wool contains i 2 facks, a fack 2 weighs, 13 tods,
26 ftone, 52 cloves, or 364 pounds.

ToD-Nead, in Geography, a cape on the eafl coaft of
Scotland, in the county of Kincardine ; 5 miles S. of
Stonehaven. N. lat. 56' 51'. W. long. 2° 11'.

TODDALIA,in^o/anj, Jufl'.37l. Poiret in Lam. Diet,
v. 7. 693, a barbarous name made out of the Kaka-toddali
of Rheede, Hort. Mai. v. 5. 81. t. 41. (See Scopolia.)
^Todda, with fome addition, is the appellation of other
Indian plants, as Todda-pana of Cycus cireiiialis, and Todda-
vaddi of Oxalis fenjitlva. We humbly hope that the worthy
M. Poirct, who is fo highly difpleaied at our wiihing to
ret;un a SeopoHii, will approve of our having fo much laboured
toellablilh a Poiretia. See that article.

TODDA-PANA, the name by which many authors
call the palma farinifera, or fago-tree.

TODDINGTON, or Tuddixgton, in Geography, an
ancient market-town in the hundred of Manfhead, and
county of Bedford, England ; is iltuated five miles N. by
W. from Dunftable, and 39 miles N.W. by N. from
London. A market was originally held here on Tlmrfdays,
by a grant from king Henry III. in 1218 ; but this was
changed to Saturday, by a charter of Edward II. in 13 16,
whicii was confirmed by Richard II. in 1385. In 1681,
the market was fo confiderable, that fixteen butchers rented
ftalls in the market-place. It gradually declined, and of
late years has been wholly difcontinued. The market-
houfe was pulled down in 1799, and the materials fold. It
is probable, that it had been before difcontinued, and after-
wards revived, as Leland does not include Toddington in
the hft of the market-towns in Bedfordlhire. A fair was
granted by the charters of 12 18 and 1316 : five are now
held in the year. The population return of the year 181 1,
ftates the parilh to contain 259 houfes, and 1 143 inhabitants.
The manor of Toddington was given by William the Con-
queror to Ernulfus de Hefdin, anceftor of the earls of
Perch. On the death of the laft earl, in 1 2 16, it devolved
to the earl of Pembroke, and from him to Paulinus Peyvre,
Reward of the houfehold to Henry III. From the Peyvre
family, the manor defcended to fir Thomas Cheney, K. G.
whofe fon, Henry, was knighted by queen Elizabeth in
1563, (he being then on a viiit to him at Toddington.
In 1572, fhe created him lord Cheney. Lord Cheney built
a noble manfion at Toddington, of which nothing now re-
mains but the kitchen, which is remarkably fpacious. Tod-
dington church is a handfome ftrufture ; the frieze, ort the
outiide, is decorated with grotcfqne figures of animals. The
fouth tranfept contains fome ancient monuments of the
Peyvres, and alfo thofe of the Cheneys. The north tran-
fept was the burial-place of the Wentworths, and contains
two monuments to lady Maria, and lady Henrietta Went-
worth, on each of wiiich 2000/. were expended. Both tran-
fepts are in a (hameful ftate of dilapidation. In the year
1443, an hofpital was founded at Toddington, by fir John
Broughton, for three poor men, and a mafter or chaplain,
who was to pray for the fouls of the Peyvre family. There
are now no traces of the hofpital : the flones were ufed in
building the market-houfe. Lyfons's Magna Britannia,
vol. i. Bedfordlhire, 1806.

TOD-

TOD

T O D

TODDIPOODY, a town of Hindoollan, in the circar
of Rajamundry ; i8 miles E.S-E. of RajamiiiKlry.

TODDY, or ToDDi, is a juice drawn from various
kinds of palms, by cutting off the branch intended by
nature to produce fruit, and receiving from the wounded
branch the fap which was defigned for the nourilluncnt of
the future crop. But as toddy, although fwectifli when
firft drawn, is in a Hate of fermentation in the courfc of
24 hours, acquiring an intoxicating quality, and thus be-
comes four and harfh, it could not have been the palm-wine
of the ancients ; which mull have kept for fome time, as
it was carried on the rivers during voyages of many days,
and even appears to have been ilored up. Toddy is uled
with molafles, rice, and other ingredients, in the dillillation
of Arrack ; which fee. The toddy of the date-tree is faid
to be of an inferior quality to that from fome other kinds of
palms. The palm-wine was made in Babylonia, where
palms abounded, of the fruit of the palm-tree. This was
hveet to the tafte, but apt to give the head-ache. The
palm, as Herodotus informs us (Clio, c. 193.) produced
to the inhabitants of Babylonia, bread, wine, and honey.
The wine mull have been verv plentiful, for he fays that
the boats which defcended the Tigris from Armenia, fome
of which were very large, were loaded with palm-wine as
the principal article of their commerce. We derive fimilar
information from Xenophon, who fpeaks of the floats that
pafled the Euphrates at Carmanda, and tlie Tigris at
Cicnx. \Ve learn, from the travels of M. Burckhardt in
Nuba (Nubia) in 1813, that the praftice of making wine
as an article of commerce is difcontinued in Mefopotamia
and Babylonia, where the date-trees abounded, and where
the profufion of fruit rendered wine fo plentiful, becaule in
modern times the want of a proper dillribution of water
lor irrigation, has left only a fmall proportion of date-trees ;
and hence it is probable, that none of the fruit can be
fpared from the necelfary demand for food. Ka:mpfer is
filent on the fubjeft of palm-wine ; and this circumllance
fatisfaftorily proves the difcontinuance of the pradlice of
making it in thofe countries. M. Burckhardt tells us, that
in all the larger villages of Nubia, the ufe of palm-wine is
very common ; and at Derr, the reputed capital of the
country, a great quantity of fpirit is confumed. The
^vine, he fays, does not talle amifs ; but it is too rich and
too thick to be drank with pleafure. When the date-fruit
has acquired its full maturity, it is thrown into large earthen
boilers, and left to boil without interruption for two or
three days. It is then flrained, and the clear juice put into
earthen jars, well clofed and buried in the ground, where it
fermeats. It is left ten or twelve days under ground ; at
the expiration of which time it is fit to drink. It keeps
for twelve months, and then turns four. The aqua-vitas
made from dates is of a very good quality, and keeps well
for years. People of the upper clafTes at Derr are every
evening intoxicated either with date-wine or fpirits, of
which great quantities are confumed. They are fold
openly. From Siout, fouthward, through Upper Egypt,
date-fpirits are made and publicly fold ; the pacha receiving
a tax upon it from the inn-keepers : they alfo make a kind
of jelly or honey from the dates, which ferves for a fwcet-
meat.

ToDnY-7V«. See Mammee-7V«.

TODEA, in Botany, a fuppofed genus of ferns, dedi-
cated by Willdenow to the memory of tlie Rev. Henry
.lulius Tode, a clergyman of Mecklenburg, who died in
1797, aged 6a. He is diilinguiihed among cryptogamic
botanifts, as the author of an accurate and pradtical work,
in quarto, with numerous plates, entitled Fungi McckUti'

lurgcnfcs Sele^i, publirtied at Lunenberg, in 1790, to which
the reader will fmd frequent references m our feveral articles
relating to the order ot Fungi. This genus, however, is
funk in O.sMUNnv; fee that article, n. 3.

TODENDORP, in Ciogniphy, a town of the duchy
of Holllein ; 6 miles N.E. of Hamburgh.

TODI, Mauia Fkancisca, in Biography, born in Por-
tugal in 1748, arrived in England in 1777, with Jcrmoli,
as firil woman in the comic opera. She mull have im-
proved extremely after fhe left this country, whsre (lie re-
mained only one feafon, and was little noticed ; her voice
being feeble, and feldom perfeftly in tune. But Ihe after-
wards became tlie moil captivating finger for tafte and ex-
preffion in cantabile airs, in France and Germany (accord-
ing to report), that ever appeared in Europe. She was
taught by Perez.

ToDi, in Geography, a town of the Popedom, in the
duchy of Spoleto, near the Tiber, the fee of a bifliop, im-
mediately under the pope. It contains feveral churches
and convents; iS miles W. of Spoleto. N. lat. 42° 47'.
E. long. 12° 18'.

TODIALOOR, a town of Hindooilaii, in the country
of Coimbetore ; 5 miles N. of Coimbctore.

TODIVESTI, a town of Moldavia; 6 miles N.E. of
Snczava.

TODOROVA, a town of Croatia ; 18 miles W.N.W.
of Novi.

TODOS Santos. &et AhL-Saints.

TODS, a town of the ilate of Virginia; 9 miles E.N.E.
of Hanover.

TODTENVOGEL, in Ornithology, a name by which
Gefner and fome other authors have called that fpecies of
a-nanthe, known in England by the name of \\\eJlone-chatter,
Jione-fmiih, or moor-titling.

TODTIBERG, in Geography, a mountain of Switzer-
land, and reckoned one of the liigheft in the country, in the
road from Difentis to the Grifons.

TODUCiE, in Ancient Geography, a people of Africa,
in Mauritania Csfarienfis, towards the fource of the river
Ampfaga.

TODUS, Tody, in Ornithology, a genus of the order
Picoe, the charafters of which are, that the bill is awl-fhaped,
fomewhat depreffed, obtule, flraight, and at its bafe befet
with briflles ; the noftrils are ovate and fmall ; the feet are
formed for walking ; and the outer toe is connedlcd at the
bafe to the middle one.

Species.

ViRiDis. Green, with a red breaft : the green tody.
Found in the warmer parts of America, and the neighbour-
ing iflands.

CiNEREUS. A(h-coloured, with the under part yellow :
the Tie-tie of Buffon ; the grey and yellow fly-catcher of
Edwards. Found in open places of Surinam and Guiana.

Fuscus. Ferruginous, under part olive- coloured, fpottcd
with white; the tail ferruginous, and wings croffed with a
blackifh bar. Found in South America, lets than the green.

C^RULEUS. Blueifli, with white tliroat ; temples, tnioat,
and abdomen orange. Found in America, of the fize of the
green,

Varius. Varied with blue, black and green ; the bill,
head, throat, neck, feet, nails, and tail black ; the margin
of the tail, and the coverts of the whigs, green. Found in
India,

Leucocephalus. Black, the head fubcriftated ; throat
;nid upper p;tft of the neck white : white-headed tody of
Lathani> Found in America.

5 E 2 BnACHV«

TOE

Brachyurus. Black, the vertex, neck, back, and fhort
t.-Ml black : the (liort-tailed tody of Latham. Found in
America.

Pli M BEUs. Above lead-coloured hoary, beneath milky ;
the crown, wing-feathers, and tail black : plumbeous tody
of Latham. Found in Surinam.

Obsctkis. Above brown and black, underneatli very
fordid white, with pale throat : tlie dulky tody of Pennant
and Latham. Found in Rliodc ifland.

Regius. Black and brown ; the breall whitifli, {Iriated
tranfverfely with blackilh ; tiie throat and eye-brows white ;
the abdomen, rump, and tail red ; t!ic crcil ferruginous at
the apex, tipped with black : king tody of Latham. Found
in Cayenne.

Pauadisecs. Creiled head black; body white; tail
wedge-formed ; the intermediate tail-feathers very long :
pied bird of paradife of Edwards, and paradife fly-catcher of
Lr^tham. It has the fallowing varieties; -viz. the tody with
wings and tail pale-red ; the tody underneath white, the
breall from cccrulefcent to cinereous ; and the Bralilian crefted
tody. Found in Africa and the ifland of Madagafcar.

FEIint'GIXEU.s. Ferruginous-black, underneath ferru-
ginous; wing-fcatliers marked with a brown bai- ; cheeks
fpotted with black and white : the ferruginous-belhed tody
of Latham. Found in Cayenne.

Novus, or Gt'l.Aius. Brown, underneath white ;
throat white, and breaft fpotted with biown, above yel-
low : white-chinned tody of Latham.

Platyrhynciios, or Rostratus. Brown-yellowifh,
beneath yellow, throat whitifh; vertex lead-coloured, with
a white fpot upon it ; wings and tail brovvu ; bill very broad :
the broad-billed tody of Latham.

MACRORin'KCnos, or Nasutv^. Black, bill very broad ;
ctin, fides of the cheeks, abdomen, vent and rump red : the
great-billed tody of Latham.

Rlbecula. Cinereous, with orange throat and breaft,
and white abdomen : the red-breafted tody of Latham.
Native of New Holland.

Xanthoganteh, or Flavigastfr. Brown-cinereous,
fix inches long ; beneath luteous, with pale hill : the yellow-
bellied tody of Lalliam. Native of New Holland.

Cristatus. Crclt crimfon ; body brown, fpotted with
white. Found in Guinea.

TOEBAN, in Geography, a town on the N. coaft of the
ifland of Java.

TOELCHUS Je Jpie, a diftria of South America, in
the country of Patagonia.

ToELCHi's de la Caballo, a dillricl of South America,
in the country of Patagonia.

TOE-LING HoTLN, a town of Chinefe Tartary ; 375
miles E.N.E. of Peking. N. lat. 42° 22'. E'. long.
123° 29'.

TOENDE, in Commerce, a corn meafure in Denmark,
equal to 8 fcheffels or fltiepers, or 32 foertels or fierdingers,
and 12 toendes = a laft : 100 tocndes of C3bpenhagen, an-
fwer to about 49-1 Englifli quarters. A laft of Spanifti
fait, or of coals, contains 18 toendes, and the toende = 8
fliiepers or 176 pots, which contain ji Danifti cubic feet ;
but Norway fait is fold by weight, and the toende muft
weigh 25olbs. Danifti weight, or 275 lbs. avoirdupois. A
laft of French fait, or of lime, contains 1 2 toendes, corn
meafiu-e ; a laft of oil, butter, and other fat fubftances, is 1 2
toendes, beer meafure ; and a toende of beer muft hold 4^
Danifti cubic feet, or 136 pots. By a tonne or toende of
hard corn is meant as mueh land as can be fown with
1 toende of rye, i of barley, and 2 of oats. What is
called a toende of faatland or arable land is the fourth part

TOE

of the above, and contains 5637 Danifti fquarc ruthes, or
220 Englifli fquare perches. Thus the toende of hard
corn is := 5J Englifli acres. A Danifti fquare foot con-
tains about 153 Englifli fquare inches; or 16 Daniih
fquare feet =: 17 Englifli fquare feet nearly.

TOENII, in Ancitnt Geography, a people of Germany,
in the vicinity of a lake, which was common to them, the
Rhaetians, and Vindelicians. Ptol.

TOENJOLOKER, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the
Eaft Indian fea. S. lat. 5° 30'. E. long. 132° 32'.

TOES, by anatomifts called d'lgiti pedis, are the extreme
divifions of the feet, anfwering to the fmgers of the hand,
and referabling them in figure, and make the third part uf
the foot. See Extremities.

Toes, Adhefwns of the. It is a frequent thing to meet
with new-born infants with their fingers or toes cohering
or growing together, either by a ftridl adliefion of the
flefli, or elfe by fome loofe produftions of the flvin, as in
the feet of ducks and geefe ; and a diforder of the fame
kind is alfo fometimes found in adults, from accidents; as
when the fingers or toes, have been neglefted, after an excori-
ation of them by burns or wounds. In both thefe cafes the
furgeon 's affiftance is neceflary, partly to remove the deformity,
and partly to reftore the proper ufe of the fingers.

Thefe adhcfions, according to the nature of the diforder,
are to be feparated by cutting out the intermediate ikin,
or elfe barely by dividing them from each other with a pair
of fcifTors. When this is done, to prevent their cohclions
again, each finger muil be inveiled feparately with a fpiral
bandage about an inch broad, dipped in lime-water and
fpirit of wine. •

Sometimes the fingers, inftead of adhering to each other,
grow to the palm of the hand, from wounds or burns, fo
that they cannot be by any means extended, or drawn bac-k
to open the hand. The method of relieving this diforder
is firft very carefully to feparate the fingers from the adhe-
fions of the palm, without injuring their tendons, then drefs
them with a vulnerary balfani, and fcraped lint, and extend
them on a ferula or thick pafte-board ; and let them remain
in this extended pofture, feparately to be drefled till they
are perfeftly healed ; but at every drelfing they muft be
gently moved, to prevent a rigidity or ftiff^nefs of the joints.
Heifter.

Toe, in the Manege, is the ftay of the hoof upon the fore-
part of the foot comprehended between the quarters.

We commonly fay the toe before, and the heel behind, in
French pmce devant et talon derriere ; implying, that in
horfes, the toe of the fore-feet is ftronger than the toe of
the hind-feet : and, on the other hand, that the heels behind
are ftronger than thofe before ; and accordingly, in flioeing
we drive higheft in the toes of the fore -feet, and in the heel's
of the hind-feet.

A horfe that does not reft his hind-feet aD equally upon
the flioe, but raifes his heels, and goes upon the toes of his
hind-feet, is called in French rampin.

ToE-Head, in Geography, a cape of the county of Cork,
Ireland, not far from the Stags of Caftlehaven. N. lat.

51° 27'. W. long. 9^ 9' Alfo, a cape of Scotland, on

the S.W. coaft of the illand of Lewis, in that part called
Harris; a2 miles S.W. of Stornaway. N. lat. 57° 50'-
W. long. 7° 5'.

ToE-She//, in Cotieho/ogy. See Pollicipes.
ToE-Stici, in Agriculture, the ftick or bar which confines
that part of fmall carts in its place, that contains the load,
but which, on being flipped out, lets that or a part of it
be difcharged. It has been obferved in the Correifted
Agricultural Report of the County of Norfolk, that Mr.

Overman,

T O F

T O F

Overman, of Burnham, in that diftrid, has maik an im-
provement in his carts of this kind : inilead of the toe-
liick drawing out to let the back or framed part of the cart
tilt up, and deliver the load or part of it, this contrivance
turns in tlie centre on a pivot, and the liooks which confine
it at the ends, are each in a poiition tlie reverfe of the other,
by means of which it is expeditioufly effedted.

TOESA, in Commerce, a long meafurc in Spain ; the
tocfa or braza is 2 varas, or 6 feet, that is, 66|- Eiiglifh
inches; a pafo or pace, is 5 feet; an eftadal, 12 feet, or
4 varas ; and a cuerda, 8^ varas.

TOESCHI, Ai.EssANDUo, in Biography, the head of a
celebrated mufieal family from Romania, fettled at Munich,
who in 1756 was appointed concert-mailer to the eleftor of
Bavaria's ecclefiallical band.

ToEscill, CiiAKLES JosEPH, after being dircttor of tlie
chamber-mufic of the court of Bavaria, in 1756 was ap-
pointed iirft violin in the famous band of the eleftor
palatine at Manheim. He was feven years concert-mafter,
and engaged in other honourable profefTional employments
about the court of Manheim till 1786. In 1766 lie pub-
lifhed at Paris iix iymphoiiies ; vioUn quartets ; and flute
concertos. About the fame time, fix violin ducts, and
other works at Amfterdam. His ftyle is full of fire, new
effcfts, and in flow movements, grace and elegance. He
was a difciple of the great Stamitz, and died at Manheim
in 1788, in the 60th year of his age, leaving behind him an
excellent private charafter.

T0E.SCHI, JoH'*, concert-mafter at Manheim, and an ad-
mirable performer on the violin. He was one of the prin-
cipal ornaments of the famous court-band in 1756.

ToESCHi, Susannah, a iingcrof great merit in the fervice
of the court at Munich, brought up under Holtzbauer, the
maeftro di capella to the eleftor palatine.

TOESOBIUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of the ifle
of Albion, which had its mouth, according to Ptolemy, on
the vveftern coaft, between the gulf Sercia and the pro-
montory Ganganorum : probably the river Conway.

TOE-YAH-YAH, in Geogmphy, a bay of Owhyhee, one
of the Sandwich illands, extending along the whole coaft from
the wefternmoft point, to the northern extremity of the ifland,
and bounded to the N. by two very confpicuous hills.
Towards the bottom of the bay there is foul, corally ground,
extending upward of a mile from the fliore, without wliich
the foundings are regular, with good anchorage, in twenty
fathoms. Cook's Third Voyage, vol. iii.

TOFIELDIA, in Bolaiiy, was fo called by the late
Mr. Hudfon, after his correfpondent Mr. Tofield, who re-
fided in the neighbourhood of Doncafter, and to whom
Britifli botanifts are indebted for the difcovery of Vicia
bithynica, the original fpecimens of which are preferved in his
herbarium, now belonging to William Younge, M.D. F.L.S.
of Sheffield, Yovkfliire.— Hudf. Angl. ed. 2. 157. Sm.
Fl. Brit. 397. Dryandr. in Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 324.
Purfti 246. Kunth Nov. Gen. et Sp. PI. v. i. 267. (An-
thcricum ; Linn. Gen. PI. ed. I. 106, but not of the fub-
fequent editions. Narthecium ; Ger. Gallopr. 142. .Tuft". 47.
Michaux Boreal. -Amer. v. I. 209. Lamarck Illuftr.
t. 268.) — Clafs and order, ffexandria Trigynia. Nat. Ord.
Tripetaloidea, Linn. Jiinci, JulT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, mem-
branous, three-cleft, fmall, permanent. Cor. Petals fix,
oblong, concave, equal, fpreading, permanent, many times
longer than the calyx. Slam. Filaments fix, oppofite to
the petals, awl-ftiaped, fimple, fmooth, aboHt the length
of the corolla ; anthers iueumbent, roundifli-heartftiaped.
Pifi, Germens three, fuperior, converging, pointed, termi-

6

nating in as many (hort, diftant, vertical llyles ; ftigmas
capitate. Peric. Capfules tiirce, connefted at the bafe,
gibbous, keeled, membranous, of one cell and two valves,
biirlling chiefly at the inner edge. Seech numerous, elliptic-
oblong, angular, infertcd intu tlie inner margin of each
valve.

Efl". Ch. Calyx three-cleft. Petals fix, equal. Styles
vertical, fliort. Capfules three, fuperior, combined at the
bafe. Seeds numerous. Anthers roundifh.

The fmall membranous permanent calyx, more or lefs
diftantly feparated from the oilier parts of the flower by an
elongation of the bafe of the latter, is the very peculiar
charafter of Tojicldia. By this it is diftinguifhed from Hi*-
i.oxiAs, Naktiiecium and ANiiriiiuciM, with all which
it has been confounded ; fee tliofe articles. Helonias more-
over has a fimple germen and capfule, with very few'feeds.
Narthecium and Anthericum have each a fimple ftyle ; the
former liairy filaments, and tuiiicatod feeds ; the latter an-
gular feeds.

Five of the fix fpccies, now known to compofe the
genus before us, have been confounded together as one.
We ftiall give their charadlers, and moil elTenlial fynonyms.
The whole hiftory of the miilakes which have embroiled
the fynonyms and charadlers, both generic and fpecific, of
Tofieldia, have lately been detailed, more at length than
fuits our purpofe here, in a paper communicated to the
Linnican Society by the writer of the prcfeiit article.

The fpecies are all perennial and lierbaceous, with fimple
Jlems, fpiked, or generally cluftered, _/?'.'wi7V, fword-ftiaped,
equitant, moftly radical, leaves, the habit of the whole very
nearly according with Narthecium. The feeds, in fume in-
ftaiices, betray an affinity to that genus, in a little mem-
branous appendage at each extremity, as may be feen in our
7". alpina.

1. T.palujlris. Scottifli Afphodel, or Marfli Tofieldia.
Hudf. n. I. Fl. Brit. n. I. Ait. n. i. Engl. Bot. t. 536.
(T. pufilla; Purfti n. I. Anthericum calyculatum ; Linn.
Sp. PI. 447. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 106. t. 10. f. 3. Fl. Dan.
t. 36. Lightf. Scot. 181. t. 8. f. 2. Helonias borealis ;
Willd. Sp. PI. V. 2. 274.) — Head of flowers ovate. Stem
fmooth, thread-ftiaped, leaflefs. Petals obovate, obtufe
Germens roundifti. — N.itive of bogs, and the margins of
rivulets, on the mountains of Lapland, Scotland, Durham,
and North America, flowering about July. A little fmooth
plant, of a deep green, with a fleiider folitaryy/fm, from
four to fix inches high, naked, except an occaiional fmall
leaf at the bafe. The radical leaves are two inches long,
eredl, forming feveral tufts. Flowers fmall, pale green, in
a folitary ovate-oblong denie liead, fcarcely more than half
an inch in length, often much lefs. There are hardly any
difcernible hraSeas, the calyx being clofe to the main ftalk,
and divided down to the bafe, into tliree fmall, acute, mem-
branous fegments. The reft of ihc Jlo'u<er is elevated on a
ftiort ftalk within the calyx, which, as the fruit advances,
becomes very confpicuous. The capfules are obovate, each
about the fize of muftard-feed, crowded together into a
globular form, minutely pointed, and crowned by the
ftyles.

Michaux and Purfti, miftaking what we fliallnext defcribc,
for the true Linnaean Anthericum calyculatum, juftly coiifi-
dercd this as a new fpecies. A little examination, of the
Flora Lapponica in particular, would have prevented this
error, though aU writers upon European plants have hither-
to confounded the two fpecies in queftion.

2. r. alpina. Alpine Tofieldia. Sm. MSS. n. 2. (T.
paluftris ; Redout. Lihac. t. 256. Narthecium iridifolium ;
Villai-3 Dauph. v. 2. 225. N. calyculatum ; AUion. Pedem.

V. 2.

TOFIELDIA.

V. 2. 165. Poiret in Lamarck Didl. v. 4. 431, the fyiio-
iiyms coiifiifcd. Plialangium alpimim palurtre, iridis folio;
Tourii. Iiiil. 368. Segu. Vcron. v. 2. 61. t. 14, copied in
Lamarck's t. 268. Pfi-udo-afpliodi-lus fccundiis ; Cluf. Hift.
V. I. 19S. Afphodclus Lancallrix vcrus ; Ger. Em. 96.)
— Clullor cylindrical. Bradcas nearly equal in length to
the (h)wir-lblks. Stem fmooth, bearing two leaves. Petals
obovate. Germcns oblong — Very common in moid grafTy
palhires, or the margins of rivulets, on the Alps of Auf-
tria, Switzerland, Italy, Savoy and Dauphiny, flow-ering
in Augull. We know not of its having ever been oblerved
in Britain, notwithltanding the name in Gerarde's herbal,
uhich is inifapplied to the iigure of this plant, and properly
belongs to Nmlhecium njjifragiim, exhibited in the preceding
page of the fame book. Linnivus knew the prel'ent fpecies
by its fynonyms only,' cited, with marks of well-founded
doubt, in his Fl. Lnj>J>. He was led by Dillenius to eileem
it a mere variety ot the foregoing, an opinion generally
adopted ever fincc, but certainly for want of due enquiry.
The alpiiia is not only twice the fi7.e of pahijlns, with a
tliicker more woody root, but the Jhm always bears two
diihint leaves. TIxl' Jlozuers form a cliijler, not a head or
fpike, from one to two inches long, often interrupted, with
a concave bradea at the bafe of each Jlalk, about its own
length. Calyx clofe to the reft of the flower, rather llightly
three-cleft. Petals more yellowilh. Capfules oblong, com-
bined almoft all the way up, thrice as large as in palujlris.
As the fruit .idv-ances, the partial ilalks become ftill more
evident than in the flower.

3. T.Jlenopetala. Narrow-petalled Tofieldia. Sni. MSS.
— duller, cylindrical. Bradleas overtopping the calyx.
Stem fmooth, bearing two leaves. Petals lanceolate, acute.
— Native of North America, where it was gathered by
Kalm, whofc fpecimens were referred by Linnaeus to his
ytnthericum calyculattim. They more agree with our T. al-
p'lna, in fize and habit, having two or three leaves on the
Jhm. The clufler is denfe and obtufe, an inch and a half

long. Bradeas very different from that fpecies, being
lanceolate, and always as long as the partial Jlalk and calyx
taken together ; fometimes much longer. Calyx broad and
fliallow, unequally notched. Petals greenifli-white, lance-
olate, narrow and acute, not obovate. Anthers pointed.
Germens tapering into ftyles twice the length of the fore-
going. No doubt can exill of this being a moft diftinft
fpecies. We find no indications of it in the works of Mi-
chaux or Purfli, nor is its precife place of growth known.

4. T. ccrnua. Drooping-flowered Tofieldia. Sm. MSS.
(Anthericum n. 39; Gmel. Sibir. v. i. 73. t. 18. f. 2.) —
Cluiler cylindrical. Flowers drooping. Bradleas very
ftiort. Flower-ftalks fmooth, the length of the corolla.
Stem leaflefs. — Found by Gmelin in mountainous woods in
Siberia, flowering late in .July. This is a fpecies fo evi-
dently diftindl from all the foregoing, that we cannot ac-
count for their having been confounded ; except by fup-
pofing that Linnaeus, not having fpecimens of each in fruit
as well as in flower, too haltily confidered the various ap-
pearances before him, as caufed by different ftages of
growth. The drooping^o^yfrj, and quite pendulous fruit,
of the prefent plant are remarkable at firfl: fight ; and the
former are exprefled in Gmelin's figure. Thefe charafters
are too decided, in both our fpecimens, to be attributed to
any accident in drying. The whole plant indeed is larger
than any of the former three, with more creeping roots.
Stem a foot high, or more, quite leaflefs, except at the very
bottom, glaucous in the upper part. Leaves near three
inches long, narrow, with a fmall oblique point, fuch as
may be fcen in fomt of the leaves of moil of the fpecies,

except Jlenopetala, \viiofc foliage is peculiar for its long
ftraight, taper points. Clujler ereft, fmooth, two inches
long while in flower, near four when in feed, rather lax,
niany-flowered, fcarcely interrupted. Flower-Jlalhs fpread-
ing, (lender, fcattered, about an eighth of an inch long,
and ftill longer when tlie fruit is full-grown, having a little
ovate bradea at the bafe of each, about a quarter the length
of the ilalk. Floiucrs white, about twice the fize of Con-
vallaria iijolia. Calyx with th.ree fliallow lobes. Petals
obovate, obtufe, {lightly pointed, concave, the length of
the flower-ftalks, and keeping pace witli them in their fub-
fequent elongation. Stamens fliorter than the corolla, with
yellow, heurt-fliaped, pointlefs anthers. Germens ovato-
lanceolate, with longifli Jlflcs. CapJ'ulcs fliorter than the
permanent corolla, obovate, membranous, but brittle, com-
bined nearly all the way up, fo as to form a turbinate three-
lobcd fruit, crowned with the three fpreading Jlyles and

capitate _/?/jmrtj-. Seeds minute, prifmatic Gmelin's fup-

pofed variety, taken from Steller, having a leafy Jlem, is
probably another fpecies. 7". certiua is a very pretty plant,
and we may hope that, in fome of the frequent importa-
tions from Siberia, it may be introduced into the gardens of
England.

5. T. pubens. Downy American Tofieldia. Dryandr.
in Ait. Hort. Kevv. n. 2. (T. pubefcens ; Purfti n. 2.
Narthecium pubens; Michaux Bor.-Amer. v. i. 209. An-
thericum filamentis laevibus, perianthio trifido ; Linn. Hort.
Clift. 140. Gron. Virg. ed. I. 39. Afpliodelus minor
albus ; Pluk. Mant. 29. Phyt. t. 342. f. 3.) — Clufter cy-
lindrical, inteiTupted. Flower-ftalks aggregate, rough, the
length of the corolla. — Found in the moift meadows, and
mofiy boggy woods, of Virginia and Carolina, flowering in
July, according to Clayton and Purlh. This is moft like
the laft in rtature and habit, but the roughnefs of the

fovjerjlallts and their main Jlalk, eflentially diftinguifties it.
The former grow three or four together, as if rather whorled
than fcattered. The JloiL'ers are white, with yellow anthers,
and appear to be always ereft.

6. T. sl"l'"">f''- Vifcid Yellow Tofieldia. Purfh n. 3.
(Narthecium glutinofum ; Michaux Bor.-Amer. v. i. 210.)
— Clufter ovate, denfe. Flower-ftalks glutinous, rough,
the length of the corolla. Anthers prominent, orbicular.
— Gathered by Mr. Menzies on the weft coaft of North
America. Michaux fays his plant is foiuid from Quebec
to lake Miftaflins. There is no room to fuppofe the latter
different from our's, though the Narthecium glutinofum of
Mr. Gawler, Curt. Mag. t. 1505, is very decidedly fo, being
a real and evident Narthecium, not, like Michaux's, a To-

Jieldia. Purfli calls it N. americanum, p. 227, which name,
though not one of the beft, we would lubllitute for glutino-
fum in our article Narthecium, the plant not being glu-
tinous. All reference to Michaux and his obfervations in
that place are to be erafed. The plant is, according to
Purfli, a native of boggy fields and woods, on the pine-
barrens, as they are termed, of New Jerfey, flowering in
June and July.

Our Tofieldia glutinofa has a tuberous horizontal root, with
long fimple fibres. Stem a foot high, angular, roughifh all
over with ftiort glandular hairs, efpecially for two inches
from the funimit. Leaves few, almoft entirely radical, four
or five inches long, narrow, ribbed, fmooth, except a little
roughnefs towards the point. Clufler about an inch in
length, of twelve or fourteen pale-yellow_/?owfrj, on hairy
vifcid ftalks, about a quarter of an inch long, fometimes in
pairs, having at the bafe one or two acute bralteas, one-
third that length. Lobes of the talyx (hallow. Petals
obovate, rather fliorter than the llameus. Anthers purplifti,

nearly

T O F

nearly orbunil.ir, iioiiiilcfs. German ovate-ohlonc;, tailor-
ing into longidi Jlyhs, wltli i'm.ill Jlli;nu>s. The habit and
hue of the plant are very (Imilar to the European Ncirlhedum
ojfifriigum as well as to the A^. americnnum above-mentioned.
"] ■ T . friglila. Wintry Tolieldia. Kunth Nov. Gen. et
Sp. PI. V. I. 267 — duller lax, partly fcattered. Flowcr-
ftalks fmooth, twice the lengtli of the brafteas. Petals
rather acute. Stem fmooth, with three ditlant ovate leaves
towards the top. — Native of lofty fummits of the Andes,
in the kingdom of Quito, between I^oxa and the village of
Ona, where it was found, by the celebrated travellers Von
Humboldt and Bonplaiid, flowering in December. Hav-
ing feen no fpecimen of this, we can only extract its cha-
rarters from the dcfcription of our able friend Mr. Kunth,
who unluckily was not acquainted with the technical dif-
ferences of the other fpecies, fo that his fpecilic charaftcr
anfwers nearly equally well to any one of the gciuis. The
root is perennial, perpendicular, branched. Stem about a
foot high, round, fmooth, bearing in its upper part three
ovate, acute, fmooth, dillant leaves, called by Mr. Kunth
firnifeas. Radieeil leaves two-ranked, fword-fliiped, ribbed,
imooth, rigid, three or four inches long. Chijhr (errone-
oufly termedyj!>/Vrt ) folitary, ereft, two inches long. Flowers
on folitary partial (talks, which are fmooth, round, two lines
iu length, with an ovate acute Irailea, half as long, at the
bafe of each. Calyx in three deep, ovate, acute fcgments,
one-fourth as long as tiic obloug, iliarpifli, ftriated, whitifli
petals. Stamens fhorter than the corolla, fmooth, with ob-
long upright anthers. Germens combined. The prefent
fpecies may perhaps be neareil akin to our T. Jlenopetala,
differing eflentially in having fliorter bracleas, to fay nothing
of other diitinftions, which the reader will detett by the
above dcfcription. — The author fpeaks of ToJielJia as mouo-
tjynous, taking thejlyles iorjl'igmas, and not adverting, as
It appears, to the partial feparation of either the germens or
inpfnles. Hence we mud conclude that this feparation is
here lefs remarkable than in the other fpecies, wliich brings
the plant in queftion nearer to Helon'ias, the calyx being its
only, though all-fufficient, diftinftion.

TOFSALA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
government of Abo, on an ifland ; 20 miles W.N.W. of
Abo.

TOFT, ToFTUM, or T'fta, in our Latv-Boohs, a parcel
of land, or a place where a meffuage hath flood, but is de-
cayed, or cafually burnt, and not re-editied.
Toft alfo fignifies a grove of trees.
TO FT A, in Geography, a fmall illand in the Baltic, E.
of the illand of Aland. N. lat. 60° 13'. E. long. icP 7'.
TOFTS, Katharine, in Biography, an Englifli faigcr
of great renown on our ilage at the beginning of the lall
century. In 1703, fhe fung at a fubfcriptlon concert in
Lincoln's-Inn theatre, feveral Italian and Engllfh fongs.
This lady was the conftant rival of M.u-garlta de I'Epine.

In 1704, (he fung at the fubfcriptlon mufic in Drury-lane
playhoufe ; and foon after, fignora Margarita fung for the
firft time at the fame theatre. At her fecond appearance,
there was a dillurbance while file was fniglng, which, from
(he natural, and, it is to be feared, not luiconimon effefts of
rival malice, was fufpefted to iiave been created by the emif-
farles of Mrs. Tofts ; an idea the more difficult to eradicate,
as the principal agent had happened to live with that lady as
a fervant. But as the law of retaliation is frequently prac-
tifed oil the like occafions by the injured party, it was
thought neceffary, a few days after, to infert a paragraph and
letter in the Daily Courant, February 8, 1 704, in vindica-
tion of Mrs. Tofts.

She was the principal finger in Clayton's Arfiuoe, in

'I' C) V

I -Of, the firfl opera attempted in our country and language
on the Italian model. See Ci.avton.

Mrs. Tofts was likewife the heroine of the famous opera
of Camilla, of Addifon's Rofamond, fet by Clayton, and
Thoniyrls, adjuded to Italian mufic, and wholly to Englifli
words, till the arrival of Valcntini, in 1707, the firil male
foprano finger that ever appeared on our Ilage ; when Ca-
milla and Thoniyrls were performed, half in Euglidi and
half in Italian. And even after the arrival of the celebrated
Nicolini, when a new opera, entitled Pyrrhus and Deme-
trius, was brought on the Ilage in 1708, in which almoll all
the characters were filled up by Italians, Mrs. Tofts conti-
nued to perform her part in Euglidi, as did Ramondon and
Cook ; but the public fcenied perfeftly fatisfied with the
motley performance, which had a run of eighteen nights ;
and the confufion of tongues, concerning wlilch Mr. Ad-
dlfon is fo pleafant iu the Speftator, fecms to have been to-
lerated with perfed good humour by the public, which, in
mufic as well as words, feemed to care much lefs about what
was fung, than hoiv It was fung.

After the year 1709, when the whole opera, poetry, mu-
fical compofitlon and performers were Italian, Mrs. Tofts,
who feenis to have endeared herfelf to an Englifli audience
by her voice, figure, and performance, more than any pre-
ceding finger of our country, retired.

Colley Clbbcr, though he does not fpeak of mufic en
connoijfeur, and, as an Englifli aftor and patentee of a
theatre, was an enemy to Italian operas and Italian fingers
upon a principle of felf-defence, probably gives us the gene-
ral and genuine opinion of his acquaintance concerning
Mrs. Tofts, who, he fays, had her firfl mufical inflruaions
in her own country, " before the Italian tafte had fo highly
prevailed, and was then not an adept : whatever defedl; tiic
faflilonably fkllful might find in her manner, flie had, in the
general fenfe of her hearers, charms that few of tlie mofl
learned fingers ever arrive at. The beauty of her fine pro-
portioned figure, and exqulfitely fvveet filver-tone of voice,
with peculiar rapid fwiftnefs of her throat, were perfedlons
not to be imitated by art or labour."

This performer had fongs given to her in all (Ivies ;
her compafs, however, did not lurpafs the common limits of
a foprano, or treble voice. With refped to her execution,
of which we are ftlll enabled to judge by the printed copies
of her fongs, it chiefly confifted in fuch paflTages as are com-
prifed in tlie lliake, as indeed did that of moll other fingers
at this time.

Mrs. Tofts quitted the flage in 1709. The talents of
this finger and of Margarita de I'Epine gave rife to the firll
mufical faftlons wiiich we liear of in this country. Ac-
cording to Hughes, author of the Siege of Damafcus, their
abilities were dlfputed by the firft people in the kingdom.

" Mufic has learn'd the difcords of the ftate.
And concerts jar with AVhig and Tory hate.
Here Sonierfet and Devonflilre attend
The Britlfli Tofts, and ev'ry note commend ;
To native merit juil, and pleas'd to fee
We've Roman arts, from Roman bondage free.
There fam'd I'Epine does equal tkill employ.
While lifl'ning peers crowd to th' ecflatic joy :
Bedford to hear her fong his dice forfakes.
And Nottingham is raptur'd when flie fliakes ;
LuU'd flatefmen melt away their drowfy cares
Of England's fafety, in Italian airs."

Although it is publicly infinuated in the Tatler, for Thurf-
day, May 26, 1 709, that Mrs. Tofts was infane, it feems
doubtful whether we are to take this account literally, or

whether

TOG

whcllwr fir Richard Steele had not recourfe to iavention,
or at lead exaggeration, in order to throw a ridicule on
opera quarrels in general, and on her particular difpntes at
tliat time with the Margarita or other fen. ale lingers. See
Taller, N^ 20.

After quitting the ftage, by which (he is faid to have ac-
quired a confider.ible fortune, (lie married Mr. .Tofeph
Smith, who was afterwards appointed conful at Venice,
where he relided till the time of his death, about the year
1770. He was a great coUedor of books and piftures,
and a patron of tlie arts in general.

TOGA, in AmieiU C<osrnphy, a town of Afia, in Greater
Armenia. Ptol.

Tot;A, ill jinliquity, a wide woollen gown, or mantle,
without lleeves, tiled among the Romans, both by men and
women.

In procefsof time, none wore the toga but lewd women :
whence tiiat of Horace, in matrona, aiicilh, peccefve togata.
Lib. i. fat. ii. vcr. 63. ,

The toga was of divers colours, and admitted of various
ornaments : there was that called toga domejlica, worn within
doors ; toga foraiJIs, worn abroad ; tnga militaris, ufed by
foldiers, tucked up after the Gabinian fafhion ; and toga
p'icia, or triumphalis, wherein the viftorious triumphed : this
was embroidered with palms : that without any ornaments
was called toga pura.

The togapiaa, &c. was an ancient habit of the Etrufcans,
and not brought to Rome till after Tarquinius Prifcus had
fubdued the twelve ftates of that nation.

The toga was fometimes worn open, and called aperta ;
fometimes girt or tucked up, called pritc'inda ; and this
cinAure or girding, again, according to Sigonius, was of
three kinds ; laxior, or the loofe kind, where the tail trailed
on the ground ; adjlrinior, the clofe kind, wherein it did
not reach fo low as the feet ; and Gahinia, where one of the
flcirts or lappets was girt round the body.

Sigonius diftinguiihes the feveral togae, or Roman gowns,
into pura, Candida, pulla, picla, pnetexta, trabea, and
paludamentum. See PuiETEXTA, Paludamentum, &c.

The toga pura was alfo called virilis. Kennet's Rom.
Ant. part ii. c. 8.

Toga is fometimes ufed metaphorically for peace. See
Trope.

Tog E, Jus, or privilege of the toga, was the fame with
the privilege of a Roman citizen, i. e. the right of wearing
a Roman habit, and of taking, as tliey explain it, fire and
water through the Roman empire.

TOGAWADY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Baramaul ; 7 miles S. of Sankerydurgam.

TOGDA, or ToDGA, a town and diftrift of Africa, in
the country of Sugulmefla ; 50 miles W. of SugulmefTa.

TOGEBAUT, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Irac ; 81 miles N. of Ifpahan.

TOGETHER, in Sea Language, the order given to the
men in the exercifes of heaving, rowing, twifting, &c. to
aft all in concert, or at the fame inftant.

TOGGEL, in a Ship, a fmall wooden pin, about five or
fix inches long, and ufually tapering from the middle toward
the extremities. It is ufed to fix tranfverfely in the lower
part of a tackle, in which it ferves as a hook whereby to
attach the tackle to a ftrop, flings, or any body in which the
effort of the tackle is to be employed.

There are alfo totrgels of another kind, employed to
fallen the top-gallant Iheets to the fpan, which is knotted
round the cap at the top-maft-head. r.'.Lcner See
|)eckets.

TOGGENBURG, in Geography, a county of Swit-

T O I

zerland, dependent on the abbey of St. Gal, bounded on
the N. by the territory of St. Gal, on the E. by the
canton of Appenzell, on the S. by the county of Sar-
gans and the territory of Culler, and on tlK W. by the
canton of Zurich. In its natural quality it rcfomblco Ap-
penzell and the other cantons, and, being full of fertile
Alps, abounds in numerous breeds of cattle. Till the year
1436, this county had its own counts; the laft of whom
carried his indulgence to his vaflals fo far, as to grant them
fuch privileges as nearly amounted to a Hate of abfolnte
frCL-dom : accordingly, on his demife in the above year, they
entered into a clofe aUiance with the cantons of Schwcitz and
Claris, which alliance was confirmed in 1440. Afterwards,
the county defcended to the barons of Raron ; but, in
1468, they fold it to Ulrich VI II. abbot of St. Gal, who,
in 1 469, entered into a perpetual league with the cantons of
Schweitz and Claris, and hkewife gave his fanftion to the
former compaft between the inhabitants of the county and
the faid cantons. In the beginning of the eighteenth cen-
tury, the Toggenburgers, relenting the illegal and oppref-
five exatlions of abbot Leodegariiis, applied for affiftance
to their allies, who readily granted it; and, in 1707, Zu-
rich and Bern alfo declared, that they would maintain the
county of Toggenburg in the fecure enjoyment of its rights
and liberties, againft all illicit violence whatfoever. On this
the people began to affert their rights, and, in 1707, in a
folemn landefgemeine, held at Watweil, renewed their fede-
ral oath, and erefted three councils, named the great, leffer,
and privy, which are compofed of an equal number of mem-
bers of both fefts. The intelline commotions here conti-
nued however to increafe, till, in 17 12, they broke out into
open war, in which Zurich and Bern fided with the county,
and Schweitz and Claris with the abbot. In 1718, at
Baden, in the Argau, an accommodation, confirming the
liberties of the county, was brought about between the
new abbot and the cantons of Bern and Zurich. Purfuant
to this peace, the abbot and prince of St. Gal both is, and
bears the title of, natural fovei-eign, and territorial lord of
the county of Toggenburg ; and the people are to take the
acciiftomed oath to him, and to pay him fuitable fervices,
but without any violation of their rights and liberties.

TOCLUPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the fubah
of Delhi ; 1 5 miles W.N. W. of Panniput.

TOGOMI, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon j
80 miles N.W. of Meaco.

TOGOSOHATCHEE Creek, a branch of the Oak-
mulgee river, in the ftate of Georgia.

TOGRIN, Cape, a cape at the mouth of the river
Sierra Leone. '_

TOGULA, among the Romans, a narrow kind of toga,
ufed by the poorer fort of people.

TOHBA, a denomination given to a clafs of priefts in
Thibet. Youth intended for the monaftery of Tefhoo-
Loomboo, are, upon their firft being admitted, at the age of
eight or nine years, into the eftabhlhment, called " Tuppa,"
and they are then occupied in receiving the inllruftions
fuited to their age, and the duties for which they are de-
figned. At fifteen they are ufually admitted into the order
of Tohba, the firft ftep in their religious clafs, and after
due examination, they are advanced from the order of Toh-
ba to that of Gylong, between the age of twenty-one and
twenty-four. See Cvlong.

TOHOTCHIE HoTUN, in Geography, ?itoy>n of Chi-
nefe Tartary, in the country of Hami ; 30 miles N.W. of
HamilHotun,

TO.IIE, a town of Hindooftan, in Candeifh ; 10 mile«
N. of Hurdah.

TOIKO,

T O K

T O K

TOIKO, a town of Japan, in thciflandof Niphoii ; 8o
n>iles E.S.E. of Jedo. N. hit. 36° 5'. E. long. 140° 40'.

TOILES, fnai-es or nets fet by hunters for catcliing of
wild hearts ; as deer, &c.

TOILET, a fine covering, of linen, filk, or tapcftry,
fpread over the table in a bed-chamber, or drefling-room, to
undrcfs and drefs upon.

The drcfTmg-boxes, in which are kept the paints, poma-
tums, effences, patches, &c. the pin-cufliion, powder-box,
bruflics, &C. are efteemed pai'ts of the equipage of a lady's
toilet.

That of the men confifts of comb-cafe, bruflies, &c.

To make a vifit to one at his toilet, is to come to enter-
tain him while he is drcffing or undrefling.

Sattin, lace, velvet, brocade, point de France, &c. arc
now ordinarily ufed for toilets : anciently they were made
much plainer : whence the name, which is formed from the
Erencb., toilette, a diminutive of to'tle, any thin ftuff.

TOISE, or FATiiOJr, a long meafure in France, con-
l.iining 6 feet, the foot being 12 inches, the inch 12 lines,
fubdivided into 12 points : 76 French foct are equal to 81
Englifli feet, or, more accurately, 4000 French feet equal
4263 Englilh feet.

TOISON J'Or, a term, '\n Heraldry, for a golden fleece,
which is fometimes borne in a coat of arms.

TOISSEY, in Geography, a town of FrancL-, in the dc-
pai-tment of the Ain, near the Chalarogne and Saone, which
unite about half a mile from the town ; 18 miles W. of
Bourg-en-Brefle.

TOJUCA, a river of Brafil, which runs into the At-
lantic, S. lat. 27° 44'.

TOKA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Aurun-
gabii.d ; 33 miles S.W. of Aurungabad.

TOKAI, a river of Bucharia, whicli runs into the Gi-
hon, near Hefdi'-afp.

TOKARESTAN, a diftrid of Grand Bucharia,
fituated to the eallward of Balk.

TOKAY, a town or rather village oF Hungary, fituated
at the foot, and to the E. of ;^ high liill, cloie by the con-
flux of the river Bodrug with the Theis or Tibifcus. The
inhabitants are chiefly either Hungarians of the Protcllant
rehgion, or Greeks, who came originally from Turkey, but
have been long fettled here, for the purpofe of carrying on
the wine-trade. The hills on which tlie vine grows lie all to
the W. of the river Bodrug, and beginning clofe by the
town of Tokay, extend weftward and northward from
thence, and occupy a fpace of perhaps ten Englifli miles
fquare ; but they are interrupted and interfpcrfed with many
extenfive plains, and feveral villages. Near fome of thefe,
particularly Tabia and Tarczal, the wine is better than that
which is produced on the hill of Tokay ; but it all goes
under the fame name ; 98 miles N.W. of Colofvar. N. lat.
48° 10'. E. long. 10° 57'.

ToKA\-Wine, derives its name from the town or village
of Hungary, where it is produced. ( See the preceding
article.) The vineyards extend beyond the forty-eighth de-
gree of northern latitude ; the foil where the vines grow is a
yellow clayifli earth, extremely deep, and intcrfperfed with
large loofe lime-ftones : the expofures moil ir.clining to the
fouih, the fl:ccpe£l declivities, and the highefl parts of thefe,
produce tlie beft wine. This wine, fo far from its being
found in fo fmall a quantity as never to be genuine, unleis
when given in prcfents by the court of Vienna, is a common
defcrt wine in all the great families at Vienna and in Hun-
gary, and is verj- generally drank in Poland and Rufiia : nor
is the Tokay wine altogether the property of the crowir, but
many of the German and Hungarian nobility, as well as gen-
VoL. XXXV.

tlemen, and even peafants, have vineyards at Tokay. Th«
grapes are all white, and the vintage commonly begins
about the 2Rtli of Odober, i'ometimes as late as the 11th
of November. There arc four forts of wine made from
the fame grapes, diftingniflied at Tokay by the names
of eflence, aufpruch, mafslafch, and the common wine. —
The elfence is made by picking out the lialf-dried and (hri-
velled grapes, and putting them into a perforated vcflcl,
where they remain as long as any juice runs off by the mere
preffure of their own weight. This is put into fmall calks.
The aufpruch is n.ade by pouring the cxprefled j\iice of the
grapes from which the former had been picked on thofe that
yielded the eflence, and treading them with the feet. The
liquor thus obtained ftands for a day or two to ferment, and
then is poiu-ed into fmall caflvS, which arc kept in the air for
about a moiith, and afterwards put into the cellars. The
fame procefs is again repeated by the addition of more juice
to the grapes which have already under';one the two former
preffures, and they are now wnnig with tlie hands ; and thus
is had the mafslafch. The fourtli kind i-, inadi; liy taking all
the grapes together at (iill, an<l fubniilling them to the
greatefl prefl\ire : this is chiefly prepared by the peafants.
The clfence is thick, and very fweet and lufcious ; it is
chiefly ufed to mix with the other kinds. The aufpruch is
the wine commonly exported, and which is known in
foreign countries by the name of Tokay. The goodnefs of
it is determined by the following rules. The colour flionld
neither be reddifli nor very pale, but a ligiit filver : in trying
it, the palate and tip of the tongue fliould be wetted with-
out fwallowing it, and if it manifell any acrimony to the
tongue, it is not good ; but the tallc ought to be foft and
mild : when poured out, it fliould form globules in the glafs,
and have an oily appearance : when genuine, the ftrongefl is
always of the beft; quality : when fwallowed, it fliould have
an earthy aftringent taile in the mouth, which is called the
tafte of the root. All Tokay wine has an aromatic tafte,
which dillinguiflies it from every other fpecies of wine. It
keeps to any age, and improves by time ; but is never good
till about three years old. Tt is the bell way to tranfport it
in cafl<s ; for when it is on the feas, it ferments three times
every feafon, and thus refines itfelf. When in bottles, there
muft be an empty fpace left between the wine and the cork,
othervvife it would burfl the bottle. A little oil is put
upon the furface, and a piece of bladder tied over the cork.
The bottles are always laid on their fides in fand. Phil.
Tranf. vol. Ixiii. part ii. p. 292, 5cc.

TOKE, in Geography, atown of Bengal ; 35 miles N.N.E.
of Dacca.

TOKEN-BESSEYS, a clnfter of fmaU iflands in the
Eaft Indian fea. S. lat. 6'. E. long. 123° 36'.

TOKENS, in Pejlilcntial Cafes, thofe livid fpots which
appear in the feveral ftages of the difeafe, and are certain
forerunners of death. They generally appear only under
the moft defperate circumftances, and when the patient
would otherwife be declared dying ; but Hodges gives us
inilances where they appeared before any other iymptoms of
the difeafe, and came out without any pain or trouble ; yet
even in thefe cafes the perfun always died. Thefe tokens
are the mark by which the fearchers conclude of the caufe of
the death of the perfon, and are the rule for ordering the
houfe to be fliut up, to prevent the fpreading of the difeafe.
But the nurfes, and other crafty people, have a way of dif-
guifing the fymptom after dv ath, by covering the body with
wet and cold flieets. Thefe llrike in the fpots, fo that the
perfon may be thought to have died by fome other difeafe.

Tokens, Fatfe, in Ijatu. See False.

ToKBNi, in Cw/w^#, coins in the reigo of queen Elizabeth,
5 F ilruck

T O L

ftnick in the citic* of Briftol, Oxford, and Worcetter, aiid
alfo by about ^coo tradcfmeii and others ; upon rcturnnig
wliich to the irfuer, he gave current coin, or value, for them,
3i defired. In the fucceeding reign, on the 19th of May,
1613, king James's royal farthing tokens commenced by
proclamation. Thefe were not forced upon the people as
fartlilngs or cftablilhed coin, but merely as pledges or
tokens, for which government was obliged to give other coin
if required. Their legend was the king's common titles
running upon each fide. Thefe pieces were not favourably
received, but continued in a kind of reluftant circulation
through the whole of this reign, and the beginning of the
fuccceding. In 1635, Charles I. ftruck thole with tlie rofe
inftead of the harp. But the vaft number of counterfeits,
and the king's death in 1648, put an utter ttop to their
currency ; and the tokens of towns and tradefmen again
took their run, increafing prodigioufly till the year 1672,
when farthings properly fo called were firft publifbed by
govcrflmeut. Thefe town-pieces and tradefmen's tokens,
together with thofe of the time of queen Elizabeth, are col-
letled by fome antiquaries with great avidity. Similar
tokens, fays Pinkerton, are to this day current in Scotland,
both of copper and tin, principally ufed by the bakers aud
grocers ; farthings not being very common in that country.

In 1804, the bank of Ireland bought in a large quantity
of depreciated filver coin ; and, as a fubftitute, iffued Spanifli
dollars, newly ftamped, at 6s. Irilh, and alfo fractions of the
dollar, which had been minted for the occafion at the Tower
of London, confiding of five-penny, ten-penny, and thirty-
penny pieces Irifh, being exaftly -r'j, ,V, and -,%■ of the
dollar. All thefe coins are called Bank tokens, the Bank
having engaged to receive them again at the iflued price,
and they have been declared a legal tender in the payment of
taxes : their intrinfic value may be known from that of the
dollar. In 1809, a new filver coinage was minted at the
Tower of London for the colonies of Eflequibo and Deme-
rary, confifting of pieces of 3, 2, i, i, and -i guilders : the
larger piece weighs 15 dwt., and is I oz. 6dwt. worfe than
Enghfli ftandard. Its value therefore is 3^. ^J. fterling, or,
computing it as the dollar is now rated in the Weft Indies
(/. e. at 4^. 8<^. ), its value is 3^. 85^. and the fmaller pieces
in proportion. They are marked on the reverfe " Colonies
of Eflequibo and Demerary Token," and the king's
is on the obverfe. The exchange with London fliould be
about 12 guilders for i/. fterhng, but varies confiderably
above this, even to 20 guilders, and upwards. Kelly's
Cambift.

TOKIS, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland of

Nipbon ; 40 miles N.N.E. of Meaco Alfo, a town of

Japan, in the province of Ximo ; 15 miles N.N.W. of
Nangafaki.

TOKI-TAO, a fmall iHand near the coaft of China,
N. lat. 38° 7'. E. long. 120° 39'.

TOKORARI. See Tocorary.

TOKTABA, a town of Bootan ; 50 miles N. of
Beyhar.

TOL, in Law, a term fignifying to defeat, or take away.
From the Latin, tollere, which fignifies the fame.

Thus, lo tol the entry, is to take away thp right of
entry.

ToL Peden Penwith, in Geography, a cape on the. S. coaft
of the weftern extremity of Cornwall ; 3 miles S.E. of
Land's End. N. lat. 50° 4!. W. long. 5° 36'.

TOLA, in Commerce, a weight for gold and filver at
Bombay, Sural, and other places in India : at Bombay, the
tola contains 40 vails, 100 gonze or Bombay grains, or 600
chowes. The tola is equal in weight to the filver rupee ;

TOL

24 tolas make i feer, and 32 tolas 13 vails = I lb. troy.
At Surat, the tola contains 32 vails or 96 ruttees : 82^
vails make 1 oz. troy, and therefore 31 tolas i lb. troy
nearly.

TOLABO, Cape, in Geography, d. cape on the E. coafl
of Celebes. S. lat. 0° 45'. E. long. 122° 50'.

TOLAGO Bay, a bay on the N.E, coaft of the north-
ern ifland of New Zealand, in the South Pacific ocean, dif-
covered by captain Cook in the year 1769. It i» moder-
ately large, and has from fcven to thirteen fathom, with a
clean fandy bottom and good anchorage, and is flieltered
from all winds except the noith-caft. On the fouth point
lies a fmall but high iiland, fo near the main as not to be dif-
tinguiftied from it. Clofe to the north end of the ifland,. at
the entrance into the bay, are two high rocks ; one of which
is round, like a corn-ftack, but the other is long, and per-
forated in feveral places, fo that the openings appear like the
arches of a bridge. Within thefe rocks is a cove, conve-
nient for wood and water. Off^ the north point of the bay
is a pretty high rocky ifland ; and about a mile without it,
are fome rocks and breakers. The tide flows at the full
and change of the moon, about fix o'clock, and rifes and
falls perpendiculai'ly from five to fix feet. Captain Cook
faw no four-footed animals, nor the appearance of any,
either tame or wild, except dogs and rats, and thefe were
very fcarce : the people eat the dogs, as at Otaheite, and
adorn their garments with the fl<ins. He climbed many of
the hills, hoping to get a view of the country, but could fee
nothing from the top except higher hills, in a boundlefs fuc-
ceffion. The ridges of thefe hills produce httle befides
fern ; but the fides are moft luxuriantly clothed with wood
and verdure of vai-ious kinds, with little plantations inter-
mixed. In the woods he found trees of above twenty dif-
ferent forts, and carried fpecimens of each on board ; but
there was nobody to whom they were not altogether un-
known. The tree cut for firing was fomewhat like the
maple, and yielded a whitifli gum. Another fort was found'
of it, of a deep yellow, which might be ufeful in dyeing.
One cabbage-tree was met with, and cut down for the cab-
bages. The country abounds with plants, and the woods
v\'ith birds in an endlefs variety, exquifitely beautiful, and of
which none of them had the leaft knowledge. The foil qf
both the hills and vallies is light and fandy, and very fit for
the produftion of all kinds of roots ; though none were feen
except fweet potatoes and yams. S. lat. 38° 22'. W.
kng. 181° 15'.

TOLAND, John, in Biography, a writer on fubjefts of
political and religious controverfy, was born in the year 1 669,
in Ireland, near Londonderry ; and his parents, of a good fa-
mily, were Roman Catholics. Educated in the principles of
his family, he renounced them before he attained the age of
fixteen years, and became a zealous oppofer of popery.
Accordingly he completed his education in Scotland, and
having fpent three years in the univerfity of Glafgow,
removed to Edinburgh, where he graduated M. A. in
1690. From Edinburgh he removed to London, and be-
came acquainted with fome refpeftable diflcnters, who
enabled him to purfue his ftudies for two years more at
Leyden. On his return to London, he vifited Oxford, and
here he collefted materials for the execution of fome literary
projcfts : one of which was a difli^rtation in order to prove
that the common narrative of the death of Regulus was a
fable. In 1696 he publiflied at London his '^ Chriftianity
not rnyfterious ; or a Treatife fliewing that there is nothing
in the Gofpel contrary to Reafon, or above it ; and that no
Chriftian Doftrine can be properly called a Myftery."
This publication caufed an alarm, and not without reafon,

among

T O L

among Chriftians of all denominations, by whom il was re-
garded as an attempt to overthrow revealed icligion. At
home and abroad it excited attention, and tlic advocates of
Chriftiaiiity concurred in the defence of their religion
againfl what they conceived to be an attack upon it. The
magiftrates, alfo, intruded into this controverfy, and pro-
cured a prefentment by tlie grand jury of Middlefex.
The author withdrew from the llorm wliich feemed to be
gathering into liis own country ; but the obnoxious cha-
radler of his book liad excited prejudices againfl him.
Toland, as we learn from the correfpondence between Mr.
Molyneux and Mr. Locke on the fubjeft, does not fcenMo
have aCied witli that moderation and prudence wliich might
reafonably have been expefted in his circumilanccs. His
manner oi defending and propagating his opinions gave juft
offence even to thofe who entertained fome degree of refpedl
for his talents and learning ; and was condemned by thofe
who were avowed advocates of rational liberty and enemies to
every kind of perfecution. From another quartsr he ex-
perienced a feverity of treatment, which his own mifconduil
had provoked, but which, in this mofe enhghtened and
liberal period, none, we prefume, will undertake to jollify.
In a reply to Toland's book, by Mr. Peter Brown, fenior
fellow of Trinity college, the civil magillrate was called
upon to interfere ; accordingly the grand jury of Dublin
made a prefentment of the book : the parliament of Ireland
voted it to be burnt by the common hangman, and iffued an
order tiiat the author fhould be taken into cuflody by the
ferjeant at arms, and profecuted by the attorney-general.
Toland, univcrfally fhunned by his acquaintance, and re-
duced to pecuniary diflrefs, left the country, and returned
to England. While fome difapproved the violence of this
proceeding, others jullified it ; and Dr. South, in particular,
highly commends the Irifh parliament for having, " to their
immortal honour, prefently fent him (Toland) packing, and,
without the help of a faggot, foon made the kingdom too
hot to hold him." On the fpirit which diftated this lan-
guage we make no comment. Toland, upon his arrival in
London, publilhed an account of his treatment in Ireland,
and renouncing communion with the Diffenters, declared
himfelf a latitudinarian, or one who would comply with the
religious wordiip of any clafs of Proteftants, whofe dif-
ferences were not, in his eilimation, of fuflicient importance
to juflify dillurbing the peace of a nation. He then di-
refted his attention to other topics ; and in 1698 he pub-
lifhed a pamphlet, intitled " The Militia reformed," in
which he propofed to fubflitute that fpecies of armament
to a Handing army. In the fame year he wrote a " Life of
Milton," to be prefixed to an edition of his profe works,
and which was alfo printed feparately. In this preface
he oppofed the notion then prevalent, that the " Icon
Bafihke" was written by Charles I. ; and from the con-
fideration of this impoflure, as he pronounced it to be, he
digreflcd to the confidcration of the fpurious works that had
been afcribed to Chrill and liis apollles. Againfl a hofl of
political and religious advcrfaries, he defended himfelf in a
treatife intitled " Amyntor ;" in which he gave a complete
hiflory of the " Icon Bafilike," and alfo a catalogue of
fuch primitive writers, who were judged by him to be fpu-
rious. As he was fuppofed in the difculTion of this latter
topic to impugn the authenticity of the received canon of
Scripture, he drew forth replies from foms of the ablefl
advocates of Chriflianity, and particularly Mr. (afterwards
the highly celebrated Dr.) Samuel Clarke.

In 1699, Toland was engaged by the duke of New-
caflle to piiblilh " Memoirs of Dcnzil Lord Hojles ;" and
in the following year by Mr. Robert Harley, afterwards
carl of Oxford, then a Whig, to give a new edition of

T O L

Harrington's " Oceana." When the Aft of Saceefiion was
pafTed, on occalion of the death of the duke of Gloucefter
in 1701, he publiflied " Anglia Libera," being an ex-
planation and eulogy of this 3& ; and he accompanied the
carl of Macclesfield, who was deputed to carry it to
Hanover, and had the honour of prefenting his book to
the eleftrefs Sophia, and of kiffiiig her hand on the occafion.
At Berlin, which lie vilited, he held a difputo, before the
queen of PrufTia, with tlie learned Beaufobre, on the autho-
rity of the books of the New Tellament ; an account
of which was fent by the latter to the " Bibliotheque
Germanique." Upon his return to England in 1704,
he publiflied "Letters to Serena," (meaning the queen
of PrulTia,) on the origin and force of prejudices; the
hiflory of the foul's immortahty among the heathens ; the
origin of idolatry ; and remarks on Spinoza's pliilolophy.
Thefe letters were animadverted upon by Wotton, and by
the author of the Divine I..egation. In 1708 he pub-
lifhed at the Hague two Latin dilTertations, entitled "Adei-
fidxmon, five Titus Livius a Superilitione viiidicatus,"
and " Origines .TudaicK, five Straboms de Moyfe et Reli-
gione Judaica Hilloria breviter illullrata." In 1718 he
publiflied " Nazarenus ; or Jewifh, Gentile, or Mahometan
Chriflianity," &c. in which he endeavours to lliew that
the Jewifh converts were to obferve their own law tlirough-
out all generations, &c. Two years afterwards appeared a
Latin tradl, entitled "Pantheillicon : five Formula celebranda:
Sodahtatis Socraticsc, &c. :" a work whicii has fubjedled
its author to the charge of atlieifm, and in confequc-nce of
whicii he was mijuflly accufed by Dr.- Hare with having
compofed a profane prayer to Bacchus in his cliaratte'r of
Pantheifl. In the fame year he publiflied his " Tetrady-
mus," on the pillar of cloud and fire that guided the
Ifraehtes; on the exoteric and efoteric philofophy of the
ancients ; on Hypatia, the female philofopher ; and a de-
fence of his Nazarenus againfl Dr. Mangey. To this work
he annexed an account of his condudl and fentimcats, fo-
lemnly profefTing his preference of the Chriflian religion,
pure and unmixed, to all others.

Toland's liealth was now declining, and being in low cir-
cumflances, lord Molefworth afTured him that he fhould
never want, while he himfelf lived. However, his difeafe
b;iffled all remedies, and his life clofed on the nth of
March, 1722, in the 53d year of his age. He nuuiifefled a
confiderable degree of refolution and patience during the
progrefs of his illnefs : replying to one who allied him if lie
wanted any thing, " I want nothing but death ;" and after
taking a calm leave of his friends, faying to ihein that " he
was going to fleep." In an epitaph which he prepared for
liimfelf, he expreffes that confidence and felf-applaufe which
belonged to his charafter. He clofes wiih thefe words :
" Spiritus cum sethereo patre, a quo prodiit olini, coiijun-
gitur ; corpus item ; naturx cedens, in inater.io gremio
reponitur. Ipfe vero sternum efl refurreiilurus, at idem
futurus Tolandus nunquam." His poflhumous works were
publifhed in 2 vols. 8vo. in 1726, and again in 1747,
with an account of his life and writings, by Des Maizeaux.
Biog. Brit.

TOLANORE, in Geogriiphy, a town of Hindooflan, in
the Carnatic ; 5 miles N. of Volconda.

TOLASTRA Regio, in yJncunl Geography, a country
of Aila, in Galatia. Ptolemy.

TOLBIACUM, a town of Gallia Belgica, according to
Tacitus ; fituated on the route from Trevari to Colonia
Agrippina.

TOL-BOOTH, or T01.1.-B00TI1, a place in a city,
where goods are weighed, to afcertain the duties or import
on them.

5 F 2 TOLCES-

1' O L

TOLCES'TER, ToLCEsTHiM, in our Old IVrlten, an old
excifc, or duty paid by the tenants of fome manors to the
lords, for liberty to brow and fill ale.

TOLCKSD'ORF, in Geography, a town of Praffia, in
Ermelaiul ; 12 miles S.E. of Frauenburg.

TOLEDO, in Biography. See Alva.

Toledo, in Geography, a city of Spain, in New Callile, on
the Tagus, the fee of an a'rchbifhop, and an univerfity, founded
in tiie year 1475. The origin of Toledo is uncertain ; it is
only known to have been a Roman colony, and made the
depofitory of the treafures fent to Rome. From the Ro-
mans it pafled under the dominion of the Goths ; Lcovigild
refided there and embe!li(hed the city, which became more
cotifiderable under his fucccffors. The Moors took Toledo
in 714, and reigned there till 1085, when it was taken from
them by Alphonfo VI., who llyled himfelf emperor of To-
ledo, whence it took, and has preferved, tlie title of royal
and imperial. Toledo, as is well known, was formerly fa-
mous for the exquifite temper of the fword-blades made
tliere ; and the genuine ones that dill remain are fold at an
exorbitant price. It is faid tliat the fecret of hardening
them has been again recovered ; and experiments iuive been
made with blades lately fabricated there which fecni to juftify
this afllrtinn. When one of thefe lias undergone the oper-
ation of iL-mpcring, if it be in the Icall notched, by.ilriking
with it f^veral violent blows on an iron liead-piece, it is
rejefted : almoft all that are made here, it is faid, will ftand
this proof. Two centuries ago, Toledo contained more than
200,000 inhabitants, but now fcarcely 30,000. When a
lioufe falls to decay, it is never rebuilt ; and in 20 years more,
this city will be little elfe than a heap of ruins. Toledo is
built upon rocks, and commanded by eminences which feem
to prefent the image of fterihty ; yet, in the midll of thefe
precipices, the traveller finds, to his furprife, feveral fertile
and charming fituations, impenetrable to the burning rays of
the fun. Thefe places are called Cigarrales. Several coun-
cils have been held at Toledo, particularly one in 633, in
which it was declared unlawful and unchriftian to force
people to beheve, feeing it is God only who hardens, and
(hews mercy to wliom he will ; but by another council in a
few years after, they highly commended their monarch for
perfccuting the Jews. In 681 it was decreed, that the
archbidiop of Toledo fhould have power to create bifliops
througliout Spain in the king's abfence, and confirm thofe
made by the king. In 1355, it was feized by Henry and
Frederick, tiie bailards, brothers of king Peter, who robbed
»11 the Jews, and murdered about 1000 of them ; 32 miles
S.S.W. of Madrid. N. lat. 39° 56'. W. long. 4= 18'.

TOLEN, a town of Norway ; 22 miles W. of Berga.
— Alfo, an ifland belonging to the Hate of Zealand, in
the eafl branch of the Scheldt, feparatcd from the main land
of Brabant by a canal, about ten miles in length, and four in
breadth. It contains two towns, Toleu and St. Martyn's
Dyck, and feveral villages. Tolen, the capital, from whence
the illand itfelf is named, is a handfome town, and raiiks as
fourth in the alTembly. The name of it is derived from the
toll which was formerly paid here by order of the counts of
Zealand. It is fortified with fevcn baltions, and the ftates
have caufed a fort, called Suckenburg, to be built on the
other fide of the river, fo that it is now one of the ftrongeft
frontier towns of the itate of Zealand. The ftadt-houfe is
an old building, which makes a good (how. The arfenal is
fltuated at the entrance of the fmall harbour ; there is alio a
magaime for powder. The church is built in the figure of
a crofs, and is an extraordinary piece of architedlure ; 4 miles

■'tXt ^'■■'K-^'P-Zoom. N. lat. 51^ 36'. E. long. 3^ 58'.

TOLENTINO, a town of the Popedom, in the niai--

quiiate of Ancona, on the Chiento, the fee of a bifhop,

T O L

united to Macerata. It is only remarkable for being the
depofitory of the body of St. Nicholas, where the arm, by
bleeding afrcfh, proguofticates when any fignal calamity is
to befall Italy ; 18 miles W. of Fermo. N. lat. 43° 10'. E.
long. 13° 18'.

TOLENTINUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy,
in Picenum, S.W. of Ricina.

TOLENUS, a river of Italy, in the country of tl»e
Marll.

TOLERATIOi*!, in Religion, a term which has engaged
much attention in the difputes among Proteftants.

M. Bafnage, and fome others, diltingtiifh cii'il toleration
from ecdefiajlical. The latter allow's of differett, and even
oppofite fentiments in the church ; and the firll permits
them in civil fociety.

By civil toleration, is meant impunity and fafety in the
ilate for every fecft which does not maintain any doftrine
inconfillent with the peace and welfare of the ftate. Tliis
civil or poUiical toleration, implies a right of enjoying the
benefit of the laws, and of all the privileges of the fociety,
without any regard to difference of religion.

Ecclefiajlical toleration is an allowance of certain opinions,
which, not being fundamentals, do not hinder thofe who
profefs them from being efteemed members of tlie churcli-.^
But as to the quality and number of thefe fundamental
points, they never could, nor in all probability ever will be
agreed upon.

In order to difcover the genuine principles of toleration,
it is neceflary to confider that, antecedently to the formation
of civil focieties, mankind poflefs certain rights, independent
of all human grant, not derived from any compact, and which
are therefore to be acknowledged as the rights of human
nature. A right to judge for themlelves in points of reli-
gion is one of thefe rights ; which, whiUl it authorizes
every individual to claim the exercife of this privilege to
himfelf, obliges him to allow it in the fame extent to all
about him, and eilabliihes one uniform regulation for his
behaviour toward others, and their behaviour toward him :
e.g. no appreheufions of the truth and certainty of any
perfon's religious fentiments can juilify him in attempting
to impofe them on his neighbour ; for the fame right of
judgment which any one can claim, belongs, on the fame
principle, equally to all, and ought to be equally facred and
inviolable in all ; and no reafon can be" alleged by him for
taking the religious liberty of others from them, but what
will, at the fame time, equally deftroy his own title to it.
The injuftice of fimilar encroachments upon him from others
follows from the fanie principle, and with the fame evidence.

Whether the claim of fuch a liberty of judgment in reli-
gion for ourfelves is weakened by men's entering into civil
fociety, is the next object of conilderation.

The great end of government is to protect the fubjefts of
it from the injuries to which they were expo fed in a ilate of
nature ; and as all injuries imply rights of v.liich tliey are
violations, and tlie care taken to guard againfi. the violation of
thefe rights is an acknowledgment of the reality and import-
ance of them ; it evidently follows, that when they enter
into fociety, if the primary and leading view of government
be to prevent or reitrain thofe injuries, to which men were
expofed for want of its protection, they carry thefe rights
with them ; that they continue to retain tliem ; and that,
inftead of fuppofing themfelves to be deprived of them, the
very defign with which they put theinfeU-es under the au-
thority of government is to fecure tliem the more firmly.
Witli this view they entruft the prefervation of tliem to com-
mon guardians, by whofe intervention, it is prefumed, they
will be more vigoroufly afferled and more effectually pro-
tedted, than it is poffible they fiiould be in a flate where

there

TOLERATION.

'Jicce is no common umpire to check the evils of opprcfTion
oil the one hand, and refti-ain the no lefs formidable evils of
immoderate refentment on the other.

If we confider what are the rights wliich men give up to
government, when they enter into civil focieties, they will be
Found to be, not thofe which may moft properly be ftyled
the primary rights of human nature ; not the right which
every man has to live undifturbed, to enjoy the advantages
whicli ho juflly poflefles, and to be left to his freedom in all
things not injurious to liis fellow-creatures ; but tlie confe-
quential, tliough equally real and certain right which, where
men arc not fubjeft to government, every perfoii has to take
the affcrtion of all liis rights into his own hands, and coitcA
the infringers of them by the inflidling of fueh pains, or the
ufe of fuch other methods of deterring the authors of the
wrong, as reafon fliall warrant for his future fectirity : and,
fpeaking precifely, even thefe rights are not abfolutely ex-
tinguilhed and utterly loll, but fufpended by fuch limita-
tions as the order and well-being of fociety require, and fo
long as the fuccours of government (liall be effeftual. The
primary rights of liberty, fafety, and protection from op-
prefliou, ftill fubfift. in their full vigour. To fuppofc them
abandoned, renounced, and annihilated, or that gov.-rnment
can have any right to deilroy them, is afcribing to it a right
to defeat the end for which it is eftablilhed, and betray the
trull repofed in it. It is, indeed, totally inverting the prin-
ciple upon which the power of rulers Hands, and by which
the afta of it ought to be guided.

Man was not made for government, but government for
man ; and the great objeft, to which all the operations of it
(hould be diredled, is to guard, as much as poflible, the
equal, impai'tial eaie and freedom of all the fubjedls of it.
To this f urpofe judge Blackilone obferves, that the prin-
cipal aim of fociety is to proteiSl individuals in the enjoy-
ment of i.hofe abfolute rights, which were veiled in them by
the immutable law of nature, but which could not be pre-
ferved in peace without that mutual afliftance and inter-
courfe, which are gained by the inilitution of friendly and
civil communities : fo that the primary end of human laws
is to maintain and regulate thefe abfolute rights of individuals.
See Government and Civil Liberty.

Now of all the rights inherent in human nature, that of
tliinking for ouffelves, and following the conviftion of our
own judgments in relation to the object of our faith, wor-
(hip, and rehgious obedience, is the moil facred, incontef-
tible, and in every view of it, intitled to the moll careful
proteftion. The prefervation of thefe is one of the chief,
perhaps the firil end for which civil focieties are inftituted,
and the rulers of them invelled with power : and therefore,
in all governments, the rights of confcience fliould have a
principal place afligned them in the care of thofe, to whom
the protedlion of their fellow-creatures is committed. It
the fecuring of equal, impartial liberty, in all thofe in-
flances of it in which it is not injurious to others, be fo much
the objeCl of every equitable, wife, and well-conllituted
fyftem of laws, that all needlefs encroachments upon it are
deviations from the fpirit which ought to be diffufed
through all laws, and impair the benelit which they ought
to confirm, can it be fuppofed that the rights of confcience
ought not to be guarded from violation ? Rights of this
kind are the lall which men can ever be imagined to give up
to be modelled at the pleafure of others ; nor (as it is argu-
ed) is there any one principle connedled with their fubmidion
to governors in other refpedls, that can require or jultiiy Inch
a furrender. Does it follow that, becaufe the magiilrate is
entrulled with authority to decide difputes between us and
our fellow-eitizens concerning property, he is to determine

points which lie only between God and our own confcionces ?
Becaufe it is allowed to be his office to guard the peace of
his fubjefts, and to inflift punifhments for this purpofe on
thofe who unjuiUy dillurb it ; is it to be taken for granted,
that he is to diftate to them what rule of faith they fhaU
adopt, and in what manner they arc to worfliip the Deity ;
when it is allowed on all hands, that of thefe things the will
of God is the only rule, and that no worfliip can be accept-
able to him, but what is accompanied with the fincerc con-
viAion of him who offers it i Befides, it is argued, that fuch
is the nature of this right, and it fo Hands upon a foundation
peculiar to itfelf, and is dillinguiftied from every other right,
that it cannot be given up. Property may be refigned,
transferred, or fubmitted to the regulation of others ; a man
may relinquifli his eafe, and fuhjeft himfclf to inconveniences,
and be not only innocent but laudable ; nay, he may facrifice
life itfelf, and merit the highell applaufe ; but his confcience
he cannot rcfign.

To " prove all things, and hold fail that which is good," is
not only a privilege but a duty ; an obhgation laid upon him
by the very nature of religion and virtue, and from which he
cannot difcharge himfelf without departing from the prin-
ciples of both. It mufl always remain entire to him ; nor,
while the principles of the moll reafonable liberty are allowed
to fubfift in their due extent, can any attempt be confiftently
made to take it from him.

From thefe principles it has been inferred, that toleration,
fo far from being a matter of mere grace or favour, which
government has a right to withhold, grant, abridge, or re-
fume at pleafure, is the acknowledgment and confirmation
of a right : not one of thofe adventitious rights, which are
fubfequent to the ellablifliment of civil focieties, and arife
out of the peculiar forms and conftitution of it ; but of thofe
higher rights which belong to men as fuch, and which ought
to be preferved under all ftates and governments whatever,
as effedually, univerfally, and impartially as any other
right. With regard to the extent of toleration, it is urged,
that if liberty of confcience be a right effential to human
nature, all penalties in cafes merely of a rehgious nature
muft be an infringement of a right, and a degree of oppref-
fion, though inflicted by a law. Farther, the inquiry con-
cerning the perfons entitled to toleration does not depend
on the fuppofed truth or error of the fentiments which men
may adopt, but upon the common right, which all men
have, to be led in thefe points by the light of their own
minds, and to enjoy all the fecuritics and benefits of fociety,
while they fulfil the obligations of it. All who can give
good fecurity to the government under which they Hve, and
to the community to which they belong, for the perform-
ance of the duties of good fubjefts and good citizens, have
an undoubted claim to it, and cannot with any juft reafon
be deprived of it. It is not error, but injury to the ftate,
or the individuals who are under the care of it, which juf-
tifies the animadverfion of the magiftrate ; and all to whom
this cannot be julUy imputed, are the objetts of his pro-
tection.

Archdeacon Paloy diftiiiguilhcs two kinds of toleration :
liie one partial, which is the allowing to diflenters the un-
moleiled profeffion and exercife of their religion, but with
an exclufion from offices of trull and emolument in the ilate ;
and the other complete, which is the admiffion of them, with-
out diilinftion, to all the civil privileges and capacities of
other citizens. The jullice and expediency of toleration in
general is founded by this ingenious writer primarily in its
fonducivenefs to truth, and in the fuperior value of truth
to that of any other quality which a religion can poflefs.'
Belides this prineipal argument for toleration, there are
5 other

TOLERATION.

other auxiliary confidcrations that are important. The
rcilriaion of the fiibjeA to the religion of the (late is a
needlcfs violation of natural liberty, and in an iiiitance with
regard to which conllraint is always grievous. Perfccution
produces no finccre conviaion, nor any real change of
opinion ; on the contrary, it viti.ites the pubhc morals, by
driving men to prevarication, and commonly ends in a ge-
neral though fecret infidehty, by impofing, under the name
of revealed i-chgion, fyllems of doarine, which man cannot
believe, and daiv not examine : finally, it difgraces the cha-
raaer, and wounds the reputation of Chriftianity itfelf, by
making it the author of oppreflion, cruelty, and bloodthed.
Our author includes under the idea of religious toleration
the toleration of all books of fcrious argumentation, without
deeming it any infringement of religious hberty to reflrain
the circulation of ridicule, invedlive, and mockery upon
religious fubjeas.

Concerning the admiffion of diflenters from the eftablilhed
reli"'ion to offices and employments in the public fervice,
which is neceffary to render toleration complete, doubts, fays
Dr. Paley, have been entertained with fome appearance of
reafon. In vindication of thefe doubts, he refers to thofe
who hold religious opinions that are utterly incompatible
with the neccflary funtlions of civil government; enthufialts,
who maintain that all diflinaion of property is abohfhed by
Chriftianity, and that the gofpel enjoins upon its followers a
community of goods ; and to Quakers or Friends, who be-
lieve it to be contrary to Chriftianity to take up arms. He
allows, however, that with the fingle exception of refufing
to bear arms, the various feAs of Chriftians which aaually
prevail in the world hold no tenet which incapacitates men
for the fervice of the ftate. It has indeed been afferted,
that difcordancy of religions, even fuppofing each religion
to be free from any errors that aff^ea the fafety or the con-
dua of government, is enough to render men unfit to aa
together in pubhc ftations. But upon what argument, or
upon what experience, is this aflertion founded ? "I per-
ceive no reafon," fays this hberal writer, " why men of
different religious perfuafions may not fit upon the fame
bench, deliberate in the fame council, or fight in the fame
ranks, as well as men of various or oppofite opinions upon
any controverted topic of natural philofophy, hiftory, or
ethics." For a further account of this author's fentiments
on toleration and collateral fubjeas, fee RELIGION, Sub-
scription, and TEST-y^S.

To the term toleration, though it has been adopted by
Mr. Locke and feveral writers of the firft diftinaion, others
have objeaed ; alleging that, as words have a confiderable
influence on opinions, this term appears to be injurious to
that religious liberty, which it is defigned to import. It
implies a right to impofe articles of faith, and modes of
worfliip ; that nonconformity is a crime ; and that the fuf-
ferance (toleration) of it is a matter of favour or lenity.
But the nonconformift in every country, whether he be a
Chriftian at Conftantinople, a Proteftant at Rome, an Epif-
copalian in Scotland, or a Preftjyterian in England, and,
we may add, a Catholic in any part of Great Britain, if his
rational principles be confonant to his praaice, will regard
this claim of right as ufurpation ; and will urge, that it has
been neither conferred by Jefus Chrift, nor delegated by the
people. Our Saviour exprefsly declares, " My kingdom
is not of this world ;" and his religion was perfecuted and
opprefled, during the period of its greatell purity and per-
feaion, and when the minifters of it had gifts and powers
which are now unknown. The people could not delegate
fuch a right to any man or body of men ; for the human mind
is fo mutable, tliat no individual can fi.\ a ftandard of his

own faith, much lefs can he commiflion another to eftablilli
one for him and his pollerity ; and this power would be n:
no hands fo dangerous as in thofe of the ftatcfman or prieft,
who has the folly and prefumption to think himfelf qualified
to exercife it. The ufe of this term was introduced at a
time, when very imperfea notions of religious liberty, and
very erroneous ideas of the authority of tlie civil magiftratc-
in the province of reUgion, prevailed. In its literal accept-
ation, it is without doubt objeaionable, and incompatible
with juft views of religious liberty. What human being,
however exalted his rank or extenfive his influence, can pre-
fume to tolerate or fuffer a fellow-creature to worftiip God
according to the diaates of his own confcience, and in that
way, or according to thofe rites and forms, which he ap-
prehends the objea of his worfliip has prefcribed ; or, iu
other words, to tolerate God in receiving that worfliip ; for
to this extreme the argument may be extended. All dif-
abilities and penalties incurred by not worfliipping God, and
performing other aas of religion, according to any merely
human ritual, are in faa prohibitions againft, man's ren-
dering and God's receiving the homage of the underftanding
and the heart. Toleration, it has been faid, fuppofes on the
part of thofe who exercife it an authority, to which they
have no juft claim ; and on the part of thofe who are the ob-
jefts of it, a certain degree of criminality and culpability,
which the perfons that exercife the right of toleration con-
defcend to excufe and allow. Such are the ideas which fome
modern writers have entertained on this fubjeft ; and ac-
cordingly tht*y have wilhed for a difufe of the term, as it is
founded in, and leads to, error. Liberty, whether it be com-
plete, or partial, is a term well underftood ; and the ufe of it
is lefs liable to objeaion than that of toleration. — See on this
fubjea, Fownes's Inquiry into the Principles of Toleration,
&c. 8vo. 1772. Locke's Letters concerning Toleration,
in his Works, vol. ii. p. 231, &c. Hoadley's Rights of
Subjeas, paffim. Paley's Philofophy, vol. ii. c. 10. Per-
cival's EfTay on Truth, p. 90.

To the account above given of the general principles of
toleration, it will be proper to add a few words concerning
the ftate of toleration in our own country. With regard to
the Proteftant-diflenters in general, fee Dissenters, Non-
coxFORMisTs, and Quakers. See alfo Conventicle,
CoRPORATiox-.^i!?, Sheriff, and Test.

As for diflenting teachers, or minifters in particular, they
were prohibited by 17 Car. II. cap. z. from coming within
five miles of a city, town-corporate, or borough, unlefs
only in pafling upon the road, or unlefs required by legal
precefs, without taking an oath of allegiance therein men-
tioned, on pain of 40/., and of commitment by two juftices,
on oath of the offence, for fix months. And by 22 Car. II.
cap. I. preaching in any meeting or conventicle, in other
manner than according to the praaice of the church
of England, incurred a forfeiture of 20/. for the firft
off^ence, and for every other offence 40/. Moreover, by
1 3 & 14 Car. II. cap. 4. no perfon fliaU prefume to confecrate
and adminifter the facrament before he be ordained prieft,
according to the form of the church of England, on pain
of 100/. But now by i W. cap. 18. commonly called the
Aa of Toleration, which, by 19 Geo. III. cap. 44. is
declared to be a pubhc aa, they are exempted from the
penalties of thofe ftatutes, upon taking the oaths of al-
legiance and fupremacy, and fubfcribing the declaration
againft popery ; and alfo, by I W. cap. 1 8. fubfcribing
the articles of rehgion mentioned in the ftat. 13 Eliz. cap. 12.
(which only concern the confeffion of the Chriftian faith
and the doarine of the facraments) with an exprefs excep-
tion of thofe relating to the government and powers of the

church,

TOLERATION.

church, and to infant baptifm ; or if they fcruple fubfcribing
the articles, upon making and fubfcribing the declaration
prefcribcd by ftat. 19 G*o. III. cap. 44. profefTuig thcm-
fclves to be Chriftians and Proteftants, and that they be-
lieve the Scriptures of the Old and New Tellament, as
commonly received among Proteflant churches, to contain
the revealed will of God, and that tiiey receive the fame as
the rule of their doftrine and pra&ice ; for the rcgifter of
which they (hall pay 6d. to the officer of the court and no
more, and 6d. for a certificate thereof figned by fuch officer.
A farther enlai'gement of the Toleration Aft, in favour of
thofe who impugn the doftrine of the Trinity, was made
by 53 Geo. III. c. 160.

Any preacher or teacher, duly quahfied, Oiall be allowed
to officiate in any congregation, although the fame be not
in the county where he was fo qualified, provided that the
place of meeting hath been duly certified and rcgillered,
and fuch teacher or preacher (hall, if required, produce a
certificate of his having fo qualified himfelf, and before any
juftice of fuch county where he officiates, make and fub-
fcribe fuch declaration, and take fuch oaths as aforefaid, if
required. ( 10 Ann. cap. 2.) And every inch teacher,
having taken the oaths, and fubfcribed as above, fliall from
tlienceforth be exempted from ferving in the militia, or on
any jury, or from being appointed to bear the office of
churchwarden, overfeer of the poor, or any other parochial
or ward office, or other office in any hundred, city, town,
parifh, divifion, or wapentake. For the (late of diffenting
fchool-mafters, fee ScuooL-MaJler.

In confequence of the Toleration Aft, non-conformity
ic no longer a crime in the eye of the law, and the penalties
to which it was obnoxious are not only fufpended, but
abfolutely annulled with regard to thofe diflenters who are
qualified as the aft direfts. See Furneaux's Letters to
Judge Blackftone, letter i. See Dissenters.

For an account of the laws relating to Papifls or Catho-
lics, fee Papists. We (hall here Hate the toleration granted
to Catholics by the 31 Geo. III. c. 32. By this aft it (hall
be lawful for perfons profefling the Roman Catholic religion,
to appear in any of the courts at Wellminfter, or at the
general quarter feffions for the county, city, or place where
he ffiall refide, and there in open court, between the hours
of nine in the morning and two in the afternoon, take, make,
and fubfcribe the following declaration and oath : -viz.

" I A. B. do hereby declare, that I do profefs the Roman
Catholic religion.

I A. B. do fincerely promife and fvvear, that I will be
faithful and bear true allegiance to his majelly king George
the Third, and him will defend to the utmoft of my power,
againft all confpiracies and attempts whatfoever, that (liall
be made againft his perfon, crown, or dignity ; and I will
do my utmoft endeavour to difclofe and make known to his
majeliy, his heirs and fucceffors, all trcafons and traitorous
confpiracies which may be formed againft him or them :
and I do faithfully promife to maintain, fupport, and de-
fend, to the utmoft of my power, the fucceffion of the
<;rown ; which fucceffion, by an aft intitled, yin ^ff for the
further Umitalion of the crown and better fecurity of the rights
' and liberties of the fubjeB, is and ftands limited to the princefs
Sophia, eleftrefs and duchefs dowager of Hanover, and the
heirs of her body, being Proteftants, hereby utterly re-
nouncing and abjuring any obedience or allegiance unto any
other perfon claiming or pretending a right to the crown of
thefe realms. And I do fwear, that 1 do rejeft and deteft,
as an unchriftian and impious pofition, that it is lawful to
murder or deftroy any perfon or perfons whatfoever, for or
•mider pretence of their being heretics or infidels ; and alfo

12

that unchriftian and impious piinciplo, th.Tt faith it not to
be kept with heretics or infidels. And I do furtlier declare
that it is not an article of my faith, and that I do renounce,
rejeft, and abjure the opinion, that princes excommunicated
by the pope and council, or any authority of tlie fee of
Rome, or by any authority whatfoever, may be dcpofed or
murdered by their fubjefts, or any perfon vhatfoever. And
I do promife that I will not hold, maintain, or abet any
fuch opinion, or any other opinion contrary to what is ex-
preffed in this declaration. And I do declare, that I do
not believe that the pope of Rome, or any other foreign
prince, prelate, ftate, or potentate, hath or ought to have
any temporal or civil jurifdiftion, power, fuperiority, or
pre-eminence, direftly or iudireftly, within this realm. And
I do folemnly, in the prefence of God, profefs, teftify, and
declare, that I do make this declaration, ?. d every part
thereof, in the plain and ordinary fenfe of the words of this
oath, without any evafioH, equivocation, or mental refcrva-
tion whatever ; and without any difpcnfation already granted
by the pope, or any authority of the fee of Rome, or any
perfon whatever ; and without thinking that I am or can
be acquitted before God or man, or abfolved of this de-
claration, or any part thereof, although the pope or any
other perfon or authority whatfoever (li;dl difpenfe with or
annul the fame, or declare that it was null or void."

Which faid declaration and oath (hall be fubfcribed by
fuch perfon with his name at full length, if he can write,
and if not, with his mark, and his name fhall be written
by the officer, adding his title, addition, and place of abode,
which (hall there remain of record : and fuch officer (hall
make, fubfcribe, and deliver a certificate of fuch declara-
tion and oath having been duly made and taken, if de-
manded, for which he (hall have 2s. ; which certificate (hall
be competent evidence, unlefs falfified.

And fuch officer (haU yearly, on or before the 25th of
December, tranfmit to the privy council lifts of the perfons,
with their titles, additions, and places of abode, who (hall
have made and fubfcribed fuch declaration and oath in the
preseding year.

And no Roman Catholic, who (liall have taken and fub-
fcribed the faid oath as aforefaid, (hall be convifted upon
any of the afts following ; -viz. i Eliz. c. 2. 23 Eliz. c. i.
29 Eliz. c. 6. 35 Eliz. c. 2. I .Tac. I. c. 4. 3 Jac. I. c. 4.
3 Jac. I. c. 5. and 7 Jac. I. c. 6. or any otlir ftatute or
law of this realm ; or in any ecclefiaftical court, for not re-
forting to church, or having fervants who (hall not refort to
church, or other place of common prayer.

And by 43 Geo. III. c. 30. Roman Catholics takiug
and fubfcribing the declaration and oath contained in the
31 Geo. III. c. 32. (hall be entitled to all the benefits of
the 18 Geo. III. c. 60. to every purpofe as if they had
taken the oath thereby prefcribed.

And whereas, by 23 Ehz. c. 2. 27 Ehz. c. 2. 35 Eliz.
c. 2. 2 Jac. I. c. 4. 3 Jac. I. c. 5. 3 Car. I. c. 2.
25 Car. II. c. 2. Papifts are made fubjeft to feveral puni(h-
ments, penalties, and difabilities, it is enafted that no per-
fon who (hall take and fubfcribe the faid oath in manner
aforefaid fhall be profccuted or convifted for being a Papift,
or reputed Papift, or for profeffing or being educated in the
Popiih religion, or for hearing or faying mafs, or for being
a prieft or deacon, or entering or belonging to any ecclefi-
aftical order or community of the church of Rome, or for
being prefent at or performing or obferving any rite, cere-
mony, praftice, or obfervancc of the popiih religion, or
maintaining or affifting others therein.

Provided always, that no place of congregation or af-
fembly for religious worftiip (hall be allowed, until the place

of

444076

TOLERATTOM.

of fucli iweitiiig (Inll be certified to the fefliona of the
county or place in which the fame (hall be luld, and be
there recorded ; and the clerk of the peace fliall give a cer-
tilicate thereof, if demanded, for wliich lie fhall have (>d.
And no minifter or other perfon fliall officiate in any fuch
place of meetinjr until his name and dcfcription as a pried or
minifter fliall have been recorded at the feffions, for which
(hall be paid 6d. and a cert'ificate thereof Ihall be granted,
if demanded', for which fliall be paid zs. And no prieft
or miuiller who lliall officiate in any fuch meeting not fo re-
corded 39 aforcfaid fliall be deemed to be witliin the benefit
of this aft for any purpofe whatfoever.

Provided, tluit if an) fuch place of afTembly Ihall have the
doors locked,"" barred, or bolted, during the lime of meet-
ing, all perfons who fliall come to or be at fuch meeting
fliall receive no benefit from this aft, notwithftaiiding his
having taken fuch oath as aforefaid, but fliall be liable to the
fame pains and penalties, as if this aft had not been made.

If any Roman Catholic fliall hereafter be appointed high
or petty conftable, churchwarden, overfeer of the poor, or
any other parochial or ward office, and fnall fcruple to take
upon him any of the faid offices, lie may execute the fame
by a fufficient deputy, to be approved of in hke manner as
other perfons.

Every miniller of any Roman Catholic congregation who
fliall take and fubfcribe the faid oath in manner aforefaid,
Ihall be exempt from ferving on juries, and from the office
of church-warden, overfeer, or other parochial or ward
office, or other office in any hundred of any fliire, city,
town, parifli, divifion, or wapentake.

But all laws made for frequenting divine fervice fliall con-
tinue in force, unlefs where perfons fliall come to fome re-
ligious worfliip permitted by this aft, or an aft of i W.
& M. for exempting Diflenlers.

And if any perfon fliall wilfully and on purpofe mali-
cioufly and contemptuoufly come into any congre'gation or
aflembly of rehgious worfliip permitted by this aft, and
difturb the fame ; or mifufe any prieil, minifter, preacher,
or teacher therein, he fliall, on proof by two witnell'es,
before one juft;ice, find two furelies of the peace to be
bound by recognizance in 50/. and in default thereof, fliall
be committed to prifon till the next feffions, and on convic-
tion of fuch offence at the feffions, fliall forfeit 20/. to the
king. , .

Provided, that no benefit herein contained fliall extend to
any Roman Catholic ecclefiaftic permitted by this aft, who
fhall officiate in any congregation, or afTembly hereby per-
mitted, with a fleeple and bell, or at any funeral in any
church or church-yard ; or who fliall exercife any of the
rites or ceremonies of his religion ; or weai' the habits of
his order, fave within fome place of congregation, or af-
fembly for religious worfliip permitted by this aft ; or in
any private houfe where there fhall not be more than five
perfons affembled befides thofe of the houfehold ; or who

fliall not previoufly to his fo exerciiing his funftion liave
taken the oath of allegiance, abjuration, and declaj-ation
hereby appointed, in manner aforefaid.

But nothing herein fliall exempt any Roman Cath.olic
from paying tithes or otlicr parochial duties, or auy other
duties to the church or minifler ; or to repeal any part of
26 Geo. II. c. 33. " for preventing clandeftiuc marriages,"
or any parts of any flatutes concerning marriages ; or to
give any eafc or benefit to any perfon who fhall, by preach-
ing, te.iching, or writing, deny or gainfay the oath and de-
claration aforefaid, or the doftrines therein coiitained, or
any of them ; or to repeal or affeft any law concerning the
right fiicceffion to or limitation of the crown.

And no Roman Catholic, who fliall take and fubfcribe
the faid oath of allegiance, abjuration, and declaration, as
aforefaid, fliall be profecuted for teaching youth as a tutor
or fchool-mafter ; but he fliall not hold any mailerfliip of
any college, or fcliool of royal foundation, or of any other
endowed college or fchool for the education of youth ; nor
fliall keep a fchool in either of the univerfities ; nor fliall re-
ceive into his fchool for education the ehildren of any Pro-
teflant father ; nor fliall teach any fchool until his name
fhall be entered at the feffions in manner aforefaid, as a
Roman Catholic fchoolmaller : and no perfon offending in
the premifes fluiU receive any benefit from this aft.

Provided alfo, that nothing herein fhall make it lawful to
found, endow, or eilablifli any religious order or fociety
of perfons bound by monaflic or rehgious vows ; or any
fchool, academy, or college by any Roman Catholic ; and
that all ufes, trufts, and difpofitions, whether of real or
perfonal property, before deemed to be unlawful, flial! con-
tinue to be fo deemed.

No perfon fliall be fummoned to take the oath required
by I W. & M. fefl". I. c. 8. or the declaration required by
25 Geo. II. c. 2. Nor fhall the i W. & M. fefl". I. c. (>
for removing Paj^ifls from I^ondon and Weftmiafter, extend
to Roman Catholics who fliall have taken and fubfcribcd
the oath, &c. herein appointed.

No peer who fliall have taken and fubfcribed the faid oath,
&c. in manner aforefaid, fliall be liable to be profecuted
under 30 Car. II. ft. 2.

And the i Geo. 1. feff. 2. c. 55. and 3 Geo. III. c. i8.
requiring Papifts to regiiler their names and real cilates are
repealed ; and all deeds and wills of Papifts fli;i!l, after the
24th of June 1 791, be good as if the faid afts had never
been made.

And whereas by 7 & 8 Will. c. 4. and i Geo. I. ft. 2.
c. 13. every perfon afting as a counfellor at 'law, barrifter,
attorney, fohcitor, clerk, or notary, not having taken the
oaths and declaration therein prefcrib'^d, fliould be liable to
certain penalties, it is enafted that thefe oaths and declara-
tions fliaU be no longer required-; but the oath and declara-
tion herein appointed fhall be taken in lieu thereof, iu man-
ner aforefaid.

END OF VOL. XXXV.

Printed by A. Suahtn,
New-Street-Sqqar^ Lonifon.

University of California

SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY

405 Hilgaitl Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388

Return this material to tiie library

from which it was borrowed.

AE

5. R25 1819 35

^0MS^^^^^^^^